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Palaeo-climate change recordings of

Sri Lanka in last two millennia with
reference to key historical records
Poorna Yahampath

Research Scholar - University of Sri Jayawardanapura, Sri Lanka.

Res: 112, Piliyandala Road, Maharagama, Sri Lanka.
+94-71-825-1765; poorna.yahampath@gmail.com
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Outline
• Present geography/ climate/ seasons of Sri Lanka
• Scoping of the study
• Historical recording sources
• Direct recordings
• Indirect reflections/ recordings
• Discussion
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Preface:

• “Palaeo-climate change recordings of Sri Lanka in last two millennia with

reference to key historical records” is a part of on-going research of
“Reconstruction of past environment through palaeo-bio-geo-stratigraphy
in the context of present geography, Ratnapura – Sri Lanka”.

Documentary evidence of historical recordings,

generally limited to regions/countries with long
literary traditions and Sri Lanka is entitled by
having more than 2500 years of written history,
also which was varied by archaeological attributes
and epigraphs.

Prior to written historical recordings in 900 – 600

BCE, Sri Lanka has long Pre-historical and Proto-
historical evolutionary history that reflected via
Archaeology, Paleontology, Palaeo-ecology…
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Palaeo-historical summary:
Geological time Cultural Proxy data Years B.P.
Phase
Quaternary Period
Pleistocene Epoch Paleolithic Stone artifacts and > 125,000
assemblages 78,000
Mesolithic Stone and bone Since 40,000 to
artifacts/tools, Human 17,500 and 5,000
(AMH) fossils and
Holocene Epoch
assemblages, Fauna and
Floral fossils, Pollens and
microfossils
Neolithic Stone implements, Since 5,000 to
pottery, iron remains, 3,000
settlements , seeds
Proto-history Settlements, Iron Since 3,000
technology, Irrigation,
Domestication, Agriculture
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Sri Lanka, its locality, climate zones

Dry
Zone

Intermediate
Zone
Wet
Zone
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Geography at a glance…:
• Geographically lies surrounded by the Indian Ocean between 5º 52´N - 9º 54´N and 7º 30´E
- 81º 55´E; to the southwest of Bay of Bengal and southeast of Arabian Sea. Sri Lanka is a
small fragment of an ancient super continent Pangea. After broke up the Pangea into
different plates and platelets, Indian plate including Sri Lanka was drifted northwards and
finally located in present position. Both India and Sri Lanka stand on the same continental
shelf.

• The land area is 65,525 km2 of the country and internal waters with 1,570 km2 area. A
highland massif, situated in the south-centre, surrounded more or less by an intermediate
zone of upland ridges and valleys at a lower elevation. On the basis of height and landforms
Sri Lanka could be divided roughly into six topographical regions; The Central Highlands,
The Southwest country, The East and Southeast country, The uplifted belt of lowlands,
uplands and highland, The Northern lowlands and The coastal fringe.

• Climate is entirely tropical. Humidity: 70 – 90 % in the southwest and mountainous areas.

Mean temperature ranges from 16 °C in the Central Highlands to 32 °C on the northeast
coast. Rainfall Influenced by the monsoon winds in four seasons;
• South-West Monsoon,
• North-East Monsoon and
• Two Inter-Monsoons.
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Geography at a glance…:
• Climatic zones formed accordingly monsoon climates are Wet Zone (mountains
and the south western part of the country, mean annual rainfall > 2500 mm),
Intermediate Zone (between Wet Zone and Dry Zone, rainfall 1,750 to 2,500),
Dry Zone (southeast, east, and northern parts, rainfall 1200 - 1900 mm) and Arid
Zone (northwest and southeast coasts, rainfall 600 - 1200 mm).

• Vegetation of Wet Zone representing Lowlands Tropical Evergreen Forests at

southwest lowlands, Subtropical Evergreen Forests at temperate climates grow in
the higher altitudes, Mountain vegetation at the highest altitudes. Dry Zone
vegetation representing flora in dry lowlands and typical ground cover is scrub
forest. Present forest reserves covered only one-fifth of the land. The south
western interior contains the only large remnants of the original forests of the wet
zone.

