Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

The mechanical strength and durability properties of ternary blended

cementitious composites containing granite quarry dust (GQD) as
natural sand replacement
Cheah Chee Ban, Lim Jay Sern ⇑, Mahyuddin B. Ramli
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM, Malaysia

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

 The workability of the mortar

increases as the GQD replacement
level increases.
 Large volume GQD used as NRS show
similar mechanical performance.
 Large volume GQD used as NRS didn’t
show significant variance in
durability properties.
 Incorporation of GQD helps to
improve shrinkage performance.
 GQD can be partial or fully utilize in
the production of cementitious
composites.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cementitious composites are the most used man-made materials in the world with a global annual pro-
Received 9 July 2018 duction quantum of 25 billion tonnes worldwide, contributing approximately 5% to the global green-
Received in revised form 1 November 2018 house gas emissions. In the initiative to reduce the carbon footprint of cementitious composite
Accepted 23 November 2018
production, are growing interests in the large volume reuse of industrial by products such as ground
granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS), pulverized fuel ash (PFA) and granite quarry dust (GQD) in cemen-
titious composites production. Such an approach offers a two-fold solution towards addressing the waste
Keywords:
management problem related to those industry by-products. At the same time however; reduction of car-
Large volume recycling
Mechanical properties
bon footprints of cementitious composite materials exists. However, in order to enable scalable applica-
Durability performance tions of such a recycling approach, a comprehensive body of knowledge on the mechanical strength and
High strength cementitious composites durability performance of the cementitious composite products containing a large volume of the mate-
rials needs to be established. Hence, it is the primary aim of the study to report a comprehensive assess-
ment on the mechanical strength and durability properties of high strength cementitious composites.
These materials are produced with a large volume of the aforementioned materials as the primary binder
and aggregate phase. Throughout the investigation, high strength cementitious composites mixes were
produced with a large volume of PFA and GGBS binder. Then phase coupled with ordinary Portland
cement (OPC). GQD was used as the fine aggregate phase in substitution of natural river sand at various
level of substitution ranging between 0 and 100% by volume. The cementitious composites were charac-
terized in terms of its fresh cementitious composites. Its flowability and hardened cementitious compos-
ites properties mainly bulk density, compressive strength, flexural strength, and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity
were also assessed. In addition, the durability properties such as water absorptivity and porosity were
also covered in this experimental program. Pore continuity was assessed in terms of air permeability
and capillary absorption of the hardened specimens according to the testing age. This paper has also

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: cheacheeban@usm.my (C.B. Cheah), jaysern07@student.usm.my (J.S. Lim), mahyudin@usm.my (M.B. Ramli).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.194
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
292 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306

covered the dimensional stability assessment in terms of drying shrinkage. Besides, a comprehensive
microstructural assessment was also performed to examine the microstructure morphology. From the
results, we found full incorporation of GQD as NRS without significant impairment to the mechanical,
durability and length change performance. Thus, the production of sustainable high strength cementi-
tious composites with large volume recycling of GQD is feasible which in turn reduces the depletion
on the natural river sand resources.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ites. GGBS is a by-product from the iron manufacturing industry.

