El Manual Del Teacher Revision Final PDF

THE
TEACHER´S
MANUAL
Mg. CARLOS FIDEL LOPEZ INCA
Mg. ARNALDO VESALIO GONZALES MEZA

©
Copyright 2013
Autor : Mg. Carlos Fidel LOPEZ INCA

: Mg. Arnaldo Vesalio GONZALES MEZA
Responsable de la Edición : Ing. Javier H. RAMIREZ GABRIEL
Diagramación y Diseño Gráfico : Ing. Javier H. RAMIREZ GABRIEL
Primera Edición : Caraz, mayo del 2013
Tiraje : 1,000 Ejemplares
Derechos Reservados : COPY & PRINTER
Hecho el Depósito Legal en la Biblioteca Nacional del Perú Nº 2013-07002

Editor: Javier Hugo Ramirez Gabriel / Av José de Sucre Nº 133 Caraz – Ancash
Impresor: Javier Hugo Ramirez Gabriel / Av. José de Sucre Nº 133 Caraz – Ancash
Telf.: 391634 – 943364990 – 957620910
PRESENTATION
English is now the most widespread language in the world. As a native language it
is used by over 500 million people. As a second language or an official language it
is used in a variety of countries, from Africa to India and Oceania. In total users of
English as a second language or as a language acquired are more than one billion
people, almost one in four people in the world, speaks English!
English is the international language for any purpose, whether diplomatic,

commercial, cultural or tourist. We can not think of any personal or business
activity, cultural or tourist, diplomatic and commercial high-level national and
international that does not require proficiency in English. The importance of this
language is similar today to the importance of Latin and Greek in the ancient world.
Users of the Internet and the computer do not need any further explanation about
the importance of English.
Fortunately, English is a language simple enough; perhaps one of the easiest

languages in the world in its structure, but it is a rich language in scientific and
commercial terminology.
For the simplicity of its structure, English has been able to absorb thousands of
words from any source without distortion. This has become the English language
world's richest. It is the language in which they have coined all known scientific
terms. Anyone who uses a computer knows some English words that are necessary
to operate software. The English vocabulary contains over 50% of words of Latin
origin. This immensely facilitates language learning for Spanish speakers because
that half or more of the English vocabulary is automatically understood.
For this reasons we as teacher need to be updated in different aspects of the

Language. That is why I present this book to you in order to collaborate to
overcome those everyday problems we face.
The authors
CONTENTS
COMMUICATIVE COMPETENCE
INTRODUCTION 1
DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS 2
THE DEFICIT OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN ENGLISH 4
BIBLIOGRAPHY 4
STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
INTRODUCTION 5
USEFUL STRATEGIES FOR LISTENING AND READING 6
USEFUL STRATEGIES FOR SPEAKING AND WRITING 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY 10
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH IN ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE
TEACHING
INTRODUCTION 11
WHAT IS COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING? 12
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH 12
BIBLIOGRAPHY 16
THE CONTRIBUITIONS OF THE COMMUNICATIVE MOVEMENT
INTRODUCTION 17
BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHERS 17
BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR LEARNERS 18
BIBLIOGRAPHY 19
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES IN COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
INTRODUCTION 20
KINDS OF CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES THAT BEST FACILITATES LEARNING 23
BIBLIOGRAPHY 25
PROBLEMS WITH THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
INTRODUCTION 26
SUMMARY 29
BIBLIOGRAPHY 31
KINDS OF TEXTS
INTRODUCTION 32
TYPES OF TEXTS 32
BIBLIOGRAPHY 38
THE ROLE OF TEXT LINGUISTICS IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASS
INTRODUCTION 39
TEXT LINGUISTIC SESSION 40
DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS 41
DIARIES / JOURNALS 44
BIBLIOGRAPHY 48
STRATEGIES AND PROCESSES TO DEVELOP ORAL COMPREHENSION
INTRODUCTION 49
STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING LISTENING 49
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING LISTENING SKILLS 53
DEVELOPING LISTENING ACTIVITIES 55
USING TEXTBOOK LISTENING ACTIVITIES 59
ASSESSING LISTENING PROFICIENCY 60
BIBLIOGRAPHY 61
STRATEGIES AND PROCESSES TO DEVELOP ORAL PRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION 62
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING SPEAKING 62
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING SPEAKING SKILLS 64
DEVELOPING SPEAKING ACTIVITIES 67
BIBLIOGRAPHY 73
STRATEGIES AND PROCESSES TO DEVELOP WRITTEN COMPREHENSION

INTRODUCTION 74
STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP READING 76
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING READING SKILLS 80
BASIC STEPS FOR READING TO LEARN 82
USING TEXTBOOK READING ACTIVITIES 86
ASSESSING READING PROFICIENCY 87
BIBLIOGRAPHY 89
STRATEGIES AND PROCESSES TO DEVELOP ORAL PRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION 90
STRATEGIEES TO DEVELOP WRITING 90
30 IDEAS FOR TEACHING WRITING 92
BIBLIOGRAPHY 98
EVALUATING SPEAKING
INTRODUCTION 99
WHAT TO EVALUATE? 101
HOW TO EVALUATE? 103
ASSESSING LISTENING AND SPEAKING SKILLS 105
HOW TO SELECT OR DESIGN INSTRUMENTS 107
BIBLIOGRAPHY 109
EVALUATING WRITING
INTRODUCTION 110
DESIGNING ASSIGMENTS 110
TYPES OF EVALUATION 112
EVALUATING THE STUDENT´S WRITING 114
BIBLIOGRAPHY 122
STRATEGIES TO KNOW ENGLISH FOR TEACHERS IN FORMATION

INTRODUCTION 123
STRATEGIES FOR PLANNING HOW TO LEARN 124
STATEGIES FOR LEARNING 125
BIBLIOGRAPHY 135
TEACHING STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION 136
THE FIRST CLASS 137
SEVEN PRINCIPLES FOR A GOOD PRACTICE 139
BIBLIOGRAPHY 139
RESOURSES AND MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION 140
TYPES OF MATERIALS AND RESOURSES 141
LEARNING RESOURCES: ESL / EFL TEACHING 142
BIBLIOGRAPHY 149

INTRODUCTION 150
ADVANTAGES OF THE USE OF ICT 150
OBJECTIVES OF THE USE OF ICT IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH 151
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE 153
MATERIALS AND RESOURSES FROM INTERNET FOR THE ENGLISH CLASS 159
METHODOLOGY STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP LEARNING
INTRODUCTION 162
OVERVIEW OF THE STRATEGIES OF LEARNING IN THE LEARNING 162
GENERAL TEACHING STRATEGIES 163
BIBLIOGRAPHY 167
ASSESSMENT
INTRODUCTION 168
GENERAL STRATEGIES 174
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE PROBE 177
BIBLIOGRAPHY 181
EVALUATING LEARNING
INTRODUCTION 182
REASONS FOR TESTING 185
TESTING COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE 187
BIBLIOGRAPHY 192
COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
INTRODUCTION
Ever since men began to worry about the teaching of foreign languages and more
specifically since the Second World War in which it arises as scientific specialty,
various methods have been employed to respond to the needs of the times.
Besides, any discussion of methods of teaching foreign languages must be based
on the trends prevailing linguistic and psychological. For instance the Grammar-
translation method left the emphasis on grammatical studies in the early nineteenth
century. Coupled with this, one can also speak of the relationship between
structuralism and behaviorism and the role it carries today, the theory of
communication to give importance to language as a system whose primary function
is communicative contributed to the concept of contextualization in linguistics, which
expresses the relationship between the linguistic aspect and the situation in which
communication occurs, and the notion of communicative competence proposed by
Hymes.
The teaching of foreign languages and especially in schools is no exception in the

application of different methods and approaches have been implemented that allow
mainly developing oral communicative competence of students. Among the most
studied languages in the contemporary world, is English. Denis Girard, General
Inspector of the Academy of Paris values between the basic parameters for
measuring the importance of a language the following factors:
1. The number of native inhabitants who use it.

2. Its importance as a vehicle for communication.
3. The economic and political influence of those who speak it.
"English is the primary language in books, newspapers, airports and air traffic
control, international business, academic conferences, science, technology,
diplomacy, sports, international competitions, pop music and propaganda. About
two thirds of the world's scientists read in English and at least three quarters of
electronic information are stored in this language. Any of these criteria makes
English prominently. This explains why English is taught as a second language or
foreign language. However, general education elementary, middle and high
responds to patterns that prevailed in education before the forties. They focus on
their ultimate goal that students are able to understand written texts so that as
1
future professionals to extract scientific information from foreign publications. These
"reading courses" emphasize the ability to comprehend what is read, ignore the rest
of the skills and competencies that allow the student to use language as a
communication tool for working and social and academic relations. Other factors
that obviously play a role against genuine and meaningful communication among
students and English language according to observations made by Deckert are the
excessive talking in class by the teacher, translated in terms of comments and
frequent corrections, which is against the emergence and development of a
conversation, both sustained and full of purpose in students. There has been
dogma in many people, after the emergence of communicative language teaching.
English, as usually occurs with the introduction of new ideas, which may have led to
misunderstandings in the implementation of such teaching and to failures caused
opinions about the use of it, such as lack of commitment to teaching grammar, no
correction of errors and problems in the teaching of pronunciation, although these
problems were never promoted by any of the proponents of the Communicative
Approach.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS

