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- Nilanjan Mitra
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¾ Stronger than other construction materials
in There are over 150 species of timber which are
proportion of weight produced in India.
¾ Workable: Can be easily worked to any size There are about 46 main timber companies and more
and shape 1000 small timber companies in India.
¾ Lightweight
¾ Economical: wastage is minimum In India, some common trees used for supplying
¾ Durable timber are Babul, Banyan, Bamboo, Deodar, Elm,
Coconut, Mahogany, Mango, Mulberry, Palm, Pine,
¾ Non‐conductor of heat and electricity.
Cedar, Rosewood, Sal , Sandalwood, Teak, etc.
Forest I. Standing timber: the timber in the form of a living tree
II. Green timber: the freshly felled tree which has not lost much
Density of its moisture
III. Rough timber: the timber in the form of a felled tree
IV. Converted timber: the timber when sawn into various market
In sizes like beams, battens, planks etc.
V. Dressed timber: Timber which has been sawn, placed and
worked to the exact required condition.
India VI. Structural timber: Timber used in framing and load bearing
structures
VII. Clear timber: Timber clear from defects and blemishes.
vessels
earlywood
fibres
rays
cells
latewood
Grain
direction
rays
softwood rays
hardwood
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Growth Rings
• Early wood Sapwood / Heartwood
– rapid growth at beginning • Sapwood contains cells still • Heartwood contains blocked
of growing season used to transport nutrients cells and is used for waste
disposal and strength
– thin, large cells ‐ lighter colour Photos: Geoff Boughton
• Cells and vessels are open. • Cells and vessels closed
Late wood • Contains starches used as • Contains waste products
“food” for the tree – also from tree growth –
• slower growth, often limited by lack of water used as food for insects and extractives – many are
• thick small cells - darker colour fungi – lower durability harmful to insects and fungi
• Cell walls increasing in – gives natural durability
• gives the growth ring
thickness as tree grows • Cell wall thickness stable
Softwood / Hardwood
• Mainly conifers – needle • Mainly broad leafed
• Hardwoods like leaves • Vessels (walls made of a
– broad leaf • All cells transport number of cells) transport
– generally higher densities nutrients within tree nutrients
– often dark in colour • Growth stresses – tension • Growth stresses –
on inside compression on inside
• Most softwoods thinner • Most hardwoods thicker
cell walls cell walls
• Softwoods – light in colour, lower – darker in colour, higher
– needle‐like leaves density, lower hardness. density, higher hardness
– generally lower densities • Open cell structure makes • Closed cell structure
– often light in colour heartwood more makes heartwood more
receptive to treatment difficult to treat
Green Timber
Refers to lumber that has greater than a 15% absorption capacity
Recently Harvested; “fresh”
Resists splitting and cracking easily
Air-Dry Timber
Refers to lumber that has between 12%-15% absorption capacity
Resists splitting easily as well
Most desirable stage to work with
Oven-Dry Timber
Usually refers to timber with less that a 12%
absorption capacity
Splits easily
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Types of Sawing
¾Seasoning of wood is the first step in efficient
utilization of timber
¾Freshly felled timber contains a large quantity
of moisture roughly from 100 % to 200 %,
The process of drying timber or removing based on dry weight of wood
moisture or sap, present in a freshly ¾A well seasoned piece of wood contains
felled timber, under more or less 10‐12 % moisture and will be in equilibrium
with the atmospheric humidity
controlled conditions is called seasoning
¾The degree of moisture content is necessary
of timber. for proper retention of shape and size of
component parts
Warping
1) To minimize the tendency to shrink, warp
and spilt.
Loss of moisture results in
Shrinkage
Splits
Excess moisture
results in Swelling
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2) To reduce the weight for transport 4) To improve wood working qualities
purposes, handling, and thereby in timber including gluing, painting
reduction in cost. and polishing.
5) To make it capable to a certain
degree for protection from attacks
by insects and fungus.
6) To make it fit for effective
3)To increase strength durability and preservation, treatment, otherwise
electrical resisting power. the protective coat will close the
outside pores and induce decay.
AIR SEASONING
Advantages:
1. It is a simple and economical method.
2.It does not requires much skill and attention in the process of
seasoning.
a. Air or natural seasoning
3.Being the slow process , the chances of seasoning
defects in the timber are comparatively less.
b. Kiln or artificial seasoning.
Disadvantages:
1.It is a very slow process.
2. The moisture content cannot be reduced less than 15 to
18 percent.
3. It can be easily attacked by insects and fungi due to long
period of seasoning even under favorable conditions.
4. The space required for staking timber is large.
5. More capital is required which is blocked till the
seasoning is complete.
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Advantages:
Disadvantages:
1.Seasoning can be done thoroughly well and in the
shortest time under controlled process. 1. It is a costlier method though space required is
2.The wood can be used immediately as and when less.
required. 2. Skilled labour is required.
3. It renders the timber less liable to be attacked by insects 3.Being a quick process of drying , a continuous
and fungi and shrinkage. attention is required.
4. The moisture content can be reduced as per the 4.Also steam more or less weakens the strength
requirement. and elasticity of timber.
Requirements of a good preservative:‐
Cheap and easily available.
Should allow coats of paints etc without discoloring.
1)Water‐borne preservatives :‐
Water is the most common solvent carrier in
Highly penetrative.
preservative formulations due to its availability and
Should be of permanent nature.
low cost.
Should be extremely poisonous, even in small doses, fungi
and other insects. I. Chromated copper arsenate (CCA) :‐ It consists of copper
Shouldn’t reduce the strength of the timber and should be sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O),arsenic pentoxide (As2O5.2H2O) and
non corrosive to metals in contact. sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7.2H2O) in the proportion 3:1:4.
Should not catch fire easily.