Global warming has become a seriously increasing issue. It was
believed carbon dioxide (CO2) gas was the main culprit that should
respond to the global warming phenomenon. Global warming was
believed by authorities to be the cause of problems; such as rising
of sea levels, crop failures, desertification and pest proliferation
which have threatened human existence and its environment [1].
Malaysia has rapidly transformed from an agricultural based to
an industrialized country in the past four decades. This phe-
nomenon has led to the demand for a marked increase of automo-
biles, factories and power plants [2]. At the same time, the
population in Malaysia has risen from 13.83 million in 1980 to
32.01 million in 2018 according to World Population Prospect
[3]. Thus, the demand on the building areas and infrastructures
has seemed to increase significantly. As a result, construction has
become one of the issues contributed to the CO2 emissions in the
world [4] as well as in Malaysia. In the construction industry, those
construction materials used in structural performance such as con-
crete and reinforcement steel were reported as the highest contri-
bution of the carbon emissions [5].
Concrete is a compound basically made with the combination of
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), with natural aggregate with
numerous nominal particle size of natural aggregate and water
[6]. It is widely used on Earth with the consumption of 1 m3 per
person annually [7], with almost 5% of the total anthropogenic
CO2 emissions in the world [8]. Along with population growth,
the demand for concrete has seemed to increase and is forecasted
to reach approximately 18 billion tons by the year 2050 [9]. Gener-
ally, the carbon footprint in the concrete production is mainly con-
tributed by the usage of the binder and natural aggregates. OPC is
the main material used in concrete production. Production of OPC
involves a high amount of embodied energy which has, in turn,
contributes 5% to 7% of CO2 emissions [10]. Calcination of lime-
stone in the cement production was believed to be the main culprit
in the CO2 emission [11]. A temperature up to 1500 °C through
combustion of fossil fuels in the production of clinker have con-
tributed most of the CO2 emissions [12]. In order to reduce the
cement usage, researchers are currently working hard on finding
the disposal and less valuable wastes from the industry which
potentially can be used as supplementary cementitious material
(SCM). SCM is defined as a substantial quantity of waste materials
which is produced globally from industrial, agricultural and wastes
from rural and urban society according to the authors. [13]. Over-
all, materials such as metakaolin, silica fume, Pulverized Fly Ash
(PFA), Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS), Rice Husk
Ash (RHA) and high calcium wood ash which conforms with BS
EN 197-1 [14]. This is popularly used to reduce the carbon foot-
print of the concrete as the SCMs partially replace the cement con-
tent [15].
Today, GGBS and PFA are commonly used in the concrete indus-
try in Malaysia due to their availability and benefits. Both materials
are commonly used to partially replace the cement in the concrete
mixture. Either with one of the materials with cement is used to
form binary blended cementitious composites or both of the mate-
rials with cement to form ternary blended cementitious compos-
Its chemical composition is approximately 30% to 40% of silicon
dioxide (SiO2) and 40% of calcium oxide (CaO). Incorporation of
GGBS was reported improved over the long-term durability perfor-
mance of the cementitious composite. In turn; this enhanced the
cementitious composite’s service life while reducing the mainte-
nance cost. Due to its availability in large quantities and as a waste
product from iron industry, it is economically used as a cement
replacement material. There is little concern on the availability
while generating a higher profit margin to the manufacturer
[16,17]. The PFA is a by-product from the combustion of pulverized
coal in the coal-fired furnaces of thermal power plants [18]. Dis-
posal as in a landfill of PFA has become an issue towards environ-
mental concern [19]. However, the researchers have claimed that
due to its pozzolanic properties, it has been used as a supplemen-
tary cementitious material (SCM) in the cementitious composites
which have improved the PFA value into other valuable applica-
tions in order to reduce the environmental issue [19–21].
Furthermore, production and mining of natural aggregate have
also become a factor which cannot be ignored in the contribution
of CO2 emissions in cementitious composite production. CO2 emis-
sions from the production and mining of natural aggregate are
mostly from onsite vehicles which function to blast the aggregate
to smaller sizes. Loading and hauling including the electricity has
also contributed to the indirect emissions. Indirect emissions refer
to the electricity used in crushing operations which account for up
to 70% of emissions from aggregate production [22]. Production
and mining of natural aggregate have produced an amount of waste
volume which is unwanted and rejected by the industry [23] namely
granite quarry dust (GQD). GQD, so-called granite dust, also called
manufactured sand is a waste from granite production [24] in a form
of fine particles which possess a size less than 4.75 mm [25]. Dis-
posal of the waste has become an environmental issue. Land degra-
dation, visual effect, flooding of water and air pollution was believed
to have a main negative impact caused by the disposal of the waste.
Meanwhile, a particle size less than 75 mm randomly disposed was
known to lead to respiratory and allergy problems [24]. In addition,
uncontrolled and abusive behavior on mining the natural river sand
(NRS) and aggregate have become a serious. This issue has also con-
tributed to agricultural loss and rainforest destruction [15]. Accord-
ing to the authors [26], there were shortages of NRS for construction
due to over-exploitation. In a nutshell, incorporation of GQD as fine
aggregates either fully or partially replace the NRS seems to be an
alternative for the resolution of issues raised by both the GQD and
NRS. According to the researchers, they have claimed that GQD is
the most suitable material to be used to replace the natural river
sand in cementitious composites production as compared to fly
ash, slag limestone, silica stone, furnace bottom ash and recycled
fine aggregate [27–29]. As GQD is a by-product from crushing pro-
cess during quarrying activities, it was believed to enhance the con-
crete properties than the regular concrete materials [30]. Jannah
et al. [31] also reported that utilization of GQD as NRS replacement
material would be beneficial in terms of the availability, cost, and
environmental impact.
In addition, there are some researchers interested in conducting
research on the usage of GQD in various applications. Kang et al.
 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306
[32] have studied the feasibility of high volumes GQD in the pro-
duction of lightweight foamed concrete. The authors reported that
incorporation of GQD in the production of lightweight foamed con-
crete showed positive results in terms of mechanical strength per-
formance. Besides, incorporation of GQD has also reduced the
environmental impact in terms of lower energy consumption and
a lesser amount of greenhouse gases emissions. Thomas and Hari-
lal [33] have used the GQD in the production of artificial coarse
aggregates by using cold bonding techniques. GQD has been cold
bonded with different ratios of OPC and PFA to form an artificial
coarse aggregate with a specific gravity range within 1.9 to 2.5.
The result shows that the mechanical performance of the artificial
coarse aggregate is highly dependent on the cement content. Sha-
kir et al. [34] have investigated the use of GQD in brick production.
Incorporation of GQD has found an increase with the Ultrasonic
Pulse Velocity (UPV) results. The authors also concluded that incor-
poration of GQD in brick production is feasible and fit to the
requirement of the relevant thresholds. Thus, it can be used as an
alternative to conventional bricks in the building sector. Appukutty
[26] has used GQD to replace sand in cement mortar for brick
masonry with different ratios of 1:8, 1:6, 1:5 and 1:4 to compare
with bricks with basic compressive strengths above 3.5 MPa and
7.5 MPa. The researcher found that GQD can be used to replace
sand completely in masonry construction with higher strength
and cheaper cost.
Bishnoi and Bala [35] have studied the workability property of
GQD as NRS replacement material up to 35% at the same w/b ratio.
The authors reported that incorporation of GQD tends to improve
the workability property of the concrete. Improvement of worka-
bility property is related to the coarse grading of the GQD as
reported by Safiuddin and Raman [36]. However, Vijayalakshimi
et al. [37] reported that incorporation of GQD tends to reduce the
workability performance. Some researchers have claimed that the
presence of GQD tends to reduce the workability properties of
the fresh cementitious composites due to its excessive fines con-
tent and high water absorption properties as compared to NRS
[37–40]. Besides, the physical nature of the GQD (angular and
rough in texture) has increases the internal friction between the
particles, in turn, reduces the workability performance of the
cementitious composites [41].
Raman et al. [42] have studied the mechanical strength perfor-
mance of cementitious composites with 20% and 40% GQD as NRS
replacement material. The result shows that the incorporation of
GQD exhibited relative reduction in strength. Reduction of
mechanical strength performance was believed to be due to the
poor compaction due to reduction in workability. Improper com-
paction increases the porosity in the microstructure of the cemen-
titious composites [37]. Bishnoi and Bala [35] have investigated the
mechanical performance of the GQD as NRS replacement material
from 20% to 35% with an increment of 5%. The results have shown
that partial incorporation of the GQD tends to improve the
mechanical properties of the cementitious composites. Singh
et al. [39] have conducted a series of result with GQD replacement
level up to 50% with 10% increments. 30% of GQD replacement
levels exhibited the optimum mechanical performance while a
reduction in strength was observed at a 50% of GQD replacement
level. Few researchers have conducted a series of results with 0–
100% GQD as a NRS replacement level. Joel [43] reported that a par-
tial GQD replacement level up to 20% shows positive results in
terms of mechanical strength performance. Suman and Srivastava
[44] reported that incorporation of GQD up to 50% exhibited a
superior mechanical strength performance compared to the con-
ventional concrete. Replacement levels up to 60% did not signifi-
cantly show a reduction in mechanical strength performance. A
similar finding reported by Kou and Poon [28] also found that
GQD replacement levels up to 50% exhibited improvement in terms
293
of mechanical strength performance. Researchers also reported
that the replacement levels more than 75% shows a reduction in
mechanical strength performance. This is largely due to the
increase in water demands which in turn reduce mechanical
strength performance. Superior performance on the usage of GQD
as a NRS replacement material was believed to be due to its angu-
lar shape and rough texture. Such physical natures have improved
the compactness and resistivity towards the crack propagation in
cementitious composite matrices [38,43,45]. Presence of fines from
GQD have improved the cementitious composite matrix filling up
the voids in the cementitious mixture [39,41]. However, beyond
the optimal replacement levels, the mechanical performance of
the cementitious composite is reduced [45–48].
Singh et al. [39] have reported the permeability and water
absorption performance of cementitious composites with GQD
replacement levels up to 50% with 10% incremental. The results
have shown that 30% of GQD replacement levels have exhibited
the lowest permeability and water absorption. However, 50% of
GQD replacement levels have shown increments in both perme-
ability and water absorption. Another study reported the incorpo-
ration of GQD up to 55% which exhibited improvement in
impermeability performance. The mix with 70% of GQD replace-
ment levels exhibited poorer impermeability performance [41].
Allam et al. [49] found that partial incorporation of 10% and
17.5% GQD replacement levels helps to improve the water absorp-
tion resistivity. The researchers claimed that the presence of GQD
tends to improve the grading of the fine aggregate phase while
reducing the volume and numbers of capillary pores in the con-
crete matrix. Besides, improvement of durability properties of
GQD cementitious composite by improvement of the pore struc-
ture in the paste-aggregate interfacial zone (ITZ) has been reported
by Menadi et al. [50]. Kou and Poon [28] have investigated the dry-
ing shrinkage performance of concrete made with GQD as a NRS
replacement material from 0 to 100% with 25% increments. The
results have shown that the presence of GQD tends to reduce the
drying shrinkage of the concrete. This is largely because GQD is rel-
atively coarser than NRS. Aggregates which are coarse in nature
tend to reduce the total specific surface areas, consequently,
reduce water demand on that particular mix. Imamoto and Arai
[51] found that lower free water in the pore space helps to reduce
the degree of drying shrinkage of the cementitious composites.
With the presence of lower free water in the cementitious matrix,
a lesser loss of free water to the surrounding exists resulting in bet-
ter dimensional stability. However, Bonavetti and Iraser [52]
reported that presence of GQD tends to increase the length change
of the cementitious composites. They have investigated the drying
shrinkage properties of the concrete with 0 to 25% of GQD replace-
ment levels. As the GQD replacement level increases, the length
change also increases.
In the initiative to reduce the carbon footprint of cementitious
composites production, there is a growing interest in the large vol-
ume reuse of industrial by products such as ground granulated
blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and pulverized fuel ash (PFA). These have
been produced locally to partially replace the cement content up to
50% with the ratio 4 to 1. In order to produce a more sustainable
high strength cementitious composite, there is also growing atten-
tion to finding alternative materials to be used as NRS in structural
mortar. Gibson [30] claimed that GQD is the waste produced from
natural granite. It is suitable to be used in substitution to sand in
the production of structural mortar. It was also believed that incor-
poration of the GQD in the production of cementitious composites
was theoretically stronger and more durable than the NRS. The pri-
mary aim of the study is to report a comprehensive assessment on
the mechanical strength, durability properties, dimensional stabil-
ity and the microstructure morphology of high strength cementi-
tious composites. The material is produced with a large volume
294 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306
of the aforementioned materials as the primary binder and aggre-
gate phase. At the same time, the physical properties and mineral-
ogy of both GQD and NRS will be also reported. Throughout the
investigation, high strength cementitious composites mixes were
produced with a large volume of PFA and GGBS binder phase cou-
pled with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with the fix ratio as
aforementioned. GQD was used as the fine aggregate phase in sub-
stitution of NRS at various levels of the substitution ranging
between 0 and 100% with the increment of 20% by volume.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
2.1.1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
BS EN 197-1 type I Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) with specific gravity 3.15
was used in this experimental programme. Both the physical and chemical proper-
ties of cement used were in compliance with the specifications in BS EN 197-1 [14].
2.1.2. Pulverized fuel ash (PFA)
Pulverized fuel ash (PFA) used in the study was collected from the precipitator
unit of a local coal-fuelled power plant. Results obtained from the Blaine fineness
analysis indicated that PFA used in the study had a specific surface area of
3244 cm2/g. The specific gravity of the PFA was determined to be 2.8. Similarly,
the details on the physical and chemical properties of the PFA has been character-
ized and deliberated extensively in the authors’ prior work [53].
2.1.3. Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS)
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) used in this experimental pro-
gramme was supplied from Macro Dimension Concrete (MDC) Sdn. Bhd. GGBS
has been categorized according to the standard procedure prescribed in BS EN
196-2 [54] and complies to the specification in MS EN 15167-1 [55]. The specific
gravity of the GGBS was reported as 2.93 with a specific surface area of
4650 cm2/g.
2.1.4. Granite quarry dust (GQD)
The GQD used in this experimental program was supplied by from a local
quarry in Kedah, Malaysia. The micrograph in Fig. 1 shows the physical appearance
of GQD. A qualitative examination of the micrograph shows that the particles of
GQD are granular, irregular and angular in geometry. The X-ray Diffraction (XRD)
image of GQD was presented in Fig. 2. By comparing two XRD images between
GQD and NRS in Figs. 2 and 4, GQD possesses a similar mineralogy composition
as NRS is majorly quartz. Such similarity in mineralogy composition indicated that
GQD is feasible to be used as a NRS replacement material in the cementitious com-
posites production. GQD used in the study was washed and sieved through a 5 mm
sieve while retaining on the 75 mm test sieve in accordance to the standard pre-
scribed in BS 882 [56]. The GQD samples have been dried to the saturated surface
dry conditions before used. The particle size distribution analysis was conducted
accordance to the standard prescribed in BS 812-103.1 [57]. From the particle size
distribution graph shown in Fig. 5, the GQD exhibited a similar particle size distri-
bution grading as natural river sand. However, from the particle size distribution
graph, it is noticeable that GQD has a relatively higher fraction of coarse and higher
Fig. 1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of the GQD at 150 times
magnification.
fraction of fines content as compared to the natural river sand. The fineness modu-
lus of the GQD was determined as 2.76 while the specific gravity of the material is
2.75 (Table 1).
2.1.5. Natural river sand (NRS)
Quartzitic natural river sand in an uncrushed form with a specific gravity of 2.63
and 2.57 fineness modulus was used in this experimental program. From Fig. 3, the
physical appearance of the natural river sand was relatively less angular and
rounded in shape as compared to the GQD. NRS used in the study to washed and
remove any organic impurities. The samples were then sieved through 5 mm sieve
while retaining on the 75 mm test sieve and dried to the saturated surface dry con-
ditions. The XRD result obtained is showed in Fig. 4. The physical properties of the
GQD and NRS have been presented in detail as shown in Table 1.
2.1.6. Superplasticizer and mixing water
Two types of Polycarboxylate Ether (PCE) superplasticizers were used in this
experimental programme in order to maintain the mortar mix with low water/bin-
der content while fulfilling the targeted level of workability. Both superplasticizers
were in the aqueous form with the commercial code of WP 30 and Master Glenium
8788 supplied by Macro Dimension Concrete (MDC) Pte. Ltd. and BASF Malaysia.
WP 30 is classified as Type F admixture with high range water reducing property
while Master Glenium 8788 is classified as Type G admixture with high range water
reduction and retarding property as prescribed in ASTM C 494 [59]. Tap water sup-
plied from a local potable water network complied to the requirement prescribed in
the BS 3148 [60] was used.
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Mixture proportioning
The binder to fine aggregate ratio was maintained constantly at 1 to 3 according
to the standard proportion prescribed in BS EN 196-1 [61]. The design was in accor-
dance to the absolute volumetric method standard prescribed in ACI 211.1 [62]. The
volume of the paste and fine aggregate was fixed accordingly to avoid shortage of
the materials during casting. The weight has been fine-tuned according to the speci-
fic gravity obtained and the replacement level of the GQD, particularly as shown
specifically in Table 2. A series of mortars were fabricated from the combination
of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS)
and Pulverised Fly Ash (PFA) with a constant ratio in 5: 4: 1. As for the aggregate
phase, NRS was partially substituted by the quarry dust at various sand replace-
ment levels of 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, and 100%. A total of 6 mortar mix designs
were fabricated together with the control mortar mix in order to study the interac-
tion between a ternary blended mortar with different ratio of NRS and GQD. The
polycarboxylate-ether (PCE) type of superplasticizer with the commercial code
WP 30 and Master Glenium 8788 were used in this experimental program. A total
of 1.2% superplasticizer dosage was used comprising of the combination of 0.6% WP
30 and 0.6% Master Glenium 8788 was added to achieve the desired workability.
The water/binder (w/b) ratio was the initiated design at 0.30 with the further addi-
tion of water until achieving 150 mm ± 5 mm flow diameter by using the flow table
method. The flow table method used was complied with the specification in ASTM C
230 [63]. This is to produce a mortar mix which can be properly compacted within
the steel mold. The mix proportion of mortar is summarized as in Table 2. CM indi-
cates the mix with only OPC used as the only hydraulic binder and NRS as the only
fine aggregate in the mortar mix. GQD0, GQD20, GQD40, GQD60, GQD80, and
GQD100 indicated the mix with ternary blended mortar while seen different in
the GQD replacement level at 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%.
2.2.2. Mixing, forming and curing
Each batch of mortar was fabricated by using an epicyclic type mechanical
mixer which complies to the standard prescribed in ASTM C 305 [64]. The mortar
was mixed homogeneously according to the sequence as follows. First, the binder
and the fine aggregate were weighed and prepared according to the mix design vol-
ume and placed in the mixing bowl in 3 equal parts. In order to achieve a homoge-
nous mix, the binder and fine aggregate were mixed for 10 min at low mixing speed
in dry condition. Next, 80% of mixing water according to the mix design was then
added to the mix at the high mixing speed for 2 min. The superplasticizers were
then added into the wet mix separately and mixed for 1 min each followed by
the subsequent water and mixed for 2 min at a high mixing speed. The workability
of the fresh mortar was then examined by using a flow table which complied to the
specification prescribed in ASTM C 230 [63] in order to achieve 150 mm ± 5 mm of
flow diameter. The addition of water was required if the flow diameter failed to
comply at 150 mm ± 5 mm. The mortar used in the flow table test was remixed
with the additional water for 2 min until the flow diameter achieved
150 mm ± 5 mm. The final water to binder ratio was then calculated and recorded
as shown in Table 2. The mortar was then transferred to the steel mold with a speci-
fic dimension according to the test. The mortar was placed in the mold in 3 equal
layers with each layer compacted for 10 s. All the specimens were then cured in
the mold for 24 h. Upon being demoulded, the test specimens were sealed with
polyethylene to prevent moisture loss until the date of the test.
 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306 295

