High Voltage Engineering

IV B.Tech Isem Supply, Nov-18

R-14 Key

PART-A

1. a) Primary Ionization:
The processes that are primarily responsible for the breakdown of a gas are
 ionization by collision,
 photo-ionization, and the
 secondary ionization processes.
In insulating gases (also called electron-attaching gases) the process of attachment also
plays an important role. ------------2M

b) Field enhancement factor(f):

It is defined as the ratio of maximum electric field Em to the average value
of the field.
Field Enhancement factor (f) = Em /Eav
Ex: For parallel plate capacitor f = 1 ------------2M

c) Electro-negative gases:
It is the process that gives high breakdown strength to a gas is the electron attachment in
which free electrons get attached to neutral atoms or molecules to form negative ions.
Since negative ions like positive ions are too massive produce ionization due to collisions,
attachment represents an effective way of removing electrons which otherwise would have
led to current growth and breakdown at low voltages.

The gases in which attachment plays an active role are called electronegative gases.
------------2M
d) Uniform and Non-uniform field:
Electric field is uniform: A gradual increase in voltage across a gap produces a breakdown
of the gap the form of a spark without any preliminary discharges.

Non-uniform field: An increase in voltage will first cause a discharge in the gas to appear
at points with highest electric field intensity. ------------2M

e) Peak voltage measurement:

The peak value of an a.c. waveform is more important. This is necessary to obtain the
maximum dielectric strength of insulating solids, etc. When the waveform is not
sinusoidal, rms value of the voltage multiplied by √2 is not correct.
Hence a separate peak value instrument is desirable in high voltage applications.
------------2M
f) Method used to measure large power frequency currents:
These currents measured by only
 Resistive shunts
 Electromagnetic current transformers (CTs)
------------2M
g) Impulse standards:
Impulse waves are specified by defining their rise or front time, fall or tail time to 50%
peak value, and the value of the peak voltage.

Thus 1.2/50µs , 1000 kV wave represents an impulse voltage wave with a front
time of 1.2 µs, fall time to 50% peak value of 50 µs , and a peak value of 1000 kV.
------------2M
h) Importance of high insulation in power system:
 It is required to provide high insulation In power system because to protect from
 Lightning over voltages
 Switching over voltage and
 Temporary over voltages.
------------2M

i) Significant of Operating duty test for surge arrester:

This test on arrester is pro-rated units of diverters and gives better closeness to actual
conditions
i) the average power frequency sparkover voltage before and after the test does not differ
by more than 10%.
ii) the residual voltage at the rated current docs not vary by more than 10%,
iii) the follow-on power frequency current is interrupted each time, and
iv) no significant change, signs of flashover, or puncture occurs to the pro-rated unit.

------------2M
j) Insulation coordination: It is defined as,
The correlation between insulation of the protecting device to the insulation of the
protected device in a power system called as insulation coordination.
The insulation level is always maintained lower value compared to the protected device
because if any surge will enter in to the power system the protecting device initially
operates whether it discharge or destroy and protect the protected device.
------------2M
PART-B

2) (a) Charge Simulation Method (CSM)

Basic Principle of CSM: When the conductor is excited by an applied voltage, charges appear
on the surface of the conductor. These charges produce an electric field outside the conductor,
while at the same time maintains the conductor at equipotential. Similarly, when a dielectric is
excited by an external field, it gets polarized, i.e. the charged particles of the molecules of the
dielectric get shifted from their neutral state to produce a volume of dipoles
------------3M

------------2M
2b) Stress intensification factor:
The electric field distribution is governed by the Poisson's equation
▼2 V = ρv / ε
Where V is the the potential at a given point, p is the space charge density in the region, and CQ
is the electric permittivity of free space (vacuum). However, in most of the high voltage
apparatus, space charges are not normally present, and hence the potential distribution is
governed by the Laplace's equation:
▼2 V = 0
The operator ▼ is called the Laplacian and is a scalar with properties.

There are many methods available for determining the potential distribution, the most commonly
used methods being,
(O the electrolytic tank method, and (if) the method using digital computers.
The potential distribution can also be calculated directly. Howevei, this is very difficult except for
simple geometries. In many practical cases, a good understanding of the problem is possible by
using some simple rules to sketch the field lines and equipotentials. The important rules are

 the equipotentials cut the field lines at right angles,

 when the equipotentials and field lines are drawn to form curvilinear squares, the density
of the field lines is an indication of the electric stress in a given region, and
 in any region, the maximum electric field is given by dv/dx, where dv is the voltage
difference between two successive equipotentials dx apart. ------------2M

Considerable amount of labour and time can be saved by properly choosing the planes of
symmetry and shaping the electrodes accordingly. Once the voltage distribution of a given
geometry is established, it is easy to refashion or redesign the electrodes to minimize the stresses
so that the onset of corona is prevented. This is a case normally encountered in high voltage
electrodes of the bushings, standard capacitors, etc. When two dielectrics of widely different
permittivities are in a series, the electric stress is very much higher in the medium of lower
permittivity. Considering a solid insulation
in a gas medium, the stress in the gas becomes er times that in the solid dielectric, where er is
the relative permittivity of the solid dielectric. This enhanced stress occurs at the electrode edges
and one method of overcoming this is to increase the electrode diameter.

