Recommended Test Methods for Underground Power

Cables Containing Superabsorbent Materials

Kenneth E. Bow, Consultant Richard M. Ellis
Kable Consult LLC Cable Materials Inc.
Freeland, Michigan USA Atlanta, Georgia USA
k.bow@ieee.org rellisga@cablematerialsinc.com
Abstract— This paper
recommends new test media
and methods for underground
power cables with
superabsorbent water swelling
materials (SAP) . The tests
should reflect actual service
conditions in the field. The
type of water chosen for
swelling tests should have
ionic content to reflect the
composition of actual soil
water. The cable tests should
also reflect actual conditions.
The tests should measure the
performance of the cable
under simulated thermo-
mechanical loading
conditions, under water
pressure at the operating
voltage. The testing should
highlight the water-blocking
performance of the SAP in its
functional state, that is, in the
form of a hydrated gel. Such
requirements are already a
part of International
Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) test methods and are
also a requirement for certain
Insulated Cable Engineers
Association (ICEA) test
methods thereby allowing
harmonization of the global
requirements for water-
blocked cables.
Index Terms— IEC standards,
materials reliability, materials
testing, polymer gels, power
system reliability
I. INTRODUCTION
According to a recent
study by the Edison Electric
Institute [1], power utilities
continue to make significant
investments in underground
(UG) facilities. Their study
indicates utility spending of
over 4% of transmission
dollars and 20% of
distribution dollars on UG
construction. The materials
used in these UG power
cable designs continue to
evolve due to advancements
in the understandings of their
contribution to cable
performance and life span.
As the industry continues to
deploy more UG power
cables, it is important to
continue to analyze the
performance of the cable
materials under in-service
conditions. This paper
focuses on the effect of water
blocking in controlling the
radial and longitudinal flow
of water and moisture in
cable.
The significant
deployment of UG cables
began in Europe in the late
1970’s, with The Netherlands
leading the conversion from
overhead cable to UG cable,
primarily for low and
medium voltage products.
As of 1999, 100% of low and
medium voltage cables in the
Netherlands were installed in
the underground. In high
voltage networks, the
percentages are much lower,
with 4 countries
(Netherlands, United
Kingdom, Denmark,
Switzerland) having reached
the 10-20% range. In extra
high voltage networks, the
percentages are very low, but
solid dielectric 380 to 500
kV systems are becoming
more common [2]. The
evolution of solid dielectric,
polymeric insulation material
was driven in part by the
further understanding of the
influence of ground water on
the performance and life
span of those cables. As the
understanding of the causes
of water tree formation
advanced, materials and
process design changes were
made to reduce their impact
on cable service life. Cross-
linked polyethylene (XLPE)
insulations designed to
inhibit the growth of water
trees, semiconductor screens
designed to be free of
excessive ionic
concentration, and smooth
surface insulation shields
that are free of voids all conductor shield, and the
contributed to the reduction conductors. Water can
in water tree occurrences [3]. contribute to water tree
In the 1980’s, SAP, in growth as well as introduce
various forms, were corrosive ions that are
introduced to the cable present in the ground water
manufacturing industry. into the core of the cable.
These materials were in the The water in the cable can
form of loose powders, also eventually migrate into
powders encapsulated within cable terminations and
non-woven fabrics and splices and cause further
applied as tapes, and damage to the power system.
powders encapsulated on For this reason, global
yarns. The SAP can also be standards have been
used in the conductor region developed to guide the
of the cable to block the flow proper selection and
of water. The presence of application of suitable water
SAP in the conductor region blocking materials that work
also helps prevent corrosion, in conjunction with
thus reducing the potential optimized insulation and
for subsequent formation of jacketing compounds. The
water trees [4]. materials used to provide this
The objective of this water blocking functionality
paper is to propose a include tapes and yarns made
modified test media and test with SAP powders or SAP
method for more accurately fibers. SAP powders can
predicting the performance also be applied directly onto
of an in-service UG power the cable where the
cable over the life cycle of additional functionality of a
that cable. Harmonization of tape or yarn, such as
the ICEA and the IEC bedding, binding, or
standards related to water separating is not required.
blocked UG power cables is
another intended result of III. SAP MATERIAL
these changes. PROPERTY
REQUIREMENTS
II. EASE OF USE UG SAP polymers are
CABLE CONSTRUCTIONS AND typically formed from a
SAP MATERIALS cross-linked sodium salt of
acrylic acid, though other
It is well understood that chemical formulations are
water can cause problems available. SAP can be
when introduced into the formulated for targeted
core of a power cable. applications that require
Radial water penetration can specific performance
be prevented using metallic characteristics. A fast
shields or by the use of SAP swelling, high absorbency
materials under the jacket SAP may be perfect for a
[5]. The longitudinal water single use, disposable
migration in the area under hygiene product such as a
the jacket/around the baby diaper, but not for an
neutrals, or through the application with a multi-year
stranded conductors, can life cycle. Through a
have an adverse effect on the combination of careful
insulation, the insulation control of cross-linker type,
shield, the neutral wires, the amount and reaction
conditions during the
manufacture of the SAP,
permeability, stability and
rheological properties can be
modified or controlled.
