CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Minerals in food

Minerals are elements that originate in the soil and cannot be created by living
things, such as plants and animals. Yet plants, animals and humans need minerals in
order to be healthy. Plants absorb minerals from the soil, and animals get their minerals
from the plants or other animals they eat Most of the minerals in the human diet come
directly from plants, such as fruits and vegetables, or indirectly from animal sources.
Minerals may also be present in the drinking water, but this depends on the location of
the source of water, and the kind of water taken for drinking. Minerals from plant
sources may also vary from place to place, because the mineral content of the soil varies
according to the location in'which the plant is grown [1J.
Minerals are inorganic substances, present in all body tissues and fluids and their
presence is necessary for the normal life processes [2, 3]. There are three main needs for
minerals, viz.,
(i) Building strong bones and teeth,
(ii) Controlling body fluids inside and outside the cells and,
(iii) Converting the food taken into energy.

1.2. Classification of minerals

Minerals constitute the residue that remains as ash after the combustion of plant
and animal tissues. They may be divided into

• macro (major) elements,

• micro (trace) elements and
• ultra-trace elements

The macro-minerals include calcium, phosphorus, sodium and chloride, while the
micro-elements include iron, copper,- cobalt, potassium, magnesium, iodine, zinc,
manganese, molybdenum, fluorine, chromium, selenium and sulfur [4]. The macro­
minerals are required in amounts greater than 100 mg/dl or > 50 mg/day and the micro-

1
minerals are required in amounts less than 100 mg/dl or < 50 mg/day [5, 6]. The ultra
trace elements include boron, silicon, arsenic and nickel which have been found in
animals and are believed to be' essential for these animals. Evidence for requirements
and essentialness of others like cadmium, lead, tin, lithium and vanadium is weak [7].
Trace elements are present in human body in very low amount, usually less than 1
micro-gram per gram of the tissues [8].

1.3. Classification of Trace elements

Trace elements can be divided from a dietary point of view into three groups:

a) The essential trace elements (micronutrients), e.g.; Cr, Fe, Co, Cu, Zn, Se, Mo
and I, which are constituents of hormones, vitamins and enzymes for the
metabolic processes in the cells and they function at low concentrations in living
tissues.
b) The possibly essential trace elements, e.g. Mn, Si, Ni, B, V, and Sn
c) The non-essential trace elements F, As, Cd, Pb, A1 and Hg, which are considered
potentially toxic, and have no metabolic functions in the living organisms [9],

1.4. Role of Trace Elements

1.4.1. General discussion
The role of the essential trace elements in human health and disease has been very
well documented in the literature [10 - 12]. Of particular interest is the role these trace
elements play in human nutrition in general and infant nutrition in particular [13-15].
Trace Elements are essential for the proper functioning of every organism on the
planet. The interaction between trace elements in the biological processes and their role in
mediating biological and chemical reactions that are essential to life are still being
discovered by biologists and scientists every year [16].
Most of the trace elements serve a variety of functions, depending upon their
chemical form or combination and their location in the body tissues and fluids. Minor
and trace elements serve in two general roles. The first one is their function as structural
material. Iron is part of the structure of the oxygen-carrying protein, haemoglobin, in the
red blood cells; calcium, phosphorus and other elements constitute a significant part of

2
the mass of teeth and bones; and sodium, potassium, phosphate, sulfate, chloride and
many other elements are important constituents of the fluids, both inside and outside all
the body cells.
The second general role of the trace elements is their function in regulating
numerous biological activities. Calcium in minute concentrations is necessary for
normal blood clotting; magnesium stimulates the activity of many enzymes and a
number of trace elements control the contraction of muscle and the transmission of
impulses by nerve cells [17,18].
There are 50 essential nutrients which constitute a major part of human diet [19].
These are shown in Table 1.1. It is found that less than one third of the 90 naturally
occurring elements are essential to life. The bulk of human body is composed of six
major elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium and phosphorous and
six minor elements: sulphur, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium and silicon.

Table 1.1.50 essential nutrients for sustaining human life

Protein Macro Micro
Water & Lipids & fatty
(amino minerals elements Vitamins (13)
Energy (2) acids (2)
acids)(9) (7) (17)
Water Histidine Linoleic acid Na Fe A
Carbohydrate Isoleucine Linolenic acid K Zn D
Leucine Ca Cu E
Lysine Mg Mn K
- Methionine S I C
Phenylalanine P F B1
Threonine Cl B B2
Tryptophan Se B3
Valine Mo B6
Ni B12
Cr Folic acid
Si Biotin
As Niacin
Li
Sn
V
Co (B12)

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 The concentration of major and minor elements in human body [20] the normal
levels of their concentration are shown in Tables 1.2 and 1.3.

Table 1.2. Major and minor elements in man (percent in total body weight)

Major element Percent (%) Minor elements Percent (%)

Oxygen 61 Sulphur 0.2
Carbon 23 Potassium 0.2
Hydrogen 10 Sodium 1.4
Nitrogen 2.6 Chlorine 1.2
Calcium 1.4 Magnesium 0.03
Phosphorous 1.1 Silicon 0.03

Table 1.3. Range of concentration of trace elements in human body

Elements Amount (mg/kg)

Fe, F ,Zn 100
Rb, Sr, Cu, Pb, Br 10
Cs ,Co, Cr Mo, Au, Ni 0.1

1.4.2. Role of Major, Minor and Trace Elements

(a) Sodium
Sodium is a silver-white, highly reactive, alkaline, metallic element. Sodium plays
a crucial role in maintaining blood pressure. Sodium is needed for regulating the body's
fluid balance (works with potassium and chloride) as well as nerve and muscle activity.
Sodium occurs naturally in many foods and is also added in the form of salt
(sodium chloride) or other sodium-containing substances.
The sodium content of food has important implications for health. Salt contains
about 40 per cent sodium, and a teaspoon of salt, which weighs about 5 grams, contains
about 2 grams of sodium. Rock salt and sea salt are almost entirely sodium chloride,
with only traces of other elements (minerals). Varying amounts of sodium are added to
food, but not always in the form of salt. Common food additives, such as baking soda,

4
some preservatives, and monosodium glutamate (MSG), also contribute to the total
amount of sodium people consume [21].
The sodium content of the body is 1.4 g/kg. Sodium is present mostly as an
extracellular constituent and maintains the osmotic pressure of the extracellular fluid. In
addition, it activates some enzymes, such as amylase. Sodium absorption is rapid; it
starts 3 to 6 min after intake and is completed within 3 h. Daily intake of sodium
averages 2.5 g (females) to 3.3 g (males); the adult’s average requirement ranges from
1.3 to 1.6 g/day (equal to 3.3 to 4.0 g/day NaCl). The intake of too little or too much
sodium can result in serious disorders. From a nutritional standpoint, only the excessive
intake of sodium is of importance because it can lead to hypertension. A low intake of
sodium can be achieved by a non salty diet or by using diet salt (common salt) [22].
Probably one-fifth of the population, because of genetic predisposition, may be
increasing their risk of high blood pressure (hypertension) by having a high intake of
sodium. People who have a high intake of sodium have a high incidence of hypertension
and stroke. High blood pressure is rarely seen in those who consume less than 1.2 grams
(1200 milligrams) of sodium per day. It is however to be noted that sodium is an
essential nutrient, and a certain amount is needed for normal body function. A safe
intake is considered to be between 0.9 and 2.3 grams of sodium per day, although in
special circumstances, such as excessive sweating and diarrhea, higher levels may be
needed.
Excess sodium in the diet is linked with fluid retention and kidney stones. Sodium
deficiency is not common. It may happen during heavy or prolonged exercise because
sodium is lost in the sweat. A few signs of sodium deficiency are cramps, weakness,
fatigue, nausea and thirst [23].
Vegetables like dry lotus stems and leafy vegetables are rich in sodium, as are a
variety of pulses and legumes. Fruits, fish, and meat also contain a substantial amount
of sodium [24].

(b) Potassium
Potassium, like sodium, is essential for normal body functions. Potassium is
necessary for muscle function, the transmission of nerve impulses and for carbohydrate
and protein metabolism.

