CLASSICAL CONDITION

JOHN B. WATSON: EARLY CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WITH HUMANS

John B. Watson further extended Pavlov’s work and applied it to human beings [3]. In 1921, Watson

studied Albert, an 11 month old infant child. The goal of the study was to condition Albert to become

afraid of a white rat by pairing the white rat with a very loud, jarring noise (UCS). At first, Albert

showed no sign of fear when he was presented with rats, but once the rat was repeatedly paired

with the loud noise (UCS), Albert developed a fear of rats. It could be said that the loud noise (UCS)

induced fear (UCR). The implications of Watson’s experiment suggested that classical conditioning

could cause some phobias in humans.

Definition: The Classical Conditioning Theory was proposed by a Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov.

According to this theory, behavior is learnt by a repetitive association between the response and the

stimulus.

The classical conditioning theory is based on the assumption that learning is developed through the

interactions with the environment. Also, the environment shapes the behavior and internal mental

state such as thoughts, feelings, emotions do not explain the human behavior.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

ACQUISITION – RESPONSE HAPPENS GRADUALLY

GENERALIZATION – RESPONSE IS SIMILAR TO A RANGE OF SIMILAR STIMULI

DISCRIMINATION – RESPONSE IS DIFFERENT TO SIMILAR STIMULI

EXTINCTION – GRADUAL DISAPPEARANCE OF A CONDITIONED RESPONSE

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY – REAPPEARANCE OF A CONDITIONED RESPONSE TO

CONDITIONED STIMULUS
BF SKINNER: OPERANT CONDITIONING

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s

(1905) law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior

which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends

to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he

placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.

REINFORCEMENT

Is something that follows a response and strengthens the tendency to repeat the response. Primary

Reinforcement – is something necessary for survival. Secondary Reinforcement – the stimulus that

we learned to value(linked to Primary reinforcement).

Positive Reinforcement

Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The

box contained a lever on the side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock

the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.

The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The

consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action

again and again.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds

rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e., a

reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior

of completing your homework.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is known as negative

reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or

person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant

experience.
For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will complete

your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

Punishment (weakens behavior)

Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a

response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a

shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting

someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.

Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.

There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

• Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is

no longer present.

• Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.

• Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.

• Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do,

punishment only tells you what not to do.

SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT

Continuous – reinforcer is received each time a participant shows desired behavior.

Partial – rewards are given for some responses, but not each response, every time.

1. FIXED RATIO SCHEDULE

2. VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULE

3. FIXED INTERVAL SCHEDULE

4. VARIABLE INTERVAL SCHEDULE

 COGNITIVE LEARNING

 Latent learning – (hidden learning) learning that is obvious only once reinforcement is given
for demonstrating it.
 Tolman’s Latent Learning Experiment with Rats in Mazes
 Three groups of rats
 Group 1 – rewarded each time they completed the maze
 Performance improved steadily throughout trials
 Group 2 – never received a reward for completing the maze
 Performance improved only slightly throughout the trials
 Group 3 – not rewarded first half of trials and then rewarded during second
half of trials
 Performance first half – similar to group 2
 Performance second half – performance improved dramatically and
suddenly once rewarded

 Insight Learning – learning to solve a problem by understanding various parts of the

problem
 Wolfgang Kohler studied insight learning in chimpanzees
– Kohler placed chimpanzees in certain situations and watched them solve the
problems
 Ex. Hanging a banana out of the chimpanzee’s reach
– Solution: Monkeys stacked boxes on top of one another to get to the
banana
– Kohler believed that the monkeys could not have come to the
solution without a cognitive understanding of how to solve the
problem.
 Observational Learning – Albert Bandura aka social learning theory
– Modeling – the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
– Cognitive component: observation must include a mental understanding of what is
being observed.
– Ex. Young girls “parents” baby dolls as she sees her parents treat her
– Ex. Children learn violent behavior from television or video games.
 Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment
– Child and Adult in same room, child is playing and watches an adult hit and kick an
inflatable bobo doll for ten minutes. Child is then moved to another room where
there are many toys. Child is told he/she cannot play with those toys and that they
are for the other children. Child is taken to another room where there are a few toys,
including a bobo doll. Children that saw violent play were more likely to hit and kick
the bobo doll.
 EMOTIONS

According to the book, "Discovering Psychology," "An emotion is a complex psychological state that
involves three distinct components: a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a
behavioral or expressive response."

In addition to understanding exactly what emotions are, researchers have also tried to identify and
classify the different types of emotions. In 1972, psychologist Paul Eckman suggested that there
are six basic emotions that are universal throughout human cultures: fear, disgust, anger, surprise,
happiness, and sadness. In 1999, he expanded this list to include a number of other basic emotions,
including embarrassment, excitement, contempt, shame, pride, satisfaction, and amusement.