• Biological diversity is remarkable with high proportion of endemic species among

its flora and fauna. 23% of the flowering plants and 16% of the mammals are
endemic. Species recorded as Amphibian 102 + (E: 88+) species, Reptilian 184
(E: 105) species, Aves 482 (E: 33) species and Land Mammalia 91(:16) species.

• Geology is Archaeic rocks of Precambrian age (kondhalite and charnokite) cover

most of the island. Miocene limestone underlies the Jaffna Peninsula and the
northwestern coastal regions, Jurassic deposits occur in two small pockets in
Tabbova and Andigama.
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Sources of historical records in Sri Lanka, including

hints on environmental/climate change
• In Sri Lanka exact rainfall figures and records of droughts and floods
are available only from 1869 onwards.
• The chronicles, mainly the Mahavamsa and the Deepavansa, which
contain a continuous dynastic and religious history.
• Deepavamsa – Written before 5th Century CE. historical information provided
since 6th Century BCE. The Oldest chronicle. Author not found.
• Mahdavamsa – Written in 6th Century CE. historical information provided since
6th Century BCE. Second oldest and most descriptive chronicle having 90
Chapters…etc Authors are Mahanama monk and others.
• Sammohavinodani – Written in 5th Century CE Author is Buddhgosha Monk.
• Wansathappakasivi – Written in 7th or 8th Century CE. as a supportive
Chronicle for Mahdavamsa, historical information provided since 6th Century
BCE. Author is Mahanama monk.
• Pujavaliya – Written in 1236 – 1271 CE. Information referred from
Mahdavamsa/Deepavamsa and important to clarify some information. Author is
Buddhaputhra monk.
• Rajavaliya, Thupavamsa, Rasavahini (14th Century)…
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Method: Information flow of the Chronicles

Original Palm Leaves Chronicles (Ola Leaves)

Copies of Palm Leaves Chronicles

Generations

Printed Chronicles Originals

Editions of Printed Chronicles Originals

Analysis Books of Chronicles

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Examples:
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South Asian Monsoon System

North-East Monsoon
Two branches based on their
spatial spread over the sub-
Indian subcontinent
continent:
 Arabian Sea Branch
 Bay of Bengal Branch

Two segments based on the

direction of rain bearing winds:
 South-West Monsoon
(SW Monsoon)
 North-East Monsoon
(NE Monsoon)

Two rain periods based on time of

the year called:
 Summer monsoon
(May to September)
Sri Lanka  Winter monsoon
South-West
(October to November)
Monsoon
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Sri Lanka present monsoon system

Southwest -
monsoon
Season (May
- September)

First Inter-monsoon Season

(March - April)

Northeast -
monsoon
Season
(December -
February)
Second Inter-monsoon Season
(October-November)
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Historical kingdoms of Sri Lanka

Dry Zone Kingdoms (400 BCE to 1200 CE)
• Anuradhapura
• Polonanruwa
• Sigiriya
• Ruhuna

Intermediate Zone Kingdoms (1200 to 1300 CE)

• Dambadeniya Sigiriya

• Yapahuwa
• Kurunegala

Wet Zone Kingdoms (1300 – 1815 CE)

• Gampola
• Raigama
• Kotte Ruhuna
• Sithavaka
• Kandy
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Historical setting

Phase 1 : Mesolithic Structural Period K: 840 – 460 BCE

(> 1800 BCE)
Phase 2 : Mesolithic Iron age transition Structural Period J: 510 – 340 BCE
Phase 3 : Early Iron age Structural Period I : 360 – 190 BCE
(900 – 600 BCE)
Structural Period H: 200 – 130 BCE S
Phase 4 : Basal Early Historic
T
(600 – 500 BCE) Structural Period G: 100 – 300 CE U
Phase 5 : Lower Early Historic
Structural Period F: 300 – 600 CE D
(500 – 250 BCE)
Y
Phase 6 : Mid-early Historic S Structural Period E, D, C, B
(250 BCE – 100 CE) T
Phase 7 : Upper Early Historic U 750 – 1000 CE
(100 – 300 CE) D (Coningham, 1999)
Phase 8 : Middle Historic Y
(300 – 1250 CE)
(Deraniyagala, 1992)