At present the teaching of speech has occupied an important place in the
development of language teaching. This teaching is focused on the problem of
communication, e.g.: to make our students are able to understand and
communicate in a consistent manner, depending on the communication needs to
be submitted to different situations, to be exchanged. Given that one of the central
aspects of the educational process in school is the development of effective
communication skills in students, teaching of language should focus on working
with this concept and its implementation in all components governing the teaching
mother tongue. It is important to note that Noan Chomsky's theory states that
grammar should be a competency model that in response to a set of rules to
provide grammatical sentences of language models, e.g.: non-directed grammar
alone to describe the statements, if not to explain how they are produced. This
generative grammar has its antecedents in the Post-Royal Grammar and Humbolt
and tries to give an explanation of linguistic competence of speakers, from the
system of rules that can generate an infinite set of sentences.
Chomsky's notion of communicative competence in relation with the tacit intuitive

knowledge that every speaker has of his mother tongue, according to which the
individual holding this competition will have the grammatical system-related rules
2
that will ensure in the coding-decoding performance of infinite texts. Dell Hymes
develops a concept of communicative competence that exceeds the Chomskyan
theory regarding language competence.
Communicative competence is seen as the ability to control speech situations result

from the appropriate application of different sub-codes, while Chomsky draws a
distinction between competence and performance, without considering that these
structures are produced by general speech acts in certain communicative
situations. For language teaching should be considered the four dimensions of
communicative competence proposed in 1980 and Swain channels which are
associated with an inter-disciplinary analysis and systematic text.
The four dimensions of communicative competence that allude and which have
been outlined above are:
1. Linguistic grammatical competence: The teaching of language must meet the

mastery of linguistic structures gradually language systems, benefiting the
student's ability to dominate not only the reality, but also to preach about it
from prior knowledge that has of different linguistic structures that returning
the system to achieve the creation of a coherent whole of communicative
intention.
2. Sociolinguistic competence: The language is eminently social activity and this
character is establishing a restrictive use of the communication process,
depending on the communicative situations in which it operates.
3. Discourse competence: Within the construction of the text are levels phrases,
with basically a function word: prayer.
4. Strategic competence: Relates to the capacity building on the student to
develop the communication strategy to initiate, continue and complete the
communicative process. The learner is able to fulfill a given communicative
function and to develop the ability to understand, analyze and recreate the text
for the development of communicative competence.
It is necessary in the analysis and study of communicative competence to
include definitions that frame the communicative competence in the ability to
use the system of language appropriately in all circumstances. And
consideration of competition in terms of expression, interpretation and
negotiation of meaning that includes interaction of two or more persons
belonging to the same or different speech community or between a person
and a written or oral.
3
THE DEFICIT OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE IN ENGLISH
For half the school is a facilitator of communication and are able to contribute
effectively to the communicative competence is necessary that from the earliest
grades, the child develops a different attitude to language, characterized by an
awareness of what you serves and how to make efficient use of it, in any
communicative situation where you are. First it is necessary to comment that in
their own foreign language teaching has prevailed formalism and the divorce
between the reflexive analysis and the practical use of it. It has become apparent
inadequate planning and orientation towards particular targets, the tendency to
sudden and exercise communication skills, disconnected from social practice.
The development of communication skills, despite being essentially an active

process, has not escaped the formalism. This is especially true when it has sought
to develop these skills in situations divorced from practical communication needs of
the student, without analyzing the communicative activities that are central to the
skeleton or conceptual organization of communicative language teaching, learning
involves communication authentic and that this may also take place in a context of
interaction between two people in one of the countless everyday situations, but it
can also be organized for learning purposes, purposes in the context of the
classroom.
Currently teaching should aspire to qualitative changes in the structures and

systems of knowledge, which also radiate quantitative changes in the process.
Specifically language teaching should definitively establish the analysis of
communicative competence of future graduates, seen as communicative
performance of students by integrating the four language skills: listening, speaking,
reading and writing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Antich, R. 1881. English Composition. Book Publishing for education.

Baranov et al. 1984. Pedagogy. Editorial Pueblo y Educación.
4
STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE
INTRODUCTION
Learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning.
Strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for
active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative
competence. Appropriate language learning strategies result in improved
proficiency and greater self-confidence.
Although researchers have formally discovered and named language learning
strategies only recently, such strategies have actually been used for thousands of
years. One well- known example is the mnemonic or memory devices used in
ancient times to help storytellers remember their lines. Throughout history, the best
language students have used strategies, ranging from naturalistic language
practice techniques to analytic, rule based strategies.
Now, for the first time, learning strategies are becoming widely recognized
throughout education in general. Under various names, such as learning skills,
learning to learn skills, thinking skills, and problem-solving skills, learning strategies
are the way students learn a wide range of subjects, from native language reading
through electronics troubleshooting to new languages. Within the language
instruction field, teachers are starting to discuss learning strategies among
themselves. Learning strategy workshops are drawing big crowds at language
teacher´s conventions, and increasing number of language learners are beginning
to recognize the power of their own strategies.
This table helps you locate useful explanations for each of the four skills
5
USEFUL STRATEGIES FOR LISTENING AND READING
STRATEGY
STRATEGY SET STRATEGY
GROUP
Grouping
Creating mental Associating
linkages Elaborating
Using imaginary Placing new words into context
Semantic map Applying images and
Using keywords Representing sounds in memory
sounds
Reviewing well Structured reviewing
Using physical response or
Employing action sensation
Using mechanical techniques
Repeating
Practicing Recognizing and using formulas
and patterns
Practicing naturalistically
Getting the idea quickly
Receiving and sending
messages Using resources for receiving
Cognitive and sending messages
Reasoning deductively
Analyzing and Analyzing expressions
recognizing Translating
Transferring
Taking notes
Creating structure for
Summarizing
input and output
Highlighting
6
Using linguistic clues
Compensation Guessing intelligently
Using other cues
Overviewing and linking with
already known material
Centering your learning Paying attention
Delaying speech production to
focus on listening
Finding out about language
learning
Metacognitive Organizing
Arranging and planning Setting goals and objectives
your learning Identifying the purpose of a
language task
Planning for language task
Seeking practice opportunities
Self-monitoring
Evaluating your learning
Self-evaluating
Using progressive relaxation
deep breathing or meditation
Lowering your anxiety
Using music
Using laughter
Making positive statements
Affective Taking risks wisely
Encouraging yourself
Listening to your body
Rewarding yourself
Using a checklist
Taking your emotional
temperature Writing a language learning
diary
7
Discussing your feelings with
someone else
Asking for clarification and
Asking questions
verification
Cooperating with proficient users
Cooperating with others of the new language
Social Cooperating with peers
Developing cultural
understanding
Empathizing with others
Become aware of other´s
thoughts and feelings
USEFUL STRATEGIES FOR SPEAKING AND WRITING
STRATEGY STRATEGY SET STRATEGY

GROUP
Creating mental
Placing new words into context
linkages
Representing sounds in
Memory Applying images and memory
sounds
Using key words
Reviewing well Structured reviewing
Repeating
Recognizing and using formulas
Practicing and patterns
Recombining
Practicing naturalistically
Cognitive
Receiving and sending Using resources for receiving
messages and sending messages
Reasoning deductively
Analyzing and
Analyzing expressions
recognizing
Translating
8
Transferring
Switching to mother tongue
Getting help
Using mime or gestures
Avoiding communication partially
Overcoming limitations or totally
Compensation Selecting the topic
in speaking and writing
Adjusting or approximating the
message
Coining words
Using a circumlocution or
synonym
Paying attention
Centering your learning Delaying speech production to
focus on listening
Finding out about language
learning
Organizing
Metacognitive Arranging and planning Setting goals and objectives
your learning Identifying the purpose of a
language task
Planning for language task
Seeking practice opportunities
Self-monitoring
Evaluating your learning
Self-evaluating
Using progressive relaxation
deep breathing or meditation
Lowering your anxiety
Affective Using music
Using laughter
Encouraging yourself Making positive statements
9
Taking risks wisely
Listening to your body
Rewarding yourself
Using a checklist
Writing a language learning
Taking your emotional
diary
temperature
Discussing your feelings with
someone else
Asking questions Asking for correction
Cooperating with peers
Cooperating with others Cooperating with proficient users
Social of the new language
Developing cultural
understanding
Empathizing with others
Become aware of other´s
thoughts and feelings
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Language learning strategies Rebecca L. Oxford H&H Publishers
Alvarez de Zayas, C. 1999. The School of Life Didactics. Havana. Editorial Pueblo y
Educación. 3rd Edition.
Antich, R. 1881. English Composition. Book Publishing for education.
Baranov et al. 1984. Pedagogy. Editorial Pueblo y Educación.
Bermúdez, R. 1996. Theory and Methodology of Learning. Havana. Editorial Pueblo
y Educación.
10
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH IN ENGLISH AS FOREIGN
LANGUAGE TEACHING
THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH IN ENGLISH AS A
FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING
“Making a mistake is NOT a mistake, but, NOT LEARNING from the mistake
is A BIG MISTAKE”.
Anonymous
INTRODUCTION
In 1960´s and 70´s foreign language learning was widely extended with the
establishment of comprehensive schools.Led to the teaching of a foreign
language to virtually all children.Created for pressure for a change in
teaching methods and curriculum to suit the needs of non-traditional groups
of learners, recognition of inadequacy of traditional grammar / translation
methods and also of 'structural' methods with emphasis on meaningless
pattern drills and repetition.
New syllabuses took into account needs of different pupils. Traditional
academic syllabuses had assumed learner's goal was in-depth mastery of
target language. But for less academic pupil a more immediate 'pay-off' was
necessary, in terms of usefulness for practical purposes.
Where does communicative language teaching come from?

The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and
linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-lingual and grammar-translation
methods of foreign language instruction.
They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did
not know how to communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or
expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to communicate in the culture of the
language studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style teaching
mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges
where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite
popular.
In the intervening years, the communicative approach has been adapted to the
elementary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlying
11
LANGUAGE TEACHING
philosophy has spawned different teaching methods known under a variety of
names, including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based
instruction, and communicative language teaching.
WHAT IS CLT?
Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate
communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter
in real life. Unlike the audio-lingual method of language teaching, which relies on
repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense
as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions
and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students'
motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways
about meaningful topics.
Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes
in explaining Firth's view that "language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and
has a clear relationship with society. In this light, language study has to look at the
use (function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered
before and after a given piece of discourse) and its social, or situational, context
(who is speaking, what their social roles are, why they have come together to
speak)" (Berns, 1984, p. 5).
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
a. Focuses on language as a mean of communication. Recognizes that all

communication has a social purpose - learner has something to say or find
out.
b. Communication embraces a whole spectrum of functions (e.g. seeking

information/ apologizing / expressing likes and dislikes, etc) and notions (e.g.
apologizing for being late / asking where the nearest post office is).
c. New syllabuses based on communicative method offered some

communicative ability from early stage. Graded Objectives in Modern
Languages - movement which flourished in 1970's and 80's - raised pupils'
motivation through short-term objectives and through teaching language
12
LANGUAGE TEACHING
appropriate to a range of relevant topics and situations (e.g. shopping /
hobbies / exchanges).
d. Professor Dodson distinguishes between language as a 'medium' level

communication and as a 'message' level communication.
e. Classroom activities maximize opportunities for learners to use target

language in a communicative way for meaningful activities. Emphasis on
meaning (messages they are creating or task they are completing) rather than
form (correctness of language and language structure) - as in first language
acquisition.
f. Use of target language asnormal medium for classroom management and

instruction - reflects naturalistic language acquisition.
g. Communicative approach is much more student-orientated, because dictated

by students' needs and interests.
h. Accent is onfunctional / usable language. Learners should be able to go to

foreign country, prepared for reality they encounter there. Need to be able to
cope / survive in a variety of everyday situations.
i. Classroom should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations and

provide opportunity for real communication. Emphasis on creative role-plays /
simulations / surveys / projects / playlets - all produce spontaneity and
improvisation - not just repetition and drills.
j. More emphasis on active modes of learning, including pairwork and group -