Fig. 2. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) image of the GQD.

Table 1
Physical properties of the GQD and NRS. 2.2.4. Bulk density of hardened cementitious composites
The bulk density of the hardened mortar was examined through the water dis-
Property Standard references Natural river Granite Quarry
placement method according to the standard prescribed in BS EN 12390-7 [66]
sand (NRS) Dust (GQD)
which is suitable for the test sample in all shapes. 3 prisms with the dimension
Specific gravity BS 812-2 [58] 2.63 2.75 of 40 mm  40 mm  160 mm were fabricated for every mix design and each test-
Water absorption (%) BS 812-2 [58] 1.61 2.22 ing age. The bulk density of the hardened cementitious composites was tested at
Fineness modulus BS 812-103.1 [57] 2.57 2.76 24 h, 7, 28 and 90 days during the curing age. The average bulk density obtained
was rounded to the nearest whole number and reported.

2.2.5. Compressive and flexural strength

The compressive strength of the mortar in this experimental program was
examined by using a broken prism method as prescribed in ASTM C 349 [67].
The broken prism after subjected to flexural load was then compressed by using
Universal Testing Machine (UTM) and the maximum load was obtained. The com-
pressive strength of the mortar was taken as the average of the 6 tested broken
prism parts. The flexural strength performance of the mortar was examined by
using three-point loading method as per procedures prescribed in ASTM C 348
[68]. A total of 3 samples with the edge dimension of 40 mm  40 mm  160 mm
prisms were fabricated for every mix design and testing age. Both the compressive
and flexural strength of the mortar mix was examined on 24 h, 7, 28 and 90 days
of the curing age in this experimental program. An average of three tested
specimens was taken as the representative mechanical strength result. The
maximum permissible compressive and flexural strength variation within the
same batch of the tested specimen was set at 10% as per the standard specifica-
tion stated earlier.

