GROUND WATER

Groundwater:
It is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit
of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth
at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called
the water table. Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the surface naturally; natural discharge
often occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn
for agricultural, municipal and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the
distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology. Typically,
groundwater is thought of as liquid water flowing through shallow aquifers, but technically it can also
include soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep
geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly
influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of the Earth's subsurface contain some water, which may
be mixed with other fluids in some instances.

Sources Of Ground Water:

The main source of groundwater is rain, and melted snow soaks.
Meteoric Water: Most groundwater is meteoric water. Other forms normally do not play a significant role in
the hydrologic cycle. Non-meteoric forms of groundwater are connate water and magmatic water, also
termed juvenile water. Connate water is trapped in rock stratum at the time of formation. Because rock
containing connate water is typically formed from ocean sediments, connate water is normally saline. Magmatic
water rises from great depth accompanying magma intrusion and affects mineralogy.
Connate Water: Water entrapped in the interstices of igneous rocks when the rocks were formed; usually
highly mineralized. Water entrapped in the interstices of sedimentary rocks at the time of deposition. Water held
in the pores of rocks at the time when rocks were formed. This water often has a high mineral content and
where formed in marine conditions can result in highly saline groundwater. Connate water generally plays an
insignificant role in groundwater studies.

Juvenile Water: Water formed through chemical reactions in geological processes and brought into the
hydrological system for the first time. It is doubtful whether any terrestrial water is truly juvenile and is totally
insignificant volumetrically. Juvenile water is not considered important in groundwater studies.
Subsurface flow, in hydrology, is the flow of water beneath earth's surface as part of the water cycle. In the
water cycle, when precipitation falls on the earth's land, some of the water flows on the surface
forming streams and rivers. The remaining water, through infiltration, penetrates the soil traveling underground,
hydrating the vadose zone soil, recharging aquifers, with the excess flowing in subsurface runoff. In
hydrogeology it is measured by the Groundwater flow equation.
An aquifer is a wet underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials
(gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be usefully extracted using a water well. The study of water
flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology. Aquifers are typically saturated
regions of the subsurface that produce an economically feasible quantity of water to
a well or spring (e.g., sand and gravel or fractured bedrock often make good aquifer materials).

Different zones in ground along with water table

Aquifer types:
There are two end members in the spectrum of types of aquifers; confined and unconfined (with semi-confined
being in between. semi confined aquifers are also called as leaky confined aquifers). The aquifers can therefore
be divided into two broad types:

 unconfined aquifers;

 confined aquifers.

An unconfined aquifer is close to the land surface, being under the direct influence of the climatic factors
(precipitations mainly, but temperature also). The groundwater fluctuations follow with a certain lag, depending
on the depth and the nature of the unsaturated zone, the variation of the fallen precipitations. The unconfined
aquifers extend from the water table to the base of the aquifer, represented by an impermeable boundary. Most
of the unconfined aquifers are formed by highly permeable layers (gravel, coarse or medium sand) and less
permeable formations (silt or clay) that do not cut the hydraulic continuity of the permeable layers on a regional
level.
 Unconfined aquifer Unconfined aquifer, confined aquifer and confining layer

A confined aquifer is overlain by a confining layer (Figure above) which is generally semi-pervious, allowing
vertical fluxes between the adjacent layers. Unless an irrational abstraction, the confined aquifers are under
pressure; this means that the water level in a piezometric well will rise above the top of the aquifer (Figure 9.3).

Figure: Possible positions of the potentiometric surface of a confined aquifer

The levels to which the water from the confined aquifer rises define the piezometric or the potentiometric
surface. The potentiometric surface can be under the top of the semi-pervious layer, above it but under the water
table of the unconfined aquifer overlying it, or finally above the water table. A special case is when the
potentiometric surface is above the ground level, the well penetrating the confined aquifer being artesian. The
differences in hydraulic head between the unconfined and the confined aquifer lead to vertical fluxes directed
from the aquifer having the upper value to the aquifer with the lower value of the hydraulic head. The vertical
water transfer is called leakage and will thus be directed upward or downward .
 Figure: Downward and upward leakage

Different types of aquifer with artesian wells.

Aquitard, is a bed of low permeability along an aquifer. A saturated low permeability unit that can restrict the
movement of groundwater. It may be able to store groundwater.

Position of an aquitard in between aquifers.

Aquiclude (or aquifuge), which is a solid, impermeable area underlying or overlying an aquifer. Aquicludes are
impervious formations that form the confining layer for semi-confined and confined aquifers. If the
impermeable area overlies the aquifer pressure could cause it to become a confined aquifer.
Aquitard is a zone within the earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another. An
aquitard can sometimes, if completely impermeable, be called an Aquiclude or Aquifuge. Aquitards comprise
layers of either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity.

Characteristics and properties of Confined aquifers:

A formation in which the groundwater is isolated from the atmosphere at the point of discharge by impermeable
geologic formations; confined groundwater is generally subject to pressure greater than atmospheric. If the
distinction between confined and unconfined is not clear geologically (i.e., if it is not known if a clear confining
layer exists, or if the geology is more complex, e.g., a fractured bedrock aquifer), the value of storativity
returned from an aquifer test can be used to determine it (although aquifer tests in unconfined aquifers should be
interpreted differently than confined ones). Confined aquifers have very low storativity values (much less than
0.01, and as little as 10−5), which means that the aquifer is storing water using the mechanisms of aquifer matrix
expansion and the compressibility of water, which typically are both quite small quantities.).

Typical Confined aquifer

Semi confined Aquifers:

An aquifer that is partly confined by layers of lower permeability material through which recharge and
discharge may occur. It is also called as Leaky aquifer. Semi-confined and semi-unconfined aquifers are
intermediate between confined and unconfined aquifers. Their confined character is often a result of
the heterogeneous nature of the subsurface and have a piezometric surface rather than a water table

Semi confined aquifer Typical aquifer cross-section

Saturated & unsaturated conditions:

Groundwater can be found at nearly every point in the Earth's shallow subsurface, to some degree; although
aquifers do not necessarily contain fresh water. The Earth's crust can be divided into two regions:
the saturated zone or phreatic zone (e.g., aquifers, aquitards, etc.), where all available spaces are filled with
water, and the unsaturated zone (also called the vadose zone), where there are still pockets of air with some
water, but can be filled with more water.
Saturated means the pressure head of the water is greater than atmospheric pressure (it has a gauge pressure >
0). The definition of the water table is surface where the pressure head is equal to atmospheric pressure (where
gauge pressure =0).
Unsaturated conditions occur above the water table where the pressure head is negative (absolute pressure can
never be negative, but gauge pressure can) and the water that incompletely fills the pores of the aquifer material
is under suction. The water content Unsaturated means the zone is held in place by surface adhesive forces and
it rises above the water table (the zero gauge pressure isobar) by capillary action to saturate a small zone above
the phreatic surface (the capillary fringe) at less than atmospheric pressure. This is termed tension saturation and
is not the same as saturation on a water content basis. Water content in a capillary fringe decreases with
increasing distance from the phreatic surface. The capillary head depends on soil pore size. In sandy soils with
larger pores, the head will be less than in clay soils with very small pores. The normal capillary rise in a clayey
soil is less than 1.80 m (six feet) but can range between 0.3 and 10 m (1 and 30 ft). The capillary rise of water in
a small diameter tube is this same physical process. The water table is the level to which water will rise in a
large-diameter pipe (e.g., a well) that goes down into the aquifer and is open to the atmosphere.
The water table is the level at which the submarine pressure is far from atmospheric pressure. It may be
conveniently visualized as the 'surface' of the subsurface materials that are saturated with groundwater in a
given vicinity. However, saturated conditions may extend above the water table as surface tension holds water
in some pores below atmospheric pressure. Individual points on the water table are typically measured as the
elevation that the water rises to in a well screened in the shallow groundwater.

Illustration of seasonal fluctuations in the water table

An artesian aquifer is a confined aquifer containing groundwater under positive pressure. This causes the
water level in the well to rise to a point where hydrostatic equilibrium has been reached. This type of well is
called an artesian well. Water may even reach the ground surface if the natural pressure is high enough, in
which case the well is called a flowing artesian well.
An aquifer is a geologic layer of porous and permeable material such as sand and gravel, limestone,
or sandstone, through which water flows and is stored. An artesian aquifer is confined between impermeable
rocks or clay which causes this positive pressure. The recharging of aquifers happens when the water table at its
recharge zone is at a higher elevation than the head of the well. Fossil water aquifers can also be artesian if they
are under sufficient pressure from the surrounding rocks. This is similar to how many newly tapped oil wells are
pressurized.

Schematic of an artesian well

AQUIFER TESTING:
It involves the withdrawal of measured quantities of water from or the addition of water to, a borehole(s); and
the measurement of resulting changes in head in the aquifer both during and after the period of abstraction or
addition. The process whereby an aquifer is subjected to pumping from a borehole under controlled test
conditions in order to determine the hydraulic parameters of the groundwater system through its response to the
stress of abstraction.
The purpose of aquifer testing is to determine the hydraulic parameters of the aquifer system which are used to
quantify water resources and facilitate resource management.

An aquifer test (or a pumping test) is conducted to evaluate an aquifer by "stimulating" the aquifer through
constant pumping, and observing the aquifer's "response" (drawdown) in observation wells. Aquifer testing is a
common tool that hydrogeologists use to characterize a system of aquifers, aquitards and flow system
boundaries.
A slug test is a variation on the typical aquifer test where an instantaneous change (increase or decrease) is
made, and the effects are observed in the same well. This is often used in geotechnical or engineering settings to
get a quick estimate (minutes instead of days) of the aquifer properties immediately around the well.
Aquifer tests are typically interpreted by using an analytical model of aquifer flow (the most fundamental being
the Theis solution) to match the data observed in the real world, then assuming that the parameters from the
idealized model apply to the real-world aquifer. In more complex cases, a numerical model may be used to
analyze the results of an aquifer test, but adding complexity does not ensure better results (see parsimony).
Aquifer testing differs from well testing in that the behaviour of the well is primarily of concern in the latter,
while the characteristics of the aquifer are quantified in the former. Aquifer testing also often utilizes one or
more monitoring wells, or piezometers ("point" observation wells). A monitoring well is simply a well which is
not being pumped (but is used to monitor the hydraulic head in the aquifer). Typically monitoring and pumping
wells are screened across the same aquifers
 Well pumping and steady state drawdown from the well.
Most commonly an aquifer test is conducted by pumping water from one well at a steady rate and for at least
one day, while carefully measuring the water levels in the monitoring wells. When water is pumped from the
pumping well the pressure in the aquifer that feeds that well declines. This decline in pressure will show up
as drawdown (change in hydraulic head) in an observation well. Drawdown decreases with radial distance from
the pumping well and drawdown increases with the length of time that the pumping continues.
The aquifer characteristics evaluated by most aquifer tests:
Hydraulic conductivity: (K) The rate of flow of water through a defined cross sectional area, at a unit of
hydraulic gradient. In English units the rate of flow is in gallons per day, the cross sectional area is one square
foot.
Specific storage or storativity: (S) a measure of the amount of water of a confined aquifer will give up for a
certain change in head;
Transmissivity:(T) The rate at which water is transmitted through a unit thickness of an aquifer under a unit
hydraulic gradient.
Additional aquifer characteristics which are sometimes evaluated, depending on the type of aquifer, include:
Specific yield or drainable porosity (Sy): a measure of the amount of water an unconfined aquifer will give up
when completely drained;
Leakage coefficient: some aquifers are bounded by aquitards which slowly give up water to the aquifer,
providing additional water to reduce drawdown;
Hydraulic conductivity:
Measure of the ease with which water will pass through the earth's material; defined as the rate of flow through
a cross-section of one square metre under a unit hydraulic gradient at right angles to the direction of flow (m/d).
Hydraulic conductivity is the constant of proportionalitity in Darcy's Law. It is defined as the volume of water
that will move through a porous medium in unit time under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area
measured at perpendicular to the flow direction. It should not be confused with permeability.
Hydraulic conductivity provides an indication of the ease with which water moves through the subsurface and is
used to calculate rates ofgroundwater movement. There are two broad categories of determining hydraulic
conductivity: Empirical approach by which the hydraulic conductivity is correlated to soil properties like pore
size and particle size (grain size)distributions, and soil texture. Experimental approach by which the hydraulic
conductivity is determined from hydraulic experiments using Darcy's law. The experimental approach is
broadly classified into Laboratory tests using soil samples subjected to hydraulic experiments
Field tests (on site, in situ) that are differentiated into small scale field tests, using observations of the water
level in cavities in the soil. Large scale field tests, like pump tests in wells or by observing the functioning of
existing horizontal drainage systems. The small scale field tests are further subdivided into infiltration tests in
cavities above the water table and slug tests in cavities below the water table. Values are for typical
fresh groundwater conditions — using standard values of viscosity and specific gravity for water at 20°C and 1
atm. See the similar table derived from the same source for intrinsic permeability values. An aquifer may
consist of n soil layers. The transmissivity for horizontal flow (Ti) of the i − th soil layer with
a saturated thickness di and horizontal hydraulic conductivity Khi is:
Ti = Khi di
Transmissivity is directly proportional to horizontal hydraulic conductivity (Kh i) and thickness (di). Expressing
Khi in m/day and di in m, the Transmissivity (Ti) is found in units m2/day. The apparent horizontal hydraulic
conductivity (KhA) of the aquifer is:
KhA = Tt / Dt