work - often not exploited enough by teachers fearful of noisy class.
k. Primacy of oral work. Emphasis on oral and listening skills in the classroom.
Contact time with language is all-important - paves way for more fluid
command of the language / facility and ease of expression. Not just hearing
the teacher, but having personal contact with language, practising sounds
themselves, permutating sentence patterns and getting chance to make
mistakes and learn from doing so.
13
LANGUAGE TEACHING
l. Errors are a natural part of learning language. Learners trying their best to use
the language creatively and spontaneously are bound to make errors.
Constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-productive. Correction
should be discreet / noted by teacher - let them talk and express themselves -
form of language becomes secondary.
m. Communicative approach isnot just limited to oral skills. Reading and writing
skills need to be developed to promote students' confidence in all four skill
areas. By using elements encountered in variety of ways (reading /
summarizing / translating / discussion / debates) - makes language more fluid
and pupils' manipulation of language more fluent.
n. Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional ways

alongside more innovative approaches. Recognized that communication
depends on grammar. Disregard of grammatical form will virtually guarantee
breakdown in communication.
o. Language analysis and grammar explanation may help some learners, but
extensive experience of target language helps everyone. Students need to
hear plenty said about the topic in the foreign language at regular and
recurrent intervals, so they are exposed to the topic and can assimilate it. (Not
mere passive acquisition of certain lexical items).
p. Communicative approach seeks to personalize and localize language and

adapt it to interests of students. Meaningful language is always more easily
retained by learners.
q. Use of idiomatic / everyday language (even slang words as 'out-pocket'). This

is kind of language used in communication between people - not a 'medium'/
grammatical / exam-orientated / formal language!
r. Make use of topical items with which students are already familiar in their own
language - motivates students arouses their interest and leads to more active
participation.
14
LANGUAGE TEACHING
s. Avoid age-old texts - materials must relate students' own lives / must be fresh
and real changing texts and materials regularly keeps teacher “on toes”and
students interested.
t. Language need not be laboriously monotonous and 'medium' orientated.Can

be structured but also spontaneous and incidental. Language is never static.
Life isn't like that - we are caught unawares, unprepared, 'pounced upon!'
Students need to practice improvising / ad-libbing / talking off the cuff, in an
unrehearsed but natural manner.
u. Spontaneous and improvised practice helps to make minds more flexible and
inspire confidence in coping with unforeseen, unanticipated situations. Need
to 'go off at tangents' / use different registers / develop alternative ways of
saying things.
v. Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources. More interesting

and motivating. In Foreign language classroom authentic texts serve as partial
substitute for community of native speaker. Newspaper and magazine articles,
poems, manuals, recipes, telephone directories, videos, news bulletins,
discussion programmes - all can be exploited in variety of ways.
w. Important not to be restricted to textbook, never feel that text-book must be

used from cover to cover. Only a tool / starting-point. With a little inspiration
and imagination, text-book can be manipulated and rendered more
communicative. Teacher must free himself from it, rely more on his own
command of language and his professional expertise as to what linguistic
items, idioms, phrases, words, need to be drilled / exploited / extended.
x. Use of visual stimuli - flashcards - important to provoke practical

communicative language. (3 stages presentation / assimilation / reproducing
language in creative and spontaneous way). Visual resources can be
exploited at whatever level one wishes - help to motivate and focus students'
attention.
15
LANGUAGE TEACHING
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. RICHARDS, Jack. (2001).Approaches and methods. Cambridge University
Press.
2. REVELL Jane. Teaching techniques for Communicative English.
Macmillan Publishers.
3. BRUNFIT Christopher. (1989)Communicative methodology in language
teaching. Great Britain, Cambridge Language Teaching Library.
16
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE COMMUNICATIVE MOVEMENT
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE COMMUNICATIVE
MOVEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Teachers in communicative classrooms will find themselves talking less and
listening more--becoming active facilitators of their students' learning (Larsen-
Freeman, 1986).
The teacher sets up the exercise, but because the students' performance is the
goal, the teacher must step back and observe, sometimes acting as referee or
monitor. A classroom during a communicative activity is far from quiet, however.
The students do most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom
during a communicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to
complete a task.
Because of the increased responsibility to participate, students may find they gain
confidence in using the target language in general. Students are more responsible
managers of their own learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).
Here are the main core principles which make it the most successful language
learning approach in use today.
BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHERS
 A teacher's main role is a facilitator and monitor rather than leading the class.
In other words, "the guide by the side" and not "the sage on the stage".
 Lessons are usually topic or theme based, with the target grammar "hidden" in
the context e.g. a job interview (using the Present perfect tense.)
 Lessons are built round situations / functions practical and authentic in the real
world e.g. asking for information, complaining, apologizing, job interviews,
telephoning.
 Activities set by the teacher have relevance and purpose to real life situations -
students can see the direct benefit of learning.
17
 Dialogues are used that centrearound communicative functions, such as
socializing, giving directions, making telephone calls.
 Emphasis on engaging learners in more useful and authentic language rather

than repetitive phrases or grammar patterns.
 Emphasis on communication and meaning rather than accuracy. Being

understood takes precedence over correct grammar. The fine tuning of
grammar comes later.
 Emphasis is put on the “appropriacy” of language. What are the most

appropriate language and tone for a particular situation?
 Communicative competence is the desired goal. i.e. being able to survive,

converse and be understood in the language.
 Emphasis is put on correct pronunciation and choral (group) and individual

drilling is used.
 Authentic listening and reading texts are used more often, rather than artificial
texts simply produced to feature the target language.
 Use of songs and games are encouraged and provide a natural environment to
promote language and enhance correct pronunciation.
 Feedback and correction is usually given by the teacher after tasks have been
completed, rather than at the point of error, thus interrupting the flow.
BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR LEARNERS
 Learners are often more motivated with this approach as they have an
interesting what is being communicated, as the lesson is topic or theme
based.
 Learners are encouraged to speak and communicate from day one, rather
than just barking out repetitive phrases
 Learners practice the target language a number of times, slowly building on
accuracy
18
 Language is created by the individual, often through trial and error
 Learners interact with each other in pairs or groups, to encourage a flow of
language and maximize the percentage of talking time, rather than just
teacher to student and vice versa
 Unless the focus is on the accuracy stage of the lesson, learners are corrected
at the end of an activity so as not to interrupt their thought process
Goal of Language Teaching: Communicative competence that can best serve
the needs of the learner.
Communicative Competence ( Canale and Swain, 1980 )
Grammatical Sociolinguistic Competence Strategic Competence

Competence
Socio cultural Discourse (verbal and non-verbal
(knowledge of Competence Competence communication
lexical items strategies that may be
and of rules of (knowledge (knowledge called into action to
morphology, of the relation of rules compensate for break
syntax, of language governing downs in
sentence- use to its cohesion communication due to
grammar non-linguistic and performance variables
semantics, coherence or to insufficient
and phonology competence)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PATTISON, P. (1987).The communicative approach and classroom realities.
OXFORD NEWSLINE. .(1998) Communication in the Classroom: Applications and
Methods for a Communicative Approach
19
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES IN COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACHING (CLT)
TEACHING (CLT)
INTRODUCTION
One of the goals of CLT is to develop fluency in language use. Fluency is natural
language use occurring when a speaker engages in meaningful interaction and
maintains comprehensible and ongoing communication despite limitations in his or
her communicative competence. Fluency is developed by creating classroom
activities in which students must negotiate meaning, use communication strategies,
correct misunderstandings and work to avoid communication breakdowns.
Fluency practice can be contrasted with accuracy practice, which focuses on

creating correct examples of language use. Differences between activities that
focus on fluency and those that focus on accuracy can be summarized as follows:
ACCURACY vs FLUENCY ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITIES FOCUSING ON FLUENCY
• Reflect natural use of language
• Focus on achieving communication
• Require meaningful use of language
• Require the use of communication strategies
• Produce language that may not be predictable
• Seek to link language use to context.
ACTIVITIES FOCUSING ON ACCURACY

• Reflect classroom use of language
• Focus on the formation of correct examples of language
• Practice language out of context

20
TEACHING (CLT)
• Practice small samples of language
• Do not require meaningful communication
• Choice of language is controlled.

The following are examples of fluency activities and accuracy activities. Both make
use of group work, reminding us that group work is not necessarily a fluency task.
FLUENCY TASKS
A group of students of mixed language ability carry out a role play in which they
have to adopt specified roles and personalities provided for them on cue cards.
These roles involve the drivers, witnesses, and the police at a collision between two
cars. The language is entirely improvised by the students, though they are heavily
constrained by the specified situation and characters.
The teacher and a student act out a dialog in which a customer returns a faulty
object she has purchased to a department store. The clerk asks what the problem
is and promises to get a refund for the customer or to replace the item. In groups
students now try to recreate the dialog using language items of their choice. They
are asked to recreate what happened preserving the meaning but not necessarily
the exact language. They later act out their dialogs in front of the class.
ACCURACY TASKS
Students are practicing dialogs. The dialogs contain examples of falling intonation
in Wh-questions.
The class is organized in groups of three, two students practicing the dialog, and
the third playing the role of monitor. The monitor checks that the others are using
the correct intonation pattern and correct them where necessary. The students
rotate their roles between those reading the dialog and those monitoring. The
teacher moves around listening to the groups and correcting their language where
necessary.
Students in groups of three or four complete an exercise on a grammatical item,

such as choosing between the past tense and the present perfect, an item which
the teacher has previously presented and practiced as a whole class activity.
21
TEACHING (CLT)
Together students decide which grammatical form is correct and they complete the
exercise. Groups take turns reading out their answers.
Teachers were recommended to use a balance of fluency activities and accuracy

and to use accuracy activities to support fluency activities. Accuracy work could
either come before or after fluency work. For example, based on students‟
performance on a fluency task, the teacher could assign accuracy work to deal with
grammatical or pronunciation problems the teacher observed while students were
carrying out the task. An issue that arises with fluency work, however, is whether
fluency work develops fluency at the expense of accuracy. In doing fluency tasks,
the focus is on getting meanings across using any available communicative
resources. This often involves a heavy dependence on vocabulary and
communication strategies and there is little motivation to use accurate very much
seen as under the control of the teacher.
TYPES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING ACTIVITIES

The range of exercise types and activities compatible with a communicative
approach is unlimited, provided that such exercises enable learners to attain the
communicative objectives of the curriculum, engage learners in communication,
and require the use of such communicative processes as information sharing,
negotiation of meaning, and interaction. Classroom activities are often designed to
focus on completing tasks that are mediated through language or involve
negotiation of information and information sharing.
LEARNER ROLES
The emphasis in Communicative Language Teaching is on the processes of
communication, rather than mastery of language.
TEACHER ROLES
Several roles are assumed for teachers in Communicative Language Teaching