2.2.6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) assessment

Fig. 3. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image of NRS at 150 times
magnification.
2.2.3. Fresh property assessment
The fresh property of the mortar was assessed by using flow table method
which complied to the specification stated in ASTM C 230 [63] and performed
according to the procedure prescribed in ASTM C 109 [65]. The targeted workability
was fixed at 150 ± 5 mm flow diameter. This is to ensure adequate placement of
fresh mortar into the steel mold.
An ultrasonic pulse velocity was examined by measuring the propagation veloc-
ity of a transmitted longitudinal ultrasonic pulse across the cross-sectional area.
Mortar prisms were measured at the dimensions of 100 mm  100 mm  500 mm.
The transmission of the ultrasonic pulse was examined by using an electro-
acoustical transducer which held in contact with one surface of the concrete under
test. The pulse of vibrations was then converted into an electrical signal by a second
transducer after the pulse traversing a known path length in the specimen. The
transmitted time and velocity was then displayed on the electro-transducer. The
standard procedures were conducted according to the standard prescribed in BS
EN 12504-4 [69]. A mortar prism with the dimensions of
100 mm  100 mm  500 mm was fabricated for all mix designs and examined at
24 h, 7, 28 and 90 days during the curing stage. 3 readings were taken and the aver-
age velocity representative of the UPV result was taken.
296 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306
Fig. 4. X-ray Diffraction (XRD) image of NRS.
Fig. 5. Particle distribution of the GQD and NRS.
2.2.7. Water absorption
The water absorption of the mortar was performed according to the procedures
prescribed in BS 1881-122 [70]. 3 Mortar specimens with the dimensions of a
75 mm diameter and a 100 mm height were fabricated for each testing age by using
the steel mold. The water absorption of the mortar specimens was examined on the
testing age at 24 h, 7, 28 and 90 days. The average percentage calculated repre-
sented the water absorption value and was expressed to the nearest 0.01% by using
the standard equation stated in BS 1881-122 [70].
2.2.8. Intrinsic permeability
Intrinsic permeability is a method used to indicate the ease of the flow of liq-
uids, gases or dissolved deleterious substances such as chloride or sulfate ions or
carbon dioxide through the mortar specimens. The intrinsic permeability of the
mortar in this experimental program was examined by using the Leeds Cell Per-
meameter which is recommended by Cabrera and Lynsdale [71] by using carbon
dioxide gas. A similar test was conducted by Cheah and Ramli [72] by subjecting
the samples under nitrogen gas. Test specimens consisted of three numbers of mor-
tar cylinders with diameters of 45 mm and 50 mm in height. The test samples were
dried in an oven for 72 h under the temperature of 105 ± 5 °C to remove moisture.
Upon installation, the flow rate of gas through the specimens was determined. The
time of the gas flow over a constant flow distance within a 3 mm diameter flow
meter was obtained. The K value represented the intrinsic air permeability on that
particular sample and calculated by using the formula proposed by Cheah and
Ramli [72]. The intrinsic air permeability of the mortar was taken as the average
three tested representative samples and expressed to the nearest 0.1 m2.
2.2.9. Total porosity
The total porosity of the mortar was examined by using the method prescribed
in RILEM [73]. It was a method to examine the porosity of the specimens by using
the immersion method into a vacuum desiccator. 3 mortar specimens with the
dimensions of 45 mm in diameter and a 50 mm height were fabricated for each
testing age. The porosity of the mortar mix was examined right after demould at
7, 28 and 90 days. On the particular testing age, the test samples were dried in
the oven to remove moisture for 72 h. The test samples were then cooled to the
room temperature after being removed from the oven and weight by using the
weighing machine. Subsequently, the test samples were fully submerged in the vac-
uum chamber for 48 h. The mass in the water and the mass in the air were then
measured after the test samples were removed from the vacuum chamber. The
average value obtained represents the total porosity of the mortar mix and
expressed to the nearest 0.01% by using the standard equation for total porosity sta-
ted in RILEM [73].
2.2.10. Capillary action assessment
A method proposed by Benachour [74] was used to examine the total porosity
in the mortar specimen. A total of 3 samples for each mix design with the dimen-
sion of 40 mm  40 mm and 160 mm were fabricated and cured for 7 days. The
samples were heated in the oven at the temperature of 105 ± 5 °C until no further
weight change was recorded. The samples were then cooled to the room tempera-
ture and the longitudinal surface of the specimen was wrapped by using a cello-
phane tape and the weight of each specimen was measured. The samples were
then placed on the moist sand bed with a thickness of 2 cm. The weight of the spec-
imens was taken every hour on the first day, every day during the first week and
every week until the third week. The average result of three tested samples was
expressed in a capillary absorption coefficient (g/cm2).
2.2.11. Drying shrinkage
The dimensional stability of the mortar was examined by following the stan-
dard procedure prescribed in ASTM C 157 [75]. Two mortar prisms with the dimen-
sions of 75 mm  75 mm  285 mm were fabricated as tested on the testing age at
1, 7, 14, 28, 56, 90 and 112 days. A standard reference rod with the length of
298.5 mm was used to calibrate the drying shrinkage instrument to 0.000 mm.
 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306 297

Table 2
Mixture proportions (kg/m3) of different mortar mixes.

Mix Designation OPC (kg/m3) GGBS (kg/m3) PFA (kg/m3) NRS (kg/m3) GQD (kg/m3) SP Dosage (%) Water (kg/m3) w/b
CM 545 0 0 1602 0 1.20 202 0.37
GQD0 274 218 55 1644 0 1.20 180 0.33
GQD20 274 218 55 1328 334 1.20 174 0.32
GQD40 274 218 55 996 669 1.20 174 0.32
GQD60 274 218 55 664 1003 1.20 174 0.32
GQD80 274 218 55 332 1338 1.20 174 0.32
GQD100 274 218 55 0 1685 1.20 169 0.31

The mortar specimen was then placed into the shrinkage instrument and the read-
ing is taken until the value remained constant. The average result from two test
prisms was obtained and used to represent the length change (%).
2.2.12. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis was conducted in order to study
the microstructure morphology of the mortar mix. Selected samples were cut into
the cross-sectional dimension of 10 mm  10 mm with 10 mm depth and coated by
a layer of gold. The image was taken by using a FEI Quanta FEG 650 scanning elec-
tron microscope.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Workability of the mortar
Based on Fig. 6, the water required to achieve a 150 ± 5 mm
diameter flow decrease in the presence of the GGBS and PFA. This
would be evident of the presence of SCMs improved workability of
the mortar mixture. The inclusion of SCMs in the mortar tends to
reduce the water demand up to 11%. The observation is in close
agreement to the claim that the particles size of GGBS and PFA
are generally smaller than PC which has filled up the gaps and
pores in the cementitious matrix which in turn enhanced the
workability of the cementitious mixture [76]. As the GQD contents
increased in the ternary blended mortar, the water demand of the
mortar mixture to achieve the desired workability tends to
decrease. This phenomenon was attributed to the grading of the
GQD and natural river sand [36]. Based on the particle size distri-
bution shown in Table 2, the GQD possessed a higher fraction of
the coarser particles than the NRS. Nevertheless, the fineness mod-
ulus of the GQD was reported as 2.76 which are higher than the
fineness modulus of 2.57 for the NRS. The higher the value of the
fineness modulus indicates a coarser overall grading of the GQD
as compared to NRS. Besides, the particle size distribution graph
showed that the GQD sample possesses a higher fraction of coarse
particles that have passed through the 1.18, 2.36 and 5 mm testing
sieves. The fine particles in the GQD were believed to reduce the
Fig. 6. Workability of mortar mix.
workability of the mortar mixture due to the high specific surface
area of the GQD. The higher specific surface area tends to increase
the water demand in the cementitious composites [37]. There are
51.16% of NRS and 50.32% of the GQD have which have passed
through the 1.18 mm test sieve. Based on the results, it was indi-
cated that the NRS used possessed a higher fines fraction that is
smaller than 1.18 mm. At the same time, there were 48.84% of
NRS and 49.68% of the GQD retained on the 1.18 mm test sieve.
These results have indicated that the GQD possessed a higher frac-
tion of coarser particles and lesser finer particles than NRS. This
was believed to have reduced the specific surface area of the fine
aggregates in cementitious composites. As the specific surface area
is reduced, the water demand required to achieve the desired
workability tended to be reduced.
3.2. Bulk density
Table 3 shows the bulk density of the mortar mix with different
GQD sand replacement levels. Overall, the bulk density of the mortar
was reported in the range of 2303 kg/m3 to 2388 kg/m3under nor-
mal weight mortar category. The bulk density of the mortar mix
was increasing from 1 to 90 days. The increase in bulk density was
due to the continuous hydrations within the specimens which have
promoted a denser microstructure of the specimens on prolonged
curing durations [77]. The bulk density of ternary blended cementi-
tious composites at the early age (1 day and 7 days) which consisted
of 40% of GGBS and 10% of the PFA was relatively lower than the con-
trol mix which was the full OPC blend mortar. The replacement of
cement content has reduced the volume of the formation of hydrates
in the matrix of the cementitious composite which was used to fill
up the pores in the matrix of the cementitious composite. This
resulted in a reduction of the density of the mortar at the early age
[78]. However, further curing up to 28 days and above showed that
the bulk density of the ternary blended mortar possessed relatively
higher result than the control mix. This was believed to be due to the
presence of a pozzolanic reaction which promotes a denser cemen-
titious matrix at the later age of the test mortars. The presence of the
PFA and GGBS have reduced the water demand which has, in turn,
produced a denser microstructure matrix results in relatively higher
bulk density [79]. Table 3 shows that as the GQD replacement level
increases, the bulk density of the ternary blended mortar increases.
This is largely due to the presence of denser material use in the
cementitious composites [80]. The specific gravity of the GQD used
in this experimental program was reported as 2.75 while 2.63 for
NRS as shown in Table 1. The researchers have reported that the den-
sity of the mortar varies with the denser materials used which pro-
duced a denser matrix of the mix [81]. As the GQD replacement level
increases, the density of the cementitious composites increases as
the volume of denser GQD increases. Furthermore, the fines from
the GQD have are believed to have filled up the pores inside the
matrix which have produced a denser and a more compact cemen-
titious matrix. This results in a higher density of the mortar [82].
298 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306