Where, Dt is the total thickness of the aquifer: Dt= Σ di , with i= 1, 2, 3, . . .n. The transmissivity of an aquifer
can be determined from pumping tests.
Table of saturated hydraulic conductivity (K) values found in nature

K (cm/s) 10² 101 100=1 10−1 10−2 10−3 10−4 10−5 10−6 10−7 10−8 10−9 10−10
K (ft/day) 105 10,000 1,000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 10−5 10−6 10−7
tive Permeability
Rel Semi-Pervious Impervious
Pervious
Aquifer Good Poor None
Unconsolidated Well Sorted Well Sorted Sand or Very Fine Sand,
Sand & Gravel Gravel Sand & Gravel Silt,Loess, Loam
Unconsolidated
Peat Layered Clay Fat / Unweathered Clay
Clay & Organic
Fresh
Oil Reservoir Fresh Sand Fresh
Consolidated Rocks Highly Fractured Rocks Limestone,
Rocks stone Granite
Dolomite

Drawdown (s=h-ho)
The distance between the static water level and the surface of the cone of depression. Drawdown is the lowering
of the water table or piezometric surface caused by the extraction of groundwater by pumping a borehole(s). In
general the drawdown should not reach the pump inlet or main water strike (e.g. a horizontal fracture) in a
borehole, due to the fact that borehole failure can occur.
 Drawdown of water level from well.
Transmissivity (T):
Transmissivity is the rate at which water is transmitted through a unit width of an aquifer under a unit hydraulic
gradient. It is expressed as the product of the average hydraulic conductivity and thickness of the saturated
portion of an aquifer. Transmissivity is a measure of the ease with which groundwater flows in the subsurface.
Transmissivity is used to calculate the yield of a borehole, determine the safe yield of an aquifer system and
predict groundwater movement.
Specific storage or storativity (S):

The volume of water that a unit volume of aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit change in head. It
is a volume of water per volume of aquifer released as a result of a change in head. This is a measure of the
water stored and released in an aquifer and is used to quantify the safe yield of an aquifer system.

Storativity is the volume of water released from storage per unit decline in hydraulic head in the aquifer, per
unit area of the aquifer, or:

Storativity is the vertically integrated specific storage value for a confined aquifer or aquitard. For a confined
homogeneous aquifer or aquitard they are simply related by:

where
b is the thickness of aquifer. Storativity is a dimensionless quantity, and ranges between 0 and the
effective porosity of the aquifer; although for confined aquifers, this number is usually much less than 0.01. The
storage coefficient of an unconfined aquifer is approximately equal to the specific yield, Sy, since the release
from specific storage, Ss is typically orders of magnitude less.
Storage coefficient:
The volume of water an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit
change in head. It is a volume of water per volume of aquifer released as a result of a change in head. For
a confined aquifer, the storage coefficient is equal to the product of the specific storage and aquifer thickness.
This is a measure of the volume of water stored and released in an aquifer and is used to quantify the safe
yield of an aquifer system
Hydraulic gradient:
The rate of change in the total hydraulic head per unit distance of flow in a given direction. The slope of
the water table or piezometric surface. This is the change in the hydraulic head over a certain distance.
Mathematically it is the difference in hydraulic head over a distance along the flow path between two points.
Hydraulic gradient provides an indication of the direction of groundwater flow.
Hydraulic head:
Hydraulic head is the height above a datum plane such as sea level of the column of water that can be supported
by the hydraulic pressure at a given point in a groundwater system. Elevation to which water will rise in
a borehole connected to a point in an aquifer under pressure. Hydraulic heads provide an indication of the
direction of groundwater flow and is used to determine hydraulic gradients.

Hydraulic head
Porosity:

Porosity is the ratio of the volume of void space to the total volume of the rock or earth material. Porosity is the
voids or openings of the rock or soil and is sometimes expressed as a percentage. Effective porosity is the void
volume that contributes to water movement and is roughly equivalent to specific yield. Porosity is an indication
of the amount of water in the subsurface, but does not equate to the volume that can be released from storage.
Specific yield:
The ratio of the volume of water that drains by gravity to that of the total volume of the saturated porous
medium. Specific yield is a ratio between 0 and 1 indicating the amount of water released due to drainage, from
lowering the water table in an unconfined aquifer. This is a measure of the water released from an unconfined
aquifer.

Leakage coefficient :
Some aquifers are bounded by aquitards which slowly give up water to the aquifer, providing additional water
to reduce drawdown;
Safe yield:
Safe yield is defined as the maximum rate of withdrawal that can be sustained by an aquifer without causing an
unacceptable decline in the hydraulic head or deterioration in water quality in the aquifer. This is a concept or
objective embracing the sustainable volume of water that can be abstracted from an aquifer over the long term.
When setting the safe yield of an aquifer an attempt is being made to guide water resource managers regarding
the volume of groundwater that can be abstracted sustainably over the long-term.

Analysis methods:
An appropriate model or solution to the groundwater flow equation must be chosen to fit to the observed data.
There are many different choices of models, depending on what factors are deemed important including:
 leaky aquitards,
 unconfined flow (delayed yield),

 partial penetration of the pumping and monitoring wells,

 finite wellbore radius — which can lead to wellbore storage,

 dual porosity (typically in fractured rock),

 anisotropic aquifers,

 heterogeneous aquifers,

 finite aquifers (the effects of physical boundaries are seen in the test), and

 combinations of the above situations.

Nearly all aquifer test solution methods are based on the Theis solution; it is built upon the most simplifying
assumptions. Other methods relax one or more of the assumptions the Theis solution is built on, and therefore
they get a more flexible (and more complex) result.

