HINDU ARCHITECTURE

It evolved from simple rock cut cave shrines to massive and ornate temples which spread across the
Indian subcontinent and beyond, forming a style still followed today in modern Hindu temples across
the globe.

Buildings were constructed which could house a sacred symbol of a particular god, which could be
decorated with sculptural figures of them so recalling episodes from their mythological adventures, and
which provided a space for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals such as bathing and
dancing by professional female dancers (devadasi). The temple was considered the dwelling place of a
particular god (devalaya). It was, therefore, a sacred place (tirtha) where heaven and earth meet and, as
a god’s home, it must be a suitably splendid palace (prasada). The needs of the god would, additionally,
be supervised by a dedicated body of priests (pujaris) who attended the temple.

Influenced by early Buddhist structures such as the stupa, the first Hindu temples were built from rock-
cut caves and repeated the idea of relief panels and the decorative gavaska window form. Then, with
the arrival of Gupta architecture in the 4th to 5th century CE, the first free-standing Hindu temples were
constructed with features such as towers and projecting niches.

The first materials used were wood and terracotta, but architects gradually moved on to brick and
stone, especially sandstone, granite, schist, and marble. No mortar was used in the older temples and so
precise cutting of dressed stones was required.

The Hindu temple (mandir) is laid out according to the eight cardinal directions, and a god representing
each one (dikpala) may sometimes be represented in sculpture on the temple’s exterior. Built on an
elaborately carved platform (adhisthana), the temple is often referred to in ancient Hindu texts on
architecture (the Vastu Shastras) as the sacred mountain Meru or Kailasa, the dwelling of Shiva in the
Himalayas. Indeed, seen from afar, and especially from above, many Hindu temples, with their multiple
towers, appear very much like a mountain mass.

The most important part of a Hindu temple is the garbhagriha (translated as ‘womb-chamber’), which is
a small window-less shrine room located at the very heart of the temple. Within, a symbol or
representation of a specific god was placed, for example, the linga (phallus) for Shiva. Worshippers
consider that energy flows out in all directions from the garbhagriha, and this is reflected in the
architecture of the surrounding parts of the temple. For example, on three sides temples have blind
doors which symbolically allow the deity’s energy to leave the inner garbhagriha. These portals (ghana
dvara) may also act as secondary niche shrines for the deity too.

Early temples consisted of only a garbhagriha, but over time additions were built and copied across
temple sites to create, by the 10th century CE, a canonical architectural style. The most obvious of these
features were a portico entrance (ardhamandapa) and pillared hall (mandapa) which led to the
garbhagriha – features which developed in the Deccan from the 8th century CE. Even more impressive,
above the garbhagriha a huge corbelled tower was constructed, the sikhara.

two general types are identifed as the Nagara (North) and Dravida (South) styles. The sikhara tower in
Nagara temples have a sloping curve as they rise, have decorative arches known as gavakshas, and are
topped by an amalaka – a large fluted stone disk – and also a small pot and finial. The walls of Nagara
temples present a complex exterior of projections (known as ratha and ultimately there would be seven
on each side) which create many recesses. In contrast, Dravida towers (known separately as vimana) are
more dome-like with cornices, and they are topped by another smaller dome. The exterior walls of
Dravida temples have regular entablatures which often contain sculpture. Southern Indian temples can
also have a ritual bathing tank or pool (nandi mandapa), may have a barrel-vaulted (shala) roof, and are
typically enclosed within a walled courtyard with a gate (gopura) which over time would become even
more massive and ornate than the temple itself.

Beginning with humble caves and squat at-roofed temples, Hindu architecture, then, evolved over the
centuries and, despite some regional variation, arrived at a standard arrangement which involved a huge
walled complex with massive decorative gateways giving entrance to a sacred space of lesser shrines
dominated by the main temple and its monumental series of towers. The design has become so
standard that it is copied even today in temples across the world.