Direct evidences
Year Evidence
161- 137 BCE Drought effected in central
mountain area, named as
“Buluke-seya” during King
Dutugemunu’s period.
(Source: Mahdvamsa)
103 and/or 89 Great Drought and Famine.
– 77 or both Entire country effected, named
BCE as “Beminitiya-seya”.
(Source: Sammohavinodini Attakatta)
15
Reconstruction
Central mountain area
nourished by SWM and it
can be reflected weakening
of SWM during this period.
Most probably just after/
near 103 BCE and 89/77
BCE. Entire country was
effected due to weakening
of both SWM and NEM for
12 years.
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Beminitiya Seya; Drought/Famine

• Effected the Anuradhapura and Ruhunu kingdoms and entire country
during this period of King Walagambha/ King Wattagamini Abhaya in 103
BCE and 89/77 BCE.

• Large number of Buddhist monks migrated to India…24,000 monks

dead. Cascade disease/ hazard occurred named Rakthakshi.

• Also known as the Great Famine of the country ever had and historians
making this as a dark period of Sri Lanka’s history.

• Advanced irrigation systems failed due to long drought period and

cascade impacts of foreign invasion, breakdown of administrative
system, corruptions, negligence of repairs and maintenance of irrigation
systems occurred.

• The famine is mentioned in number of times in the stories contained in

"Sihalavatthu Pakarana", one of the oldest literatures, and many
chronicles.
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Direct evidences
Year Evidence Reconstruction
187 – 189 CE Drought In Dry Zone; weak NEM
King Kanitathissa
247 – 249 CE Drought In Dry Zone; weak NEM
King Vijaidu/ King Sngathissa
365 – 406 CE Drought In Dry Zone; weak NEM
King II Upathissa
551 – 569 CE Drought In Dry Zone; weak NEM
King II Mugalan / King Keerthi Sri Megawarna
915 – 923 CE Drought In Dry Zone; weak NEM

956 – 972 CE Drought In Dry Zone; weak NEM

1234 – 1269 CE Drought In Dry Zone; weak NEM

King III Vijeyabahu and King II Parakramabahu
1270 /72 – 1283 / 84 CE Drought In Dry Zone; weak NEM
King I Bhuwanekabahu
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Indirect evidences
Key parameters were identified to identify and verify palaeo-climate
changes occurred in the country; since pre-historical period.

Studied so far,
 Settlements and distributions
 Irrigation tanks, canals, ponds and establishments
 Religious ceremonies / treatments for intending rainfall

Being studied
 Types, nature, materials of buildings and complexes; architecture
 Reflections of paintings, stone artifacts and engravings
 Establishments of Key ports and internal trade pathways and roads
 Building of drainage and surface runoff facilities
 Origin and distribution of iron production technology
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Shifting of Kingdoms and Main Settlements

Hypothesis is monsoon system changes effected establishment and shifting
of Kingdoms.

 Pre-historical (before 5000 years) settlements concentrated in Wet Zone

supported by favorable SWM and Climate. Dry Zone was not much supported by
NEM and Climate for Human Settlements.

 Proto-historical (since 5000 – 3000 BP) settlements concentrated in Wet Zone

supported by favorable SWM and Climate. But Dry Zone was supporting by NEM
and Climate for initiate or expand Human Settlements.

 Early Historical (since 3000 /2500 BP or 1200 BCE) settlements/Kingdoms

concentrated and extensively expanded in Dry Zone supported by comparatively
favorable NEM and Climate. But Wet Zone was receiving strong SWM and
unfavorable Climate that limited Human Settlements.