Transient Theis solution

The Theis equation was created by Charles Vernon Theis (working for the US Geological Survey) in
1935, from heat transfer literature (with the mathematical help of C.I. Lubin), for two-dimensional radial flow
to a point source in an infinite, homogeneous aquifer. It is simply;
where s, is the drawdown (change in hydraulic head at a point since the beginning of the test), u is a
dimensionless time parameter, Q is the discharge (pumping) rate of the well (volume divided by time, or
m³/s), T and S are the transmissivity and storativity of the aquifer around the well (m²/s and unitless), r is the
distance from the pumping well to the point where the drawdown was observed (m or ft), t is the time since
pumping began (minutes or seconds), and W(u)is the "Well function" (called the exponential integral, E1, in
non-hydrogeology literature).
Typically this equation is used to find the average T and S values near a pumping well, from drawdown
(hydrology) data collected during an aquifer test. This is a simple form of inverse modeling, since the result (s)
is measured in the well, r, t, and Q are observed, and values of T and S which best reproduce the measured data
are put into the equation until a best fit between the observed data and the analytic solution is found. As long as
none of the additional simplifications which the Theis solution requires (in addition to those required by the
groundwater flow equation) are violated, the solution should be very good.

Assumptions for Theis Solution:

The assumptions required by the Theis solution are:
 homogeneous, isotropic, confined aquifer,

 well is fully penetrating (open to the entire thickness (b) of aquifer),

 the well has zero radius (it is approximated as a vertical line) — therefore no water can be stored in the
well, and the pumping well is 100% efficient, well has a constant pumping rate Q

 aquifer is infinite in radial extent,

 horizontal (not sloping), flat, impermeable (non-leaky) top and bottom boundaries of aquifer,

 Groundwater flow is horizontal

 no other wells or long term changes in regional water levels (all changes in potentiometric surface are
the result of the pumping well alone)

Even though these assumptions are rarely all met, depending on the degree to which they are violated (e.g.,
if the boundaries of the aquifer are well beyond the part of the aquifer which will be tested by the pumping
test) the solution may still be useful.

Steady-state Thiem solution

Steady-state radial flow to a pumping well is commonly called the Thiem solution, it comes about from
application of Darcy's law to cylindrical shell control volumes (i.e., a cylinder with a larger radius which has a
smaller radius cylinder cut out of it) about the pumping well; it is commonly written as:

In this expression h0 is the background hydraulic head, h-h0 is the drawdown at the radial distance r from the
pumping well, Q is the discharge rate of the pumping well (at the origin), T is the transmissivity, and R is the
radius of influence, or the distance at which the head is still h0. These conditions (steady-state flow to a
pumping well with no nearby boundaries) never truly occur in nature, but it can often be used as an
approximation to actual conditions; the solution is derived by assuming there is a circular constant head
boundary (e.g., a lake or river in full contact with the aquifer) surrounding the pumping well at a distance R.
Natural Recharge in Aquifers:

Unconfined aquifers
Natural recharge of the unconfined aquifers is mainly due to the downward seepage (or percolation) through the
unsaturated zone of the excess water over passing the field capacity of the soil. Recharge can also occur through
upward seepage (leakage) from underlying aquifers (Figure 9.5).

Recharge of the unconfined aquifers

In the irrigated areas, important quantities of water currently exceeding the field capacity percolate. The losses
from the water supply network or the sewage system in urban areas are another source of aquifers recharge.
The rivers generally drain the aquifers, but in some cases they can lose water feeding the aquifers; this occurs
when the groundwater level is at a lower value than the river water level (Figure 9.6) or during floods, when the
water flows in the floodplain (Figure 9.7). In the arid countries, some rivers infiltrate totally in the bed river if
formed by sand or gravel.

Unconfined aquifers gaining water from the river. Unconfined aquifers gaining water during floods.

When two rivers drain an unconfined aquifer, an underground water divide corresponding to the crest of the
water table separates the drainage areas of each river (Figure 9.8).

Water divide of an unconfined aquifer

Many unconfined aquifers used for water supply are located in the alluvial fans, which have a great thickness
and contain important volumes of water; in the same time, due to the high values of the hydraulic conductivity,
they can transmit the water fluxes quite rapidly for a porous medium.
Confined aquifers
A regional confined aquifer is directly recharged by precipitation in the area where the aquifer crops out, having
the same characteristics as an unconfined aquifer, Another source of recharge is the infiltration in the same
cropping out area of the runoff born on the hillslopes during rains or snowmelt (Figure 9.9).

Recharge of a confined aquifer in the cropping out area

These unconfined aquifers in the direct recharge area follow the bedrock deepening, being covered by
impervious or semi-pervious layers (Figure 9.10) and becoming confined aquifers.

Fluxes in a confined aquifer

Interesting relations are established in this latter case between the confined aquifer and the overlying
unconfined aquifer. According to the position of the water head, the vertical fluxes between the two layers are
directed downward or upward.
Thus the confined aquifers are recharged by direct infiltration and percolation or by leakage. In the case of a
multi-strata aquifer, depending on the value of the water abstraction, a confined layer can be recharged by
vertical fluxes coming from the overlying and underlying aquifers (Figure 9.11).

Leakage recharge of a confined aquifer

The confined aquifer denoted by 1 is characterized by the hydraulic head H1, where H2 is the hydraulic head of
the second confined aquifer; thus there will be a flux directed from the confined aquifer no.2 toward the aquifer
no.1. At the same time, the hydraulic head H1 is under the water table of the unconfined aquifer, which explains
the downward flux from the unconfined aquifer to the first confined aquifer.
Discharge of the aquifers
Unconfined aquifers
The unconfined aquifers supply with water the permanent river network through the basic flow (Figure 9.12);
thus, the rivers represent the main discharge zones of the unconfined aquifers.

Figure 9.12. Discharge of an unconfined aquifer in the river

There are still some cases when the rivers lose water in the aquifers. In the temperate area, this kind of
connection occurs only on some sectors of the rivers, the same river losing or gaining water along its course.
For instance, a mountainous river loses water in the aquifer when it enters the piedmont plain, but in the
downstream sector because the riverbed is deepened, the same river drains the aquifer (Figure 9.13).

Figure 9.13. Relationship surface water-groundwater along the river

Generally, the discharge areas are quite close to the ground surface. Water can be lost not only by concentrated
discharge like streams, but also diffused due to the vegetation, through the evapotranspiration, or directly by
evaporation from the ground surface, the superficial soil being supplied with water by capillarity. Very well
developed vegetation in a plain area or the presence of the salt at the ground surface can indicate a discharge
area. The natural depressions drain also the groundwater; if the discharge is small compared with the
evapotranspiration of the affected area, only a wet zone is present, and sometimes with a temporary character. If
the discharge and the natural precipitations are more important than the evapotranspiration, a lake can be
formed. The sea, being at a lower elevation, represents the discharge area for the neighbouring unconfined
aquifers (Figure 9.15). The discharge is partially above the sea level by evaporation or diffused springs and
partially under the water level.
Confined aquifers
The confined aquifers are less influenced by the topography than the unconfined aquifers. The discharge of the
confined aquifers occurs usually by leakage, either in an unconfined aquifer, or in a confined aquifer, having a
smaller hydraulic head. In some cases, the discharge of a confined aquifer is made through an outcrop area,
situated in a plain region at the opposite side to the recharge zone (Figure 9.16).