(CLT), the importance of particular roles being determined by the view of CLT
adopted. Breen and Candlin describe teacher roles in the following terms:
The teacher has two main roles: the first role is to facilitate the communication
process between all participants in the classroom, and between these participants
22
TEACHING (CLT)
and the various activities and texts. The second role is to act as an independent
participant within the learning-teaching group. The latter role is closely related to the
objectives of the first role and arises from it. These roles imply a set of secondary
roles for the teacher; first, as an organizer of resources and as a resource himself,
second as a guide within the classroom procedures and activities.... A third role for
the teacher is that of researcher and learner, with much to contribute in terms of
appropriate knowledge and abilities, actual and observed experience of the nature
of learning and organizational capacities.
Other roles assumed for teachers are needs analyst, counselor, and group process
manager.
KINDS OF CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES THAT BEST FACILITATE

LEARNING
With CLT began a movement away from traditional lesson formats where the focus
was on mastery of different items of grammar and practice through controlled
activities such as memorization of dialogs and drills, towards the use of pair work
activities, role plays, group work activities and project work.
The type of classroom activities proposed in CLT also implied new roles in the
classroom for teachers and learners.
Learners now had to participate in classroom activities that were based on a

cooperative rather than individualistic approach to learning. Students had to
become comfortable with listening to their peers in group work or pair work tasks,
rather than relying on the teacher for a model. They were expected to take on a
greater degree of responsibility for their own learning. And teachers now had to
assume the role of facilitator and monitor.
Rather than being a model for correct speech and writing and one with the primary
responsibility of making students produce plenty of error free sentences, the
teacher had to develop a different view of learners‟ errors and of her/his own role in
facilitating language learning.
FLUENCY TASKS
A group of students of mixed language ability carry out a role play in which they
have to adopt specified roles and personalities provided for them on cue cards.
23
TEACHING (CLT)
These roles involve the drivers, witnesses, and the police at a collision between two
cars. The language is entirely improvised by the students, though they are heavily
constrained by the specified situation and characters.
The teacher and a student act out a dialog in which a customer returns a faulty
object she has purchased to a department store. The clerk asks what the problem
is and promises to get a refund for the customer or to replace the item. In groups
students now try to recreate the dialog using language items of their choice. They
are asked to recreate what happened preserving the meaning but not necessarily
the exact language. They later act out their dialogs in front of the class.
ACCURACY TASKS
Students are practicing dialogs. The dialogs contain examples of falling intonation
in Wh-questions.
The class is organized in groups of three, two students practicing the dialog, and
the third playing the role of monitor. The monitor checks that the others are using
the correct intonation pattern and correct them where necessary. The students
rotate their roles between those reading the dialog and those monitoring. The
teacher moves around listening to the groups and correcting their language where
necessary.
Students in groups of three or four complete an exercise on a grammatical item,

such as choosing between the past tense and the present perfect, an item which
the teacher has previously presented and practiced as a whole class activity.
Together students decide which grammatical form is correct and they complete the
exercise. Groups take turns reading out their answers.
Teachers were recommended to use a balance of fluency activities and accuracy

and to use accuracy activities to support fluency activities. Accuracy work could
either come before or after fluency work. For example, based on students‟
performance on a fluency task, the teacher could assign accuracy work to deal with
grammatical or pronunciation problems the teacher observed while students were
carrying out the task. An issue that arises with fluency work, however, is whether
fluency work develops fluency at the expense of accuracy. In doing fluency tasks,
the focus is on getting meanings across using any available communicative
resources. This often involves a heavy dependence on vocabulary and
communication strategies and there is little motivation to use accurate grammar or
24
TEACHING (CLT)
pronunciation. Fluency work thus requires extra attention on the part of the teacher
in terms of preparing students for a fluency task, or follow up activities that provide
feedback on language use.
While dialogs, grammar, and pronunciation drills did not usually disappear from
textbooks and classroom materials at this time, they now appeared as part of a
sequence of activities that moved back and forth between accuracy activities and
fluency activities.
And the dynamics of classrooms also changed. Instead of a predominance of

teacher-fronted teaching, teachers were encouraged to make greater use of small-
group work. Pair and group activities gave learners greater opportunities to use the
language and to develop fluency.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Larsen-Freeman, D. 1986.Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Larsen-Freeman, D. y M. H. Long. 1994. An Introduction to Second Language
Acquisition Research. New York: Longman.
Littlewood, W. 1984. Foreign and Second Language Learning. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
25
REMEMBER THIS…
If you adequate the needs of your students and the learning demands to the
context of your school. The main idea of the communicative approach is
COMMUNICATE and look for the situations in order to do it. The level of your
students depends a lot about it, so don‟t hurry, take it easy, go slow, and
have fun. If your students have some problems, try to see if your topics
(contents / knowledge) are the enough for the level of each grade… But my
best advice is HAVE FUN each other.
INTRODUCTION
"Communicative Approach" sounds perfect in theory, but it will have some problems
after being put into practice. From the literal meaning, we can know that the main
emphasis of "Communicative approach" is "communication." So the main task of
teachers is to teach students how to communicate in English efficiently. Under this
precondition, "communication" is divided into several kinds of "functions," such as
asking directions, ordering dishes at restaurants, buying airline tickets or chatting
on the Internet. Each one is regarded as a function. When introducing one function,
teachers give students some key words, sentences or phrases and design some
activities for students to practice what they learn. The purpose is to train students to
ask directions, order dishes at restaurants in English by themselves.
However, there is a big problem here. "Communicative approach" is conditioned to

ESL (English as a Second Language). There is a condition of this approach: there
should be an environment of ESL. That is, students have to use English to order
dishes at restaurants so that they can get enough practice. However, the
environment in Peru is different, and it is an environment of EFL (English as a
Foreign Language). Nobody orders dishes in English. If we do not take this
difference into consideration and still imitate the western style to teach students to
26
order dishes in English at the local classrooms, students will lose many
opportunities of practicing repeatedly.
The way to solve this problem is to rearrange the orders of language functions
according to the local environment. For example, how can you do when a foreigner
ask you directions? How to chat with foreigners at pubs? In other words, teachers
should teach students the functions that they can use in one of these situations.
Besides, teachers can also make good use of classroom environment to provide
students with communicative learning activities. For instance, teachers can use
"paired practice", "group work", "problem-solving and information-gap activities",
"role-playing and dramatization". "playing games" "singing songs" and so on. There
are so many activities for teachers to choose from. If those activities can be really
exercised in classrooms, students surely will like learning English.
Another problem is how to correct students' mistakes in pronunciation, grammar

and so on. Many students are not concerned about their mistakes in pronunciation
and grammar when speaking English. In order to break this mental barrier of many
students and encourage them to speak English, many teachers encourage students
to put grammar and pronunciation aside first and speak English. Then teachers
would gradually correct students' mistakes. This kind of encouragement is also one
of the basic points of "Communicative approach." The spirit of encouragement
sounds ideal, but it may result in some problems. The toughest one is how and
when to correct students' mistakes. How long can teachers allow students to speak
incorrect English? What mistakes should be corrected? When to correct students'
pronunciation and grammar? How to solve all these problems depends upon
teachers' judgments and choices. To sum up, a well-trained and experienced
teacher plays an important role in "Communicative approach." When students play
activities like "paired practice", "group work" or "role-playing", a good teacher knows
how and when to move around, provide immediate help and collect students'
mistakes to discuss late after the activities are over.
Moreover, another problem of "Communicative approach" is that teachers may

have difficulty in evaluating students' performance. Usually at schools, students'
grades mainly come from the results of written tests. However, as long as
"Communicative approach" is put into practice, students' performance of listening,
speaking, reading and writing should all be taken into consideration. Otherwise, the
evaluation of students' performance will not be that fair. However, we all know that
it is not quite easy for teachers to evaluate students' performance of speaking and
27
listening. There is a method to solve this problem. Before students enter schools,
they can first take the placement test or diagnosis test that include listening
comprehension, pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, speaking, reading and
writing. The results of the tests can be used as students' "English diagnosis record."
After finishing each academic period or semester, students can take a post-test.
The former and latter tests will be compared with each other. Teachers can see
whether students' mistakes have been corrected or not and whether students'
communicative ability has been improved. Then according to the comparison,
teachers can make an objective evaluation.
Not only is convenient for evaluation, "English diagnosis record" have another
benefits. Teachers can swift "English diagnosis record" into "English learning card."
It can be used to record what mistakes and problems students have and how they
are overcome during the process of learning English. The "English learning card"
can be an important supportive data for portfolio evaluation. By making good use of
these data, teachers can catch the improvement of students' learning English.
"Communicative approach" is aimed at training students' listening and speaking, so

it relatively ignores the training of reading and writing. The ability of writing and
reading is quite important for an intellectual to enter universities, study abroad, read
plenty of original books, hoop up into the international webs looking for information,
write papers or dissertations in English, etc. All these cannot be acquired merely
from "Communicative approach." Therefore, "extensive reading" can compensate
for the fault of "Communicative approach" and the two can work side by side. Let's
take vocabulary for example.
According to the spirit of extensive reading, teachers provide students with reading
materials that they are interested in. The vocabulary of the reading materials should
be arranged according to the frequency and difficulty. Teachers can ask students
not to check the dictionary for every new word, and encourage them to comprehend
from the context. The main principle of extensive reading is speed, quantity and
consistency. It is unnecessary for students to understand every word. So is the
same with "Communicative approach." If you order dishes at restaurants in
America, you may hear something you do not understand. But you do not check the
dictionary. As long as you understand the main idea of what you hear, the
communicative function is achieved. So is the same with extensive reading. What
teachers should do is finding suitable reading materials for students and to
encourage them to read consistently.
28
Communicative Language Teaching is best considered an approach rather than a
method. Thus although a reasonable degree of theoretical consistency can be
discerned at the levels of language and learning theory, at the levels of design and
procedure there is much greater room for individual interpretation and variation than
most methods permit. It could be that one version among the various proposals for
syllabus models, exercise types, and classroom activities may gain wider approval
in the future, giving Communicative Language Teaching a status similar to other
teaching methods. On the other hand, divergent interpretations might lead to
homogeneous subgroups.
Communicative Language Teaching appeared at a time when British language

teaching was ready for a paradigm shift. Situational Language Teaching was no
longer felt to reflect a methodology appropriate for the seventies and beyond. CLT
appealed to those who sought a more humanistic approach to teaching, one in
which the interactive processes of communication received priority. The rapid
adoption and implementation of the Communicative approach also resulted from
the fact that it quickly assumed the status of orthodoxy in British language teaching
circles, receiving the sanction and support of leading British applied linguists,
language specialists, publishers, as well as institutions, such as the British Council
(Richards 1985).
Now that the initial wave of enthusiasm has passed, however, some of the claims of
CLT are being looked at more critically (Swan 1985). The adoption of a
Communicative approach raises important issues for teacher training, materials
development, and testing 'and evaluation. Questions that have been raised include
whether a communicative approach can be applied at all levels in a language
program, whether it is equally suited to ESL and EFL situations, whether it requires
existing grammar-based syllabuses to be abandoned or merely revised, how such
an approach can be evaluated, how suitable it is for non-native teachers, and how it
can be adopted in situations where students must continue to take grammar-based
tests. These kinds of questions will doubtless require attention if the communicative
movement in language teaching continues to gain momentum in the future.
SUMMARY
Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Communicative approach is asking
teachers to look closely at what is involved in communication. If teachers intend
students to use the target language, then they must truly understand all that being
29
communicative competent entails. Do you agree with this expanded view of
communicative competence? Is achieving communicative competence a goal for
which you should prepare your students? Do you adopt a functional syllabus?
Should a variety of language forms be presented at one time? Are there times when
you do emphasize fluency over accuracy? Do this or other principles of the
Communicative approach make sense to you? Do you ever use language games,
problem – solving tasks or role plays? Should authentic language be used? Are
there any other techniques or materials of the communicative approach that you
World find useful?
Finally we can arrive at the following conclusions:
a. Communicative system must take account of the following features:

 Social interaction.
 Unexpected moments in forms of perception and addressing.
 Creativity in forms of perception and addressing.
 Reasons for perception and addressing.
 Personal and social elements of speech production including both emotion and
information.
 Success in communication.
b. The communicative characteristics of a language are directly connected with the
forms, and such language norms reflect amount of people for whom such norms
are standard norms.
c. Mutual relations between the teacher and students have always been in the
spotlight. The communicative system revises the role of the teacher in class and
the main principles of mutual relations between the teacher and students. The
teacher is to be a counselor, a professional adviser to whom students can
appeal with questions.
d. Even in the most democratic countries, a school still remains, to put it harshly,
the microcosm of a totalitarian system. In a communicative class, discipline and
order is not achieved by instructions which are posted in a hall. It is done by
understanding that studying is an aim worth of pursuit and perseverance in
itself.
30
e. Disturbance of discipline most frequently occurs in classes where teaching is
carried out only by the frontal method when the student's personality has no
significance in the whole mass, and this mass must comply with the criteria of
the given materials. Students cannot identify themselves in this mass and loose
any interest in studying. The communicative system gives a chance to a student
to express himself in a group which is composed of students with similar
background. In a communicative class there are also examinations and tests,
including the explanation of material by a teacher, calling the parents, or bad
mark to students. However, everything is based on new pedagogical principles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Long, M. 1985. Input and second language acquisition theory. In S. Gass and C.
Madden (eds.), Input in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury
House.
Nunan, D.1991. Language Teaching Methodology. New York: Prentice Hall.
O‟Malley, M. J. y A. Uhl Chamot. 1993. Learning Strategies in Second Language
Acquisition.N.Y. C.U.P.
31
KIND OF TEXTS
KIND OF TEXTS
INTRODUCTION
Early text linguists concentrated on the development of various paradigms for the
study of how sentences interconnect. They have drawn attention to the various
linguistic devices that can be used to ensure that a text "hangs together" (the
concept of textual cohesion). Such devices include the use of articles, lexical
repetition and personal pronouns to refer back to entities mentioned earlier in a text
and the use of linking words to establish a particular logical relationship of, say,
contrast, concession or addition between two or more sentences in a text.
TYPES OF TEXTS
THE ARGUMENTATIVE TEXT

It´s based on the evaluation and the subsequent subjective judgment in answering
a problem. It refers to the reasons advanced for or against a matter.
Examples: - Argumentative texts, comments, interviews, speeches, reviews
PURPOSE
To present information and opinions about issues in more one side of an issue („for/
pros‟ and „against / conclusions‟)
GENERIC STRUCTURE
1. Issue
2. Arguments for and against
3. Conclusion
DOMINANT LANGUAGE FEATURES

1. Using simple present tense 5. Use of relating verb to be
2. Using thinking verbs 6. Using general and abstract nouns
3. Using conjunctions / transition 7. Using modality
4. Using adverbs of manner
32
KIND OF TEXTS
THE NARRATIVE TEXT
It´s based on the perception of time, narration is the telling of a story; the
succession of events is given in chronological order.
PURPOSE
To amuse / entertain the readers and to tell a story
GENERIC STRUCTURE
1. Orientation 4. Evaluation
2. Complication 5. Resolution
3. Reorientation
1. Using past tense 3. Using action verbs
2. Chronologically arranged
THE DESCRIPTIVE TEXT
It´s based on perception of space.Impressionistic descriptions of landscapes or

persons are often to be found in narratives such as novels or short stories.
Example: About fifteen miles below Monterey, on the wild coast, the Torres family
had their farm, a few sloping acres above the cliff that dropped to the brown reefs
and to the hissing white waters of the ocean...
A descriptive text is a text that wants you to picture what they are describing.
A novel might want you to imagine the characters and see them in your mind.
A travel book will want you to see the country it is describing.
PURPOSE
To explain the processes involved in the formationor working of natural or socio

cultural phenomena.
GENERIC STRUCTURE
1. General statement 3. Explanation
2. Closing dominant
33
KIND OF TEXTS
1. Using simple present tense 6. Using action verbs
2. Using noun phrases 7. Using adverbial phrases
3. Using technical terms 8. Using general and abstract noun
4. Using passive voice
5. Using conjunctions of time and cause-effect.
Examples
The morning air was crisp and sharp as Sean walked down the road.The pavement
was slippery and cold beneath his feet like a slimy wet fish.
THE EXPOSITORY TEXT
It aims at explanation, i.e. the cognitive analysis and subsequent syntheses of

complex facts. Example: An essay on "Rhetoric: What is it and why do we study it?"
a. EXPLANATION
PURPOSE: to describe a particular person, place or thing in detail.
DOMINANT GENERIC STRUCTURE
1. Identification 2. Description
LANGUAGE FEATURES
1. Using simple present tense 3. Using action verbs
2. Using adverbs 4. Using special technical terms
b. ANALYTICAL EXPOSITION
PURPOSE
To reveal the readers that something is an important case
GENERIC STRUCTURE
1. Thesis 3. Arguments
2. Reiteration / Conclusion
34
KIND OF TEXTS
1. Using modals 5. Using action verbs
2. Using thinking verbs 6. Using adverbs
3. Using adjectives 7. Using technical terms
4. Using general and abstract nouns 8. Using connectives / transition
THE INSTRUCTIVE TEXTS

An instructive text is a text that instructs or tells you how to do something.A recipe
wants to instruct you how to cook something.A leaflet with a piece of furniture wants
to tell you how to put it together or take care of it.
They are written as though the reader is being spoken to – (although the word
'you' is not usually used)
Language is direct and unnecessary words are left out
They often use 'must' and 'must not'
They sometimes use diagrams or pictures to help understanding
PURPOSE
To help readers how to do or make something completely

1. Using simple present tense 3. Using imperatives sentences
2. Using adverbs 4. Using technical terms
Examples:
Put all ingredients into bowl together. Whisk until fully mixed.
Go to the end of the road and turn left past the pub on the corner. Keep walking
until you come to a park and then turn right into Hawker Street.
THE PERSUASIVE TEXTS

A persuasive text is a text that really wants you to do something.An advert might
want you to buysomething.You might write a letter to persuade a friend to go on
holiday with you, or to try and get off a parking ticket.
35
KIND OF TEXTS
Persuasive texts might use:
Repeated words Text in capital letters
Exclamation marks. Humour
Rhetorical questions (questions where no answer is needed)

An emotional one-sided argument
PURPOSE
To persuade the readers that something should or should not be the case or be
done
GENERIC STRUCTURE
1. Thesis
2. Arguments
3. Recommendation

1. Using simple present tense 6. Using modals
2. Using action verbs 7.Using thinking verbs
3. Using adverbs 8. Using adjectives
4. Using technical terms 9.Using general and abstract nouns
5. Using connectives
Then what is the basic difference between analytical and hortatory exposition. In
simple words. Analytical is the answer of "How is/will" while hortatory is the answer
of "How should". Analytical exposition will be best to describe "How will student do
for his examination? The point is the important thing to do. But for the question"
How should student do for his exam?" will be good to be answered with hortatory. It
is to convince that the thing should be done
Examples:
SPECIAL OFFER! Buy today! Would you want to miss this SPECIAL offer? Phone
NOW...
"I really think that you need this holiday. You have been working very hard lately
36
KIND OF TEXTS
and are so worn out. Just think of how nice it will be to lie on the beach in the
sunshine."
THE INFORMATIVE TEXTS

An informative text is a text that wants to advise or tell you about something.A
newspaper article might give you information about a health issue like giving up
smoking. A website might give you information about a movie, band or something
that you are interested in.A handout from school might be advising you about what
your child will be doing during the next term.
Informative texts usually:

Avoid repetition
Contain facts
Give information in a clear way - introducing the subject and then developing it
PURPOSE
To share with others an account of an unusual or amusing incident
ANECDOTES
GENERIC STRUCTURE
1. Abstract 4. Orientation
2. Crisis 5. Reaction
3. Coda.
1. Using exclamations, rhetorical question or intensifiers
2. Using material process
3. Using temporal conjunctions
NEWS ITEM
PURPOSE
To inform the readers about newsworthy or important.events of the day.
37
KIND OF TEXTS
DOMINANT GENERIC STRUCTURE
1. News worthy event (s)
2. Background event (s)
3. Sources
1. Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline
2. Using action verbs
3. Using saying verbs
4. Using adverbs: time, place and manner.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NISKA, Hegel. (1999) Sociolinguistics and Text Linguistic Models for the Study of
Simultaneous Interpreting.
DRESSLER W. and DE BEAUGRANDE.R. (1981) Introduction to Text Linguistics
(Applied Linguistics and Language Study). Longman Publishing Group.
LOPEZ MEDINA, Beatriz.The role of text linguístics in the foreign language class.
Universidad Antonio de Nebrija, Madrid.
38
THE ROLE OF TEXT LINGUISTICS IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE
CLASS
THE ROLE OF TEXT LINGUISTICS IN THE FOREIGN
LANGUAGE CLASS
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the short history of text linguistics research, some studies have pointed
out the relevance of the text as a basic unit to approach a foreign language. This
part deals with some of the activities on text type characteristics put into practice
with Spanish students with upper intermediate level of English language. Following
the classical classifications on text typology (Werlich 1975, Beaugrande and
Dressler, 1981, or Hatch, 1992, among others), this article will provide an outline of
the structure of a foreign language class based on text linguistics. The application
of the outline will be shown in relation to two kinds of texts: diaries / journals and
descriptive texts.
Before the existence of text linguistics, a sentence grammar and not a text grammar
was used to analyze the main features that characterize a text. It is not until the 70s
that the first approaches to the text are produced. From that time onwards there is a
gradual increase of studies on text linguistics. At the beginning of the 80s,
Beaugrande and Dressler (1981) and other text linguists take into consideration the
previous studies on text generation and structure analysis. They make reference to
the speakers' world knowledge in their procedural approach to text linguistics. This
speakers' world knowledge will be the departure point in the session corresponding
to a text linguistics class.
The two kinds of texts chosen to be examples of a text linguistics class cannot
always be found in the existing classifications of texts. Because of the different
sentence used in their creation, the number of text types included in each
classification varies, and the existence of a different taxonomy depending on the
expert creating it is a well known fact. At the same time, there is not a single
classification that can be used to order and classify all types of texts. Regarding the
criteria used in the different text typologies, most of the taxonomies take into
consideration contextual factors and the purpose the speaker has in mind when
producing a text.
Most linguists agree on the classification into five text-types: narrative, descriptive,
argumentative, instructive, and comparison/contrast. Some classifications divide the
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types of texts according to their function. Others differ because they take into
consideration the topic of the texts, the producer and the addressee, or the style.
Overlaps of different text types are frequent, and in most cases the text cannot be
identified as an example of just one text type. In relation to the overlapping, Adam
and Petitjean, (1989) propose the analysis with text sequences. Virtanen (1992)
establishes a double classification (discourse type and text type) to be used when
the Identificationtext type is not straightforward.
Different studies offer partial solutions to the present problems of the text
typologies. The following three characteristics are the most common in the
classifications created up to now: lack of agreement on what criterion must be
followed when classifying text types, unequal study of the different text types, and
existence of texts that cannot be included in any of the classifications created up to
now. Despite this situation, most of the text analysts decide upon one of the
classical taxonomies when classifying a specific text.
TEXT-LINGUISTIC SESSION
The following outline summarizes the steps to follow in a class based on text
Linguistics. Initially, the activities were planned for upper-intermediate students.
However, most of them can be adapted to students of different levels of the target
language (by eliminating some steps, reducing the difficulty, shortening the writing
pieces, etc.).
Previous to the session, the teacher chooses a text for that class which will not be
given to the students at the beginning of the session. They will get the text after
reflecting on what they are going to read. For the first time it is advisable to bring a
text as homogeneous as possible, í.e. with most of its sequences characterizing a
text type. Aspects such as difficulty of vocabulary, structure and length must be
taken into consideration in all cases.
STEP 1: ELICITING CHARACTERISTICS OF TEXT TYPE

The students indicate the main characteristics of the text type regarding function,
addressee and structure. Depending on their level of the target language, they can
also add the most remarkable features in relation to the vocabulary and the syntax
expected. All these characteristics are explained, completed and complemented by
the teacher. In relation to the identification of texts, Benoit and Fayol (1989) point
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out those eleven-year-old children are able to distinguish narrative, descriptive, and
argumentative texts.
STEP 2: PROVIDING EXAMPLES

Students point out examples of the text type that is analyzed within that class. This
part of the session is based on their previous personal experiences as readers.
They cite the sources that contain the text type object of study, and the teacher
collects those contributions and suggests additional examples.
STEP 3: DISCUSSING POSSIBLE CHANNELS

Discussion of the channel where a text of that type might appear (novels,
newspapers, magazines, etc.); when applicable any connection with some films
may be mentioned, for example, plots of the films based on novels, where the text
type is present though maybe slightly transformed because of the different channel
used to present it.
STEP 4: PRACTICE
The students are presented with a text of a specific text type in order to analyze the
above-mentioned characteristics. This part of the session starts with reading the
text provided by the teacher. The text characterizes a text type. The specific
features of the text type are identified (verb tenses for a narrative text, use of
adjectives for descriptions, analysis of connectors for argumentative, succession of
events for instructive, etc.).
STEP 5: RESEARCH
A paper on the text type analyzed that day is required: the students try to find an
example of the text type analyzed in class and write a paper describing the main
characteristics that were mentioned that day. As an additional or alternative activity
they might produce a sample of the type of text where those features are present.
DESCRIPTIVE TEXTS
In order to analyze the main characteristics of a descriptive text, we start with a
contrastive analysis of a descriptive text and a narrative text. This is advisable since
examples of narrations and descriptions are frequently found in the same piece of
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writing. Because of their experience as readers, students are familiar with this
simultaneity.
STEP 1: ELICITING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEXT TYPE

This step consists of identifying the function of a descriptive text, and an analysis of
a descriptive structure through comparison with a narrative text. Afterwards, the
different kinds of description are identified (topography, portrait, etc.). The most
frequent topics of descriptions are mentioned, and also the difference between
objective and subjective descriptions, and the main characteristics of the
vocabulary they expect to find. Special attention should be paid to the role of
adjectives within the descriptive texts.

The students contribute with examples of descriptions they have read, both within a
novel or as independent texts.
Suggested questions for this section:
Mention descriptions you have read: who / what was described? Was it a
subjective / objective description? Why?, What do you think are the adjectives
that most successfully qualify the topic described?
What are the adjectives you would use to describe a sport you like / your best
friend / a country you would like to visit? Do you think these descriptions
should be objective or subjective? Why?

Apart from the above-mentioned inclusion of descriptions within novels, readers can
find examples of descriptions through different kinds of channels such as travel
guides or brochures. These and other examples (textbooks, reference books, etc.)
are provided by the students and complemented by the instructor.
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STEP 4: PRACTICE
In order to put into practice the ability to identify descriptive texts, different kinds of
activities can be done in the class. These can be altered, depending on the
students' age and their level of the target language.
Suggested activities:
On comparison: focusing on length and complexity, compare sentences from

a narrative text and sentences from a descriptive text. Also compare
paragraphing and layout. The purpose is to identify the syntactic
characteristics of a descriptive text.
On the topic of description: identifying the topic of description and the purpose
of the text.
On vocabulary: highlighting of the adjectives used in the text, classification of

those adjectives (size, colour, shape, etc.), analysis of difficult words, and
study of static verbs.
Example:
This extract from J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, was one
of the texts analyzed in order to identify the main characteristics of a descriptive
text.
“Perhaps it had something to do with living in a dark cupboard, but Harry had
always been small and skinny for his age. He looked even smaller and skinnier than
he really was because all he had to wear were old clothes of Dudley's and Dudley
was about four times bigger than he was. Harry had a thin face, knobbly knees,
black hair and bright green eyes. He wore round glasses held together with a lot of
Sellotape because of all the times Dudley had punched him on the nose. The only
thing Harry liked about his own appearance was a very thin scar in his forehead
which was shaped like a bolt of lightning. He had had it as long as he could
remember and the first question he could ever remember asking his Aunt Petunia
was how he had got it.”
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Once the students have gone through the steps 1, 2 and 3, they are ready to
identify the main characteristics of this descriptive text. The Identification can be
carried out throughout individual work or group work. Before identifying the main
characteristics of the text, they provide some Information on the novel and/or the
film, the author and their main characters.
Afterwards, they identify the topic of description (portrait of Harry Potter), the
purpose of the text (inform about the physical characteristics of the main character)
and the potential addressees (children and teenagers). This step might lead to long
discussions if the text is as well known as this one. Issues such as the addressee
and the function of the text might elicit open answers and not only one of them is
the correct one. It is advisable to limit the time dedicated to discussion in order to
avoid running out of time for the analysis of the linguistic features of the text.
The students recognize the characteristics of a physical description underlining

adjectives, analyzing the use of comparatives and the presence of copulative
sentences. They also identify if the description is objective or subjective. In relation
to vocabulary, since they have been given the context of the new words, they can
derive the new word meanings from it.
Finally, they analyze the role of the supporting characters in relation to the main
one in order to find out to what extent their characteristics enhance Harry.
STEP 5: RESEARCH
Students try to find examples of descriptions, either according to the characteristics
mentioned in class or they are given a topic and find specific descriptions according
to it. As an alternative, or as an additional activity, when they are given the topic,
the students produce a description where they use the main devices present in a
descriptive text analyzed in class.
DIARIES / JOURNALS
The use of diaries/journals in the foreign language class is recommended because
it stimulates imagination, creativity, and observation of everything that surrounds
the students. Writing a diary entry is an opportunity to let English flow and improves
the writing skills without the worry of writing without errors. Usually, only the self is
in mind as an audience, though it is not uncommon using the dialogue journal as
44
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way to communicate with the teacher who becomes audience and reads and
responds to what the student has written (Brown, Grabbe and Kaplan).
STEP 1: ELICITING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEXT TYPE

 Analysis of the concept of privacy and the role of the addressee of this kind of
text. Discussion of the habit of journal keeping. The students provide personal
experiences as journal writers and explain briefly the role of the audience (if
any).Use this questions: Have you ever written a journal? For how long?
Would you like anybody to read it? Do you still keep it?
 Writing to get feelings “off the chest” Its influence on vocabulary. Register
writing without tension implies loosening up, and this has an influence in the
language. Questions used: Would you use the same expressions / vocabulary
when writing in your journal as you do when writing an essay for the class?
Why? / Why not? Can you provide examples? Is there a code language in
any journal?
 Punctuation. Questions used: What are the most frequent punctuation devices
in the entry of a journal? Are they important? Why do you think they are
present in the text?

The students mention journals / journal entries they have read. They analyze what
was told, and analyze the role of personal circumstances in their examples.
Relevant “journal writers” that the students might be familiar with, should be
mentioned: Adrian Mole or Anna Frank, among others.