All Hindu temples begin with a ground plan, a sacred geometric diagram called the mandala that is
representative of the universe. The mandala is a grid, a large square that is divided into smaller squares
by intersecting lines. It is considered to be “a symbolic pantheon of the gods” with the smaller squares
representing or housing a particular deity and the central and largest square representing Brahma. The
“important gods cover the innermost ring, and in the outer rings there follow the gods of lower rank in
the celestial hierarchy” (44). The mandala may also contain the image of the cosmic man, who is
arranged diagonally and “is identified with the processes of the creation of the universe and its
underlying structure”. This arrangement is known as the vastu-purusha mandala. The importance of
astrology shows “a conscious desire to identify the physical forms of the temple with the laws that
govern the movements of heavenly bodies”.

MATERIALS

There are many Sastras and ancient texts on temple building such as the Mayamata, that discuss and
recommend what materials should or should not be used when constructing a temple. Some of these
writings suggest that “the materials of the temple are directly related to the classes of Hindu society”.
White materials indicate the first, or Brahmin class, red represents the Kshatriya, or warrior class, yellow
indicates the Vaishya, or merchant class, and finally black is said to indicate the fourth class, the Sudras.

Materials are not only co-ordinated with caste but also with sex. A temple that is constructed of stone
and brick signifies the male, one built out of brick and wood is deemed female, and if a temple was to be
constructed of all three materials would be considered neutral.

FUNCTIONS OF TEMPLES- Religious, Administrative centers, Centre of education.

THREE MAIN STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

the Nagara or the Northern style - Nagara is the style of temple architecture which became popular in
Northern India. It is common here to build an entire temple on a stone platform with steps leading up to
it. Unlike in south India, it doesn’t usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways. Earliest temples
had only one shikhara (tower), but in the later periods multiple shikharas came. The garbhagriha is
always located directly under the tallest tower.

the Dravida or the Southern style - Unlike the nagara temple, thedravida temple is enclosed within a
compound wall. The front wall has an entrance gateway in its center, which is known as Gopura/
Gopuram. The shape of the main temple tower is known as Vimana (shikhara in nagara style).
Thevimana is like a stepped pyramid that rise up geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of north
India. In south India, the word Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at the top of the temple
which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola (this is equivalent to the amalaka or
kalasha of north Indian temples).

and the Vesara or Mixed style -regarded by others as a later type of the wider drāviḍ a style.

COMPARISON BETWEEN NAGARA AND DRAVIDIAN STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

 In north Indian temples we can see images such as Mithunas (erotic) and the river goddesses,
Ganga and Yamuna guarding the temple. But in the Dravida style of temple architecture, instead
of these sculptures, we can see the sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or door keepers guarding the
temple.
 A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in south Indian
temples. Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower, or located as
a distinct, separate small shrine besides the main temple.
 The north Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising together as a cluster was not popular in
dravida style.
 At some of the most sacred temples in south India, the main temple in which the garbhagriha is
situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers. This is because it is usually the oldest part of
the temple. When the population and the size of the town associated with the temple
increased, it would have become necessary to make a new boundary wall around the temple
(and also associated structures.
 Just as the nagara architecture has subdivisions, dravida temples also have subdivisions. These
are basically of five different shapes – square, rectangular, elliptical, circular, octagonal.

PALLAVAS:

 early buildings of Pallavas were rock-cut; while the later ones were structural

CHOLAS:

 Painted Muralsand sculptures decorate the walls surrounding the sanctum.

 pyramidal multi-storeyed Vimana topped by a monolithic shikhara, and thekalasha on top.
 beautiful shikara stone at the top.
 elaborate and carefully made carvings.

VIJAYANAGAR:

 a lot of emphasis on piers and pillars.

 Built of hard stone, the temples are large structures with spacious Mandapas and lofty
Gopurams.
  Exquisitely carved pillars and the massive solid granite rathas with three huge wheels in the
open courtyard with exceptional carvings and murals both within and on the outer walls.
 Inscribed stories of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata on the walls of the various temples.
 Depiction of animal like horses and elephants on the walls were common figures.