5
 Potassium deficiency can occur when there are large loses resulting from
successive urination from prolonged vomiting and diarrhea.
Although sodium is an important dietary factor in high blood pressure for some
people, variations in the ratio of sodium and potassium will also affect blood pressure
under certain circumstances and increase in potassium intake has been observed to
partly offset the adverse effect of sodium on blood pressure.
The use of potassium salts as substitutes for common salt (sodium chloride) is
potentially dangerous, and overuse can be fatal. Excessive potassium intake can cause
heart irregularities and can cause the heart to stop beating (cardiac arrest). High
potassium intake can be particularly dangerous for children. Potassium is found in body
fluids and is essential for the proper functioning of cells, including nerves. It is present
in almost all foods, especially fruit and vegetables, but processed foods contain less K
than raw foods. Potassium is the third most abundant mineral in the body and is
considered as an electrolyte. It is found that some drugs can increase potassium loss
from the body [25].
Potassium is the principal cation in intracellular fluid and functions in acid-base
balance, regulation of osmotic pressure, conduction of nerve impulse, muscle
contraction particularly the cardiac muscle, cell membrane function and Na+/K+-
ATPase. Potassium is also required during glycogenesis. It also helps in the transfer of
phosphate from ATP to pyruvic acid [22].
The average concentration of potassium in the body is 2 g/kg. At a concentration
of 140 mmol/L, it is the most common cation in the intracellular fluid. Potassium is
localized mostly within the cells. It regulates the osmotic pressure within the cell, is
involved in cell membrane transport and also in the activation of a number of glycolytic
and respiratory enzymes. The potassium intake in a normal diet is 2 to 5.9 g/day. The
minimum daily requirement is estimated to be 782 mg. Potassium deficiency is
associated with a number of symptoms and may be the result of undernourishment or
predominant consumption of potassium-deficient foods, e.g., white bread, fat or oil [26].
Milk and yogurt, many fruits and vegetables (especially oranges, bananas, and
potatoes) are the main sources of potassium. High amounts are found in apricots,
avocados, bananas, lima beans, blackstrap molasses, brewer's yeast, brown rice, dates,

6
pulses, figs, dried fruit, garlic, nuts, potatoes, raisins, spinach, winter squash, yeasts,
wheat bran, yams, and yogurt [27].

(c) Calcium
Calcium is a white, malleable, metallic element. Calcium is needed for the
formation and maintenance of bones, the development of teeth and healthy gums. It is
necessary for blood clotting, stabilizes many body functions and is thought to assist in
healing bowel cancer. It also helps with protein structuring in DNA and RNA.
The total amount of calcium in the body is about 1500 g. Because of the large
amounts of calcium all over the body, it is one of the most important minerals. It is
abundant in the skeleton and in some body tissues [28]. Ca is a major component of
bone, assists in tooth development, helps regulate endo- and exoenzymes, and plays a
significant role in regulating blood pressure [22].
Calcium is an essential nutrient because it is involved in the structure of the
muscular system and controls essential processes like muscle contraction (locomotor
system, heartbeat) blood clotting, activity of brain cells and cell growth. Calcium
deficiency causes serious disorders. The desirable calcium intake (g/day) is stipulated
as: birth to 6 months (0.4), 6 to 12 months (0.6), 1 to 5 years (0.8), 6 to 10 years (0.8-
1.2), 11 to 24 years and pregnant women (1.2 to 1.5), 25 to 65 years (1.0) and above 65
years (1.5) [29].
Calcium is found in milk and milk products (yogurt, cheese), Tofu, Broccoli,
Calcium fortified orange juice, some fortified cereals, dark leafy vegetables. Herbs that
contain calcium include alfalfa, burdock root, cayenne, chamomile, duckweed, chicory,
dandelion, eyebright, fennel seed, fenugreek, flaxseed, kelp, lemongrass, mullein, nettle,
oat straw, paprika, parsley, peppermint, plantain, raspberry leaves, red clover, rose hips,
shepherd's purse, violet leaves, yarrow, and yellow dock [22].

(d) Magnesium
Magnesium is the major component of chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants.
Magnesium is present in all tissues including bone. Magnesium is an active component
of several enzyme systems in which thymine pyrophosphate is a cofactor. Oxidative
phosphorylation is greatly reduced in the absence of magnesium [30]. Mg is also an

7
essential activator for the phosphate-transferring enzymes myokinase,
diphosphopyridine nucleotide kinase, and creatine kinase. It also activates pyruvic acid
carboxylase, pyruvic acid oxidase, and the condensing enzyme for the reactions in the
citric acid cycle.
Mg is also a constituent of bones, teeth, enzyme cofactor, (kinases, etc.) [31]. The
health status of the digestive system and the kidneys significantly influence magnesium
status. Magnesium is absorbed in the intestines and then transported through the blood
to cells and tissues. In the cells of the body, it is involved in energy transfer . As a
constituent and activator of many enzymes, particularly those associated with the
conversion of energy-rich phosphate compounds, and as a stabilizer of plasma
membranes, intracellular membranes, and nucleic acids, magnesium is a life-supporting
element. Because of its indispensable role in body metabolism, magnesium deficiency
causes serious disorders [22].
Magnesium is found in dairy products, fish, meat and seafood, as well as in
legumes, apples, apricots, avocados, bananas, whole grain cereals, nuts, dark green
vegetables, and cocoa, while hard water and mineral water may also supply it in fair
quantities. Herbs that contain magnesium include alfalfa, bladder wrack, catnip,
cayenne, chamomile, chickweed, dandelion, eyebright, fennel seed, fenugreek, hops,
horsetail, lemongrass, licorice, mullein, nettle, oat straw, paprika, parsley, peppermint,
raspberry leaf, red, clover, sage, shepherd's purse, yarrow, and yellow dock [32],

(e) Iron
Iron is an essential mineral. The first signs of use of iron come from the
Sumerians and the Egyptians, where around 4000 BC, small items, such as the tips of
spears and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from meteorites. It is
essential for many enzymes, including catalase, and is important for growth. Iron is also
required for a healthy immune system and for energy production [33].
Iron as a constituent of haemoglobin, helps in the transport of oxygen. In cellular
respiration, it functions as essential component of enzymes involved in biological
oxidation such as cytochromes c, cl, al, etc. [34]. Fe is an important constituent of
succinate dehydrogenase as well as a part of the haeme of haemoglobin (Hb),
myoglobin and the cytochromes [35]. Iron is required for proper myelination of spinal

8
cord and white matter of cerebellar folds in brain and is a cofactor for a number of
enzymes involved in neurotransmitter synthesis [36].
Iron is involved in synthesis and packaging of neurotransmitters, their uptake and
degradation into other iron-containing proteins which may directly or indirectly alter
brain function [37]. Iron exists in the blood mainly as haemoglobin in the erythrocytes
and as transferrin in the plasma. It is transported as transferrin; stored as ferritin or
haemosiderin and is lost in sloughed cells and by bleeding [38]. Fe is required for
making haemoglobin and it is a pro-oxidant which is also needed by microorganisms for
proliferation. Biologically important compounds of iron are haemoglobin, myoglobin,
cytochromes, catalases and peroxidase [39].
Factors affecting the absorption of iron are: low phosphate diet which increases
iron absorption, whereas high phosphate diet decreases iron absorption by forming
insoluble iron phosphates. Adrenocortical hormones (glucocorticoids) play a role in
regulating the level of plasma iron. During stress, when the hypothalamus,
adenohypophysis, and adrenal cortex are activated, regardless of the source, the plasma
iron decreases [2].
The iron content of the body is 4 to 5 g. Most of it is present in the hemoglobin
(blood) and myoglobin (muscle tissue) pigments. The metal is also present in a number
of enzymes (peroxidase, catalase, hydroxylases and flavine enzymes), hence it is an
essential ingredient of the daily diet. The iron requirement depends on the age and sex
of the individual from about 1.5 to 2.2 mg/day. Iron supplied in the diet must be in the
range of 15 mg/day in order to meet this daily requirement [6].
Good sources of iron include liver, meat, beans, nuts, dried fruit (such as dried
apricots), whole grains (such as brown rice), fortified breakfast cereals, soybean flour
and most dark green leafy vegetables (such as watercress, curly kale and spinach) [40].