Even if the journal entries are created to be written in a notebook and in most cases
not to be read by an addressee, the students might be familiar with some films
whose plot was based on a famous diary. This is the case of Anna Frank and
Bridget Jones, whose stories have been adapted for the cinema.
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STEP: 4PRACTICE
The students are provided with an entry of a diary / journal and analyze the function
and structure of the text. They also analyze the different syntactic devices
mentioned in step 1 and the role played by the different punctuation devices.
Example: This is a diary entry from Sue Townsend “The Secret Diary of Adrián
Mole aged 13
Monday January 19th
I have joined a group at school called the Good Samaritans. We go out into the
community helping and stuff like that. We miss Maths on Monday afternoons.
Today we had a talk on the sort of things we will be doing. I have been put in the
old age pensioners' group. Nigel has got a dead yucky job looking after kids in a
playgroup. He is as sick as a parrot.
I can't wait fornext Monday. I will get a cassette so I can tape all the old fogies'
stories about the war and stuff. I hope I get one with a good memory.
The dog is back at the vet's. It has got concrete stuck on its paws. No wonder it was
making such a row on the stairs last night. Pandora smiled at me in school dinner
today, but I was choking on a piece of gristle so I couldn't smile back. Just my luck!
After going through stages 1, 2, and 3, the students are able to identify the main
features of a diary entry through individual or group work. They discuss the function
of the text (tell the most relevant events which happened that day) and addressee
(the writer or potential readers of the diary). Afterwards they should be able to
identify the characteristics analyzed in the first steps of the lesson. Regarding this
extract, the students should identify the following: most events are described in first
person (main character writing about what happened to him that day); when the
third person is used the main purpose is telling what happened to characters that
are very close to the writer and they are relevant to the main character's
development.
The style is informal, as it can be appreciated in the vocabulary, with the use of
idioms: "as sick as a parrot" and colloquial expressions: "stuff" “like that", "sort of
things", "dead yucky job", "old fogies' stories" "war and stuff", and "no wonder";
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Depending on the students' level and their ability to derive meanings from the
context, these expressions might require an explanation / translation from the
teacher. Finally, regarding the punctuation, the students should recognize the use
of contractions and the exclamation mark used to finish the entry: "just my luck"
STEP 5: RESEARCH
Search of examples of diary entries and production of a diary entry based on a
personal experience.
CONCLUSIONS
A foreign language class based on the above-mentioned outline is a balanced class
where the four skills (speaking, writing, reading and listening) are put into practice.
A session based on the study of a specific type of text is mainly practical and the
students continuously play an active role in the development of the class. The most
remarkable advantages shown in the students' learning are the following three:
 Stimulates reading. After the discussion described in the second step of the
sessions, an interest in other students' reading arises and recommendations
about specific texts or novels are very frequent. The texts the students
mention in the second step are usually the ones they remember because of a
positive experience and this creates curiosity among the students who have
not read that piece of writing. Their background knowledge on literature and
on different kinds of publications also increases.
 Writing skills are improved. Since the students get familiar with a specific
text structure in the sessions, and the same structure is required in their
writing pieces, an improvement in the students' writing has been shown, and
the use of specialized vocabulary is also gradually included.
 First steps in research are taken. For some students, a class on text
linguistics provides them with an opportunity to take the first steps in research
when they try to find a sample of the text type studied in class.
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CLASS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LOPEZ MEDINA, Beatriz.The role of text linguístics in the foreign language
class.Universidad Antonio de Nebrija, Madrid.
VAN DIJK, T. A. (1997) DiscourseStudies. A multidisciplinary introduction. London:

Sage. Volume 2: Discourse as Social Interaction.
NISKA, Hegel. (1999) Sociolinguistics and Text Linguistic Models for the Study of
Simultaneous Interpreting
DRESSLER W. and DE BEAUGRANDE.R. (1981) Introduction to Text Linguistics

(Applied Linguistics and Language Study).Longman Publishing Group
48
STRATEGIES AND PROCESSES TO DEVELOP ORAL
COMPREHENSION
COMPREHENSION
INTRODUCTION
Listening is the language modality that is used most frequently. It has been
estimated that adults spend almost half their communication time listening, and
students may receive as much as 90% of their in-school information through
listening to teachers and to one another. Often, however, language learners do not
recognize the level of effort that goes into developing listening ability.
Far from passively receiving and recording aural input, listeners actively involve
themselves in the interpretation of what they hear, bringing their own background
knowledge and linguistic knowledge to bear on the information contained in the
aural text. Not all listening is the same; casual greetings, for example, require a
different sort of listening capability than do academic lectures. Language learning
requires intentional listening that employs strategies for identifying sounds and
making meaning from them.
Listening involves a sender (a person, radio, and television), a message, and a

receiver (the listener). Listeners often must process messages as they come, even
if they are still processing what they have just heard, without backtracking or
looking ahead. In addition, listeners must cope with the sender's choice of
vocabulary, structure, and rate of delivery. The complexity of the listening process
is magnified in second language contexts, where the receiver also has incomplete
control of the language.
Given the importance of listening in language learning and teaching is essential for
language teachers to help their students become effective listeners. In the
communicative approach to language teaching, this means modeling listening
strategies and providing listening practice in authentic situations: those that learners
are likely to encounter when they use the language outside the classroom.
STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING LISTENING
Teachers want to produce students who, even if they do not have complete control
of the grammar or an extensive lexicon, can find for themselves in communicative
49
COMPREHENSION
situations. In the case of listening, this means producing students who can use
listening strategies to maximize their comprehension of aural input, identify relevant
and non-relevant information, and tolerate less than word-by-word comprehension.
FOCUS: THE LISTENING PROCESS
To accomplish this goal, teachers focus on the process of listening rather than on
its product.
They develop students' awareness of the listening process and listening

strategies by asking students to think and talk about how they listen in their
native language.
They allow students to practice the full repertoire of listening strategies by

using authentic listening tasks.
They behave as authentic listeners by responding to student communication as

a listener rather than as a teacher.
When working with listening tasks in class, they show students the strategies
that will work best for the listening purpose and the type of text. They explain
how and why students should use the strategies.
They have students practice listening strategies in class and ask them to
practice outside of class in their listening assignments. They encourage
students to be conscious of what they're doing while they complete listening
tape assignments.
They encourage students to evaluate their comprehension and their strategy

use immediately after completing an assignment. They build comprehension
checks into in-class and out-of-class listening assignments, and periodically
review how and when to use particular strategies.
They encourage the development of listening skills and the use of listening
strategies by using the target language to conduct classroom business:
making announcements, assigning homework, describing the content and
format of tests.
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COMPREHENSION
They do not assume that students will transfer strategy use from one task to
another. They explicitly mention how a particular strategy can be used in a
different type of listening task or with another skill.
By raising students' awareness of listening as a skill that requires active

engagement, and by explicitly teaching listening strategies, teachers help their
students develop both the ability and the confidence to handle communication
situations they may encounter beyond the classroom. In this way they give their
students the foundation for communicative competence in the new language.
INTEGRATING METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES
Before listening: Plan for the listening task
Set a purpose or decide in advance what to listen for

Decide if more linguistic or background knowledge is needed
Determine whether to enter the text from the top down (attend to the overall
meaning) or from the bottom up (focus on the words and phrases)
During and after listening: Monitor comprehension
Verify predictions and check for inaccurate guesses
Decide what is and is not important to understand
Listen / view again to check comprehension
Ask forhelp after listening: Evaluate comprehension and strategy use
Evaluate comprehension in a particular task or area
Evaluate overall progress in listening and in particular types of listening tasks
Decide if the strategies used were appropriate for the purpose and for the task
Modify strategies if necessary
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COMPREHENSION
USING AUTHENTIC MATERIALS AND SITUATIONS
Authentic materials and situations prepare students for the types of listening they
will need to do when using the language outside the classroom.
ONE-WAY COMMUNICATION
Materials:
Radio and televisión programs

Public address announcements (airports, train / bus stations, stores)
Speeches and lectures
Telephone customer service recordings
Procedure:
Help students identify the listening goal: to obtain specific information; to
decide whether to continue listening; to understand most or all of the
message
Help students outline predictable sequences in which information may be
presented: who-what-when-where (news stories); who-flight number-arriving
/ departing-gate number (airport announcements); telephone recordings, etc
Help students identify key words / phrases to listen for
TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION
In authentic two-way communication, the listener focuses on the speaker's meaning
rather than the speaker's language. The focus shifts to language only when
meaning is not clear. Note the difference between the teacher as teacher and the
teacher as authentic listener in the dialogues below.
AUTHENTIC TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION

Teacher as Teacher
T: Hello, Sam! We missed you in class yesterday. What happened?
S: I go to doctor for my tooth.
T: Oh, you WENT to the DENTIST? A doctor for teeth is called a dentist.
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COMPREHENSION
S: Yes, dentist.
T: What happened at the dentist?
S: He have to take out tooth. After my mouse hurt too bad.
T: Oh, he HAD to take out your tooth? Remember, the past of "have" is "had." And
it wasn't your mouse that hurt, it was your mouth.
Teacher as authentic listener
T: Hello, Sam! We missed you in class yesterday. What happened?

S: I go to doctor for my tooth.
T: For your tooth? Did you have a problem with your teeth?
S: Yes, the doctor have to take out tooth. After my mouse hurt too bad.
T: Your mouse . . . oh, your mouth hurt. Does it hurt now? Will you be okay in class
today?
S: No, not hurt now. Well, maybe a little.
T: Okay, well, if it hurts too much and you need to leave, just tell me.
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING LISTENING SKILLS

Language learning depends on listening. Listening provides the aural input that
serves as the basis for language acquisition and enables learners to interact in
spoken communication.
Effective language teachers show students how they can adjust their listening
behavior to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and listening purposes.
They help students develop a set of listening strategies and match appropriate
strategies to each listening situation.
LISTENING STRATEGIES
Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the
comprehension and recall of listening input. Listening strategies can be classified
by how the listener processes the input.
Top-down strategiesare listener based; the listener taps into background knowledge
of the topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This
background knowledge activates a set of expectations that help the listener to
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COMPREHENSION
interpret what is heard and anticipate what will come next. Top-down strategies
include:
Listening for the main idea

Predicting
Drawing inferences
Summarizing
Bottom-up strategies are text based; the listener relies on the language in the
message, that is, the combination of sounds, words, and grammar that creates
meaning. Bottom-up strategies include:
Listening for specific details

Recognizing cognates
Recognizing word-order patterns
Strategic listeners also use metacognitive strategies to plan, monitor, and evaluate
their listening.
They plan by deciding which listening strategies will serve best in a particular
situation.
They monitor their comprehension and the effectiveness of the selected
strategies.
They evaluate by determining whether they have achieved their listening
comprehension goals and whether the combination of listening strategies
selected was an effective one.
LISTENING FOR MEANING
To extract meaning from a listening text, students need to follow four basic steps:
Figure out the purpose for listening. Activate background knowledge of the
topic in order to predict or anticipate content and identify appropriate listening
strategies.
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COMPREHENSION
Attend to the parts of the listening input that are relevant to the identified
purpose and ignore the rest. This selectivity enables students to focus on
specific items in the input and reduces the amount of information they have to
hold in short-term memory in order to recognize it.
Select top-down and bottom-up strategies that are appropriate to the listening
task and use them flexibly and interactively. Students' comprehension
improves and their confidence increases when they use top-down and bottom-
up strategies simultaneously to construct meaning.
Check comprehension while listening and when the listening task is over.
Monitoring comprehension helps students detect inconsistencies and
comprehension failures, directing them to use alternate strategies.
DEVELOPING LISTENING ACTIVITIES

As you design listening tasks, keep in mind that complete recall of all the
information in an aural text is an unrealistic expectation to which even native
speakers are not usually held. Listening exercises that are meant to train should be
success-oriented and build up students' confidence in their listening ability.
CONSTRUCT THE LISTENING ACTIVITY AROUND A CONTEXTUALIZED TASK