ELEMENTS OF TEMPLE

Garbhagriha: It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave like sanctum. In the earliest temples, it was a
small cubical structure with a single entrance. Later it grew into a larger complex. The Garbhagriha is
made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual attention. Garbhagriha
is located at a place where earth’s magnetic waves are discovered to be most extreme.

Mandapa: It is the entrance to the temple. It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed
at regular intervals) hall that incorporate space for a large number of worshippers. Dances and such
other entertainments are practiced here. Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes
named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa and Mahamandapa.

Shikhara or Vimana: They are mountain like spire of a free standing temple. Shikhara is found in North
Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples. Shikhara has a curving shape while vimana
has a pyramidal like structure. The shikhara rests on the top of the ceiling above this space, sitting on it
like the crown of the deity, symbolizing its importance. Since the art of making domes was not familiar
wih in the olden times, as there weren’t much advanced technologies, they started using corbelling.

Gopurams: meaning the monumental and ornate tower at the entrance of the temple complex,
specially found in south India. Those materials or rocks which have the capability to capture and reflect
the sound waves the most must be chosen. That’s why, once you enter any famous temple, you will
observe silence and peace around you and the most fascinating thing is, we feel COOL and temperature
in a temple is always less than the atmospheric temperature. To have darshan (spiritual view) of the
Lord’s deity, we must NOT be under the Garbhagriha’s gopura - we must be at its perimeter or beyond
that. Only then energy transmission gets done uniformly. We all have iron in the haemoglobin of our
blood which becomes magnetic under the cosmic energy of the gopura. All the energy around is
collected inside. Note that the tip of the gopura will be made out of metal to maximize the energy
convergence.

Pitha: the plinth or the platform of the temple.

Toranas: the typical gateway of the temple mostly found in north Indian temple

Amalaka: It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North Indian
temples.

Kalasha: It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.

Antarala (vestibule): Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s main hall
(mandapa).
Pradakshina patha: meaning the ambulatory passageway for circumambulation. It consists of enclosed
corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha. The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise
direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess.

Jagati: It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.

Vahana: It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which
is placed axially before the sanctum.

Porch: The rectangular porch in front of the Sanctum sanctorium (Mukhamandapa or Mukha —sala) is a
pillared hall, allowing the devotees to stand and watch the worship rituals as they are conducted inside
the sanctum.

Door: Door is another important factor in temple architecture. The doors of the temple must always be
two paneled and the two are described as mother and daughter. The door must be located in the middle
of the front wall and that it must be in the same direction as the idol. The door must always be placed in
one of the four directions and never in the corners.

Wood is best for temple doors. The door on the eastern side must be made in Plaksha wood, the one on
the western side must be made in Udumbara wood, the door on the south must be made in svattha
wood and the door on the north side must be in Nyagrodha wood.

Pranalas: This signifies the provision architecturally made for discharge of water from garbhagriha to the
outside prakara. Pranala or water chute takes out ablution water from garbhagriha. It passes through
garbhagriha wall (generally towards north) and extends to a considerable length away from wall.

Chandrasilis (Moon-Stones): Chandrasila — or Moonstones were in the form of semicircular slabs on

floor in front of doors forming a step in the beginning or in the main entrance. Their outline was carved
on the floor slabs later.

Jalavatayanas (Windows): Jalavatayanas meant for allowing light and air into temples have provided
artists with a space for exhibiting their skill by carving creepers, flowers, figures and several
perforations.

Niches: Niches may be classified into three groups, viz. simple niche, niches with pilasters, and, niches
with doorframes. Simple niche consists of two horizontal courses, moulded like padma, forming base
and top, and two plain vertical courses on sides.

Torana (Ornamental arches): Torana is an interesting feature involved in stylized temples.