As described by
Bringuier and Clyburn [6],
the water swelling
performance of a SAP
product, whether as a tape,
yarn, or as a direct powder
application, depends on the
ionic content of the water.
“The positive ions present in
ground water position
themselves next to the
carboxylate ions, thus
limiting the swelling and
absorbency capacity of the
SAP”. Raw material swell
testing and cable water
penetration testing were
performed using a variety of
ionic solutions. These
included manhole waters
from around the USA,
American Society for Testing
and Materials (ASTM)
Ocean Water, and other
specifically formulated ionic
solutions. The results
clearly demonstrated a very
good correlation between
ionic content (and related
pH) to swell and water
penetration performance.
The results also verified that
cables designed to account
for the effect of these ions
could pass all existing
industry requirements.
The most important
application specific
properties of an SAP as a
blocking agent for power
cables are [7]:
1/ Absorption and
retention: The SAP
must absorb and hold a
certain quantity of water.
2/ Absorption speed: The
SAP must react quickly
to the ingress of water.
3/ Permeability: The
hydrated SAP must form
an impervious mass to
prevent capillary
transport of the water.
4/ Resistance to
hydrolysis/gel
degradation: The
hydrated SAP must
maintain gel integrity
over the operating life of
the cable and at the
range of temperatures
that the cable is
designed to operate.
The typical United
States of America (USA)
cable manufacturer’s raw
material specification for dry
water blocking products
requires data on swell speed
and swell height in
distilled/deionized water or
in tap water. These data
were obtained through
various iterations of the “cup
and ram” test method that
measures the displacement of
a ram over time from the
swelling action of the
hydrated gel. The data are
typically reported at 1-
minute and at 3-minute
intervals. Distilled/deionized
water was originally selected
as the standard so that
different SAP products could
be characterized using a
common, universal media.
However, in the field, where
the actual SAP performance
is critical, the water to which
the SAP is exposed is
typically common ground
water, or possibly storm or
floodwater in a manhole, a
conduit or in the ground.
Ground, storm or floodwater
contains many cations that
have a significant effect on
the swelling properties of the
SAP. Storm or floodwater
can even be brackish or in
the ionic range of seawater in
coastal areas. Test data on
absorbency and swell speed
of the SAP that is based on
the reaction of the SAP to
distilled, deionized or tap
water is not representative of
the performance of the
material under actual
conditions of field water
ingress. It has been shown
that an SAP that absorbs
approximately 300 g/g in
distilled or tap water will
only absorb 30-40 g/g in 1%
NaCl solution, and even less
in CaCl2 solution [8]. A
typical USA cable
manufacturer’s specification
may also require heat-aging
data for the SAP in the dry
state. Again, while this
evaluation is somewhat
relevant to the field service
conditions, it evaluates the
SAP in an inactive state. It is
far more important to
evaluate the performance of
the SAP in its functional
state when fully hydrated.
The stability of the hydrated
gel at the operating
temperature of the in-service
cable is the only true test of
the ability of the SAP to
perform its intended function
in a cable. Thermal cycling
during water penetration
testing is a necessary
requirement as a condition of
the IEC 60840 and others.
IV. WATER
PENETRATION TESTING
For the most part, the
water penetration standards
used in North America were
developed with the idea that
a rapid swell speed and large
swell capacity were the
critical parameters that
ensured reliable resistance to
water penetration in the field.
As a result, the related water
penetration test protocols
focused on the relative short-
term performance of the
materials under predictable
parameters. The solution
used for water penetration
testing was often specified to
be distilled or deionized
water, though tap water is
now the more commonly
specified medium for testing
the functionality of SAP.
Two methods are used to
introduce the water into the
cable. One method of
introduction for the water
head is the “L type”, where
the water head is attached to
the end of the cable. The
water head can be adjusted to
apply various degrees of
pressure to the end of the
cable. Thus, the “L type”
essentially becomes a test for
water flow in the conductor.
The “T-type” allows the
water to intrude around the
circumference of the cable
and becomes a primary test
for the flow of water along
the length of the cable within
the interfaces of the sheath.
Regardless of the
configuration of the test
sample, (L or T type), the
duration of the water
penetration test, and other
factors or test conditions
were devised to try to
simulate the actual field
circumstances of a water
insult. The ICEA T-31-
610-2007 test duration is one
hour at ambient. The ICEA
T-31-610-2007 and the ICEA
T-34-664-2007 do not
specify the type of water,
while the IEC 60840
specifies the test media as
tap water. The ICEA T-31-
610-2007 requires thermal
cycling of the conductor
cable core sample with the
SAP in the “dry” state while
ICEA T-34-664-2007,
Qualification Test Part B,
and IEC 60840 requires
thermal cycling of the cable
while the cable sample is
subjected to water
penetration and the SAP is in
a swollen state. The ICEA T-
34-664-2007 requires 20
heating cycles at the rated
conductor emergency
temperature, with each cycle
consisting of heating applied
for four hours followed by
four hours of natural cooling.
