The Sensory and Objective Evaluations of

Substituting Vegan Alternatives for Eggs in

Brownies

Experimental Foods

By: Camille Figuereo and Katherine Scurato

12/10/2018

Abstract:
 An abundance of individuals incorporate meat and meat by-products into their diet

because of their amplitude of protein and nutrients (Godfray, Aveyard, Garnett, Hall, & Key,

2018). However, vegans opt for a lifestyle absent of meat and meat by-products, leaving them

with a tremendously restrictive diet. For this reason, an experiment was performed in order to

discover a food substitution that could fit a vegan lifestyle. Objective measures of three different

brownie variables comprised of a prune, a black bean/tofu, and an applesauce brownie were

compared to a control brownie containing eggs. Subsequently, six panelists subjectively

evaluated all four brownie samples with the use of a sensory ballot for each sample to test for a

statistical difference between those variables and the control. After assessing the height,

number of chews, time to bake, and sensory evaluations of the samples, the preferred brownie

concluded to be the control with the applesauce brownie coming close in second. Besides the

interior appearance, the applesauce brownie showed the least statistical difference to the

control in the sensory evaluations. It is equally important to note that the brownies that did not

contain eggs, resulted in a loss of cholesterol and a loss of some essential nutrients. All things

considered, the applesauce sample proved to be the best alternative for eggs, but it is not

without fault.

Introduction:

Reports show that about “2% of the population follows a vegan diet that excludes all

animal derived food” (Fields, et al., 2016). However, the percentage of individuals that are

becoming vegan is an upward slope because of the constant influence that comes from the

vegan community. Individuals may choose to pursue a vegan diet for a copious amount of

reasons, including environmental concern and the ethical considerations of animal rights

(Radnitz, Beezhold, & Dimatteo, 2015). Because of the environmental toll and animal cruelty

that results from the animal-derived food industries, a decrease in consumers that fuel those

industries could make a huge impact. Additionally, studies even show that vegans have lower
LDL cholesterol levels and lower blood pressure which may imply that vegans lead a healthier

and longer life. (Craig, 2009). The vegan lifestyle is very advantageous and with the increase in

popularity of veganism, there comes an increase in demand for vegan products. Despite the fact

that veganism offers a variety of benefits, many food industries still fail to accommodate those

who pursue vegan diets. Designing an experiment to discover food alternatives for vegans may

be the first step to providing vegans with more food options to fulfill their lifestyle.

The substitution of eggs stems from the common health and ethical controversy that

vegans struggle to overcome. For instance, a study proved that eggs may raise cholesterol,

leading to increased risks of atherosclerosis by increasing the amount of plaque deposits in

arteries (Spence, Jenkins, & Davignon, 2012). Because of the negative health impacts of eggs,

it is wise for someone who suffers from diseases like cardiovascular disease, to incorporate

vegan practices into their everyday life by straying away from eggs. In addition to poorly

affecting health, the animals that produce these eggs are “no less capable of suffering than their

domestic and wild counterparts, animals raised for meat, eggs, and milk in the United states

have been denied any meaningful protection while enduring the most egregious forms of

mistreatment at all stages of their lives” (Perry & Brandt). Animal cruelty is a massive motivation

behind the removal of eggs, because this may eventually lead to cruelty-free food products that

a vegan may not feel guilty to indulge in.

Vegans are unable to take pleasure in baked products because most of them contain

ingredients like eggs. Furthermore, a previous test done on cakes where chia gel was used in

lieu of eggs tested the acceptability of using a substitution for eggs. A 50% replacement of eggs

led to 36 fewer kilocalories and 4 grams less fat per 100 gram portion (Borneo, Aguirre, & León,

2010). The study proved that the removal of eggs can provide a more nutritious and healthy

substitution. Unfortunately, the experiment did not fully replace the eggs. A possibility of total

egg substitution in yellow cakes evaluated objective measures upon replacing egg with lupine

plants. Unfortunately, an undesirable collapse of the cake was observed. However, emulsifiers
helped improve the texture upon the second try (Arozarena, Bertholo, Empis, Bunger, & Sousa,