Walls: The treatment of walls also depicts a wide range from simple plain to decorated with pilasters,
turrets and figures.

Eaves: The main function of eave or chajja is to protect wall from rainwater. It projects forward from the
ceiling level, so that water is thrown away from wall surface. The slightly projecting eaves with curved
upper surface to facilitate the flow of water are found in several temples.
Ceilings: Ceilings are different types.

1) Domical ceiling

2) Flat ceiling

3) Rectangular ceiling

4) Square ceiling

5) Circular ceiling

6) Rotated squares ceiling

7) Octagonal ceiling, etc.

These ceilings consist of single slab or more than one are supported by beams placed on walls and
pillars. The outline of these ceilings is generally square, because the garbhagriha, antarala and
mukhamandapa are square. The entire ceiling space is divided into several ankanas (bays) bordered by
beams and walls on four sides.

Square ceilings are further classified into flat, rotated, circular and octagonal. Flat ceilings are generally
found at the corners and on the sides of the central ceiling in the mahamandapas. The ceilings of the top
slabs are decorated generally with circular lotuses.

Pillars: Pillars supporting the corners of garbhagriha and antarala are known as canton pillars. The
canton pillars are prominently shown in the rock-cut cave architecture. Pillars supporting various
mandapas of temples are found in various shapes, such as square pillars, round pillars, projected square
pillars, octagonal pillars, sixteen sided pillars, star shaped pillars etc. These pillars consist of a pedestal,
shaft, capital, abacus and corbels.

 Square Pillars: Square pillars first appeared in the rock cut cave temples. These pillars are simple
massive and plain.
 Round Pillars: Simple round pillars consist of a lower square block and the remaining circular
portion with pot at the top. These pillars are simple and lotus are adorned in it. No circular or
octagonal bands are found in it.

Balustrades: Balustrades are guard stones flanking flights of steps with top railing.

Kakshisana: A bench called Kakshasana providing a sitting place for the devotees usually surrounds the
open mahamandapas.

Tulasi: Tulasi is the most important plant for Hindus. because Lakshmi's presence is recognized in the
Tulasi plant. Every year, Tulasi Vivah (marriage) is celebrated. Tulasi or holy basil is worshipped with
profound respect everywhere. Plants used in temples include Tulasi (holy basil), an Avala (phyllantus
emblika) and a Maki (Jasmine).

Prakara (Boundary Wall): The area of the temple comprising of the sanctum and the halls with water
tanks and gardens were enclosed by a wall (prakara). It looks like within the ramparts of a fort. But the
enclosed wall prakara was a later innovation and became a special feature of South Indian temples.
Water Tank: Water tank or snanaghat is essential for Hindu temple. Before entering into the temple, the
devotee must purify (parishuddh) with taking bath or clean and wash hands and legs and head. Water
tank is also necessary for daily requirement of water for deities and cleaning of temple.

Gardens: Maintaining gardens within the temple complex is also an ancient practice in India.
Maintaining flower gardens to meet the requirement of the temple and other yielding plantations, fruit
gardens were termed very useful to meet the financial expenditure or the maintenance of the temple.

The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and
Yamuna) are visually found at the entrances in a Nagara temple, Dwarapalas are usually found on the
gateway or gopurams of Dravida temples, similarly mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the 9
auspicious planets) and Yakshas are also placed at the entrances to guard them. Various forms or
aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the sanctum. The ashtadikpalas
(deities of direction) face eight key directions on the outer walls of the sanctum and/or on the outer
walls of the temple. Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or
incarnations of the main deity. The various elements of ornamentation are gavaksha, vyala/ yali, kalpa-
lata, amalaka, kalasha, etc.

INDIAN TEMPLES

It must be noted that, in both form and function, Hindu temples have a great deal in common with Jain
and Buddhist temples: built by the same architects and artisans, sharing the same kinds of rituals, and
frequented and patronized by the same people.