The IEC 60840 calls for the
waterhead to be applied at
ambient and allowed to stand
for 24 hours. The sample is
then subjected to 10 heating
cycles of 5K to 10K above
the maximum conductor
temperature in normal
conditions. The temperature
cycles are 8 hours at elevated
temperature, followed by 16
hours of natural cooling.
The ICEA T-34-664-2007
Qualification Test Part B,
and the IEC 60840 test
procedures more accurately
simulate in-service field
conditions.
It is important that an
ionic solution be used to
simulate the ground water
insult. It is equally
important that the water
penetration testing be
conducted while the sample
undergoes simulated service
conditions, such as those
required by IEC 60840 and
others. It is during this
cycling at conductor
operating temperature that
the dynamic blocking
property of the SAP
chemistry is more easily
demonstrated. Water
blocking products made with
correctly formulated SAP
will be able to resist
hydrolysis of the gel under
the simulated field
conditions [9] When the gel
breaks down under the
simulated field conditions, it
releases the water and the
associated ionic
contaminants from their
bond, creating free water.
The result of free water in
the cable can be increased
water tree growth and
corrosion. The water must
not only be blocked with the
initial formation of gel, but
the gel must continue to
bond the water and the ionic
contaminants over time to be
truly effective.
V. PROPOSED NEW TEST
MEDIA AND METHOD
FOR SAP PROPERTY
CHARACTERIZATION
AND WATER
PENETRATION
PERFORMANCE TESTING
This paper proposes that
a standard ionic solution be
developed for use in both
raw material characterization
and cable performance
testing. The current use of
distilled, de-ionized or tap
water does not accurately
reflect the service conditions
under which the SAP must
be functional. Tap water is
typically treated to remove
Ca++ and Mg++ ions to
“soften” the water [10]. This
eliminates two of the cations
that have the most adverse
effect on SAP. One proposed
option is to use a diluted
solution of the existing ionic
solution prepared per ASTM
D1141 - 98(2013) “Standard
Practice for the Preparation
of Substitute Ocean Water.”
This ionic solution is
intended to be equivalent to
seawater, so at full strength it
is not representative of
ground water. However, the
formula contains a subjected to thermal aging
representative sample of the
cations that exist in ground
water and that have the most
dramatic effect on the
performance of SAP. The
user community should also
consider other options for
such a standard ionic
solution.
The only standardized
method to determine the
swell height of water
blocking materials is
currently specified under
Cenelec HD 605 S2, section
2.5.9, which defines the
measuring apparatus (cup
and ram) and the test
protocol. The “cup and ram”
swell test is a common
method developed and used
by raw material vendors and
end users alike. However,
specifications for the cup, the
ram, the “load” imparted by
the ram, etc., can vary from
one vendor/end-user method
to the next. There is a need
for an ICEA standard swell
height method and apparatus
that brings conformity to the
results.
The ICEA water
penetration test method used
to verify the performance of
the cable in the field should
be modeled after IEC 60840
that requires temperature
cycling at cable operating
temperatures be conducted
while the sample is
undergoing water penetration
testing. This procedure is
required to understand how
the SAP will perform under
simulated field conditions.
The gel formed by the
ingress of water is subject to
hydrolysis, which can be
significantly accelerated by
the standard operating
temperatures of a medium or
high voltage power cable [5].
The cable should be
during the water penetration
test cycle, to verify
performance under field
conditions.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The functional
properties of SAP should be
designed for the intended
end-use application, and the
conformance should be
measured using standard
methods that most accurately
reflect field conditions. The
performance of the SAP in
field conditions can be most
accurately predicted using an
ionic solution that best
simulates the water that will
need to be blocked in the
event of a breach in the
sheath of an UG cable. The
thermal stability of the
hydrated superabsorbent is
critical to the water blocking
function of the SAP during
the life cycle of power
cables. The gel stability
ensures that the longitudinal
flow of water is stopped. It
also ensures that the free
water is bonded within the
SAP, thus reducing potential
damage from water trees and
corrosion. The thermal
stability of the hydrated gel
should be a design
consideration for all UG
cables. Consideration should
be given to amending current
standards relating to
longitudinal water blocking
of power cables to reflect the
importance of this property,
and the method and media
used to characterize it.
The following changes
are recommended in the
industry standards dealing
with qualification of water-
swelling materials both as
materials and as components
of cable:
1/ Standardize the test
media as an ionic
solution based on known
groundwater
constituents.
2/ Standardize the swell
cup test apparatus and
method.
3/ Standardize on a water Term Stability of
Superabsorbent Gel for Cable
penetration test method Water-blocking Performance”,
that includes the International Wire and Cable
requirement that the Symposium 2010.
cable sample undergoes [10] Ohio Dept. of Natural
Resources, “Ground Water
thermal loading cycles Quality”, 10/07/2011.
at or above normal
conductor operating
temperature while
undergoing water
penetration testing.

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