2001). This is important to note because brownies and cake tend to have similar structure and

properties. This study provided the idea to add oil to the brownies to act as an emulsifier that

would prevent the product from changing in texture and palatability. Although previous studies

show the effects of substituting eggs in baked products in concern of texture and structure,

studies fail to represent the effects on taste. Vegans would feel more inclined to consume a

vegan alternative if it tastes similar to the original baked product.

If each brownie sample closely resembled the control brownie, then a vegan individual

may be able to consume more baked goods that fit their diet. Thus, a hypothesis stating that

each variable does not differ from the control was tested using statistics. Additionally, the

applesauce substitution was predicted to be preferred over the control because of the

sweetness and texture of the applesauce. Further predictions included that the black bean/tofu

and the prune samples would not be preferred over the control sample. Results concluded that

the control brownie was ranked the highest for overall liking and the prune brownie was ranked

second best. Additionally, the results showed that the prune brownie was proved to be liked the

least and the bean/tofu brownie was close behind. In terms of statistical difference, the

applesauce sample proved to show the most statistical similarity to the control.

Materials and Methods:

The ingredients used to create the brownies and their sources are listed below in Table 1.

Ingredient Amount Source

Black beans ¼ cup Shoprite

Wakefern Food Corporation
Keasbey, NJ

California Medium Prunes ½ cup Shoprite

Wakefern Food Corporation
Keasbey, NJ
 Double Acting Baking powder ¼ tsp Clabber Girl
Clabber Girl Corporation
Terre Haute, IN

Eggs 2, large Shoprite

Wakefern Food Corporation
Keasbey, NJ

Enriched all- purpose flour ½ cup Shoprite

blended Wakefern Food Corporation
Keasbey, NJ

Granulated sugar 1 cup Domino

Domino Foods, Inc
Yonkers, NY

Salt ¼ tsp Shoprite

Wakefern Food Corporation
Keasbey, NJ

Silken tofu ¼ cup Nasoya

Nasoya Foods
Ayer, MA

Vanilla 1 tsp SImply Organic

Frontier Co-Op
Norway, IA

Vegetable Oil ½ cup Shoprite

Wakefern Food Corporation
Elizabeth, NJ

Unsweetened Applesauce ½ cup (4 oz) Shoprite

Wakefern Food Corporation
Keasbey, NJ

Unsweetened Cocoa powder ⅓ cup Baker’s

Kraft Heinz Foods Company
Chicago, IL
Table 1: Materials used to make Brownies

The amount listed is for one brownie. Measurements that are used for all four recipes, such as

the dry ingredients, would be multiplied by 4 to get the full, accurate amount needed to make

four different brownie samples. Materials for the eggs or the egg substitutes would be full,

accurate measurements since those are being used just once for the one recipe.
 The equipment used for this experiment was: 8 mixing bowls, measuring spoons (both

tablespoons and teaspoons), measuring cup, electric mixer, spatula, 4 baking pans, toothpicks,

a fork, a knife, a can opener, a ruler, a set of pot holders, gloves, masking tape, 6 paper plates,

pens, cups, container of water, and a timer.

The recipe used was from "Genius Kitchen” because it had no milk or butter used in this

recipe, since only one ingredient could be replaced (the eggs) to make the product become a

vegan product. In addition, there was a switch in recipes due to the original recipe not working

well when attempted during the test week. The original recipe resulted in an unfavorable texture

that did not resemble a brownie and a very bitter taste. The newer recipe involved different

measurements for each ingredient that resulted in a higher quality of texture and a sweeter

taste.

To begin the experiment, the oven was preheated for 350 degrees Fahrenheit and the

pans were lightly greased with the vegetable oil. The prunes were then de-pitted and set aside.