Emotion is a complex, subjective experience accompanied by biological and behavioral changes.

Emotion involves feeling, thinking, activation of the nervous system, physiological changes, and
behavioral changes such as facial expressions.
 THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

BALER & CHARLES, BY INTELLIGENCE MEANS ABILITY TO LEARN, TO ADAPT AND SOLVE NEW

PROBLEMS.

INTELLIGENCE IS A MENTAL QUALITY CONSISTING OF THE ABILITY TO LEARN FROM EXPERIENCE,

SOLVING PROBLEMS, AND USE KNOWLEDGE TO ADAPT TO NEW SITUATIONS.

THRONDIKE IDENTIFIED THREE KINDS OF INTELLIGENCE ABSTRACT, MECHANICAL & SOCIAL

1. SPEARMAN’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

2. THORNDIKE’S MULTIFACTOR THEORY OR ATOMIC THEORY OR STIMULUS RESPONSE THEORY

3. THURSTONE’S THEORY: PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES/GROUP FACTOR THEORY

4. GUILFORD’S MODEL OF STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT (SI MODEL)

Spearman’s two-factor theory:

1. It was developed in 1904 by an English Psychologist, Charles Spearman, who proposed that

intellectual abilities were comprised of two factors: one general ability or common ability known as

‘G’ factor and the other a group of specific abilities known as ‘S’ factor.

2. ‘G’ factor is universal inborn ability. Greater ‘G’ in an individual lead to greater success in life. ‘S’

factor is acquired from the environment. It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.

Spearman found that people who do well on one test of mental ability tend to do well on all others,

implying that there is a “key ingredient” for success across tests, which he identified using a

statistical tool called factor analysis, and which he called the general factor (shortened to g).
THORNDIKE’S MULTIFACTOR THEORY OR ATOMIC THEORY

Thorndike believed that there was nothing like General Ability. Each mental activity requires an

aggregate of different set of abilities. He distinguished the following four attributes of intelligence :

(a) LEVEL—refers to the level of difficulty of a task that can be solved.

(b) RANGE—refers to a number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty.

(c) AREA—means the total number of situations at each level to which the individual is able

To respond.

(d) SPEED—is the rapidity with which we can respond to the items.

Thorndike's CAVD test designed to measure ability to deal with abstractions has tests of sentence

completion (C), arithmetical reasoning (A), vocabulary (V), and the following of directions (D).

V - Verbal Comprehension

W - Word Fluency

N - Numeric Ability

S - Spatial Relation

P - Perceptual Speed

M - Memory

R - Reasoning
THURSTONE’S THEORY : PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES/GROUP FACTOR THEORY

Thurstone has given the following six primary factors :

(i) The Number Factor (N)—Ability to do Numerical Calculations rapidly and

accurately.

(ii) The Verbal Factor (V)—Found in tests involving Verbal Comprehension.

(iii) The Space Factor (S)—Involved in any task in which the subject manipulates the

imaginary object in space.

(iv) Memory (M)—Involving ability to memorize quickly.

(v) he Word Fluency Factor (W)—Involved whenever the subject is asked to think of

isolated words at a rapid rate.

(vi) The Reasoning Factor (R)—Found in tasks that require a subject to discover a rule or

principle involved in a series or groups of letters.Based on these factors Thurstone constructed a

new test of intelligence known as ‘‘Test of Primary Mental Abilities (PMA).’’

GUILFORD’S MODEL OF STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT

1. Guilford (1967, 1985, 1988) proposed a three-dimensional structure of intellect model.

2. According to Guilford every intellectual task can be classified according to it’s

(1) content, (2) the mental operation involved and (3) the product resulting from the operation.

3. He further classified content into five categories, namely, Visual, Auditory, Symbolic, Semantic and

Behavioral.

4. He classified operations into five categories, namely, Cognition, Memory retention, Memory

recording, Divergent production, Convergent production and evaluation.

5. He classified products into six categories, namely, Units, Classes, Relations, Systems,

Transformations and Implications.

CATTELL’S FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED THEORY

1. The fluid aspect of this theory says that intelligence is a basic capacity due to genetic potentiality.

2.While this is affected by the past and new experiences, the crystallized theory is a capacity

resultant of experiences, learning and environment.

CATTLES MODEL

1. Raymond Cattell attempted a reproachement of the theories of Spearman and Thurstone. In an

attempt to produce a general (g) factor, he combined Thurstone's primary factors to form secondary

and higher order factors.