(f) Zinc
Zinc is distributed widely in plant and animal tissues and occurs in all living cells.
It functions as a cofactor and is a constituent of many enzymes like lactate
dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase, glutamic dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase,
carbonic anhydrase, carboxypeptidase, superoxide dismutase, retinene reductase, DNA
and RNA polymerase. Zn dependent enzymes are involved in macronutrient metabolism

9
and cell replication [41]. Carbonic anhydrase is present in erythrocytes, kidney tubules,
gastrointestinal mucosa and glandular epithelium. The primary roles of zinc appear to
be in cell replication and gene expression and in nucleic acid and amino acid
metabolism. Vitamins A and E metabolism and bioavailability are dependent on zinc
status [42]. It is also required for normal testicular development [43] and for functions
of the taste buds. It is needed for tissue repair and wound healing, plays a vital role in
protein synthesis and digestion, and is necessary for optimum insulin action as zinc is an
integral constituent of insulin. It is an important constituent of plasma [44].
The total zinc content in adult human tissue is 2 to 4 g. The daily requirement of 5
to 10 mg is provided by a normal diet (6 to 22 mg zinc/day). Zinc is a component of a
number of enzymes (e.g., alcohol dehydrogenase, lactate dehydrogenase, malate
dehydrogenase, glutamate dehydrogenase, carboxypeptidases A and B, and carbonic
anhydrase). Other enzymes, e. g., dipeptidases, alkaline phosphatase, lecithinase and
enolase, are activated by zinc and by some other divalent metal ions [6].
Natural food sources of zinc include oysters, red meat and poultry, beans, nuts,
whole grains, pumpkin seed or sunflower seeds. Herbs that contain zinc include alfalfa,
burdock root, cayenne, chamomile, ehickweed, dandelion, eyebright, fennel seed, hops,
milk thistle, mullein, nettle, parsley, rose hips, sage, sarsaparilla, skullcap, and wild yam
[45] .

(g) Cobalt
Cobalt is a trace element found widely in the environment. Cobalt is a hard
ferromagnetic silver-white element. It is required in the manufacture of red blood cells
and in preventing anemia. Cobalt is essential for humans because it is a part of vitamin
B-12. This form of cobalt is obtainable from micro-organisms or from animal sources.
Vegetable sources of cobalt are more important to animals that are ruminants (sheep and
cattle). Cobalt deficiency in humans is like vitamin B-12 deficiency, with anemia and
nervous system problems. As little as 0.1 microgram cobalt as vitamin B-12 per day is
needed by adults. Total cobalt intake may be in a range from 10 to 1800 micrograms per
day. Its toxicity, at cobalt intakes of about 8000 micrograms per day, probably arose
from its interaction with alcohol itself, and other nutritional problems created by alcohol
[46] .

10
 In addition to its role in vitamin B12, cobalt is also a cofactor of enzymes
involved in DNA biosynthesis and amino acid metabolism. The total cobalt content of
the body is 1 to 2 mg. Since the discovery that vitamin B12 contains cobalt as its central
atom, the nutritional importance of cobalt has increased and it has been assigned the
status of an essential element [6].
Good food sources of cobalt include fish, nuts, green leafy vegetables (such as
broccoli and spinach), and cereals (such as oats) [47].

(h) Copper
First recognized in the 1870's as a normal constituent of blood, copper is a trace
mineral that plays an important role in the metabolic processes in the body. It is Cu that
allows many critical enzymes to function properly. Although copper is the third most
abundant trace mineral in the body (behind iron and zinc), the total amount of copper in
the body is only 75 to 100 milligrams, less than the amount of copper in a penny.
Copper is present in every tissue of the body, but is stored primarily in the liver, so the
concentration of the mineral is highest in that organ, with lesser amounts found in the
brain, heart, kidney, and muscles [48].
Copper is a constituent of enzymes like cytochrome c oxidase, amine oxidase,
catalase, peroxidase, ascorbic acid oxidase, cytochrome oxidase, plasma monoamine
oxidase, erythrocuprin (ceruloplasmin), lactase, uricase, tyrosinase, cytosolic superoxide
dismutase, etc. and it plays a role in iron absorption [35]. Cu is an essential micro­
nutrient necessary for the haematologic and neurologic systems [49]. It is necessary for
the growth and formation of bone, formation of myelin sheaths in the nervous systems,
helps in the incorporation of iron in haemoglobin, assists in the absorption of iron from
the gastrointestinal tract and in the transfer of iron from tissues to the plasma [50]. It is
transported by albumin; bound to ceruloplasmin. Ceruloplasmin has oxidase activity
and thereby facilitates the incorporation of ferric iron into transferrin. The copper-
containing protein in red blood cells (rbc) is erythrocuperin, in liver, it is hepatocuperin
and in brain, it is cerebrocuperin. In the monogastric animals, copper is absorbed mainly
in the upper part of the small intestine, where the pH of the contents is still acidic. In
general, Cu is poorly absorbed, and under normal conditions > 90% of the ingested
copper appears in the faeces. Most of the faecal copper is unabsorbed dietary copper,

11
but some of it comes from the bile, which is the major pathway of Cu excretion. Biliary
obstruction increases the excretion of copper through the kidney and intestinal wall [5].
The amount of copper in the body is 80 to 100 mg.. In blood plasma, it is bound to
ceruloplasmin, which catalyzes the oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+. This reaction is of great
significance since it is only the Fe3+ form in blood which is transported by the
transferrin protein to the iron pool in the liver. The daily copper requirement is 1 to 1.5
mg and it is supplied in a normal diet. Copper is even less desirable than iron during
food processing and storage since it catalyzes many unwanted reactions. Cu2+ ions are
taste bearing. The threshold value 2.4 to 3.8 mg/L has been determined with aqueous
solutions of CuS04 or CuC12 [51].
Good sources include Cocoa; Liver; Kidney; Oysters; Peas; Raisins. Molluscs and
shellfish are rich sources of copper, as are betel leaves, arecanuts and other nuts. Soft
water contains more copper than hard water and water from the tap contains more
copper than reservoir water [52].

(i) Chromium
Chromium is an essential element for animals and humans [53, 54]. It has been
found in nucleoproteins isolated from beef liver and also in RNA preparation [55]. It
could play a role in maintaining the configuration of the RNA molecule, because Cr has
been shown to be particularly effective as a cross-linking agent for collagen [56]. Cr has
also been identified as the active ingredient of the glucose tolerant factor [57], a dietary
factor required to maintain normal glucose tolerance in the rat. Trivalent chromium is a
constituent of “glucose tolerance factor”, which binds to and activates /potentiates
insulin action [5].
Cr affects the action of insulin in protein metabolism, as indicated by rats fed with
chromium-deficient diets repleted by chromium [58]. Insulin-mediated amino acid
transport into tissues is enhanced and incorporation of labeled glycine, serine and
methionine into heart protein is greater in chromium supplemented animals. Evidence of
a role for chromium in lipid metabolism and chromium deficiency in the development
of atherosclerosis is accumulating from animal and human studies [59]. Cr deficiencies
may exist, particularly in children suffering from protein-calorie malnutrition [60]. In

12
experimental animals, Cr deficiency leads to a reduced rate of removal of ingested
glucose, due to a low sensitivity of peripheral tissues to insulin [61].
The chromium content of the body varies considerably depending on the region;
the range is 6 to 12 mg. The daily intake also varies greatly from 5 to 200 pg.
Chromium is important in the utilization of glucose. For instance, it activates the
enzyme phosphoglucomutase and increases the activity of insulin; therefore, chromium
deficiency causes a decrease in glucose tolerance [6].
Rich sources of chromium include Cereals; Cheese; Fresh fruit; Meat; Nuts;
whole meal flour, etc. Herbs that contain chromium include catnip, horsetail, licorice,
nettle, oat straw, red clover, sarsaparilla, wild yam, and yarrow [62].

0) Nickel
Nickel is an essential element in animals [63]. It has been speculated that nickel
may play a role in the maintenance of membrane structure, control of prolactin, nucleic
acid metabolism or as a cofactor in enzymes. It appears that most dietary intakes would
provide sufficient amounts of this element [64]. Nickel (Ni) containing < 0.05 ppm
developed increases skin pigmentation of the legs, swollen hocks and thickening of the
legs near the joints. These signs are not apparent in chicks fed the same diet
supplemented with 3-5 ppm nickel [65]. In a trace element-controlled environment,
chicks unsupplemented with nickel have shorter, thicker legs, lower haematocrit and
plasma cholesterol levels and higher liver cholesterol levels than control chicks. In rats,
there is slower growth rate and post-natal mortality. In swine, there is impaired
reproduction, abnormal hair coats, and poor growth of offspring [66, 67].
Nickel is an activator of a number of enzymes, e. g., alkaline phosphatase and
oxalacetate decarboxylase, which can also be activated by other divalent metal ions.
Nickel also enhances insulin activity. The essential role of nickel has been established
by inducing deficiency symptoms in feeding experiments with chickens and rats. These
symptoms include changes in the liver mitochondria. The daily intake in food amounts
from 150 to 700 pg. The nickel requirement is estimated to be 35 to 500 pg/day [6].