Equal measurements of oil and sugar were added into four separate bowls. In each bowl

containing the sugar-oil mixture, one of the four variables was added and they were all

combined with vanilla extract. One bowl had the egg, another other bowl had the applesauce,

another other bowl had the black bean/ tofu, and the final bowl had the prunes. The black beans

needed to be mushed down with a fork before mixing. Uniform measurements of dry ingredients

(flour, cocoa, sugar, baking powder, salt) were added into four separate bowls then set aside.

Each bowl that contained only dry ingredients was then combined with their respective bowl that

had either the eggs or the egg substitute. Once all the ingredients for the brownies were

combined into one bowl, the ingredients were mixed with an electric mixer creating a smooth

batter. The batter for each variable was then poured into their respective greased baking pan.

Each pan was tapped to make sure the batter was fully distributed throughout the pan. All four

pans were put into the oven in a specific order to be identified with ease. The top oven rack

consisted of the egg sample on the left and the applesauce sample on the right. The bottom
oven rack consisted of the bean/tofu sample on the left and the prune sample on the right.

Subsequently, the timer was set for 18 minutes. After 18 minutes had elapsed, the toothpick test

was done in the center of the pan to ensure the brownie was cooked all the way through. If the

toothpick was removed from the sample still wet, that signified that the brownie still required

more time in the oven. If the brownie was not fully cooked, then the brownie would be put back

in for another 5 minutes. This also ensured that the brownies would not burn with these 5

minute increments. When the brownies came out of the oven, the pans were cooled before cut

into 16 pieces (Juenessa). The time to bake for each brownie was noted. Additionally, the height

was recorded by stacking three brownies on top of each other and taking the average height

measurement in mm. Then, a brownie from each sample was tested for the number of chews

needed for the brownie to fully dissolve in the mouth. After the objective measures were

performed, the resulting brownies were ready to distribute to the panelists for sensory

evaluations. Plates were divided into four quadrants. Each quadrant had a designated three-

digit number written on the corner of the plate. Each three digit number corresponded to one of

the variable. 416 was the black bean/tofu brownie, 535 was the applesauce brownie, 609 was

the prune brownie, and 732 was the egg brownie. One brownie of each variable was placed into

the plate quadrant that corresponded with the variable’s designated number. The plates were

moved into the sensory room where the panelists were waiting to perform the sensory

evaluations.
 Sensory Ballot

The panelists were given one plate, a sensory ballot (exhibited above), a pen, and a cup of

water to cleanse their palates between each sample.

Results:

The purpose of the experiment is to test the null hypothesis stating that the variables

being tested show similarities with the control sample by using statistical evidence. The

objective measures (height, number of chews, and time to bake) are displayed in the tables

below. The graphs below show the averages of the panelists answers which are displayed

according to the sensory evaluation of appearance, texture, taste, flavor, and overall liking.

Panelists judge sensory evaluations of each variable and then ultimately state whether they are

fond of the samples or not.

Objective Measures:
 As seen in Table 2, the time to take to bake was either equal to or took more time to

bake compared to the control brownie.

Type of Egg Substitutions Time to Bake

Control (egg) 28 minutes

Applesauce 38 minutes

Black beans/ tofu 28 minutes

Prunes 38 minutes
Table 2: Objective Results for Time to Bake

The control, which was the egg, and the black bean/tofu brownies took a total of 28 minutes to

bake in the oven. The applesauce and the prune brownies took more time and needed a total

time of 38 minutes to bake in the oven.

As seen in Table 3, the height per brownie were ranging from 2-7 mm.

Type of Egg Substitutions Height (mm)

Control (egg) 5

Applesauce 7

Black beans/ tofu 3

Prunes 2
Table 3: Objective Results for Height

The height was taken by stacking three brownies together and dividing the number by 3 to get

an average of the height. The smallest to the largest height was the prunes, black bean/ tofu,

eggs, and the applesauce.