------------3M

(3 ) Finite Element Method (FEM) Finite Element Method is widely used in the numerical
solution of electric field problems, and became very popular. In contrast to other numerical
methods, FEM is a very general method and therefore is a versatile tool for solving wide range
of electric field problems

------------2M
------------3M

------------3M
 ------------2M
4 (a) PASCHENS LAW:
Paschen's law is an equation that gives the breakdown voltage, that is,
the voltage necessary to start a discharge or electric arc, between two electrodes in a gas as a
function of pressure and gap length gives the breakdown voltage, that is, the voltage
necessary to start a discharge or electric arc, between two electrodes in a gas as a function of
pressure and gap length. ------------1M

In uniform fields, the Townsend's criterion for breakdown in electropositive gases is

given by the following equation,
(eαd -1 ) = 1
or αd = ln (1/ + 1)
where the coefficients α and γ are functions of E/p and are given as follows:

and ------------2M
where E0 is the applied electric field, and p the gas pressure. In a uniform field
electrode system of gap distance d,

where Ub is the breakdown voltage and Eb the corresponding field intensity. Eb is

equal to the electric strength of the dielectric under given conditions. When the
applied field intensity E0 = Eb , the Townsend's criterion for breakdown in
electropositive gases in uniform field can be represented in terms of the product of
the gas pressure and the electrode gap distance 'pd' as,

or

------------2M

4(b)

(5)(a)
(5)(b)
6)(A):-

----- 3 Marks

------- 2 Marks
6(B) Resonant Transformer

7) Optimum Number of stages(n) :

In Cock-croft Walton voltage multiplier circuit,
Output current = 5mA
Max. Volatge = 100KV
Capacitor rating = 0.1micro- farads
Frequency supply = 50Hz

i) Optimum No. of stages(n) = Sqt[Vmax f C / I ] ---- 3 Marks

= Sqt[ 100 x 10 x 50 x 0.1 x 10 -6 / 5 x 10-3 ]
3

= 10 ---- 2 Marks

ii) Ripple voltage = [ n(n+1) / 2 ] I/ f C ---- 3 Marks

= [ 10 (11) / 2] x 5 x 10-3 / 50 x 0.1 x 10 -6 ]
= 55 KV ---- 2 Marks

8) Power Frequency Overvoltages in Power Systems

The power frequency overvoltages occur in large power systems and they are of much concern in
EHV systems, i.e. systems of 400 kV and above. The main causes for power frequency and its
harmonic overvoltages are
(a) sudden loss of loads,
(b) disconnection of inductive loads or connection of capacitive loads,
(c) Ferranti effect, unsymmetrical faults, and
(d) saturation in transformers, etc. ---- 2 Marks

Overvoltages of power frequency harmonics and voltages with frequencies nearer to the operating
frequency are caused during tap changing operations, by magnetic or ferro-resonance
phenomenon in large power transformers, and by resonating overvoltages due to series
capacitors with shunt reactors or transformers. The duration of these overvoltages may be from
one to two cycles to a few seconds
depending on the overvoltage protection employed.
(a) Sudden Load Rejection
Sudden load rejection on large power systems causes the speeding up of generator prime movers.
The speed governors and automatic voltage regulators will intervene to restore normal
conditions. But initially both the frequency and voltage increase.
The voltage at the sending end is affected by the line length, short circuit MVA at sending end
bus, and reactive power generation of the line (due to line capacitive reactance and any shunt or
series capacitors). Shunt reactors may reduce the voltage to 1.2 to 1.4 p.u.
---- 2 Marks

---- 2 Marks

(c) Ground Faults and Their Effects

Single line to ground faults cause rise in voltages in other healthy phases. Usually, with solidly
grounded systems, the increases in voltage (phase to ground value) will be less than the line-to-
line voltage. With effectively grounded systems, i.e. with ^n ^n
T^S 3.0 and ^£1.0 X1 X1 (where, RQ and XQ are zero sequence resistance and reactance and X]
is the positive sequence reactance of the system), the rise in voltage of the healthy phases does
not usually exceed 1.4 per unit.
---- 2 Marks
(d) Saturation Effects
When voltages above the rated value are applied to transformers, their magnetizing currents (no
load currents also) increase rapidly and may be about the full rated current for 50% overvoltage.
These magnetizing currents are not sinusoidal in nature but are of a peaky waveform. The third,
fifth, and seventh harmonic contents may be 65%, 35%, and 25% of the exciting current of the
fundamental frequency corresponding to an overvoltage of 1.2 p.u. For third and its multiple
harmonics, zero sequence impedance values are effective, and delta connected windings
suppress them. But the shunt connected capacitors and line capacitances can form resonant
circuits and cause high third harmonic overvoltages. When such overvoltages are added, the
voltage rise in the lines may be significant. For higher harmonics a series resonance between the
transformer inductance and the line capacitance can occur which may produce even higher
voltages.
---- 2 Marks
9. Principles of Insulation Coordination in High Voltages:

---- 2 Marks

---- 3 Marks
10. Partial Discharge

--- 3 Marks

--- 2 Marks
11.

---- 5 marks
*****

Prepared by
K. Mahesh
Asst. Prof
EEE Dept, BVRITN