The earliest temples were, of course, much simpler structures. The least “built” among them were those
in which a sacred spot – a tree, an altar, an image – was left open to the sky, and its ritual boundaries
marked by an enclosing railing, or raised gallery, and gateways. Temple form grew out of palace
architecture.

Plan: The earliest architecture in India is that of cottage type. It is a circular, bottle or dome shaped.
Mud and Bamboo sticks were used for construction. In the course of evolution number of plans were
incorporated in the temple architecture, such as circular plan, square, rectangular, elliptical, upsidal,
stellar, etc.

Earth elements are represented by' a 'Square', Water with a 'semicircle', fire by a 'Triangle', air by a 'six-
angled figure' and ether (sky) by a circle. The point without dimension dot (bindu) is the focus of all
energy. The icon in the sanctum occupies the central position and the temple represents the other
necessary forms.

The four sides of the Mandala symbolize the four main directions and the corners of the square
represents four mid-directions and each of the eight quarters is presided over by a deity. The inner circle

symbolizes the 'Creator' (Brahma), which is symbolic of activity, guarded by the eight directions. The
Mandala is symbolic of the entire universe. The 'all maker' (Creator) is also the progenitor. The whole
mass of scripture, consisting of manuals of architecture, sculpture and painting collectively are known as
Agama. Early temples were reputed to be built by this All-maker.

Generally, the garbhagrihas are square in shape. Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the
principle axis, also can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be very small in the beginning and could admit only
one worshipper at a time, though the shrine was meant for public and the basic shrine, sanctum alone
constituted the real temple. This type of single cell shrines also can be seen in the present day temple
architecture, which are mainly dedicated to the Mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush.

The temple should consist of a sanctum in which the icon is to be nstalled and housed. The structural
involvements nearby the temple are also essential for the principal worship and rituals. The sanctum is
the body of the divinity and the icon is its soul (Jiva). Usually it is a stone structure, square in shape and
simply plain with some projected slabs in the wall or niches. There should not be any pillars in the
sanctum hall. The sanctum should be provided with windows for air and light, which eventually help in
preservation of the icon. In olden days, the wooden stucco or clay windows were provided to the
sanctum. The sanctum was then represented by an empty low platform (Vedi) in the dark room. A
copper vessel (kumbha), a sacrificial fire place (kunda) or a sculpted icon (bimba) used to be placed on a
seat in the dark room to prevent ill effects of weathering besides the mystery of the divine presence in
the sanctum. The sanctum was usually built in stone, but constructions in brick are not rare. Vishnu
Tilaka mentions that while the stone sanctum is the best, the brick one is the next best. The wooden
sanctum however is inferior and the mud sanctum is to be considered the worst '.

The sanctum of the temple must be constructed first. Before construction of the sanctum, a significant
ceremony known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) should be performed. This ritual
involves letting into the arth a ceremonial copper pot containing nine precious stones, several metals
and minerals, herbs and soil (purified earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building
that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After completion of this ritual, a stone slab (Adhara-
sila) is placed over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the icon symbolizes the soul.
This is the significance of the sanctum, which is called the 'womb-house'. Texts like Silparatna, Tantra-
Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give an elaborate account of this ritual.

In a few temples, projecting slabs and niches are found in the walls of garbhagrihas. The functional
aspects of these are for providing space for keeping certain objects used for worship. These niches and
projected slabs are provided according to their convenience and orientation of the temple entrance.

SITE

The areas of Hindu temple sites are usually vast with many of them built near water bodies, in the lap of
nature. This is probably because according to ancient Sanskrit texts the most suitable site for a Hindu
temple referred as ‘Mandir’ is at close proximity to water bodies and gardens where flowers blossom,
chirping of birds and sounds of ducks and swans can be heard and animals can rest without any fear.
These places exhibiting peace and tranquillity are recommended by the texts for building Hindu temples
elucidating that Gods reside in such places.