 Middle Historical (since 1200 CE) settlements/ Kingdoms shifting to Intermediate

and Wet Zones leaving Dry Zone which was not further supported by favorable
NEW and Climate. Wet Zone was making favorable due to moderate SWM and
Climate for new Kingdoms.
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Shifting of Settlements/ Kingdoms

Prehistoric Settlements Proto-historic Settlements Early Historic Kingdoms

Before 5000 years 5000 – 3000 years after 2500
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2
4

10
3

9
8 6

Between 500 BCE to 1,200 CE

Golden era of Kingdom Anuradhapura Shifting of Kingdoms in the history
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Shifting of Kingdoms
- glance

Dry Zone

Intermediate Zone

Wet Zone

Hills
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Past changes of SWM and NEM based on Kingdoms/

Main Settlements
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6
Number & quality of recordings

3
SWM
NEM
2

0
5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
(3000 (2500 (2000 (1500 (1000 (500 (BCE - (500 (1000 (1500 (2000
BCE) BCE) BCE) BCE) BCE) BCE) CE) CE) CE) CE) CE)
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Tanks system for irrigation & resilience.

Hypothesis is monsoon system had been directly
influenced building of man-made tank systems.

• Building of man-made tanks for irrigation purpose

identified from proto-historical period. (since 1000
BCE) in Dry Zone.

• First remarkable tank built by King Pandukabhaya in

437-367 BCE during his city development
programme.

• After that the system of tanks and canal building had

been processed also gradually created with very
advanced engineering techniques; from Small
village tanks to City tanks and to large reservoirs
tanks

• Up to 13th Century CE the tanks systems were

Tanks identified in Survey
operated in Dry Zone Anuradhapura, Sigiyira,
Polonnaruwa and Ruhunu Kingdoms. Then broken Plan in 1850 – 1900 CE
down effected entire civilization and declined
agriculture.
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Tanks systems
Anuradhapura and Ruhuna
Year/period Name of Tank/ Size Remarks
system
437-367 BCE Basawakkulama City Tank originally.
Tank (Abaya Tank) Enlarged later periods.
Today size 225 acres.

By King Pankukabhaya
250 – 210 BCE Tissa Tank City Tank originally.
Enlarged later periods.
Today size 550 acres.

By King Devanumpiya Tissa

33 – 43 CE Ruhunu Tissa By King Ilanaga
Ruhuna Tank/ Durawapi/
Yoda Tank
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89 – 77 CE Nuwara Tank Largest in Anuradhapura.

Embankment (Bund) is 3 miles
long and 37 feet high. The water
height is about 23 feet the tank
covers 3,180 hectares and
contains about 1,500 million
cubic feet of water. By King Vattagamini
Abaya (King Valagamba)

Abhaya
Tank

Nuwara Tank

Tissa Tank

Three main tanks in Anuradhapura City

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Basic analysis of establishments of tanks and

canals systems Excellent seasonal NE Monsoon
System and Sufficient SW
Monsoon System occurrence
250
Representative number of

200
operational tanks

150

100

50

500 250 BCE - 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 2000
BCE BCE CE CE CE CE CE CE CE CE
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Reflections from religious ceremonies
Hypothesis is there is a believe and practice giving ceremonial treats to religious properties
during drought period seeking rainfall
King Devanum 250 – 210 Establishment of Sri Maha Bhodiya
Piyathissa BCE
King 161 – 137 Ceremony treatments/ pooja delivering for Sri Maha Bhodiya
Dutugemunu BCE
King 22 – 7 Deliver treatments of bathing pooja for Sri Maha Bhodiya in
Bathikabaya BCE annually.
King Wasamba 67 – 111 CE Lighting thousands of pahan/candles in Chathiya Pabbatha,
Thuparamaya, Mahathupa, Sri Maha Bhodhi
King Sri 301 – 328 CE Religious ceremonies in Sri Maha Bhodi area in
Meghawanna Anuradhapura for 3 months
King 365 – 406 CE Pathra-Dathuwa treated pooja for begging and praying for
Upathissa rainfall in drought period.
King 455 – 473 CE Giving bathing for Sri Maha Bhodiya.
Dhathusena
King Silakala 518 – 531 CE Participated daily for ceremonies at Sri Maha Bhodi.
King 2nd 815 – 831 CE Last king participated ceremonies for Sri Maha Bhodi.
Dappula
4th King 898 – 914 CE Ordered Female Monks to deliver daily water treatments for
Kayshapa Sri Maha Bhodi
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Drought During BCE

1.5
1
0.5
0

0 50 100 150 200 250

Drought During CE
20

10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
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Thank you…!