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(k) Manganese
Manganese is a gray-white metal, resembling iron. The classes of enzymes that
have manganese cofactors are very broad and include such classes as oxidoreductases,
transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases, ligases, lectins, and integrins [68]. It is
involved in glycoprotein and proteoglycan synthesis and is a component of
mitochondrial superoxide dismutase. As a co-factor in phosphohydrolases and
phosphotransferases, it is involved in the synthesis of proteoglycans in cartilage [5]. Mn
is a part of enzymes involved in urea formation, pyruvate metabolism and the
galactotransferase of connective tissue biosynthesis [69]. Mn activates several important
enzyme systems and in this capacity it is required for the synthesis of acid
mucopolysaccharides, such as chondroitin sulphate, to form the matrices of bones and
egg shells. Consequently skeletal deformities and defects in shell quality occur when the
manganese intake is inadequate [35].
The fact that Mn is concentrated in the mitochondria has led to the suggestion
that, in vivo, manganese is involved in the partial regulation of oxidative
phosphorylation. Absorption of Mn is inhibited by the presence of excessive amounts of
calcium and phosphorus in the diet. The absorption and retention of manganese from
foods low in iron, such as milk, are relatively high. If milk is supplemented with iron,
the percentage of manganese absorbed is reduced [70]. Increased absorption of
manganese has been reported during pregnancy in some animals [71] and with
coccidiosis infection in chickens [72].
Severity of Mn deficiency in several animal species including laboratory animals,
pigs, poultry, and possibly in cattle has been shown to depend on the degree and
\

duration of the deficiency and on the maturity of the animal [73]. Manganese deficiency
results in lameness, enlarged hock joints, and shortened legs in pigs; leg deformities
with over-knuckling in cattle; perosis or slipped tendon in chicks, poults and ducklings;
and nutritional chondrodystrophy in chick embryos.
The largest quantities of manganese are found in avocados, nuts and seeds,
seaweed, and whole grains. This mineral may also be found in blueberries, egg yolks,
legumes, dried peas, pineapples, and green leafy vegetables.

14
(1) Cadmium
Most of the interest in the element cadmium derives from its potentially toxic
effects on the lungs, and also on the kidneys, leading to high blood pressure and bone
disease. However, the function of certain proteins may be dependent on the presence of
cadmium. Cadmium levels in our bodies progressively increase with age. Cigarettes
also contribute additional cadmium [74].
Cadmium is apparently a non-essential metal, occurring together with zinc in
nature. Cadmium to zinc ratios of 1:100 to 1:12 000 have been found in most minerals
and soils [75, 76]. Pollution of the environment by cadmium has occurred as a result of
the processing of ores, especially zinc ores, and of several industrial operations. Air
pollution may also result from the use of cadmium in alloys. When cadmium
compounds are used as pigments and stabilizers in many plastics, they may eventually
contribute to air pollution when these plastics are destroyed. The electroplating industry
is another major use of cadmium and may give rise to considerable water pollution.
Cadmium is absorbed from the soil and translocated in plants. Certain staple
foods, such as rice and wheat, may accumulate cadmium naturally by absorption from
the soil. It may also occur as a contaminant in phosphate fertilizers and municipal
sludges and thus it contributes to levels found in food [77].
The contribution from cadmium-containing pesticides is probably insignificant
because their use has never been extensive and is thought to have been discontinued in
some areas. In addition, crops may be contaminated with cadmium-containing dusts.
The concentrations of cadmium in food, water, air and most body fluids and
tissues are very low. Thus, the method of analysis must be very good to detect trace
amounts of Cd. In using atomic absorption spectrophotometry for Cd estimation, the
effect of interference from other substances, i.e. sodium chloride or calcium salts has to
be properly accounted for [78]. When nanogram amounts of cadmium are to be
determined, great care must be taken to avoid either contamination or losses during the
extraction procedure.
Food is the main source of cadmium intake. Since cadmium dissolves in weak
organic acids present in many foods, the use of cadmium-plated utensils in the food
industry may be another source of Cd contamination. Likewise, leachable cadmium in
enamel and pottery glazes may be another source of contamination in the food. Since

15
commercial zinc can contain up to 1 % cadmium, galvanized food utensils may also
contribute to cadmium levels in food.
The cadmium intake from water is low. The tentative limit set in the WHO
Standards for Drinking Water is 10 pg/L [79]. However, most municipal water supplies
contain less than 1 pg/L and higher values may be due to contamination either from
industrial sources and piping which may release cadmium. The intake from water will
usually contribute less than 5 pg to the daily intake.
Cadmium in water can influence levels in food: Crustacea and shellfish from
contaminated estuaries, and cereals irrigated with cadmium-containing water may
exhibit elevated levels of this contaminant. High levels of cadmium may also be found
in certain target organs, such as the liver and kidneys of mammals. The intake from
inhaled air is low because the cadmium concentration is usually below 0.01 pg/m3.
However, areas close to cadmium-emitting industries have significantly higher levels.
Smoking may also contribute to Cd intake. It has been estimated that smoking of 20
cigarettes per day may cause the inhalation of 2-4 pg of cadmium. Assuming absorption
of 25%, this would add 0.5-1 pg per day to the body burden.
The retention of ingested cadmium varies between 4.7-7.0 % in men [80].
Calcium deficiency increases the retention of cadmium in rats and this may also happen
in man [81]. In mammals cadmium is virtually absent at birth but will accumulate,
especially in liver and kidneys with time. The primary period of rapid renal
concentration may occur during the early years of life [82] - 50-75% of the total body
burden will be found in these two organs. Only a very small proportion of the daily
absorbed dose will be excreted. In time this will result in a considerable accumulation of
cadmium even at relatively low levels of intake. In the liver and kidneys of man,
cadmium has been found to be mainly bound to a low molecular weight protein,
metallothionein. Similar proteins have been found in the red blood cells and plasma of
cadmium exposed mice [83], and in the duodenal mucosa of several species. The
amount of free metallothionein in plasma is small, but its low molecular weight-(6000-
7000) permits filtration through the glomeruli. The re-absorption of the cadmium
metallothionein complex in the proximal tubules may then explain the selective
accumulation of [84] cadmium in the renal cortex.

16
 Normal urinary excretion generally amounts to not more than 1-2 jig per day.
Animal experiments indicate that the excretion via the gastro-intestinal tract may be of
the same magnitude. The excretion in hair is extremely low [85]. The excretion of
cadmium depends both on recent exposure and total body burden. Animal data indicate
that the body burden is the most important factor with regard to urinary excretion. It is
not known which factor is the most important in man. Urinary excretion of cadmium
considerably increases when renal damage has occurred following exposure to
excessive amounts of cadmium [86].
In exposed mice urinary cadmium was partly found in a protein of the same
molecular size as metallothionein. It is not known in what form cadmium is excreted in
normal human subjects. The slow excretion results in an extremely long biological half-
life for absorbed cadmium. If 0.005% of the total body burden is excreted daily, the
biological half-life has been calculated to be 33 years. If 0.01% of the total body burden
is excreted daily, it will fall to about 18 years [82]. Similar calculations [77] indicate
that the biological half-life is at least 16 years.
At present, mean levels of cadmium in renal cortex at age 50 are found to be about
30 jig/g wet weight in Sweden, 25-50 jig/g wet weight in the United States of America
and 50-100 jig/g wet weight in Japan [82]. It has been calculated that a daily intake of
62 jig would be necessary to reach 50 jig/g wet weight in the renal cortex at age 50,
assuming an absorption rate of 5%, and that 10 % of the daily absorbed dose is rapidly
excreted, and that also 0.005 % of the total body burden is excreted daily. A similar
calculation assuming that 0.01% of the total body burden is excreted daily showed that
the daily intake would have to be 88 jig to reach the same final level in the renal cortex
[87].
Workers exposed to high concentrations of cadmium in air have shown damage to
the lungs and the kidneys. A special feature of the renal damage is the excretion of low
molecular weight proteins, so-called tubular protein urea. Concentrations of cadmium
ranging from 20-174 jrg/g wet weight in the kidneys obtained at autopsy of workers
exposed to cadmium oxide dust have been found in cases with long-lasting protein uria
and morphological kidney changes. In cases without morphological changes and where
there had been no or only slight proteinuria, the concentrations found were 152-446
jig/g wet weight. This paradoxical result was explained as being due to the result of