Table 3
Bulk density of the mortar mix.

Mix design Hybridization ratio (%) GQD replacement Bulk density (kg/m3) - standard deviation
level (%)
OPC GGBS PFA NRS GQD 1 day 7 days 28 days 90 days
CM 100 0 0 100 0 2303 ± 4.92 2318 ± 2.62 2323 ± 0.72 2324 ± 0.16
GQD0 50 40 10 100 0 2301 ± 4.32 2303 ± 3.74 2327 ± 1.73 2330 ± 4.43
GQD20 50 40 10 80 20 2342 ± 4.50 2342 ± 3.46 2343 ± 2.31 2343 ± 4.03
GQD40 50 40 10 40 60 2347 ± 0.23 2347 ± 3.68 2349 ± 4.08 2361 ± 1.25
GQD60 50 40 10 60 40 2356 ± 2.00 2356 ± 5.31 2363 ± 5.23 2366 ± 3.09
GQD80 50 40 10 20 80 2362 ± 4.16 2362 ± 0.47 2368 ± 3.54 2371 ± 4.92
GQD100 50 40 10 0 100 2370 ± 5.23 2370 ± 3.68 2382 ± 2.49 2388 ± 4.91

3.3. Compressive and flexural strength

Figs. 7 and 8 shows the compressive and flexural strength per-

formance of the control mix and the ternary blended mortar with
various GQD replacement levels. Based on the compressive and
flexural strength performance shown in Figs. 7 and 8, the control
mix possessed higher compressive and flexural strength at the
early ages (1 day and 7 days). This was largely due to the presence
of GGBS and PFA in the ternary blended mortar. The presence of
SCMs such as GGBS and PFA have been reported to exhibit a lower
mechanical strength performance at the early age in the past find-
ings [76,77,83]. The strength at day 1 shows the GGBS-PFA ternary
blended mortar (GQD0) has exhibited a normalized compressive
strength of 44% of the control mix (CM) and a compressive strength
of 77% at 7 days. This was because the pozzolanic reaction between
the PFA and the lime generated by the OPC hydration is relatively
slower. There was also lower hydraulic reactivity of GGBS as com-
pared to the primary hydration of OPC [84]. Hence, the dilution of
OPC content for GQD0 and all mixes containing GQD affected the
early compressive strength performance as the OPC volume has
been substituted by GGBS and PFA by 50%. Thus, the results
showed that the ternary blended mortar with different GQD
replacement levels possessed relatively a lower early strength than
the control mix (CM). From 28 days onwards, the ternary blended
mortar with different GQD replacement levels possessed a higher
compressive strength than the control mix (CM). This phenomenon
was attributed to the presence of GGBS and PFA. GGBS and PFA
tend to promote later age strength of the cementitious composites
which have been reported by the previous findings. The presence
of GGBS and PFA has enhanced the later age strength by producing
the secondary C-S-H and C-A-S-H hydrates. Hence, they have filled
up the pores in the primary C-S-H network formed by the primary
hydration of cement results in a denser cementitious matrix
[77,78,84]. At the early ages (1 day and 7 days), the presence of
the GQD tends to improve the compressive strength performance
Fig. 7. Compressive strength performance of the mortar mix.
Fig. 8. Flexural strength performance of the mortar mix.
as compared to the mortar mix with NRS only. As the GQD replace-
ment level increases up to 60%, the mortar mix possessed a more
remarkable increment in the mechanical performance. However,
beyond 60% of GQD replacement levels, the presence of GQD does
not further improve the mechanical performance of the ternary
blended mortar. Improvement in mechanical performance is lar-
gely due to the better bond strength between the binder and
GQD particles [39]. GQD is a material which is relatively rough in
texture and angular in shape as observed in Fig. 1 as compare to
NRS which is more rounded in shape as shown in Fig. 2. The rough
texture of the GQD has induced a better frictional resistance
between the paste and the fine aggregates [38,41,43]. Results
showed an improvement in mechanical strength performance with
the inclusion of the GQD as a sand replacement material. An angu-
lar shape of the GQD revealed an enhancement of resistivity
towards the crack propagation through the interlocking of particles
in the cementitious composites [45,47,85]. Nevertheless, a more
compact matrix was produced with the aid of the GQD resulting
in mechanical strength improvement [39,43]. At the same time,
the presence of the GQD has further reduced the water demand
which results in relatively a lower w/b ratio compared to the tern-
ary blended mortar mix with only NRS. Generally, the w/b ratio
reflects the strength performance of the cementitious composites.
The strength performance is inversely proportional to the w/b
ratio. The reduction in water consumption has narrowed the ITZ
which consequently increased the bond strength between the
cement paste and aggregate [86]. As from the results, the increase
in the GQD replacement level up to 60% showed an improvement
in both compressive and flexural strength performance. Beyond a
60% replacement level, the inclusion of the GQD does not improve
the mechanical strength performance further. In both compressive
and flexural strength performance, GQD80 possessed a similar
performance as GQD 20 which is similar as GQD0. Nevertheless,
there is a slightly decrement in both mechanical strength perfor-
mances in GQD100. As compare to GQD0, GQD100 has shown a
4.2% and 3.4% lower compressive strength as well as a 4.4% and
 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306
1.0% lower flexural strength at 28 days and 90 days of curing. As
such, it can be concluded that full utilization of the GQD does
not show a remarkable decrement in mechanical strength perfor-
mance which can be fully utilized in cementitious composite pro-
duction with SCMs. The decrement in mechanical strength
performance in GQD100 was established due to the presence of
an excessive content of fines which are the fractions that pass
through the 75 mm test sieve [56] from the GQD. Excessive fines
have induced a higher specific surface area which required more
binder to bind the aggregate phase [41,82]. Insufficient paste con-
tent due to the high total surface area of the aggregate phase tends
to produce a poor interlocking between the aggregate and binder
with an adverse effect on mechanical strength [37]. In addition,
Singh et al. [39] has claimed that the GQD tends to incur resistivity
to the flow due to its natural physical properties as discussed
before. Although lesser water demand was required in GQD100,
however, due to its higher water absorption properties, the free
water in the cementitious matrix was absorbed by the GQD. This
resulted in a poor degree of compaction. Such a phenomenon has
led to a higher void and poorer microstructure matrix resulting
in lower compressive and flexural strength performance.
3.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of propagation
Ultrasonic pulse velocity of propagation is a type of non-
destructive assessment to indicate the density of compactness of
the cementitious composites. This gives an indication of the veloc-
ity of a pulse using ultrasonic longitudinal waves transmitted
across the length of the cementitious composites. The ultrasonic
pulse velocity of propagation of a mortar mix with different GQD
replacement levels is shown in Fig. 9. Based on Fig. 9, the results
showed a similar trend in compressive and flexural strength per-
formance as previously discussed. Ternary blended mortar showed
relatively lower UPV values as compared to the control mix at the
early ages (1 day and 7 days). This was largely due to the hydration
in cement as the early age produced a more compact microstruc-
ture as compared to the ternary blended mortar. Based on the
7 day results, the use of the high volume of GQD tends to produce
a denser overall aggregate phase which has had results in the
enhancement of the UPV results. The GQD within 60%, 80%, and
100% replacement levels showed a better performance as com-
pared to the mix with 0%, 20% and 40% GQD replacement levels.
The presence of the GQD tends to compensate the negative impact
by GGBS and PFA at the early ages (1 day and 7 days). At the age of
28 days, the UPV results with the presence of SCMs showed better
performance than the control mix. The high content of GGBS and
PFA hybrids was claimed to enhance the medium term mechanical
performance due to the rigorous continuous time-based formation
Fig. 9. Ultrasonic pulse velocity of propagation of the mortar mix.
299
of the C-A-S-H framework from GGBS-PFA hybrid [77]. At 90 days,
the ternary blended mortar with various GQD replacement levels
showed better UPV performance as compared to the control mix.
These results were attributed to the combined enhancement
effects of both SCMs and the GQD. The presence of SCMs such as
GGBS and PFA improved the microstructure of the cementitious
composites. This was done through the continuous pozzolanic
reaction at a later age. The presence of the GQD had also densified
the overall aggregate phase. Theoretically, a lower w/b ratio and a
denser material used in the production of cementitious composites
tends to improve the UPV performance due to a more compact and
denser microstructure [80]. The w/b ratio was reported to reduce
as the GQD replacement level increases in Fig. 6. However, results
obtained showed that a reduction of w/b by GQD does not further
improve the UPV performance as there is further reduction in w/b
ratio. This can be observed in the GQD80 and GQD100 mix which
possessed relatively lower UPV results at the later age (90 days).
Although incorporation of the GQD has further reduced the water
demand, the reduction in water does not show continuous
improvement of UPV results along with increasing the GQD
replacement levels. This was largely due to the higher fraction of
fine content which has increased the total specific surface area of
the aggregate phase. As such, the paste volume demand was
expected to be higher. As the binder content was kept constant,
the reduction in water consumption was believed to consequently
reduce the paste volume in GQD80 and GQD100 resulting in a rel-
atively poor interlocking microstructure. Therefore, a porous
matrix was formed. Overall, the presence of the GQD showed a rel-
atively higher UPV result as compared to the control mix and
GQD0. Singh et al. [40] claimed that the presence of GQD tends
to densify the matrix of the cementitious composites. Meanwhile,
an increase in the adhesion of concrete specimens with positively
higher UPV results was obtained. Nevertheless, fully utilization of
the GQD exhibited similar UPV values. GQD0, however, exhibited
better performance in the UPV values than the control mix at
90 days of curing age. Such a phenomenon can be explained. Full
utilization of the GQD with a ternary blended binder possesses a
similar performance as ternary blended mortar with full NRS as
aggregate with an improved cementitious composite microstruc-
ture at a prolonged curing age.
3.5. Water absorption
Fig. 10 showed the water absorption of the mortar mix with dif-
ferent GQD replacement levels. Overall, the mix with GGBS and
PFA possessed relatively high water absorption as compared to
the control mix at the testing age of 1 day and 7 days. GGBS and
were claimed to enhance the mechanical and durability perfor-
mance at the later age according to previous literature. However,
the presence of GGBS and PFA as SCMs has shown a negative
impact towards the early age (1 day and 7 days) performance in
terms of water absorption results. Amer et al. [87] reported that
this phenomenon was due to the hydration of cement produced
the hydrates framework which acts as a basic skeleton of percolat-
ing solids to the microstructure in the early curing age. The substi-
tution up to 50% of OPC with the combination of GGBS and PFA
have reduced the total cement content contributing to a higher
water absorption at early ages of 1 day and 7 days. It was also
observed that the incorporation of the GQD tends to compensate
the cement dilution effect at the early ages as found in the mechan-
ical performance section. Densification in the cementitious matrix
by the GQD slightly improved in its water absorption properties of
the ternary blended mortar [41]. Densification in the cementitious
matrix is supported by the bulk density result as aforementioned
in Table 3. As reported previously, fully utilization of the GQD in
ternary mortar did not further improve the water absorption