The discharge of a confined aquifer

If in the flow sense, the contour lines are distanced, being followed by close contour lines, in the first zone the
hydraulic conductivities are greater than in the second zone. The hydraulic gradients being greater in the second
region than in the first area, the energy losses are greater, meaning a greater hydraulic resistance or, what is the
same thing, smaller hydraulic conductivities than in the first area.

Still, in most of the cases, the recharge and the discharge area are defined only by higher, respectively lower
elevations values than in the rest of the aquifer (9.21). The contour lines are perpendicular on the impervious
boundaries (Figure 9.21). Interesting shapes of the contour lines are obtained in the case of the water works; in
the vicinity of each well a depression cone is created (Figure 9.22). According to the distance between wells,
there are interferences in drawdown (cross-section A-A). For a homogeneous medium, at the same discharge the
drawdown is symmetrical due to the symmetry of the problem; the central well has a greater value due to the
influence of all the other wells. At the same time, the upstream influence zone is greater than the downstream
zone (cross-section B-B
Measurement of aquifer parameters:

Darcy Experiment: Henry Darcy, a hydraulic engineer, was charged in the middle of the 19th century to
enlarge and modernize the water works in Dijon. The sand filters were used at that time, but the physics of the
water flow through the porous media was completely unknown. Because a detailed description of this process at
the pore scale level would have been inapplicable, Darcy designed a vertical experimental tank to investigate
the water flow (Figure 5.1). A tank of 3.50 m height, with a circular cross-section, is filled in the lower part on a
height of 1 m with porous material. The water introduced under pressure in the upper part is evacuated at the
bottom of the tank. At a certain time after starting the experiment, all the pores are filled with water and the
inflow rate is equal to the outflow rate. The water pressure is measured at each end by mercury filled
manometers, but Darcy expressed the head data in terms of equivalent water height. When flowing through the
porous material, a loss of energy occurs and as a result a head drop across the sand filter can be put on view.

Figure:Darcy's apparatus

Considering an arbitrary datum (z=0) at the level of the outlet, one can write:

where:

z1, z2 elevations of the top and the bottom of the porous material zone.
 The length of the sand filter is Δl = z1 - z2

p1,
water pressure measured by the manometers above and below the sand filter
p2

H1, hydraulic head at the inlet, respectively at the outlet of the tank, expressed as the sum of the elevation
H2 head and the pressure head

By a series of experiments, Darcy established that, for the same sand, the discharge Q is:

 proportional to the cross-sectional area A: Q ~ A;

 proportional to the difference in the height of the water: Q ~ (H2 - H1) ; notice that because H2 < H1, the
head drop H2 - H1 < 0.

 inversely proportional to the flow length through the porous material: Q ~ 1/Δl.

Darcy published the results of his experiment, and its law in 1856, opening the era of the groundwater
hydrology.

Darcy's law:

The remarks above can be written as:

Introducing the proportionality constant K in this relation, the result is Darcy's law:

The constant K is called hydraulic conductivity and depends both on the porous medium and on the fluid
passing through it. The negative sign was introduced to obtain a positive value for the discharge; indeed, the
groundwater flows in the direction of the head loss, which is negative.
The relationship (5.3) can be written in the following form:
where ΔH = H2 - H1 is the head drop, and the ratio ΔH / Δl is the hydraulic slope. Because the hydraulic
head H does not vary linearly along the streamlines, local values of the hydraulic slope must be considered. At

the limit, when the finite difference ratio ΔH / Δl is replaced by dH / dl , and Darcy's law in the
differential form is:

Dividing by the cross-sectional area, A, a specific discharge is obtained:

where is the hydraulic gradient.

For practical purposes, in hydrogeology the hydraulic gradient is approximated by the finite difference
ratio ΔH / Δl . The segment of length Δl along the streamlines can have any orientation in space, even against
gravity, depending on the direction of the flow.

Limits of validity of Darcy's law.

Darcy's law was established in certain circumstances: laminar flow in saturated granular media, under steady-
state flow conditions, considering the fluid homogenous, isotherm and incompressible, and neglecting the
kinetic energy. Still, due to its averaging character based on the representative continuum and the small
influence of other factors, the macroscopic law of Darcy can be used for many situations that do not correspond
to these basic assumptions (Freeze and Cherry, 1979):

 saturated flow and unsaturated flow;

 steady-state flow and transient flow;

 flow in granular media and in fractured rocks;

 flow in aquifers and flow in aquitards;

 flow in homogeneous systems and flow in heterogeneous systems;

 flow in isotropic media and flow in anisotropic media.

The most restrictive hypothesis of Darcy's law is the one that considers the flow laminar, and the fluid
movement as dominated by viscous forces. This occurs when the fluids are moving slowly, and the water
molecules move along parallel streamlines. When the velocity of flow increases (for instance in the vicinity of a
pumping well), the water particles move chaotically and the streamlines are no longer parallel. The flow
is turbulent, and the inertial forces are more influential than the viscous forces (Fetter, 2001).
The ratio between the inertial forces and the viscous forces driving the flow is computed by the Reynolds
number, which is used as a criterion to distinguish between the laminar flow, the turbulent flow and the
transition zone. For porous media, the Reynolds number is defined as:

where:

R
is dimensionless
e

ρ the fluid density (M/L3 ; kg/m3)

q specific discharge (L/T ; m/s)

d usually, the mean grain diameter or the mean pore dimension (L; m)

μ dynamic viscosity (M/T.L ; kg/s.m)

ν kinetic viscosity (L2/T ; m2/s)

To keep the similarity with the surface waters, frequently the specific discharge in the relation (5.8) is replaced
by the apparent velocity (v, vD or vf).
According to Bear (1972), Darcy' law which supposes a laminar flow is valid for Reynolds number less than 1,
but the upper limit can be extended up to 10 (Figure 5.4).
 Figure : Range of validity of Darcy's law