17
increased excretion of cadmium from the more severely damaged kidneys [88]. Similar
data have also been obtained from workers exposed to cadmium oxide fumes and from
cases of the Itai-Itai disease in Japan.
From these and animal data it has been estimated that tubular dysfunction may
appear at renal cortex levels of cadmium of about 200 pg/g wet weight. This represents
a "critical level" where it can be expected that the sensitive members of a population
may get signs of renal dysfunction, although not necessarily the majority of the
population exposed will get symptoms. The Itai-Itai disease in the Toyama district in
Japan was probably caused by the excessive ingestion of cadmium in particularly
sensitive [89] population, deficient in both calcium and vitamin D. River water polluted
by a zinc mine and used for irrigating rice fields contributed to high levels of cadmium
in rice. It was also used as drinking-water. Almost all reported cases occurred in
multifarious women above 40 years of age. The disease is characterized by severe
osteomalacia leading to multiple painful fractures.
Tubular proteinuria of the same type as in cadmium-exposed workers was found
in all cases. Itai-Itai disease in Japan is an extreme manifestation of chronic poisoning,
but there is reason to believe that signs of slight tubular dysfunction, i.e. proteinuria,
may be common in certain other areas in Japan, where there is excessive exposure to
cadmium [90]. However, this opinion is not substantiated by extensive studies reported
later [91].
' No evidence has yet been found in man that an increased absorption of cadmium
is related to the development of hypertension or to testicular atrophy as reported in
animals. Some epidemiological studies [92 - 94] have indicated an increased risk of
cancer of the prostate in workers exposed to cadmium, but the conclusions are not
definitive.
Cadmium is a metal with an extremely long biological half-life in man. Even low
exposure levels may cause in time considerable accumulation especially in the kidneys.
Since animal data do not provide a satisfactory model for estimating the threshold level
of cadmium, available data on human renal concentrations and daily intake in different
countries have been used for such estimates. The present mean levels in the renal cortex
in 50 year old individuals, not exposed to excessive amounts of cadmium are 25-100
pg/g wet weight, compared with the critical level of 200 pg/g wet weight. Available

18
data indicate that the present intake of cadmium from the diet varies from below 50 to
over 100 pg per day and diet surveys indicate that in some areas levels are even higher
because of environmental pollution. Presently, cadmium inhaled from the urban
atmosphere does not contribute to a significant proportion of the total body burden [95,
96]. However, significant absorption through heavy smoking is possible.
The continuing contamination of the environment from industrial and other
sources is likely to increase the cadmium concentration in food, and in the future this
may lead to hazardous levels.

l.S.Carbohydrates in Food
Macronutrients are nutrients that provide calories or energy. Nutrients are
substances needed for growth, metabolism, and for other body functions. Since “macro”
means large, macronutrients are nutrients needed in large amounts. There are three
macronutrients:

• Carbohydrates
• Proteins, and
• Fats

While each of these macronutrients provides calories, the amount of calories that each
one provides varies. Carbohydrates provide 4 calories per gram, proteins provide 4
calories per gram and fats provides 9 calories per gram. Thus, if a food product contains
12 grams of carbohydrate, 0 grams of fat, and 0 grams of protein per serving, this food
supplies about 48 calories per serving (12 grams carbohydrate multiplied by 4 calories
for each gram of carbohydrate = 48 calories) [97, 98].
Besides carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, the only other substance that provides
calories is alcohol. Alcohol provides 7 calories per gram. Alcohol, however, is not a
macronutrient because we do not need it for survival.
There are basically two main classes of carbohydrates - simple and complex -
although this classification has been superceded by the Glycemic Index (GI) and
Glycemic Load (GL). At present, about 55 percent of the carbohydrates people take are

19
starchy complex carbohydrates, about 5 percent are dietary fiber (another type of
complex carbohydrates) and about 40 percent are sugary simple carbohydrates.
The simple carbohydrates are also known as sugars. They exist in either a natural
or refined form in fruits and vegetables. Carbohydrates that contain only one sugar unit
(Monosaccharides) or two sugar units (disaccharides) are referred to as simple sugars.
Two of the most common Monosaccharides are glucose and fructose. Glucose is the
primary form of sugar stored in the human body for energy and Fructose is the main
sugar found in fruits. Disaccharides have two sugar units bonded together. For example,
common table sugar is sucrose. Refined sugars are found in Biscuits, Cakes and
Pastries, Chocolate, Honey and Jams, Jellies, Brown and White canesugar, prepared
foods and Sauces, Soft drinks, Sweets and Snack bars. Simple carbohydrates (sugar)
cause tooth decay.
Starches are complex carbohydrates without taste or odor, which are granular or
powdery in physical form. Complex carbohydrates are long chains of simple sugar units
bonded together and for this reason the complex carbohydrates often referred to as
polysaccharides., Starch is the principal polysaccharide used by plants to store glucose
for later energy. They are found naturally in foods and also refined in processed foods.
Complex carbohydrates as starches are found in: bananas, barley, beans, brown rice,
chickpeas, lentils, nuts, oats, parsnips, potatoes, vegetables, sweet com, whole grain
cereals, and whole meal breads, whole meal cereals, whole meal flour, whole pasta,
yams. Complex carbohydrates as refined starches are found in: biscuits, pastries and
cakes, pizzas, processed breakfast cereals, white bread, white flour, white pasta, and
white rice.
In general, apart from providing energy, the carbohydrates in food are a rich
source of vitamins, which the body needs for a host of circulatory, immune, endocrine
and other functions as well as healthy cell growth and repair. They serve as the primary
energy source of brain, nervous tissue, retina, kidney, and red blood cells and are rich in
protective phytochemicals, the newly discovered semi-essential micronutrients that
gives protection against serious diseases.
The primary sugar of the body, glucose, is the preferential source of energy for the
body. When the blood glucose (or ‘blood sugar') is low, the body will breakdown its
glucose energy reserves to replenish the concentration of the blood glucose to the proper

20
level. Glucose is stored in the body as a longer molecule called Glycogen. Glycogen is
stored mostly in the liver and in much smaller amounts in muscles. When the blood
sugar level drops, glycogen breaks down into its smaller units (glucose) and is released
into the blood stream.
If the body does not have enough blood glucose, and has used up all of its
glycogen storage units, the body will make glucose. This process is complex and results
in new glucose molecules being produced so certain cell types can continue to function
correctly. This recreation of glucose occurs at the expense of proteins in other tissues,
usually muscles. In other words, muscle tissues are broken down, if necessary, to keep
the blood sugar up to the correct level. The minimum amount of carbohydrate required
to prevent the starvation activation systems (ketosis) of fasting is 100 to 150 grams per
day. Carbohydrate is needed to satisfy the glucose requirement of the brain (120 Grams
per day), red blood cell (30 grams per day) and wound healing (20 to 60 grams per day).
These tissues primary fuel is blood sugar or glucose. Muscle tissue is preserved by
providing 180 to 200 grams of carbohydrate per day. This is the minimum carbohydrate
requirement without the body resorting to breaking down other tissues to build new
glucose. In simplistic terms, a person eats carbohydrates and the body absorbs the
sugars for cellular function. When the liver is ‘empty' of carbohydrate stores, it will
make more blood glucose at the expense of other tissues, primarily muscle. So in short,
too much sugar gives fat, not enough sugar gives loose muscle.

1.6. Fiber in food

Fiber comes from plant foods and there is no fiber in animal products such as milk
and other dairy products, eggs, poultry, and fish. Fiber is the indigestible part of plant
foods, including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, legumes. Fibers in the diet are
not digested and most of the fibers pass through the intestinal tract intact and help to
move waste out of the body. Diets that are low in fiber have been shown to cause
problems such as constipation and hemorrhoids and to increase the risk for certain types
of cancers such as colon cancer. Diets high in fiber; however, have been shown to
decrease risks for heart disease, obesity, and they help lower cholesterol. Foods high in
fiber include fruits, vegetables, and whole grain products.

21
 "Dietary fiber" is a fairly new term coined to describe the cellulose (a type of
carbohydrate) indigestible by humans. Since cellulose is indigestible, it cannot be
utilized by the body as other wastes. Its presence or absence in the feces is insignificant.
The ingestion of too many toxic and toxic wastes produced within the body, results in
diseases.