300 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306
Fig. 10. Water absorption of the mortar mix.
properties at an early age (1 day and 7 days). The excessive fines
from the GQD tended to increase the total specific surface area
which resulted in a higher paste demand. The deficiency in paste
volume has resulted in poor interlocking between aggregate and
paste. At 28 days onwards, the ternary blended mortar started to
exhibit significant resistivity towards the water absorption. The
ternary blended mortar with the GQD replacement levels of 0%,
20%, 40%, and 60% were reported to exhibit better resistivity
towards the water absorption as compared to the control mix. Fur-
thermore, the presence of the GQD has reduced the number of
voids and capillaries within the cementitious matrix [40]. The phe-
nomenon was also believed to be attributed to the improvement of
pore structure in the paste-aggregate ITZ [50]. Allam et al. [49]
reported that the presence of the GQD tends to enhance the mix-
ture grading. Such enhancement has resulted in producing a more
compacted mixture which permits water to enter the specimen.
The result also showed that large volume of the GQD replacement
levels up to 80% and 100% permitted relatively higher water
absorption as compared to the mix coded GQD0. However, it was
also observed that there was not much significant difference
between the control mix with GQD80 and GQD100.
3.6. Intrinsic air permeability
The results of the intrinsic air permeability of the mortar mix
with different GQD replacement levels have been shown in
Fig. 11. Intrinsic air permeability is a method to investigate the
ease of liquids, gases and dissolved deleterious substances such
as chloride or sulfate ions or carbon dioxide ability to penetrate
through the mortar/concrete mix [71]. Similar to the mechanical
strength and water absorption performance, ternary blended mor-
tar exhibited a relatively higher k-value at the 1 day testing age
which is similar to the findings from Owaid et al. [78]. The authors
claimed that the presence of continuous pores was largely due to
low GGBS reactivity and the slow pozzolanic reaction of the PFA
at the early age (1 day and 7 days). From Fig. 9, the k-value of
the ternary blended mortar with different GQD replacement levels
from 0% to 100% were reported 153% to 253% higher than the con-
trol mix at the first day of testing. However, the k-value of the tern-
ary blended mortar showed a remarkable reduction from 1 day to
7 days testing. Owaid et al. [78] also believed such results obtained
were due to the presence of PFA. The PFA retarded the hardening
process of the cementitious composites resulting in a more porous
microstructure produced on the first day. At 7 days, the k-value for
the ternary blended mortar with the GQD exposed different
replacement levels varying from 0% to 100% reported nearly to
the k-value of the control mix. From the results explained in
Fig. 11, the presence of the GQD tends to compensate the reduction
of the performance due to SCMs in the early age (1 day and 7 days)
Fig. 11. Intrinsic air permeability of the mortar mix.
as mentioned previously. From the results shown in Table 3, the
presence of the GQD tends to increase the bulk density on that par-
ticular mix design also at an early age (1 day and 7 days). A denser
material which is the GQD used in the production of cementitious
composites tends to produce a denser microstructure resulting in
an improvement on the resistivity of air permeability. GQD20,
GQD40, and GQD60 have shown relatively lower k-values than
GQD0 on the first day of its curing age. Partially GQD replacement
up to 60% has reduced the k-value range from 7.4% to 24.9% as
compared to GQD0 on the first day of testing. Presence of the
GQD up to 60% tends to improve permeability resistivity at an early
age. Overall, the k-value decreases as the GQD increases up to 80%
from 28 days onwards. Partial replacement of the GQD tends to
improve the microstructure of the cementitious composites pre-
sent a more adequate grading, subsequently, reduce volume and
connectivity of the capillary pores. From Fig. 11, the k-values of
GQD80 and GQD100 were observed relatively higher than the
GQD0 mix at all ages. Singh et al. [39] reported that beyond opti-
mal replacement levels, there was a remarkable reduction in per-
meability resistivity performance. The fines from the GQD have
increased the total specific surface area, which in turn, increased
the paste demand with a consequential effect as discussed in prior
sections. However, with GQD80 it was found that there is an
improvement in air permeability resistivity when compared with
the control mix. From the bulk density result recorded in Table 3,
GQD80 possessed a relatively higher density. Such phenomenon
explained a denser microstructure possessed a more refined
microstructure; thus reducing the intrinsic air permeability value
at 28 days onwards. Such a phenomenon does not apply to the sit-
uation in the mix coded GQD100. GQD100 possessed relatively
higher intrinsic air permeability value than the control mix at all
ages. The differential recorded data was reported at 143.3%,
55.7%, 9.6% and 2.0% at the specific testing age. The differential
was found decreased at the prolonged curing age. At the prolonged
curing age, the impairment in full utilization of the GQD tended to
decrease.
3.7. Total porosity
Fig. 12 showed the results of the total porosity of the mortar
mix with different sand replacement levels with the GQD. The
results of the total porosity are in line with the results of intrinsic
permeability as shown in Fig. 9. The porosity from a control mix to
GQD100 reported 12.02%, 14.05%, 13.55%, 13.51%, 13.31%, 14.67%
and 15.06% at day one of testing, while, 8.85%, 9.79%, 9.62%,
9.53%, 8.99%, 9.84% and 10.15% was reported as the porosity at
7 days of testing. The results have shown that the ternary blended
mortar exhibited a higher porosity as compared to the control mix
at an early age (1 day and 7 days). The high porosity of the mortar
 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306
Fig. 12. Total porosity of the mortar mix.
containing GGBS and PFA at an early age (1 day and 7 days) was
attributed to the dilution effect of cement as discussed earlier.
The porosity of the ternary blended mortar was reduced signifi-
cantly from 1 day to 7 days as compared to the control mix. On
prolonged curing duration up to 90 days, the porosity of the
cementitious composites tends to decrease. This phenomenon
was attributed to the refinement of microstructure by the binders.
Furthermore, from the results we have observed GQD20, GQD40
and GQD60 exhibited lower porosity than GQD0. The reduction
of the porosity was reported in 1.7%, 2.7% and 8.2% for GQD20,
GQD40, and GQD60 at 7 days curing. The phenomenon was largely
due to the presence of the GQD improving the bonding perfor-
mance on the paste-aggregate interface. Reduction in quantity on
the continuity of capillary pores in the cementitious matrix was
also resulting in a less porous microstructure. However, it was
observed that a high GQD replacement level exhibited higher
porosity than GQD0 at all ages. GQD80 exhibited 4.4%, 0.5%, 1.6%
and 1.2% higher than GQD0, while GQD100 exhibited 7.2%, 3.7%,
5.4% and 3.7% higher than GQD0 at all testing ages. This was largely
due to the presence of excessive fines from the GQD producing an
increase in paste demand. A deficiency of paste volume led to poor
interlocking microstructure results though higher porosity was
observed. In addition, there was no observed significant reduction
in porosity of the control mix from 28 days to 90 days of testing.
Meanwhile, the ternary blended mortar with different GQD
replacement levels still possessed some reduction in porosity.
The presence of the GQD possessed a lower porosity up to 60% of
GQD replacement levels. Beyond 60% GQD content by total fine
aggregate, higher porosity was observed. Higher porosity observed
in the mixes GQD80 and GQD100, was believed to reflect the
reduction of mechanical strength performance [80] as discussed
earlier. As compared to the control mix, GQD100 possessed a rela-
tively higher total porosity (%). Generally, a lower w/b tends to pro-
duce a denser and a more refine microstructure [80]. However, a
reduction in the w/b ratio would lead to insufficient proper com-
paction which also leads to a more porous microstructure [77].
Although GQD100 required a relatively lower w/b ratio to achieve
the initial flow diameter, however, the water absorption properties
of the GQD was reported at 2.22% which is much more than the
NRS with 1.61% water absorption. Higher water absorption proper-
ties have further absorbed the free water in the fresh cementitious
composites resulting in less favorable compaction degree during
the placement of fresh mortar into the steel mold.
3.8. Capillary absorption assessment
The capillary absorption of the mortar mix with different GQD
replacement level results was shown in Fig. 13. Basically, the cap-
illary absorption is given an overall insight towards the pore grad-
ing of the cementitious composites. It is important to indicate the
301
Fig. 13. Capillary absorption of the mortar mix.
resistivity of the cementitious composites towards the aggressive
ions such as sulfate and chloride penetration. This is believed to
give a negative impact towards the long-term durability perfor-
mance of the cementitious composites. The samples used were
cured up to 28 days by using moist curing methods. Thus, the per-
formance of the specimens was able to give an indication of the
service life of the mortar mix. The results showed that the rate of
absorption was high during the first 8 h at a larger linear gradient
in all mixes. This phenomenon was attributed to the water
absorbed to fill up the larger pores in the cementitious matrix.
100% of the GQD replacement level showed the highest amount
of water absorbed in the first 8 h while 60% of the GQD replace-
ment level showed the least water absorbed. The observation is
indicative of the ternary blended mortar with 100% GQD replace-
ment level possessing the highest degree of continuous capillary
pores in the cementitious matrix. Thus, it is expected that the resis-
tance to the ingress of aggressive ions such as sulfate and chloride
is relatively lower due to the high rate of absorptivity [80]. The Ca
value of the ternary blended mortar with 40% of the GQD replace-
ment level was relatively higher as compared to the ternary
blended mortar with 0% of the GQD replacement level within the
first 8 h. However, on the second day onwards, the Ca value of
the ternary blended mortar with 40% of the GQD replacement level
was observed to be lower than the ternary blended mortar with 0%
of the GQD replacement level. This is primarily due to the larger
pores in the ternary blended mortar with 40% of the GQD replace-
ment level. This was relatively more than GQD0. From the second
day onwards, the overall Ca results exhibited lower cumulative
weight gain as compared to the first 8 h. This was because the
large-sized capillary pores were completely filled up by the first
8 h. Overall, the use of GGBS and PFA as SCMs tends to reduce
the degree of capillary pores in the cementitious matrix. The for-
mation of the hydrates from GGBS and PFA has densified the
cementitious matrix which results in a lower Ca value. Generally,
the use of the GQD at various levels of sand replacement levels
up to 80% enables the reduction in the degree of capillary pores.
This was believed due to the presence of rough and angular shapes
of the GQD physical appearance. Improvement of the performance
through better paste-aggregate bond reduced the continuity of
capillary pores [81]. This improvement was believed to have
reduced the porosity and air content in the cementitious compos-
ites. The ternary blended mortar with up to 100% of the GQD as
sand replacement possessed a similar capillary absorptivity prop-
erty as the control mix.
3.9. Drying shrinkage behavior
Theoretically, drying shrinkage on the cementitious composites
was due to the evaporation of internal free water from concrete or
302 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306