LAYOUT

Layout of a Hindu temple pursues a geometrical design known as vastu-purusha-mandala, the name of
which is derived from the three vital components of the design namely Vastu meaning Vaas or a place of
dwelling; Purusha, meaning the Universal principle; and Mandala meaning circle. Vastupurushamandala
is a mystical diagram referred in Sanskrit as a Yantra. The symmetrical and self-repeating model of a
Hindu temple demonstrated in the design is derived from the primary convictions, traditions, myths,
fundamentality and mathematical standards.

According to Vastupurushamandala, the most sacred and typical template for a Hindu temple is the 8x8
(64) grid. The layout displays a vivid saffron centre with intersecting diagonals which according to Hindu
philosophy symbolises the Purusha. The axis of the Mandir is created with the aid of the four fundamentally
significant directions and thus, a perfect square is created around the axis within the available space. This
square which is circumscribed by the Mandala circle and divided into perfect square grids is held sacred. On
the other hand, the circle is regarded as human and worldly that can be perceived or noticed in daily life such
as the Sun, Moon, rainbow, horizon or water drops. Both the square and the circle support each other. The
model is usually seen in large temples while an 81 sub-square grid is observed in ceremonial temple
superstructures.

ACTIVATION OF FIVE SENSES- SIGHT, HEARING, TOUCH, TASTE, AND SMELL

Sound: On entering, ringing the bell to produce a sound, it creates a unity in the Left and Right parts of
our brains. Sharp and enduring sound which lasts for minimum of 7 seconds in echo mode. The duration
of echo is good enough to activate all the seven healing centers in our body. This results in emptying our
brain from all negative thoughts.

Lighting camphor: The inner sanctity is usually dark and the immediate seeing of light after praying
activates the sight sense.

Sense of touch: Hands over the camphor to make your hands warm and then you touch your eyes with
your warm hands- touch sense is active.

Sense of smell: Offering flowers like rose petals, jasmine, marigold based on different factors, amongst
them fragrance is most important. The fragrance of the flower, camphor and instance sticks all together
have the strong essence to keep your smell sense active and pleasant giving calmness to the mind.

Sense of taste: Drinking theertham ideally from a silver or a copper vessel -The water used for
theertham usually would contain Thulasi leaves dipped in water and must be stored at least for eight
hours in the copper vessel. By drinking this Thulasi water you activate the taste sense. The other
benefits of drinking Thulasi water from a copper or silver vessel also includes cure for sore throats, Fever
etc.

SCULPTURES, ICONOGRAPHY, AND ORNAMENTATION

Iconography is a branch of art history which studies the images of deities. It consists of identification of
image based on certain symbols and mythology associated with them.

THE MULTI ROLE OF THE TEMPLES

The construction of stone structure has provided employment to the architects, artisans, sculptors and
laborers i.e., of much skill and taste in its planning and decoration. With its rise, there also came up a
varied and complex routine in each temple sustained by the rich accumulations in land and gold, the
result of pious gifts, offered with a generosity and administered with a very care. Religious and musical
discourses have helped the propagation of religion, music, dance, and other arts which received great
encouragement and provided pure and elevating type of entertainment to the devotees. Being a center
of learning, the temple helped in the acquisition and propagation of knowledge. Both scholars and
students found shelter there. With its enormous wealth, it also acted as a bank to the needy, giving easy
credits. It brought the people into more and more intimate business relations with the neighborhood.
The granaries of the temple helped to the hungry, and these unable to earn their livelihood due to
disease and deformity. There are several instances of even hospitals and dispensaries being run by the
temple. The temple played the role of a court of law for settling disputes. The temple also gave shelter
to the people during wars.

Temples constituted a sort of reserve bank with branches in every village which observed and retained
the surplus wealth of the absorbed and retained the surplus wealth of the community in normal times,
and released it for use in seasons of financial stringency, and was even ready to help the community to
turn a sharp corner.