As seen in Table 4, the number of chews were taken when the brownie was eaten.

Type of Egg Substitutions Number of Chews

Control (egg) 9
 Applesauce 6

Black beans/ tofu 5

Prunes 12
Table 4: Objective Results for Number of Chews

The least chewy was the black bean/ tofu brownie, followed by the applesauce brownie, then

the egg brownie, and the chewiest was the prune brownie.

Subjective Measures:

When asked how “brown” the samples were, the results in Figure 1 show that the

variable containing prunes and the variable containing the bean/tofu mixture ranked the highest

with an average of 8.83 and 8.5 respectively.

Figure 1: Exterior Appearance

The variable that ranked the least was the control containing eggs with an average of 6.5.

Additionally, the prune variable displays a smaller error bar, signifying that there is little variation

between the answers of the panelists. The results from the T-Test show that all samples have a

p-value below 0.05 demonstrating that all the samples are statistically different from the control.

Figure 2 displays the rankings of the panelists when asked about how “gooey” the

sample were.
 Figure 2: Interior Appearance

Results show that the variable with the prunes and the variable with the applesauce ranked the

highest with a score of 8.33 and 7.8, respectively. Additionally, the prune sample and the

applesauce sample both display short error bars indicating that there is little variability between

the answers of the panelists. To contradict, the control and the bean/tofu sample display very

large error bars which indicate that the answers fluctuate. When performing the T-TEST, all

variables proved to have a p-value above 0.05, concluding that there is no statistical difference

between the variable and the control. However, the prune sample yielded a p-value of 0.07,

which is trending towards statistical significance.

Below, Figure 3 exhibits the results of the texture when panelists were asked the

dryness of each sample.

 Figure 3: Texture

The bean/tofu sample received the highest average of dryness (5.67) and was proven

statistically different by having a p-value of 0.04. Correspondingly, the bean/tofu mixture

received a p-value of 0.04, while all the other samples had a p-value above 0.05. This alludes to

the fact that the bean and tofu mixture is statistically different from the control while the other

variables show no statistical difference. It is important to note that the bean/tofu mixture has a

high error bar hinting that the answers vary amongst panelists and that may be the reason for

the results. Furthermore, the other variables also show variability in the panelists’ answers

evident in the largeness of each of the error bars. Moreover, the variable containing prunes, the

variable containing eggs, and the variable containing applesauce all have a relatively low

average of 1.5, 2, and 2.33 respectively. In conclusion, the three previously stated variables are

not seen as dry to some of the panelists, but the answers do vary so these answers may be

controversial.

When testing for taste, Figure 4 shows that the testers seemed to believe that the

applesauce sample had the highest taste of chocolate with an average of 7.5.

Figure 4: Taste

Additionally, the egg sample and bean/tofu sample came in close second with averages of 6.5

and 6.17 respectively. Lastly, prunes scored the lowest average for chocolate taste of 3.67.
Because of this, it is no surprise that prunes displayed a p-value of 0.02 showing a significant

statistical difference from the control. Comparatively, the other two variables had rather large p-

values of 0.80 (bean/tofu) and 0.36 (applesauce). It is important to also note that the error bars

are fairly large showing that these responses are oscillating between panelists.

When asked how sweet the samples were, Figure 5 shows that the averages for each variable

came out to 7 (eggs), 6.17 (bean/tofu), 6.67 (applesauce), and 6 (prunes).

Figure 5: Flavor

Although the control sample can be named the sweetest variable, the averages for the resulting

variables seem to be relatively similar to each other. This is also verified when assessing the p-

values for all the variables which came out to be over 0.05, showing that they are not

statistically different from the control. However, there may be some discrepancy when seeing

that the answers showed high variability amongst panelists because the error bars for all the

variables are rather large.

To conclude the sensory ballot testing, panelists were asked how much they actually liked each

sample (Figure 6).