The inception of the turbulent flow can be located at Reynolds numbers greater than 60…100. Between the
laminar and the turbulent flow there is a transition zone, where the flow is laminar but non-linear. In a general
way, Darcy's law can be written:

When the index m = 1, the flow law is linear, being valid for the laminar flow; it is the case of Darcy's law: q =
-K.i. According to the Figure 5.4, the hydraulic conductivity is the slope of the straight line in the interval of
validity of Darcy's law.
For m ≠ 1 and Re > 100, the law is non-linear and the flow is turbulent. Flow rates exceed the upper limit of
validity of Darcy's law in the case of karstic limestones and dolomites and cavernous structures; in these cases,
a non-linear relation between flux and gradient must be used. In the case of the fractured rocks, if the fracture
spacing is sufficiently dense the fractured media can be assimilated to a porous media and Darcy's law can be
used. Still, in this case, the Representative Elementary Volume is larger than in the case of porous media. If the
fracture density is very low, meaning that a REV bigger than the extension of the aquifer would be necessary, a
hydraulic approach for the individual fissures is the only solution for flow computation.
As it can be seen from Figure 5.4, another deviation from a linear behavior of the flux with respect to the
hydraulic gradient is noticed for low gradients. It is the case of fine-grained materials of low permeability.
Under a certain threshold of the gradient, there is no flow due to the action of the adsorption forces, which make
the fluid quite rigid. For values above this threshold, the relation between flux and gradient is non-linear but
with a very gentle slope; as a result, the flux is very reduced and the phenomenon is of little practical
importance.
Hydraulic conductivity in saturated media

Recall that in saturated media Darcy's law has the following expression:

.
The constant of proportionality in Darcy's law, named hydraulic conductivity depends on both the fluid and
porous media, as pointed out by Hubert in 1956 (Freeze and Cherry, 1979, Fetter, 2001). The hydraulic
conductivity can be obtained from Darcy's law as the ratio:

Because the hydraulic gradient is dimensionless (L/L), the hydraulic conductivity has the same dimension as the
specific discharge or the apparent velocity of Darcy (L/T). In hydrogeology K is expressed in m/day or in m/s,
while in soils engineering because of the smaller scale investigated, in cm/s.
In Table 5.1, some typical values of the hydraulic conductivity are presented (Spitz and Moreno, 1996):

Table : Ranges of hydraulic conductivities

Hydraulic
Unconsolidated Hydraulic conductivity
Rocks conductivity
deposits (m/s)
(m/s)

Dense clay 10-13 ……10-8 Dense sandstone 10-9 ……10-7

Weathered clay 10-8 ……10-6 Karstic sandstone 10-7 ……10-5

Silt 10-7 ……10-5 Dense limestone 10-9……10-7

Alluvial deposits 10-5 ……10-3 Karstic limestone 10-5 ……10-3

Fine sand 10-5 ……10-4 Dolomite 10-10 ……10-8

Medium sand 5x10-4 ……5x10-3 Dense crystalline rocks 10-13 ……10-12

Coarse sand 10-4 ……10-3 Fractured crystalline rocks 10-10 ……10-6

Fine gravel 10-3 ……5x10-1 Dense basalt 10-13 ……10-10

Medium gravel 5x10-2 ……10-1 Fractured basalt 10-7 ……10-4

 Coarse gravel 10-2 ……5x10-1 Claystone 10-13 ……10-9

If another fluid is used instead of water (oil for instance) the specific discharge is different; this means that the
constant of proportionality K varies function of the fluid and its characteristics. Experiments made keeping the
hydraulic gradient constant (or the same ΔH and Δl), showed that the specific discharge is directly proportional
to the specific weight γ = ρg, and inversely proportional to the dynamic viscosity μ:

The specific weight is the force exerted by gravity on a unit volume of fluid, representing the driving force; the
dynamic viscosity is a measure of the resistance forces to the fluid flow.
An ideal porous media, formed by glass spheres of the same diameter was used to point out its influence over
the specific discharge; it was noticed that the discharge is proportional to the square of the diameter d:

These observations can be summarized as:

Together with the proportionality between q and the hydraulic gradient dH/dl, Darcy's law can be expressed in
the following form:

where C is a new proportionality constant, called shape factor (Fetter, 2001), including the influence of other
medium properties, except the mean grain diameter: the distribution of grain sizes, the sphericity and roundness
of the grains, the nature of packing (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). The constant C and the diameter d2 represent the
properties of the porous media, while ν and μ characterize the fluid.
The product:
is called the specific or intrinsic permeability and it is a function of the size of the openings through which the
fluid can flow. In the above relation, C is a dimensionless constant, while k has the dimensions of an area (L2 ).
Putting together the relations (5.13) and (5.14), the following expression is obtained for the hydraulic
conductivity:

Because k is very small when expressed in cm2 or in m2 , in practice, especially in the petroleum industry,
another unit is used: the darcy. The darcy is defined as the permeability that leads to a specific discharge of 1
cm3 /s through an area of 1 cm2 for a fluid with the dynamic viscosity of 1 centipoise under a hydraulic gradient
of 1 atm/cm (Freeeze and Cherry, 1979). The following equivalence exists between the two units used for the
intrinsic permeability: 1 darcy = 9,87 x 10-9 cm2 .
The hydraulic conductivity K and the intrinsic permeability k are defined at a macroscopic scale.
Darcy's law expressed using the intrinsic permeability is:

Laboratory tests for hydraulic conductivity

The basic hydrogeologic parameters, like hydraulic conductivity or porosity, can be measured using some small
samples collected during drilling activities in the area of interest. It should be noted that if the samples are
undisturbed, the results of measurements will be representative for in situ point values.
Hydraulic conductivity. Hydraulic conductivity in saturated zone can be measured with two types of
laboratory apparatus: constant head permeameter and falling head permeameter, respectively.
The constant head permeameter (Figure 8.1) is used to measure the hydraulic conductivity for noncohesive
sediments, as for example sand soil. In this case, Darcy's law is applied to a soil sample of length L and a cross
sectional area A through which a constant flow rate Q is generated by a constant head differential DH:

It is important to note that if disturbed samples are tested in such permeameters, they should be carefully
saturated with water by the aid of an upward flow through the soil column. During the development of the
experiment, the head has to be maintained close to its natural value, so that the Reynolds number does not
increase so much for Darcy's law to become invalidated.

Constant head permeameter.