1.7. Proteins
The word Protein has originated from the Greek word "Porto's" which means to
come first. 40 % of the body’s dry matter is protein, and after water, protein is the
second most important constituents of the body. Proteins are found everywhere in the
body and every single cell, tissue, muscle and bone contain providing bone and muscle
strength, endurance and immunity. The body takes up the proteins from the food one
takes and converts them into specialized proteins. If the body loses more than 14% of its
Protein store, it could lead to severe health consequences.
Known as the building blocks of the body, proteins play a significant role in repair
enzymes and hormones, they perform a wide range of metabolic functions in the
defense against infections and are vital to all living processes. Proteins are made up of
twenty different building blocks, called amino acids, arranged in thousands and
thousands of different ways. Every cell in the human body contains protein as part of its
structure (cell membrane and other structures). It also serves to build strong structures in
the body, as a whole (bones, muscles, tendons, and ligaments); it makes up the enzymes
that the body needs for the biochemical reactions to occur. Proteins are found in the
blood as parts of the red blood cells (hemoglobin) and as carriers for other materials
(transport proteins); they are also the part of the immune system (antibodies) that helps
protect the body from foreign invaders, such as bacteria, viruses, and toxic substances.
It is easiest to get protein from meat, chicken, turkey, fish and dairy foods.
Cooked meat is about 15 to 40 percent protein. Foods from animal sources provide
complete protein, which means they contain all the essential amino acids. Next to meat,
legumes - beans, peas and peanuts - have the most protein. But they are called
incomplete proteins because they are lacking in some essential amino acids. All the
protein need can be fulfilled up if plant foods - grains, seeds and nuts, and vegetables
are taken along with animal protein food.

22
 The human body actually recycles protein from tissues that break down and uses it
to make new ones. So a person does not need more than 10 to 15 percent of the total
calorie requirement from protein. Protein deficiencies are common in poor, undeveloped
countries. Even in modem nations, they sometimes occur in certain groups. In fact,
vegetarians need to be very careful about eating the right combinations of plant foods to
get enough complete protein.
In general, proteins from animal sources are of greater nutritional value because
they usually contain all the essential amino acids. Proteins from plant sources, such as
cereals and vegetables, may be deficient in one or other of the essential amino acids. For
example, the proteins obtained from wheat lack adequate quantities of one essential
amino acid, and those from beans are deficient in another.
The recommended dietary intake (RDI) for proteins in Australia is one gram per
kilogram of body weight per day. The protein intake for a 70-kilogram man is 70 grams
and for a 58-kilogram woman, 58 grams per day. Growing children and pregnant and
lactating women have a greater requirement for protein because of the additional needs
of these conditions. People who have had severe infections or surgery may require
additional protein. A deficiency of protein in the diet can lead to muscle wasting,
oedema, anemia and, in children, a slowing or stopping of growth. These conditions are
usually seen as a result of chronic protein malnutrition.

1.8. Fats
Dietary fats are important for good health. The body uses two main fuels for
energy: carbohydrates and fats. The energy is obtained by changing carbohydrates to
sugar (called blood sugar or glucose) and fats to fatty acids. However, fats can provide
more than twice the energy of sugar. Therefore, it makes more sense for the body to use
fats whenever possible. One important factor related to this is a moderate level of
activity, such as easy, aerobic exercise.
If the body cannot bum fat for energy (due to a lack of dietary fats or exercise),
two things may happen:
• It may be forced to use more sugar for energy, potentially affecting blood sugar. In
some people, this low blood sugar may produce mood swings, fatigue, clumsiness,
headaches, depression, allergies or other symptoms. However, if enough fat is

23
 converted to energy, blood sugar will be kept more stable, allowing the body to
have an almost unlimited supply of energy. This will leave enough blood sugar for
the brain and nervous system, which relies solely upon sugar.
• In order for the body to use rather than store fats, they must be balanced. This
means a variety of natural fats in the diet. The nutrients necessary for fat
utilization must also be present. These include thiamin, riboflavin and niacin, and
the minerals zinc and manganese.

One of the body's important life supports, the hormonal system, is dependent upon
fats for good performance. This includes the production of hormones for the glands of
the adrenals, thyroid and thymus (immunity) as well as the sex glands. In the adrenals,
for example, cholesterol is needed for the production of testosterone, progesterone and
cortisone. Niacin and phosphorous are two nutrients which help make this possible.
These hormones help immunity against invading bacteria and viruses, replace
worn out cells, temperature, weight control, blood pressure, the nervous system and
many other areas. Without the presence of fats, hormonal imbalance can develop.
The body's ability to store some fat makes most climates on earth suitable for life.
Normal fat deposits in the skin help prevent too much heat escaping the body in colder
environments and provide some protection from the heat in wanner climates.
Cholesterol and other fats' serve as a protective barrier, making the skin resistant to
substances that could cause harm, such as chemical pollutants and excess water.
In addition, fats in the skin help protect against dehydration by preventing too
much body water from evaporating. One symptom of dehydration is dry, scaly skin. A
certain amount of evaporation is normal, but fats prevent as much as 10-20 times more
water from escaping the body.
During exercise, walking down a flight of stairs, and especially during a fall, a
great amount of support and protection is needed. Fats provide this protection, acting
much like the packaging material one might use when mailing a fragile gift. Fats
support and protect the vital parts inside the body including the kidneys, adrenals,
stomach, intestines, pancreas, uterus and ovaries. Stored fats help prevent these organs
and glands from "sinking" lower and lower as a result of the daily downward stress of

24
gravity. This "visceroptosis," as it is called, could adversely affect the organs and glands
within the abdomen (as well as create an unsightly abdominal protrusion).
In addition, fats protect the lining of the stomach and intestines from irritating
substances in the diet, such as alcohol and certain spices.
Scientists now understand that the hormone-like substances called prostaglandins
are necessary for all cell fimction. They are produced in the body from fats in the diet
and help regulate blood pressure, steroid production, immunity, water balance,
pregnancy and lactation, and other life support systems. They control free radicals,
which, when in excess, may contribute to certain disease states.
Fats help the body utilize certain vitamins and minerals. Cholesterol (and
sunlight) is important for the production of vitamin D in the skin. Absorption and
utilization of vitamins A, D, E, and K are also highly dependent upon fats. Calcium
utilization in the cells of the muscles and bones is helped by the prostaglandins. If the
right fats are not present to create prostaglandins, calcium may go unused. Fat
dependent vitamin D is also necessary for proper calcium use.
Fats are a vital part of a healthy pregnancy as well as lactation. During pregnancy,
fat physically protects the fetus. The fetus also develops its hormonal system after the
mother's, which is fat dependent. During breast feeding, the baby gets prostaglandins
and cholesterol through the mother's milk, protecting the baby against allergies, asthma,
and intestinal problems. These vital fats are not available to the body except through
breast feeding. This natural method also promotes the mental health of the baby.
Fats help protect the body against the harmful effects of x-rays through physical
protection of the cells - fats are a vital part of the cell's outer wall, and by controlling the
excess free radicals which may be generated when x-rays are taken.
Fats are important for proper digestion. Lipase and bile, two vital fatty substances,
help in the digestion and absorption of dietary fats and vitamins A, D, E and K. Lipase,
a digestive enzyme produced by the pancreas, can also be found in certain foods such as
avocado and olive oil. Eating these foods may be an aid to both digestion and overall fat
metabolism. Bile, produced in the liver arid stored in the gall bladder, is highly
dependent upon fat for its use. Bile helps the large intestine work properly, including the
production of vitamin B12, the control of cholesterol, and waste removal.

25
 In summary, fat is important for good health. Dietary fats, however, must be
balanced, to include a variety of natural oils, butter, meats, eggs and dairy in moderate
amounts. Many people avoid fats because of misinformation and fear. As time goes on,
the "low fat" trend will disappear, as much research has already shown the benefits of
this necessary, healthy substance.
Most cholesterol is made by the body, with only a small amount coming from
food. When we eat less cholesterol, the body makes more. Whole milk, beef fat and
chocolate have been shown to lower blood cholesterol.
Saturated fat can be found in Meat, Cheese, Cream, Milk, Eggs, Butter, Pies,
Pastries, Cakes, Biscuits Diet high in saturated fats can raise the level of bad
cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL). LDL is a major risk factor for Heart disease,
Cancer and Obesity.
Polyunsaturated fat can be found in Vegetable oil and most nuts. Polyunsaturated
fats can lower the level of bad cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL). It contains
essential fatty acids (EFAs) such as omega-6s (linoleic acid) and omega-3 s (alpha-
linoleic acid) that are needed in our diet. The polyunsaturated fats and the essential fatty
acids from them may help in prevent or control of all kinds of ailments and conditions
such as Heart disease, Cancer, Immune system deficiencies, Arthritis and Obesity.
These fats are also one of a few rich sources of vitamin E.
The minimum daily intake of polyunsaturated fats is 18% of the total fats one
takes, i.e. about 13 grams of polyunsaturated fats for women and 17 grams for men.
The monounsaturated fat can be found in Olive oil, Rapeseed oil, Groundnut oil,
Olives, many nuts and Avocados. Monounsaturated fats can lower the level of bad
cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL), but also maintain even slightly increase the
levels of good cholesterol, HDL cholesterol. Oils high in monounsaturated fatty acids
are often rich sources of the antioxidant vitamin E. The minimum daily intake of
monounsaturated fats is 36% of the total fats one takes, i.e., about 26 grams for women
and 34 grams for men.