2. Cattell found two major types of general factors and three minor ones, from his analysis. He

labeled the two major factors as "fluid" and "crystallized" general intelligence Cgj and 'g '

respectively).

3. Cattell argued that the fluid intelligence factor represents an individual's basic biological capacity

and can be measured as perceptual ability. The other major factor, crystallized intelligence,

represents the types of abilities required for most school activities which reflect experiential-

educative-aeculturative

influences, and is measured by most general intelligence and achievement tests.

4. Cattell labeled the minor general factors "gv", "gr" and "gs" for visual abilities, memory retrieval,

and performance speed respectively. Cattell's initial theory has been extended by his co-worker

Horn and others.

“It is an organization comprising the abilities of readiness, correctness and of understanding

complicated and abstract things, exhibits necessary mental control and action in solving problems”. -

S P CHAUBE,1983 T E S T O F I N T E L I G E N C E 3.

Intelligence is a capacity of excellence individual in the various area. 4. According to the TERMAN

“Intelligence is the ability to things.” 5.“Intelligence is the ability to give responses that are true.” -

THORNDIKE

3. 1. Mechanical intelligence 2. Social Intelligence 3. Abstract or (general) intelligence. TYPES OF

INTELLIGENCE: -

TESTOFINTELIGENCE

4. TEST OF INTELLIGENCE: - “French Psychologist, ‘ ALFRED BINET’ the father of intelligence test

construction movement. •Based on number of individuals to be tested 1.Individual tests –One

individual are tested at a time. 2. Group tests – Group of individuals are tested at a time. •Based on

the form of test:- 1. Verbal tests– Uses language or paper and pencil 2. Non – Verbal tests – For

example performance tests.

5. 1.INDIVIDUAL INTELLIGENCE TEST This test can be administrated to only one individual at a time.

TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL INTELLIGENCE TEST:- •Verbal method. •Non Verbal method. •Performance

test.

6. 1. VERBAL METHOD:- In this method language ability is essential. The individual can answer

through to verbal way such as reasoning memory and numerical abilities. Verbal test can not be

administrated to dumb, your condition or those who doesn’t understand your languages

7. 2. NON-VERBAL METHOD:- Non verbal method is deals with diagram and picture. This test free

from language barriers and do not require reading skill. Non verbal test can administrate illiterate

and natives.

8. 3. PERFORMANCE METHOD:- It is one of the non verbal test but is assess the subject (person) has

to do something to rather than to some.E.g.solve your problem, assemble e.g. a pattern of blocks,

assemble animal picture.

9. GROUP INTELLIGENCE TEST:- In this method test can be administrate to a group of individual at a

time. Individual intelligence test was born in France but Group intelligence test in America. Group

intelligence test started during first war for selecting shoulder in larger number.

10. TYPES OF GROUP INTELLIGENCE TEST:- Verbal test Non Verbal test

11. INTELLIGENCE TESTS BASED ON SCIENTISTS:- 1. Wechsler test A. Wechsler adult intelligence

test scale(WISE) B. Wechsler intelligence test scale for children(WISC) 2. The Stanford Binet

intelligence scale 3.Ravens progressive matrix 4. Vineland social maturity scale.

12. 1.WECHSLER TEST :- This test decribed by American Psychologist Wechsler. From this we can

assist the individual intelligence scale for all age group A) WISE – Used for people between ages of

16-75. B) WISC – Used for children at age group between 5-16 years.

13. Cont….. Wechsler assist the intelligence through the verbal scale involving used of word

concepts and numbers. It consists of six subsets. Test of general information Test of general

comprehension Test of Arithmetic reasoning Test of Digit Span Test of distinction between

similarity Test of vocabulary

14. Cont…. 1.INFORMATION: - In this test ask general knowledge and the individual information

status particular object. 2. COMPRIHENTION: - Are deals with more abstract questions e.g. nature of

necessity of laws. 3. ARITHMETIC: - It s deals with the problems solving method and measure by

scoring.

15. Cont… 4.DISIT STAN:-The subject required to repeat for backward series of numbers e.g.6,4,3,9

increasing member by backward or forward. 5. SIMILARITIES:-The subject is asked to identify Paris

similar. 6. VOCABULARY: - The meaning of the words has to be given.

16. PERFORMANCE INTELLIGENCE TEST:- Performance (scale) test have 5 sub test i.e Picture

arrangement test Picture completion test Object assembly test Block design test Digit symbol

test

17. Cont… PICTURE ARRANGEMENT:- This subject is given mixed up sets of picture to tell sensible

strong. PICTURE COMPLETION:- The subject should find out the missing picture. OBJECTIVE
ASSEMBLY:- In that are subject assemble the object to the complete one. Generally many small ports

or blocks given to the will arrange complete object.