The falling head permeameter (Figure 8.2) is used for cohesive sediments, with low hydraulic conductivity. The
time tduring which the head in a tube of radius r, attached to the permeameter and supplying the sample, falls
from H0 toH1 is measured with such a permeameter. The following relationship gives the resulted flow rate:

(8.4)

In this case, for the sample with a cross sectional area A and with the length L, Darcy's law can be written as
follows:

(8.5)

Solving these equations it will be obtained:

(8.6)

Figure 8.2. Falling head permeameter.

The column of soil sample is considered to have a cylindrical shape, described by a radius rs. The result after
integration should be:

(8.7)

Before starting the measurement, the sample should be completely saturated because the air bubbles will reduce
the cross sectional area and lower the hydraulic conductivity. The preferential pathways along the wall of the
column have to be avoided.
Porosity. The soil porosity, n, is defined as the ratio between the volume of the voids Wv and the total
volume WT of that soil:

(8.8)

The porosity can be obtained by saturating a sample with water, measuring its volume WT, weighing it and then
drying it. The weight of water removed could be converted to a volume using water density. This volume is
equivalent to the volume of the void space, Wv.

Field tests

a. Steady state conditions

It can be assumed that if water from a well is pumped at a constant flow rate for a long period of time, the cone
of depression will have a constant position over time around the well .
In the case of a confined aquifer, under steady state conditions the flow rate of pumped water from the well is
equal to the rate that the aquifer transmits to the well. The problem was solved by Thiem (1906) for a
completely penetrated well. Let us consider a confined aquifer (Figure 8.3) with a completely penetrated well
surrounded by two observation wells situated at the distances r1 and r2; the measured heads are h1,
respectively, h2. The transmisivity of the aquifer may be computed as indicated below (Fetter, 1994).
The flow rate Q that the aquifer transmits to the well may be expressed by using Darcy's law:

Where; a is aquifer thickness , and dh/dr is hydraulic gradient at a raqdial distance r from the well
 Cross section of a pumped confined aquifer.

But it is known that the product of the hydraulic conductivity and the aquifer thickness is called the
transmisivity T of the saturated aquifer:

Thus the equation of flow rate may be written as follows:

By integrating this equation, it results:

Where C is an integrating constant that can be computed with the help of the following boundary conditions:

 for the radial distance r = r1, the head h = h1, and

 for the radial distance r = r2, the head h = h2:

By rearranging this relation, the transmisivity of a confined aquifer will have the following expression (Thiem
relationship):
For an unconfined aquifer (Figure 8.4), the flow rate Q that the aquifer transmits to the well may be expressed
by the following relation:

where:

h saturated thickness of the aquifer, at the radial distance r from the pumping well

K hydraulic conductivity

dh/d
hydraulic gradient, at a radial distance r from the well
r

Cross section of a pumped unconfined aquifer.

Following the same steps as for confined aquifer, the Thiem relation for hydraulic conductivity, for an
unconfined aquifer has the following expression:

where:
 h1 head in an observation well situated at a distance r1 from the pumping well

h2 head in an observation well situated at a distance r2 from the same pumping well

The Thiem relations for the calculation of transmisivity T and hydraulic conductivity K may be applied in the
conditions stated above, more important being the assumption that no change in drawdown with time will occur.
It means that equilibrium between the pumped flow rate from the well and the supplying flow rate of that well is
achieved. The pumping flow rate Q has to be measured at the discharge point of the pumping system. It is also
necessary to drill two observation wells in which the head is measured.

b. Unsteady flow conditions. Confined aquifer

The Theis solution. The drawdown extends radially from the well for a well completely penetrating a confined
aquifer and pumping at a constant flow rate. The rate of the head's decline decreases continuously as the area of
influence expands radially. The groundwater flow equation in these conditions is given by the following
expression (Bedient et al, 1994):

where:

h hydraulic head

r radial distance from the pumping well

T aquifer transmisivity

S aquifer storativity (storage coefficient)

Theis (1935) gave a solution to this equation, based on the following assumptions (Fetter, 1994):

 the aquifer is top-bottom confined;

 there is no source of recharge of the aquifer;

 the well is pumping at a constant rate.

The solution is known as the Theis or nonequilibrium equation:

where:

h0 hydraulic head before pumping start

h -h0 = s is the drawdown

Q discharge of the well

t time since pumping has started

T transmisivity

W(u
well function or exponential integral and has the following expression:
)

and

The values of W(u) versus u are provided graphically, this curve being commonly called the Theis
curve (Freeze and Cherry, 1972; Bedient et al, 1994; Vucovic and Soro, 1992). The equation is used to
determine the aquifer transmisivity T by means of pumping tests from a completely penetrating well. It is
relatively easy for the equation to be applied using a single observation well pumping at a constant flow
rate Q for a short period and measuring the value of the drawdown s in a single observation well.
If the aquifer storativity S and transmisivity T are known and the pumping flow rate Q is measured, it is possible
to calculate the drawdown of the hydraulic head at any distance r from this pumping well at any time t since the
pumping starts.

The Cooper - Jacob solution. Cooper and Jacob (1946) observed that for small distances from the pumping
well, meaning small values of r and for long periods of time t, the parameter u in the above equations becomes
very small so that, after some rearrangement, the equation of drawdown can be written as follows (Bedient at al,
1994):
A plot of drawdown s = h0 - h versus the logarithm of time t forms a straight line. This straight line can be
drawn through the field-measured data and extended to the zero drawdown axis (Fetter, 1994). It should
intercept this axis at a positive t0 value of time so that the Cooper - Jacob equation has the expression:

which means:

and, taking into account that log(1) = 0:

By replacing the drawdown (h0 - h) by drawdown per log cycle of time, Δ(h0 - h), the following relation for
transmisivity may be derived:

The drawdown per log cycle of time may be obtained from the slope of the graph of drawdown as a function of
time on semilogarithmic paper. It is easy to observe that by the Cooper - Jacob method first, the
transmisivity T and then the storativity S of the confined aquifer will be calculated .
c. Unsteady flow conditions. Unconfined aquifer
Neuman (1972) has developed a graphical method for the analysis of an unconfined aquifer (Fetter, 1994;
Kruseman and Ridder, 1991). The analysis is based on the following main assumptions (Fetter, 1994):

 the aquifer is homogeneous and bounded on the bottom by an horizontal confining layer;

 the initial potentiometric surface of the aquifer is horizontal and all changes in its position are due to the
effect of the pumping well;

 Darcy's law is valid and groundwater flow is horizontal;

  the pumping well is completely penetrating and its diameter is very small;

 the vadose zone has no influence on the drawdown;

 the drawdown is negligible compared to the saturated aquifer thickness;

 the aquifer may be anisotropic with the radial hydraulic conductivity different than the vertical hydraulic
conductivity.