 Figure 6: Overall Liking

With no surprise, the control sample displayed the highest average (8.33) for best overall liking

with little fluctuation in answers amongst panelists seen in the short error bar. With some

surprise, the applesauce sample came in close second with a high average of 7.5, but the error

bar shows that there was plenty of variation between the answers given by the panelists.

Coming in third place was the bean/tofu sample that had an average of 5.5 and seemed to have

high variation, similar to the applesauce sample, examined by the tall error bar. Lastly, panelists

seemed to have the lowest affinity for the prune sample because of the low average of 4. It is

equally important to note that the error bar for prunes seems to display variability in answers,

which may contribute to the low average. Not to one’s surprise, the bean/tofu sample and the

prune sample displayed a p-value below 0.05 showing statistical difference to the control. The

prune sample had a p-value of 0.00 and the bean/tofu sample had a slightly higher p-value of

0.01. On the other hand, the applesauce sample showed the least statistical difference to the

control by having a p-value of 0.19. After examining the p-values, the averages and the error

bars, there seems to be an agreement where testers appear to have a fondness for the control

over the other variables.

As seen in Figure 7, the egg brownie and the prune brownie had a total Calorie of 140 per

brownie while the applesauce brownie and the black bean/ tofu brownie had a total Calorie of

130 per brownie. The egg brownie had one more gram of fat and 10 more Calories from fat

compared to the other three brownie recipes. The egg brownie is the only brownie that

contained cholesterol. All of the brownies had the same amount of total carbohydrates except

for the prune brownie, which had 3 more grams compared to the other three recipes. The three

recipes without the egg, lost some protein and minerals. Although, the applesauce brownie got

some vitamin C added.

 Figure 7: Nutrition Labels
Discussion:

The motivation behind the experiment was to see how different types of vegan egg

replacements would work in a standard brownie recipe and to see whether a vegan brownie

would be just as desirable as a non-vegan brownie. The control brownie contained eggs while

the opposing variables had vegan substitutions such as: applesauce, a bean and tofu mixture,

and prunes. The hypothesis was that the applesauce substitution would be preferred more than

the control because of the sweetness and the texture. On the other hand, predictions also

stated that the prune sample would be the variable that was preferred second and the bean/tofu

sample would be the least preferred. Contrary to the anticipated predictions, results indicate that
panelists had the highest affinity for the control, but the applesauce sample came close in

second. Additionally, panelists were surprisingly more fond of the bean/tofu sample rather than

the prune sample.

Upon reviewing the responses from the panelists concerning the overall liking, the

applesauce sample was the only one to exhibit no statistical difference from the control.

Comments from panelists stated “Not overly sweet, chewy,” and “Very good in flavor. A little too

gooey in texture.” The responses show appraisal, but also some critique. Upon evaluation on

the statistics concerning the interior appearance, the majority of testers agreed that the

sample’s interior appearance was very “gooey.” Additionally, analysis of the exterior appearance

shows that many testers also believe that the sample was too brown. It is also important to note

that the applesauce brownies took 10 more minutes to bake when compared to the control. The

longer baking time could be burdensome for someone who are crunched on time. Although the

applesauce sample was well-liked, the fact that the appearance and time to bake are not

favorable means shows that it is not an appropriate substitution for the control. The prune and

bean/tofu samples proved to be undesirable in many of the evaluations. Not only that, but they

ranked very low in the overall liking and showed high statistical difference to the control. Thus,

determining that they are not fit to be adequate substitutions for eggs in brownies.

Although this experiment could be performed without any issues, there is still a chance

for human error to occur. For example, when creating the prune recipe, there was a

miscommunication as to how many prunes were supposed to be added to the recipe. If there

was a chance that more prunes were added than necessary, this can contribute to the very low

affinity of the prune sample. This is also confirmed by a panelists that stated that the sample

“tasted too much like prunes/molasses.” If the experiment were to be performed again, less

prunes should be added to verify whether that sample would end up desirable in a different

instance. Another example of human error consists of not waiting long enough for the brownies

to cool down before beginning to cut them. By cutting the brownies too soon, the brownies can
lose some of their structure and may contribute to poor texture. This can be exhibited by the

bean/tofu brownie that resulted in a poor texture. By giving off an inadequate first impression,

this error may justify the poor results stemming from the bean/tofu and the prune brownie.