mortar in the hardened state to the surrounding environment. Dry-

ing shrinkage behavior of the mortar mix with different GQD sand
replacement levels is depicted in Fig. 14. Based on the test results,
the incorporation of GGBS and PFA has reduced the drying shrink-
age of the cementitious composites. The presence of PFA and GGBS
has reduced the pore size due to its denser binder phase. This, in
turn, prevents the internal moisture evaporation results reducing
the drying shrinkage behavior [88]. The incorporation of SCMs
has reduced the water demand. The free water available was
decreased for subsequent evaporation from the internal pore
space, hence, reducing the degree of drying shrinkage [89]. Piasta
and Zarzycki [86] reported that lower drying shrinkage was
observed on the cementitious composites with a lower w/c ratio.
Thus, GQD100 with a relatively lower w/c ratio possessed the low-
est length change. From the results, the incorporation of the GQD
in ternary blended mortar tends to further improve drying shrink-
age behavior. As the GQD replacement level increases, the drying
shrinkage was reported to be reduced which is in line with previ- Fig. 15. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 0% GQD replacement levels at
ous findings by other researchers [28,46,52]. This is largely because 28 days curing age at 150 times magnification.
the GQD is relatively coarser than the natural river sand. The
researchers have claimed that aggregates course in nature have
reduced the total specific surface area that reduce water demand
on that particular mix. With lower free water in the pore space,
the degree of drying shrinkage of the cementitious composites
would be reduced correspondingly [51].