18. Cont…. BLOCK DESIGN:- Block is a coloured blocks to produced picture according to given

pattern. DIGIT SYMBOL:-It is arithmetic procedure to find out the answer of digit valve here

provide correction in the right side box.

19. 2. STANFORD BINET TEST:- HISTORY:- Stanford Binet Test (1965) intelligent this is a new version

of Binet Simen test .In 1905 two French Psychologist Binet and Simen discover this intelligence test.

After that it was modified American Psychologist Termon with Binet at Stanford University for

current use of intelligence assessment. In 1986 it is known as Stanford Binet intelligence test form.

20. STANDFORD BINET TEST:- This test can useful for measurement of general intelligence test. It

can useful for 2 year to superior adults up to 45 years. It is very effective only to 16 years. For adults

this test result is not accurate or satisfactory.

21. Formula…… MA ( MENTALAGE) X 100 IQ= CA (CHRONOLOGICAL AGE)

22. IQ… IQ INTERPRETATION Below 20 Profound Mental retardation 20 - 35 Severe MR 35-50

Moderate MR 50-70 Mild MR 91-110 Slow learner 111-120 Average 121-140 Superior 140 and above

Gifted

23. IQ …… Nearly 35% belongs to low IQ and only 5% belongs to high. Some of the examples of

Binet test/Standford Binet Test. 1.For 2 years old:-Various names of body parts on the tap picture.

2.For 3 year old –Copy of drawing circle. 3.For 4 year old – Explain correctly why we have houses

or books. 4.For 5 year old-Define words like or stove, copy a drawing different type of square.

5.For 9 year old – Can rhymes.

24. 3.RAVENS PROGRESSIVE MATRIX:- This test is given by J.C. Raven’s British psychologist. It based

on ability to identify spatial relationship with object. This test used for 6-65 years. This test can assist

through the matrix for children colour box adult black and white colour .From the matrix find out

missing piece or ordinary pattern to find out 6-8 often on the same page. For this test there is no

time limitation but normally consider for 20 minute.

25. 4.VINELAND SOCIAL MATURITY SCALE- This scale is devised by Doll and his associates at

Veneland School in America. It naturally Assesses ones maturity status in a particular situation. But it

is not primarily an intelligence test. This test differs from other test because it is not directly

assessing the object but through the care giver like parents, neighbours, nurse ect.This score

recorded in from of SA (Social age).

26. USES:- 1.To assess the individual social behaviour skills and relationship. 2.To assess the social

maturity behaviour 3. It is applicable in medical field.

27. MEASURING GENERAL LEARING ABILITY “Ability to catch or understand instruction and

underlying principle, the ability to reason and make judgement closely doing well in school.”

28. Cont… TEST 1:- Lesson full range intelligence test PURPOSES:- Screen intelligence strength

and weakness with the brief instruments. Time 20 – 35 minutes Subject – Rapid cognitive index

(181 – 252 questions.). TYPES OF SCORE- raw score, standard score and percentile rank.

29. TEST 2:- STANDFORD BINET 5TH EDUCATION ( 2003) General mental ability 45-60 minutes

Comprehensive measurement Helps identity :- learning disabilities, gifted, MR, ADHD, speech and

language and Alzheimer, dementia. Traumatic brain injury, autistic.

Stress has been viewed as a response, a stimulus, and a transaction.

Stress As a Response
Stress as a response model, initially introduced by Hans Selye (1956),
describes stress as aphysiological response pattern and was captured
within his general adaptation syndrome (GAS) model (Figure 16.3).
This model describes stress as a dependent variable and includes three
concepts:
1. Stress is a defensive mechanism.
2. Stress follows the three stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
3. If the stress is prolonged or severe, it could result in diseases of
adaptation or even death.

Later, in The Stress Concept: Past, Present and Future (1983), Selye
introduced the idea that the stress response could result in positive or
negative outcomes based on cognitive interpretations of the physical
symptoms or physiological experience (Figure 16.3, “The General
Adaptation to Stress Model“). In this way, stress could be experienced
as eustress(positive) or dystress (negative). However, Selye always
considered stress to be a physiologically based construct or response.
Gradually, other researchers expanded the thinking on stress to include and
involve psychological concepts earlier in the stress model.
When confronted with a negative stimulus, the alarm response initiates the
sympathetic nervous system to combat or avoid the stressor (i.e., increased
heart rate, temperature, adrenaline, and glucose levels). The resistance
response then initiates physiological systems with a fight or flight reaction
to the stressor, returning the system to homeostasis, reducing harm, or
more generally accommodating the stressor, which can lead to adaptive
diseases such as sleep deprivation, mental illness, hypertension, or heart
disease.