II. Chromated zinc chloride :‐ It consisits of zinc chloride (ZnCl2)
Shouldn’t give bad smell and sodium dichromate in the ratio 1:1.
Should not be injurious to workmen.
V. Acid cupric chromate composition :‐ It consists of 1.68 parts of
chromic acid (CrO3), 50 parts of copper sulphate and 47.5 parts
3) Organic solvent type preservatives:
sodium dichromate. These preservatives are available in the following forms‐
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4) Natural preservatives :‐ II. Heat treatment :‐
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V. It should be sonorous.
VI. It should be well seasoned and when cut with a saw,
the surface should not clog the teeth of the saw.
VII. It should be free from natural defects.
VIII. It should not be affected by wood rotting, fungi and Burls
other insects.
IX. It should have firm adhesion of fibres and compact
medullary rays. Ringdall
X. It should be hard. Upsets
XI. It should be durable. Shakes Knots
XII. It should be tough i.e., resistant to shocks. Coarse
XIII. It should be elastic. Twisted
Grains
Fibres
Radial ruptures in annual rings or splits radiating from the heart
and extending towards the sapwood are called heart shakes
The shake occurring at near the pith and giving the appearance of
a star at the end is called star shake
II. Radial Shakes
The radial splits which extend from the bark towards the centre.
These are caused when the outer tissues dry faster than the
S
inner ones. H
A
III. Cup shakes or ring shakes
K
The openings along the growth rings are called cup shakes or ring
shakes. E
Caused due to sudden increase of moisture supplied by the root
and then quick drying.
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Splits and Checks
Checking
• Checks
• Splits
• Shallow – do not extend
• Extend through full width through timber
of timber
• Can be caused by
• Can be caused by
– Normal drying
– Aggressive drying
– Weathering
– Overstressing
• Can normally be filled
• Can be unsightly
• Have little effect on
• Can cause reduction strength
in strength A "Check" is a long crack that
appears as the sap wood of a
timber shrinks around the heart
wood over time.
c) Knots: The dark hard pieces indicating places
from where branches have been cut off
b) Rindgall: Curved swelling resulted from the
¾When the knot is free from
growth of sap wood layers on wound, left by falling or cut decay and is firmly intact its
off branch in an irregular manner called live knot or sound knot.
¾ caused because the new ¾ Knot which is not firm is called
growth does not dead knot or loose knot. Knots can cause
unite properly with the old •discontinuity of grain at edge
wood and leaves a •cause slope of grain at an edge
cavity where decaying action •often reduce strength and stiffness
may set in
d) Twisted fibres :‐
The defect due to the fibres of tree which get twisted
when young, by the force of wind is called twisted fibres.
centre margin
edge arris
e) Upsets :‐ The defect caused by crushing or
by injury in wood fibres .
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Want and Wane
f) Burl/ burr/ excrescence:
The growth of a large excrescence bulge which
is formed on the trunk or the branch of a tree
due to certain injury inflicted when the tree is • Mechanical damage knocking • Piece is cut from outer part
young is called burl, burr or excrescence. off corner of tree so that part of
corner is missing
• Unsightly if on exposed corner • Can have rustic appearance
• Discontinuity of grain can affect • Rarely affects bending
g) Coarse grains : strength strength, make affect
The widening of annual rings due to rapid growth • Can have wane on timber cut bearing
of certain trees is called coarse grains. from anywhere in tree – • Shows that piece contains
needn’t be a sign of sapwood sapwood
Inclusions
Included bark
• Bark
Case Hardening
Honey Combing
• Gum veins Collapse
Foxiness
Twistiness & Bowling
Case hardening :‐ During kiln seasoning, the outer side of
timber gets hard while the inner core remains still wet due to
Collapse :‐ This defect is due to corrugated
rapid surface drying . appearance of timber, caused due to
excessive and uneven shrinkage during
drying.
Honey combing :‐ This defect is due to the separation of
the tissues in the interior of timber of timber due to drying
stresses, caused by incorrect kiln seasoning as the interior
wood dries earlier than the external surface. Foxiness :‐ This defect is due to the
yellowish or reddish stains, caused by over
maturity and lack of ventilation during
storage.
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Weathering The turning of timber tissues to almost dry powder by fungi is
called dry rot.
Eg. Of fungi :mushroom, spongy plant
The fungus feed upon the wood and eats the wood tissue, thus
penetrating the wood fibres from all direction.
Prevention:
1.well seasoned timber should be used.
2.timber should be used where there is free circulation and
Rotting access of air.
Remedy:
1.the timber should be painted with a solution of copper
sulphate.
2.the high temperature of seasoning of kiln helps in killing the
fungi.
The disintegration of tissue of timber due to
alternate wetting and drying is called wet rot.
The attacks take place through the wounds in bark
by the access of water.
Prevention:
All timber for exterior or underground work should
be first properly seasoned and then coated with tar
to keep out the dampness.
Remedy:
The best remedy for treating wet rot is by using a
suitable preservative.
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Uses of Plywood
Plywood is a type of engineered wood made from thin sheets
of wood, called plies or wood veneers. The layers are glued •Floors, walls and roofs in house
together so that adjacent plies have their grain at right angles to constructions
each other for greater strength
•Wind bracing panels
•Vehicle internal body work
Plywood is specified by both
faces, two letters; the first
•Packages and boxes
being the face veneer quality •Hoarding
and the second the back veneer •Fencing
quality
Uses of Fibreboard
Fiberboard is a type of engineered ¾sound proofing/deadening
wood product that is made out of wood
fibers. Types of fiberboard (in order of
increasing density) include particle ¾structural sheathing
board, medium-density fiberboard,
and hardboard
¾low‐slope roofing
¾sound deadening flooring underlayment
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