3.10. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis

The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used to analyze the

microstructure of the cementitious composites at high magnifica-
tion levels. The back scatter-mode was used in this experimental
programme which gives clear graphical information on the internal
microstructure of the cementitious composites. Qualitative com-
parisons were conducted to study the interaction between ternary
blended mortar with 0%, 60% and 100% GQD under various magni-
fications within the same sample at 28 days and 90 days of curing.
Figs. 15–17 showed the SEM image of ternary blended mortar
with 0%, 60% and 100% of GQD replacement levels at 150 times
Fig. 16. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 60% GQD replacement levels at
magnification. The qualitative assessment was conducted at 150
28 days curing age at 150 times magnification.
times magnification to study the overall morphology of the test
samples. A qualitative assessment revealed that the mortar matrix
of GQD0 possessed a number of pores in the image. As shown in
Fig. 16, GQD60 exhibited a more refined microstructure as com-
pared to GQD0 and GQD100 shown in Figs. 15 and 17. This was
believed to be due to the low w/b ratio results in producing a den-
ser microstructure. Reduction in the w/b ratio theoretically tends
to improve the compactness of the microstructure. The image cap-
tured in GQD100 mortar showed a significant number of pores
among the three mortar samples examined. This was largely due

Fig. 17. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 100% GQD replacement levels at
28 days curing age at 150 times magnification.

to the poor compaction of the fresh mortar during placement into

the mold due to less free water in the surrounding matrix. A higher
magnification was then further applied on the spot to undergo fur-
Fig. 14. Drying shrinkage of the mortar mix. ther investigation on the morphology of the test specimens.
 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306 303

Figs. 18–20 showed the SEM image of ternary blended mortar

with 0%, 60% and 100% of GQD replacement levels at 3000 times
magnification at a curing age of 28 days. Based on the observation,
unhydrated PFA particles were observed at GQD0 in Fig. 18. It was
believed that the pozzolanic reaction from the PFA was not fully
being hydrated and contributed to the formation of the hydrates
framework. Zhou et al. [76] reported that the pozzolanic reaction
of the PFA is at later age (90 days and onwards). There are a num-
ber of pores also observed in Fig. 18. In Fig. 19, a more compact
microstructure was observed as compared to the microstructure
shown in Fig. 18. This was believed due to the presence of the
GQD densifying the microstructure matrix. Partial incorporation
of the GQD with NRS showed good interlocking interaction. How-
ever, Fig. 19 shows that there is some deficiency in the paste to be
fully surrounded the aggregate phase. According to the mechanical
and durability performance obtained previously, such a deficiency
in the paste or hydrate does not show significant variations. Fig. 20
represents the SEM image of GQD100 at 3000 times magnification
Fig. 20. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 100% GQD replacement level at
at 28 days of curing. From the image shown in Fig. 20, a poor inter- 28 days curing age at 3000 times magnification.
locking microstructure was observed. There were a significant
number of pores observed. An increase in the GQD replacement
levels tends to reduce the w/b ratio to achieve targeted workabil- This results in improper compacting in fresh mortar placement.
ity. However, it was believed that higher water absorption proper- There is also a less quantity of cementitious product (hydrates)
ties of the GQD tend to the free water in the cementitious matrix. spotted on the surface of the GQD in GQD100 mix. This was
believed that the fines content in the GQD used were relatively
high and increased the specific surface area on the aggregate
phase. The binder volume has been kept constant in all the mortar
mix fabricated in this experimental program. As the GQD replace-
ment levels increase, the water demand was found to be reduced.
This resulted in less paste volume in the mortar matrix. Insufficient
paste volume was believed to be the main issue in the production
of the poor interlocking cementitious matrix. This accounted for
why full utilization of the GQD in the ternary blended mortar
showed less favorable results in terms of mechanical and durabil-
ity performance as previously discussed.
Figs. 21–23 showed the SEM image of ternary blended mortar
with 0%, 60% and 100% of GQD replacement levels at 150 times
magnification at 90 days of curing. From the image captured the
microstructure of the mortar mixes have been improved to a more
compact microstructure as compared to Figs. 18–20. Firstly, the
improvement in the microstructure morphology is due to the for-
mation of a more complete hydrated product. In such, the mechan-
ical and durability performance has been further improved from
28 days to 90 days of curing age. Therefore, the number of pores
Fig. 18. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 0% GQD replacement level at
28 days curing age at 3000 times magnification. was found to be reduced as compared to the image captured at
28 days. However, there were still a few numbers of pores and

Fig. 19. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 60% GQD replacement level at Fig. 21. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 0% GQD replacement level at
28 days curing age at 3000 times magnification. 90 days curing age at 150 times magnification.
304 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306

Fig. 22. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 60% GQD replacement level at Fig. 24. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 0% GQD replacement levels at
90 days curing age at 150 times magnification. 90 days curing age at 3000 times magnification.

Fig. 23. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 100% GQD replacement level at Fig. 25. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 60% GQD replacement levels at
90 days curing age at 150 times magnification. 90 days curing age at 3000 times magnification.

numbers of cracks in the mix GQD0 and GQD100 observed. Overall,

a more refined morphology was observed from Fig. 22 in GQD60.
Figs. 24–26 showed the SEM image of ternary blended mortar
with 0%, 60% and 100% of GQD replacement levels at 3000 times
magnification at 90 days of curing age. Under a larger magnifica-
tion, there were micro-cracks observed in both Figs. 24 and 26.
The presence of micro-cracks has explained the differential in both
mechanical and durability performance as compared to GQD60 as
previously discussed. The micro-cracks were believed due to the
evaporated water in the surrounding area. The water absorbed in
the natural river sand was relatively low as compared to the
GQD which possessed higher water absorptivity shown in Table 1.
The micro-cracks spotted in 100% of the GQD replacement level
was believed due to the high fines content contributed by the
GQD have consequently impacted the microstructure as discussed
previously. There was also observed fly ash particles which were
believed to have just started its pozzolanic reaction. This phe-
nomenon was expected to further enhance the cementitious com-
posite microstructure at longer curing age. Fig. 24 also showed that
Fig. 26. SEM image of ternary blended mortar with 100% GQD replacement level at
the NRS particles were surrounded by sufficient hydrate products 90 days curing age at 3000 times magnification.
as compared with GQD100 shown in Fig. 26. There was a deficiency
in the hydrate products present on the surface of the GQD particles
as shown in Fig. 26. Deficiency in the hydrates on the surface of the bound both the GQD and NRS firmly. Such microstructure further
GQD in the mix GQD60 was also observed. Fig. 24 has shown a pos- explains the reason for optimum mechanical and durability perfor-
itive interaction between the hydrates, NRS and GQD. The hydrates mance as previously reported.
 C.B. Cheah et al. / Construction and Building Materials 197 (2019) 291–306
4. Conclusions
From the analysis which has been discussed in the previous
chapters, several conclusions have been derived as follow.
1. The XRD result obtained shows that GQD possesses similar min-
eral composition as NRS.
2. Incorporation of GQD tends to reduce the water demand to
achieve targeted workability.
3. The bulk density of the ternary blended mortar increases as the
GQD replacement level increases due to the higher specific
gravity of the GQD.
4. The presence of GQD tends to improve the compressive and
flexural strength performance up to 60% GQD replacement
level. Beyond the 60% GQD replacement level, there is slight
reduced in mechanical strength.
5. The durability performance such as water absorption, intrinsic
air permeability, total porosity, and capillary absorption
showed incorporation of GQD as NRS replacement material pos-
sess positive improvement up to 60%.
6. The durability performance such as water absorption, intrinsic
air permeability, total porosity, and capillary absorption with
80% GQD replacement level exhibited the similar performance
as GQD0. There is a slight reduction in durability performance
observed beyond the 80% replacement level.
7. Incorporation of GQD has reduced the drying shrinkage behav-
ior in a ternary blended mortar. As the GQD replacement level
increases, the drying shrinkage on that particular mix reduces.
Full utilization of GQD exhibited the lowest length change.
8. It is established that the GQD can be used either as a partial or
complete replacement of NRS in the production of ternary
blended high strength cementitious composites without signif-
icant variations in the mechanical strength, durability proper-
ties, and length change behavior. Such results indicate that
there is a possibility for large volume recycling materials from
granite industry use as fine aggregate to replace finite natural
resources in the production of high strength sustainable mortar
materials.
Acknowledgment
The author would like to acknowledge the Malaysian Ministry
of Education and Ministry of Energy, Science, Technology, Environ-
ment and Climate Change (formerly known as Ministry of Science
Technology and Innovation) for funding the study through the
Science fund Grant (Project no. 06-01-05-SF0848) and PRGS
(PRGS/1/2017/TK06/USM/02/1). USM Fellowship Scheme 1/18
from Universiti Sains Malaysia which supported the research
personnel is also duly acknowledged.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest.
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