In these conditions, Neuman (1972) has found the following expression of the drawdown equation:

and

where W(uA, uB, b) is the well's function. The values of this function may be obtained from tables (Fetter, 1994).
Neuman (1975) has plot two type of curves from drawdown data from completely penetrating wells (Fetter,
1994). Type - A curves may be used for early time conditions, when instantaneous water release from storage
occurs. In this case, the drawdown equation is reduced to:

where:

u
A or

Q pumping flow rate

S storativity

r radial distance from the pumping well

T transmisivity

t time
Type - B curves are used for late time conditions, when effects of gravity drainage become smaller; these curves
end on the Theis curve (Fetter, 1994). For this case, the drawdown curve equation is reduced to:

where:

u
B or

Sy specific yield

β Neuman's parameter and has the following expression:

where:

K
hydraulic conductivity for vertical flow
v

K
hydraulic conductivity for horizontal flow
h

b initial saturated thickness of the aquifer

Using the type curves, the field data for time and drawdown may be evaluated. The measured data should be
matched to the curve with the best fit and for any point; the values of W(uA, b),1/uA, t, b and the drawdown (h0 -
h) are determined. Then the values of the transmisivity and the storativity will be found from the relations
writen above. The values of hydraulic conductivity for vertical and horizontal flows may be determined using
the following relations:
and

If the drawdown (h0 - h) is large compared to the thickness of the aquifer, Hantush (1956) suggested and found a
relation to correct the drawdown data (Fetter, 1994).
d. Unsteady flow conditions. Leaky aquifer
When a leaky aquifer is pumped, water comes from the lower aquifer and from the saturated zone of the upper
aquitard (Bedient et al, 1994). The drawdown, s = h0 - h, due to pumping in a leaky aquifer, also known as
semiconfined aquifer, is described by the following formula (Hantush and Jacob 1955):

and

where:

Q pumping flow rate

T transmisivity of the confined aquifer

r distance from the pumping well to the observation well

B leakage factor

t time since pumping has started

S storativity of the confined aquifer

Values of the function W(u, r/B) have been used by Walton (1962) to plot it on logarithmic paper as function of
1/u.
The solution for a leaky aquifer will be obtained in the same way as for the Theis method, with a superposition
of drawdown data on top of leaky type curves. A curve of best fit is selected, and values of W, 1/u, s, and t are
found. Then the transmisivity T and the storativity S may be determined using the relations stated above. The
values of K'and b' may be computed based on the value of r/B:

where:

K
vertival hydarulic conductivity of the aquitard
'

b' thickness of the aquitard

Slug tests
A slug test is a particular type of aquifer test where water is quickly added or removed from a groundwater well,
and the change in hydraulic head is monitored through time, to determine the near-well aquifer characteristics.
It is a method used by hydrogeologists and civil engineers to determine thetransmissivity/hydraulic
conductivity and storativity of the material the well is completed in.

Method of slug test:

The slug of water can either be added to or removed from the well — the only requirement is that it be done as
quickly as possible (the interpretation typically assumes instantaneously), then the water level or pressure is
monitored. Depending on the properties of the aquifer and the size of the slug, the water level may return to pre-
test levels very quickly (thus complicating accurate collection of water level data).

A slug test is in contrast to standard aquifer tests, which typically involve pumping a well at a constant flowrate,
and monitoring the response of the aquifer in nearby monitoring wells. Often slug tests are performed instead of
a constant rate test, because:

 time constraints (quick results, or results for a large number of wells, are needed),
 the well does not or cannot have a pump installed on it (slug tests do not require pumping),

 the transmissivity of the material the well is cased in is too low to realistically perform a proper pumping
test (common for aquitards or some bedrock monitoring wells), or

 the general size (order of magnitude) of the aquifer parameters is all the accuracy that is required.
The size of the slug required is determined by the aquifer properties, the size of the well and the amount of time
which is available for the test. For verypermeable aquifers, the pulse will dissipate very quickly. If the well has
a large diameter, a large volume of water must be added to increase the level in the well a measurable amount.

The pumping tests for assesment of the hydraulic conductivity are difficult to be performed for the area where
the permeability of the soil is too low. In such area, the slug test method is a viable alternative. These types of
tests allow to determine the hydraulic conductivity in the area arround the small diameter monitoring wells. The
principle of the method consists in measuring the rate at which the water level falls or rises in the well after a
known volume of water was drawn from or added into the well.
Various Methods of slug tests:

Many methods have been developed to analyse the data from such tests.
The Cooper - Bredehoeft - Papadopulos method is designed to assess the transmisivity and the storativity for
confined aquifers. A known volume of water is suddenly added into the well and as the levels fall the water
head and the coresponding time are measured and recorded. Type curves will help then to manage the measured
data and to determine the transmisivity and the storativity of the area in the vecinity of the monitoring well
(Fetter, 1994).
The Hvorslev method uses some piezometers installed in the aquifer to monitor groundwater levels in which a
known volume of water is added or drawn. The water level is measured both before and after the volume of
water is added; then it is measured at timed intervals upon which the water level comes back to its initial value.
The data obtained from this experiment are plotted on semilogarithmic axes as head ratio H/H0 versus time, that
should plot on a straight line.

 H0 is the maximum height to which the water level rises above the initial water level (static level);

 H is the height of water level above the initial water level at time t.

In case the length of the piezometer well is greater than 8 times the radius, the hydraulic conductivity may be
determined by the folowing relation (Fetter, 1994):

(8.32)

where:

K hydraulic conductivity

r radius of the well casing

 R radius of the well screen

Le length of the well screen

T time when the water level falls to 37 percent of the initial level (it will be obtained from the above
0 mentioned graph)

The Bouwer and Rice method may be used both for unconfined and confined aquifers. In order to solve the
Bouwer and Rice equation of the hydraulic conductivity, some graphs have been plotted and may be found in
the literature (Fetter, 1994). In the Bouwer and Rice method, the water level is lowered so that the water flows
from the aquifer into the well or water is added into the well. If the well screen is above the static level, the
water from the well will drain into the vadose zone as well as in the saturated area and this will result in an
overestimation of the hydraulic conductivity of the saturated area.

Loam 0.25 3.6 1.6

Silty loam 0.11 2.0 1.4

Clay loam 0.062 1.9 1.3

Silt 0.06 1.6 1.4

Sandy clay 0.03 2.7 1.2

Silty clay loam 0.017 1.0 1.2

Silty clay 0.005 0.5 1.1