1.9. Rice and pulses in India

Rice seems to be the oldest cereal cultivated. It is the main foodstuff for about half
of the world’s population. The vast majority of the world’s rice is grown and consumed

26
in Asia. In Latin America and Africa rice is also among the major nutrients. In recent
decades rice consumption has been expanding beyond the traditional rice-grown areas,
particularly in Europe [99].

1.9.1. Basmati rice

Basmati rice has been reported in India since the early days of the 19th Century
though it may have been named differently. Basmati, meaning ‘Queen of Fragrance’ is a
variety of long grain rice, famous for its fragrance and delicate flavour. 'Bas' in Hindi
language means "aroma" and 'Mati' means "foil of, hence the word Basmati means foil
of aroma. This rice is different from other rice varieties mainly due to the aroma and
elongation post cooking. No other rice has this combined characteristic. The post
cooking elongation of more than twice its original length, the aroma and its sweet taste
has made basmati rice a delicacy.
Basmati rice is primarily cultivated in India and Pakistan. The Himalayan foothills
are said to produce the best Basmati. The Super Basmati, a premium variety from
Pakistan and Dehra Dun in India, are the most prized of these varieties. Patna rice is a
close cousin of Basmati rice grown around Patna in Bihar. The best types of Basmati
rice are aged for several years before they are milled and sold, as rice cooks better with
lower moisture content. Basmati rice is available both as white rice and brown rice.
Both cook in about 20 minutes. Due to the high amount of starch clinging to the rice
grains, many cooks wash this rice before cooking it. Soaking it for half an hour to two
hours before cooking makes the grains less likely to break in cooking. The grains of
Basmati rice are much longer than they are wide, and they grow even longer as they
cook. They stay firm and separate, not sticky, after cooking.
India is the largest producer and exporter of Basmati rice in the world. The annual
production in the country is 10-15 lakh tons of which around two-third is exported, A
number of varieties of Basmati rice exist. Traditional ones include Basmati-370,
Basmati-385 and Basmati-Ranabirpura, while hybrid varieties include Pusa Basmati 1.
Fragrant rice derived from Basmati stock but are not considered true varieties include
PB2 (also called sugandh-2), PB3 and RH-10. Traditional Basmati plants are tall and
slender and are prone to lodging in high winds. They have a relatively low yield, but

27
produce high-quality grains and command high prices in both Indian and international
markets.
Scientists at Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, New Delhi genetically
modified traditional Basmati to produce a hybrid which had most of the good features of
traditional basmati (grain elongation, fragrance, alkali content) and the plant was a
semi-dwarf type. This basmati was called Pusa Basmati-1. PB1 crop yield is higher than
the traditional varieties (nearly twice as much).

1.9.2. Non-basmati rice

Any rice other than Basmati rice is called non- Basmati rice and there are close to
10,000 such varieties of rice reported around the world, the maximum in India. In fact,
Basmati rice constitutes only 1% of the total rice grown in India. Non-Basmati rice
comes in all kinds of shapes and sizes. Some are long and slender, some are short and
thick, some are like beads, and some may be round [100].

1.9.3. Rice in Assam

In Assam (24°8/ - 28°2/ N, 89°42/ - 96° E; area 78,438 km2), rice is grown in varied
eco-systems viz. rainfed/irrigated upland, lowland, flood-free and flood-prone, medium
land, deep water and hill eco-system. Among the predominant crop sequences, the
following, viz, (i) autumn rice-winter rice-mustard, (ii) winter rice-wheat/mustard/
pulses, (iii) jute-winter rice-vegetables and (iv) autumn rice-winter rice are the main,
crop sequences followed in the rice-based production system[101]. It is observed that
diversification is taking place over the years, though the crop diversification index is
heavily influenced by rice, which commands about 64 per cent of the gross cropped area
(GCA). The share of rice in GCA has decreased by about 12 per cent in the last 50 years
due to increase in the gross cropped area under other crops, hence the absolute rice area
in the state has remained unchanged by and large.
At present, rice occupies about two-thirds of the total cropped area in the state.
Being the single major source of agricultural GDP, rice plays a significant role in the
state economy. Further, its importance in the consumption basket (the average monthly
consumption per capita is about 13 kg) also speaks volumes on the rice orientation of
the state [102]. Another specialty is that the rice is traditionally-grown throughout the

28
year viz. winter, autumn and summer seasons, with winter (kharif) rice as the main crop.
Assam occupies a special place in the rainfed rice production system in the eastern India
(being a major rainfed rice-growing area) by covering about 9 per cent of the total rice
area and contributes 8 per cent to the production. At the national level, the state
contributes over 5 per cent of rice area and 4 per cent of rice production.

1.9.4. Pulses
A pulse (Latin "puls" [103] from Greek poltos) is an annual leguminous crop
yielding from one to twelve seeds of variable size, shape, and color within a pod. Pulses
are used for food and animal feed. The term "pulse", as used by the Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO), is reserved for crops harvested solely for the dry seed.
This excludes green beans and green peas, which are considered vegetable crops. Also
excluded are crops that are mainly grown for oil extraction (oilseeds like soybeans and
peanuts), and crops which are used exclusively for sowing (clovers, alfalfa). However,
in common use these distinctions are not clearly made, and many of the varieties so
classified and given below are also used as vegetables, with their beans in pods while
young cooked in whole cuisines and sold for the purpose; for example black eyed beans,
lima beans and Toor or pigeon peas are thus eaten as fresh green beans cooked as part
of a meal. Pulses are important food crops due to their high protein and essential amino
acid content. Like many leguminous crops, pulses play a key role in crop rotation due to
their ability to fix nitrogen. Just like words as "bean" and "lentil", the word "pulse" may
also refer to just the seed, rather than the entire plant.

1.9.5. Bean varieties

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, a United Nations’ organization)
recognizes 11 primary pulses as shown below:

1. Dry beans (Phaseolus spp.) that include

(i) Kidney bean, haricot bean, pinto bean, navy bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
(ii) Lima bean, butter bean (Phaseolus lunatus)
(iii) Azuki bean, adzuki bean (Vigna angularis)
(iv) Mung bean, golden gram, green gram (Vigna radiata)

29
 (v) Black gram, Urad (Vigna mungo)
(vi) Scarlet runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus)
(vii) Ricebean (Vigna umbellata)
(viii) Moth bean (Vigna aeontifolia)
(ix) Tepary bean (Phaseolus acutifolius)

2. Dry broad beans (Vieia faba) like

(i) Horse bean (Vieia faba equina)
(ii) Broad bean (Vieia faba)
(iii) Field bean (Vieia faba)

3. Dry peas (Pisum spp.) such as

(i) Garden pea (Pisum sativum var. sativum)
(ii) Protein pea (Pisum sativum var. arvense)

4. Chickpea, Garbanzo, Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum)

5. Dry cowpea, Black-eyed pea, blackeye bean (Vigna unguiculata)
6. Pigeon pea, Arhar /Toor, cajan pea, Congo bean (Cajanus cajan)
7. Lentil (Lens culinaris)
8. Bambara groundnut, earth pea (Vigna subterranea)
9. Vetch common vetch (Vieia sativa)
10. Lupins (Lupinus spp.)
11. Minor pulses include:
(i) Lablab, hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus)
(ii) Jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis),
(iii) sword bean (Canavalia gladiata)
(iv) Winged bean (Psophocarpus teragonolobus)
(v) Velvet bean, cowitch (Mucuna pruriens var. utilis)
(vi) Yam bean (Pachyrrizus erosus)