A significant factor to acknowledge lies in the fact that some variables had more benefit

than others. For example, although bean/tofu sample did not rank highly in overall liking, it did

show statistical resemblance to the control regarding interior appearance. Consequently, when

a sample is lacking in one department, a solution arises that two variables can be combined to

reach desirable outcomes. For example, the applesauce sample exhibited to be undesirable in

interior appearance, but can be possible combined with bean/tofu to yield advantageous results.

In addition to appearance, the combination of ingredients might contribute to a more favorable

chewiness and height. Another factor that can be benefited by combining ingredients is evident

when looking at the nutrition labels. The removal of eggs in the brownies means a sacrifice of

some vitamins and minerals that were present in the eggs. For example, applesauce is higher in

vitamin C and beans/tofu is higher in iron. The merging of the two variables makes up for the

vitamin C and the iron that was lost by removing the egg. Furthermore, while there was no

perfect substitution for eggs, with more practice one might be able to find a replacement that

accurately bears a resemblance to the control brownie.

In conclusion, due to statistical evidence, applesauce can be considered the closest

substitute for eggs in terms of making brownies. On the contrary, applesauce exhibits some

disagreeable characteristics that does not make it a perfect substitute for eggs. Although it is not

ideal, it is one step closer to detecting reasonable alternatives that can be available to vegans.

Although it only seems like a small step, any concept that can make a vegan’s diet more

advantageous and less restrictive is a triumph.

References:

Arozarena, I., Bertholo, H., Empis, J., Bunger, A., & Sousa, I. (2001). Study of the total replacement of
egg by white lupine protein, emulsifiers and xanthan gum in yellow cakes. European Food
Research and Technology,213(4-5), 312-316. doi:10.1007/s002170100391

Borneo, R., Aguirre, A., & León, A. E. (2010). Chia (Salvia hispanica L) Gel Can Be Used as Egg or Oil
Replacer in Cake Formulations. Journal of the American Dietetic Association,110(6), 946-949.
doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.011

Craig, W. J. (2009). Health effects of vegan diets. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition,89(5).
doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736n

Fields, H., Ruddy, B., Wallace, M. R., Shah, A., Millstine, D., & Marks, L. (2016). How to Monitor and
Advise Vegans to Ensure Adequate Nutrient Intake. The Journal of the American Osteopathic
Association,116(2), 96. doi:10.7556/jaoa.2016.022

Godfray, H. J., Aveyard, P., Garnett, T., Hall, J. W., & Key, T. J. (2018). Meat consumption, health, and the
Environment. Science,361(6399). doi:10.1126/science.aam5324

Perry, N., & Brandt, P. (2007). A Case Study on Cruelty to Farm Animals: Lessons Learned from the
Hallmark Meat Packing Case. Law Journal Library,106, 117

Radnitz, C., Beezhold, B., & Dimatteo, J. (2015). Investigation of lifestyle choices of individuals following a
vegan diet for health and ethical reasons. Appetite,90, 31-36. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.02.026

Spence, D. J., Jenkins, D. J., & Davignon, D. (2012). Egg yolk consumption and carotid plaque.
Atherosclerosis,224(2), 469-473. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.07.032
W, Juenessa. (2018). The Best Brownies. Genius Kitchen. Retrieved from
https://www.geniuskitchen.com/amp/recipe/the-best-brownies-54225

Appendix:

1. Sensory Ballot

2. Recipe

3. Project Plan Statement

4. Project Procedure

5. Excel Statistical Data

6. Grocery and Equipment List