Stress As a Transaction
In attempting to explain stress as more of a dynamic process, Richard
Lazarus developed the transactional theory of stress and
coping (TTSC) (Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), which
presents stress as a product of a transaction between a person (including
multiple systems: cognitive, physiological, affective, psychological,
neurological) and his or her complex environment.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) unpacked the concept of interpretation
further in their model of stress appraisal, which includes primary,
secondary, and reappraisal components (see Figure 16.5, “The
Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping”). Primary
appraisal involves determining whether the stressor poses a
threat. Secondary appraisal involves the individual’s evaluation of the
resources or coping strategies at his or her disposal for addressing any
perceived threats. The process of reappraisal is ongoing and involves
continually reappraising both the nature of the stressor and the resources
available for responding to the stressor.
What is Instinct?

Coined by Wilhem Wundt in 1870s, “instinct” is a term that was used to refer to any repeated
behaviour. This definition led a research to list about 4,000 instincts of humans. As years passed by,
the concept of instinct had been refined. Freudian psychoanalysts use the word instinct as a human
motivational force, or what we now call human “drives”. Psychoanalysts have identified two kinds of
basic instinct: “eros” or life instinct, and “thanatos” or death instinct.

What is Instinct Theory?

The Instinct Theory of Motivation views biological or genetic programming as the cause of
motivation. This claim means that all humans have the same motivations due to our similar biological
programming. This theory says that the root of all motivations is the motivation to survive. From our
motivation to survive, all other motivations emerge. And, as we act or behave with this kind of
motivation, all our actions are therefore considered as instincts.

A common example used to explain the Instinct Theory is that a human mother will attempt to
provide comfort to a baby who has been crying all night and will not sleep until she sees that the
baby is calm and asleep. According to Instinct theory, human mothers behave in this way because
they were biologically programmed to do so; it is a mother’s instinct to provide comfort to her child.
Proponents of this theory argue that this is not because of conditioning or learning, the mother
having weak or strong female role models, being raised in a rich family or a poor one – it is all
because of their instinct – that is, they cannot override the motivation to take care of their children.

Problems With Instinct Theory

One of the problems with this theory of motivation is that many identified instincts are not universal.
For instance, there are mothers who do not exhibit the supposed instinctual behaviour to take good
care of their children. Another issue is that humans may exhibit different levels of motivation
because of instinct, such as jealousy and aggression.
Drive-Reduction Theory

Clark Hull started developing his theory shortly after he began working at Yale University. He drew
on ideas from a number of other thinkers including Charles Darwin, Ivan Pavlov, John. B. Watson,
and Edward L. Thorndike. He based his theory around the concept of homeostasis, the idea that the
body actively works to maintain a certain state of balance or equilibrium. For example, your body
regulates its temperature in order to ensure that you do not become too hot or too cold. Hull believed
that behavior was one of the ways that an organism maintains this balance.

Based on this idea, Hull suggested that all motivation arises as a result of these biological needs. In
his theory, Hull used the term drive to refer to the state of tension or arousal caused by biological or
physiological needs. Thirst, hunger and the need for warmth are all examples of drives. A drive
creates an unpleasant state; a tension that needs to be reduced.

In order to reduce this state of tension, humans and animals seek out ways to fulfill these biological
needs. We get a drink when we are thirsty. We eat when we are hungry. We turn up the thermostat
when we are cold. He suggested that humans and animals will then repeat any behavior that
reduces these drives.

Hull is considered a neo-behaviorist thinker, but like the other major behaviorists, he believed that
human behavior could be explained by conditioning and reinforcement. The reduction of the drive
acts as a reinforcement for that behavior. This reinforcement increases the likelihood that the same
behavior will occur again in the future when then the same need arises. In order to survive in its
environment, an organism must behave in ways that meet these survival needs.

Arousal and Performance

One of the assertions of the arousal theory of motivation is that our levels of arousal can influence
our performance. This is commonly referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson Law. The law states that
increased levels of arousal will improve performance, but only up until the optimum arousal level is
reached. At that point, performance begins to suffer as arousal levels increase. Additionally, if you're
doing a complex task, high or low levels of arousal will affect you more than if you're doing
something simple.

Most students have experienced this phenomenon when taking final exams. Increased arousal can
lead to better test performance by helping you stay alert, focused, and attentive. Excessive arousal
can lead to test anxiety and leave you nervous and unable to concentrate on the test. When arousal
levels are very high or very low, performance tends to be worse.