30
1.9.6. Nutritional values of pulses
Pulses contain 20 to 25 % protein by weight, which is double the protein content
of wheat and three times that of rice. For this reason, pulses are called "vegetarian's
meat". While pulses are generally high in protein, and the digestibility of that protein is
also high, they often are relatively poor in the essential amino acid, methionine,
although Indian cuisine includes sesame seeds, which contain high levels of methionine.
Grains (which are deficient in lysine) are commonly consumed along with pulses to
form a complete protein of diet.
Pulses have significant nutritional and health advantages for consumers. They are
the most important dietary predictor of survival in older people of different ethnicities
[104] and research has shown that legume consumption is highly correlated with a
reduced mortality from coronary heart disease [105]. Furthermore, pulses are especially
high in amylose starch making them a good source of prebiotic resistant starch [106].
Pinto beans and other beans such as kidney beans, navy beans and black beans are
all known scientifically as Phaseolus vulgaris. They are all referred to as "common
beans" probably owing to the fact that they are derived from a common bean ancestor
that originated in Peru. From there, beans spread throughout South and Central America
by migrating Indian trades. Beans were introduced into Europe in the 15th century by
Spanish explorers returning from their voyages to the New World. Spanish and
Portuguese traders brought them to Africa and Asia.
As beans are a very inexpensive form of good protein, they have become popular
in many cultures throughout the world. Pinto beans are the most highly consumed dried
bean in the United States. Today, the largest commercial producers of dried common
beans are India, China, Indonesia, Brazil and the United States [107].

1.9.7. Lentil
Masur or Lentil is one of the earliest crops cultivated by human beings. A native
of the central Asian region and known for its lens-shaped seeds and vast range of
colours, Masur dal still remains an important item in global food basket. Protein content
of masur is rated next to soybean.
Lentils are an excellent source of complex carbohydrates and are high in fibre and
in protein. Lentils are a cool season crop with a restricted root system that is only

31
moderately resistant to high temperatures and drought. Lentils have proven to be
invaluable in crop rotation, helping to control weeds, diseases and insects, as well as
improving soil texture and fertility.
India is the largest producer of masur accounting for nearly 25 percent of the
global output. Major centres of masur cultivation are Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh
and Bihar. West Bengal, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and Assam also contribute to the
country’s masur production. Masur is sown during November-December and harvested
in February-March. Peak season of supply begins from April. Production of masur
vacillates to a great extent every year according to the rains and moisture level in the
soil. Though India is largest producer, Canada is largest exporter with a 50 % share of
the export market. The other important exporters are the USA, Australia and Turkey.

1.9.8. Tur or Pigeon Pea

Tur or Pigeon Pea (arhar) is another pulse crop known for its rich nutritional value
and wide use across many countries in the world. Tur believed to be a native of India
spread to other regions in Asia and is currently cultivated in nearly 25 countries. It is
also known as red gram, Congo Pea, Gungo pea etc. India is the largest producer
accounting for more than 80 percent in area as well as total production in the world.
Other major producers are Myanmar, Malawai, Nepal etc.
Global production of tur is estimated to be around 4 million tons. In India, the
total area under tur is estimated at 3.75 million hectares. The main centres of tur output
in India are Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. Tur
contributes nearly 20 percent of India’s total pulses crop production of 12-15 million
tons per year. The yield in India is between 600-1,200 kg per hectare.
Tur is cultivated between June-September period and arrival of fresh crop begins
from October. India also imports around 400,000-500,000 ton of tur per year. The main
source for import is Myanmar [108].

32
1.9.9. Yellow peas
Yellow Peas, also known as Dry Peas, are one of the most widely used pulse crops
in the world. A native of China, Yellow Pea cultivation currently is concentrated in a
few countries in the world. Broadly two varieties, dry green peas and dry yellow peas,
exist. Peas are the most heavily imported pulse into India. Global output of Yellow Peas
is estimated to be around 12 million tons. Canada accounts for bulk of the global output
with over 3 million tons on average per year. Canada is also the leading global supplier
with nearly 20 percent of the global Yellow Peas trade. Nearly 140 countries in the
world are depending upon major producers of yellow peas for their requirements. China,
India, France, Australia, etc. are the other major producers. India is rated as the fourth
largest producer of Yellow Peas in the world with an output of nearly 800,000 tons per
year. India is also the largest importer of the crop accounting for around 700,000-
800,000 tons.

1.9.10. Chana or chickpea

Chana or Chickpea is a major pulse crop in the Indian subcontinent and several
other countries. Known for rich protein content, chana is used as an edible seed as well
as making flour. Chana is broadly divided into two categories - Kabuli and Desi-
according to the colour, seed size and taste. India is the leading producer and consumer
of chana in the world. The Indian production is estimated to be between 4-7 million tons
per year. Normally chana accounts for around 40 percent of India’s total pulses crop
production of 12-15 million tons. Major producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
Chana can withstand moisture stress to a certain extent. However, the production
highly fluctuates between years, depending on the rains received and the moisture
availability in the soil. Its sowing starts in October and lasts till December. First arrival
starts in Karnataka during Nov end while the last arrival in North Rajasthan is during
April. Most of the area for chana is rain-fed but irrigation facilities are also available in
some producing areas. Total annual consumption of India is nearly 50-55 lakh tons
which fluctuates with the price movement.
India is the largest importer of chickpeas. India accounts for over 30% of all
imports, almost all desis. Pakistan, Spain, and Bangladesh are the other three major

33
importers. India and surrounding countries import mainly the desi type, while countries
in North and South America, Europe, the Middle East and Africa import mainly the
kabuli type [109].

1.9.11. Urad or black gram

Urad or Black Gram is widely cultivated in the tropical region of Asia. Also
known as Black Matpe, Urad is known for its nutritional values and fermenting
qualities. An indispensable entity in South Indian cuisine such as dosa, idli and vada,
urad is also used in many other dishes in India as well as other countries.
The composition of black gram is comparable to that of commonly cultivated legumes.
Most of the ashj protein and lipid are present in the cotyledons, while the seed coat
which accounts for 12 to 14 per cent of the whole seed is rich in crude fibre and
calcium.
Split black gram seeds have about 560 to 640 g/kg of carbohydrates, including
starch, soluble sugars, fibre and unavailable carbohydrates. Starch accounts for most of
the total carbohydrates in the seeds as well as the cotyledons. The protein content has
been reported to range from 236 to 286g/kg.
Urad is produced mainly in Asian countries. India is the largest producer and
consumer followed by Myanmar and Thailand. Grown mostly as an inter-crop with
maize, jowar and other cereals, urad is sown during February, June-July and October
according to the area of cultivation. India produces around 1.3-1.5 million tons of urad
every year accounting for nearly 10 percent of the country’s total pulse crop output of
12-15 million ton. Main production centres of urad are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh [110].

1.9.12. Khesari Dal

Khesari Dal or Lathyrus sativus is also known as Grass Pea. It is a cheap variety of
cereals with high content of protein but has been banned because it is known to cause a
neurological disorder called “lathyrism” due to most probably oxalyldiaminopropionic
acid. The disease is known from ancient times. In 400 BC, Charak had associated eating
“triputa” which is Lathyrus sativus with some neurological disorders. The plant is used
as Cattle / animal fodder and has also caused the same disorder in goats. The problems

34
involve paralysis of the lower limbs and stunted growth on heavy consumption. There
are some sections which allege that there is no proof of the ill-effects of Khesari dal on
human health. The need is to carry out extensive research to establish if the pulse
variety is suitable for human consumption and taking consequent action [111].

1.9.13. Pulse production

Production data available from the FAO suggests dry edible beans account for up
to a third of world pulse output, followed by field peas at around 20%; chickpeas at
13%; broad beans at 7%; and lentils, cowpeas and pigeon peas at roughly 6% [112].
Among the different pulses grown in India, the respective share of production has
been: chickpea (bengal gram/chana) 40.50 %; pigeon pea (tur /arhar) 17.90 %; green
gram (moong) 9.20 %; black gram (urad) 9.10 %; lentils (masur) 6.10 % and other
minor pulses 17.20 %.

1.10. Objectives of the present work

The principal objectives of this work have been formulated as follows:

a) To determine the trace element status of different varieties of rice (oryza sativa)
and pulses and legumes that constitutes the staple food for the people of Assam.
b) To estimate in particular the contents of Fe, Zn, and Cu in all the major food items
selected.
c) To determine the uptake of Cu (II), Fe (II) and Zn (II) by rice and pulses and
legumes in laboratory experiments.
d) To determine the amount of total carbohydrates of the different varieties of rice
and pulses and legumes.
e) To estimate the amount of protein and fats of the selected varieties.

35
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