Contextualized listening activities approximate real-life tasks and give the listener
an idea of the type of information to expect and what to do with it in advance of the
actual listening. A beginning level task would be locating places on a map (one
way) or exchanging name and address information (two ways). At an intermediate
level students could follow directions for assembling something (one way) or work
in pairs to create a story to tell to the rest of the class (two ways).
DEFINE THE ACTIVITY'S INSTRUCTIONAL GOAL AND TYPE OF RESPONSE

Each activity should have as its goal the improvement of one or more specific
listening skills. A listening activity may have more than one goal or outcome, but be
careful not to overburden the attention of beginning or intermediate listeners.
Recognizing the goal(s) of listening comprehension in each listening situation will

help the students select appropriate listening strategies.
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COMPREHENSION
Identification: recognizing or discriminating specific aspects of the message,
such as sounds, categories of words, morphological distinctions
Orientation: determining the major facts about a message, such as topic, text
type, setting
Main idea comprehension: identifying the higher-order ideas
Detail comprehension: identifying supporting details
Replication: reproducing the message orally or in writing
CHECK THE LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY OF THE LISTENING TEXT

The factors listed below can help you judge the relative ease or difficulty of a
listening text for a particular purpose and a particular group of students.
How is the information organized? Does the story line, narrative, or instruction
conform to familiar expectations? Texts in which the events are presented in natural
chronological order, which have an informative title, and which present the
information following an obvious organization (main ideas first, details and
examples second) are easier to follow.
How familiar are the students with the topic? Remember that misapplication of
background knowledge due to cultural differences can create major comprehension
difficulties.
Does the text contain redundancy? At the lower levels of proficiency, listeners may
find short, simple messages easier to process, but students with higher proficiency
benefit from the natural redundancy of the language.
Does the text involve multiple individuals and objects? Are they clearly
differentiated? It is easier to understand a text with a doctor and a patient than one
with two doctors, and it is even easier if they are of the opposite sex. In other
words, the more marked the differences, the easier the comprehension.
Does the text offer visual support to aid in the interpretation of what the listeners
hear? Visual aids such as maps, diagrams, pictures, or the images in a video help
contextualize the listening input and provide clues to meaning.
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COMPREHENSION
USE PRE-LISTENING ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR WHAT
THEY ARE GOING TO HEAR OR VIEW
The activities chosen during pre-listening may serve as preparation for listening in
several ways. During pre-listening the teacher may do:
Assess students' background knowledge of the topic and linguistic content of

the text
Provide students with the background knowledge necessary for their
comprehension of the listening passage or activate the existing knowledge
that the students possess
Clarify any cultural information which may be necessary to comprehend the
passage
Make students aware of the type of text they will be listening to, the role they
will play, and the purpose(s) for which they will be listening
Provide opportunities for group or collaborative work and for background
reading or class discussion activities
Sample pre-listening activities:
Looking at pictures, maps, diagrams, or graphs
Reviewing vocabulary or grammatical structures
Reading something relevant
Constructing semantic webs (a graphic arrangement of concepts or words
showing how they are related)
Predicting the content of the listening text
Going over the directions or instructions for the activity
Doing guided practice
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COMPREHENSION
While-listening activities relate directly to the text, and students do them do during
or immediately after the time they are listening. Keep these points in mind when
planning while-listening activities:
If students are to complete a written task during or immediately after listening, allow
them to read through it before listening. Students need to devote all their attention
to the listening task. Be sure they understand the teachers‟ instructions for the
written task before listening begins so that they are not distracted by the need to
figure out what to do.
Keep writing to a minimum during listening. Remember that the primary goal is
comprehension, not production. Having students write while they listen may distract
them from this primary goal. If a written response is to be given after listening, the
task can be more demanding.
Organize activities so that they guide listeners through the text. Combine global
activities such as getting the main idea, topic, and setting with selective listening
activities that focus on details of content and form.
Use questions to focus students' attention on the elements of the text crucial to
comprehension of the whole. Before the listening activity begins, have students
review questions they will answer orally or in writing after listening. Listening for
the answers will help students recognize the crucial parts of the message.
Use predicting to encourage students to monitor their comprehension as they listen.

Do a predicting activity before listening, and remind students to review what they
are hearing to see if it makes sense in the context of their prior knowledge and what
they already know of the topic or events of the passage.
Give immediate feedback whenever possible. Encourage students to examine how

or why their responses were incorrect.
Sample while-listening activities
Listening with visuals

Filling in graphs and charts
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COMPREHENSION
Following a route on a map
Checking off items in a list
Listening for the gist
Searching for specific clues to meaning
Completing cloze (fill-in) exercises
Distinguishing between formal and informal registers
USING TEXTBOOK LISTENING ACTIVITIES

The greatest challenges with textbook tape programs are integrating the listening
experiences into classroom instruction and keeping up student interest and
motivation. These challenges arise from the fact that most textbook listening
programs emphasize product (right or wrong answer) over process (how to get
meaning from the selection) and from the fact that the listening activities are usually
carried out as an add-on, away from the classroom.
You can use the guidelines for developing listening activities given here as starting
points for evaluating and adapting textbook listening programs. At the beginning of
the teaching term, orient students to the tape program by completing the exercises
in class and discussing the different strategies they use to answer the questions. It
is a good idea to periodically complete some of the lab exercises in class to
maintain the link to the regular instructional program and to check on the
effectiveness of the exercises themselves.
INTEGRATING LISTENING STRATEGIES WITH TEXTBOOK AUDIO AND

VIDEO
Students can use this outline for both in-class and out-of-class listening / viewing
activities. Model and practice the use of the outline at least once in class before you
ask students to use it independently.
1. Plan for listening / viewing

Review the vocabulary list, if you have one
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COMPREHENSION
Review the worksheet, if you have one
Review any information you have about the content of the tape / video
2. Preview the tape / video
Use fast forward to play segments of the tape; view the video without
sound
Identify the kind of program (news, documentary, interview, drama)
Make a list of predictions about the content
Decide how to divide the tape / video into sections for intensive listening /
viewing
3. Listen / view intensively section by section. For each section:
Jot down key words you understand
Answer the worksheet questions about the section
If you don't have a worksheet, write a short summary of the section
4. Monitor your comprehension
Does it fit with the predictions you made?

Does your summary for each section make sense in relation to the other
sections?
5. Evaluate your listening comprehension progress
ASSESSING LISTENING PROFICIENCY

You can use post-listening activities to check comprehension, evaluate listening
skills and use of listening strategies, and extend the knowledge gained to other
contexts. A post-listening activity may relate to a pre-listening activity, such as
predicting; may expand on the topic or the language of the listening text; or may
transfer what has been learned to reading, speaking, or writing activities.
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In order to provide authentic assessment of students' listening proficiency, a post-
listening activity must reflect the real-life uses to which students might put
information they have gained through listening.
It must have a purpose other than assessment

It must require students to demonstrate their level of listening comprehension
by completing some task.
To develop authentic assessment activities, consider the type of response that

listening to a particular selection would elicit in a non-classroom situation. For
example, after listening to a weather report one might decide what to wear the next
day; after listening to a set of instructions, one might repeat them to someone
else; after watching and listening to a play or video, one might discuss the story line
with friends.
Use this response type as a base for selecting appropriate post-listening tasks. You
can then develop a checklist or rubric that will allow you to evaluate each student's
comprehension of specific parts of the aural text. (For example, for listening
practice you have students listen to a weather report. Their purpose for listening is
to be able to advise a friend what to wear the next day. As a post-listening activity,
you ask students to select appropriate items of clothing from a collection you have
assembled, or write a note telling the friend what to wear, or provide oral advice to
another student (who has not heard the weather report). To evaluate listening
comprehension, you use a checklist containing specific features of the forecast,
marking those that are reflected in the student's clothing recommendations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Byrnes, H. (1984). The role of listening comprehension: A theoretical base. Foreign
Language Annals ,17 , 317-329.
Coakley, C.G., &Wolvin, A.D. (1986).Listening in the native language.In B. H. Wing
(Ed.), Listening, reading, writing: Analysis and application (pp. 11-42). Middlebury,
VT: Northeast Conference.
Gass, S. M. (1988). Integrating research areas: A framework for second language
studies. Applied Linguistics, 9 , 198-217.
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STRATEGIES AND PROCCESSES TO DEVELOP ORAL
PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Many language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowing a
language. These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others,
much more than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language. They
regard speaking as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their
progress in terms of their accomplishments in spoken communication.
Language learners need to recognize that speaking involves three areas of

knowledge:
Mechanics (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary): Using the right words in

the right order with the correct pronunciation
Functions (transaction and interaction): Knowing when clarity of message is
essential (transaction / information exchange) and when precise
understanding is not required (interaction/relationship building)
Social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech, length of
pauses between speakers, relative roles of participants): Understanding how
to take into account who is speaking to whom, in what circumstances, about
what, and for what reason.
In the communicative model of language teaching, teachers help their students

develop this body of knowledge by providing authentic practice that prepares
students for real-life communication situations. They help their students develop the
ability to produce grammatically correct, logically connected sentences that are
appropriate to specific contexts, and to do so using acceptable (that is,
comprehensible) pronunciation.
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING SPEAKING
The goal of teaching speaking skills is to communicate efficiently. Learners should

be able to make themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the
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fullest. They should try to avoid confusion in the message due to faulty
pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, and to observe the social and cultural rules
that apply in each communicative situation.
To help students communicate efficiently in speaking, teachers can use a balanced

activities approach that combines language input, structured output, and
communicative output.
Language input comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading
passages, and the language heard and read outside of class. It gives learners the
material they need to begin producing language themselves.
1. LANGUAGE INPUT: it may be content oriented or form oriented.
Content-oriented input focuses on information, whether it is a simple

weather report or an extended lecture on an academic topic. Content-
oriented input may also include descriptions of learning strategies and
examples of their use.
Form-oriented input focuses on ways of using the language: guidance from
the teacher or another source on vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar
(linguistic competence); appropriate things to say in specific contexts
(discourse competence); expectations for rate of speech, pause length, turn-
taking, and other social aspects of language use (sociolinguistic
competence); and explicit instruction in phrases to use to ask for clarification
and repair miscommunication (strategic competence).
In the presentation part of a lesson, a teacher combines content-oriented and form-

oriented input. The amount of input that is actually provided in the target language
depends on students' listening proficiency and also on the situation. For students at
lower levels, or in situations where quick explanations on a grammar topic are
needed, an explanation in their native language may be more appropriate than one
in the target language.
2. STRUCTURED OUTPUT: it focuses on correct form. In structured output,

students may have options for responses, but all of the options require them to
use the specific form or structure that the teacher has just introduced.
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Structured output is designed to make learners comfortable producing specific
language items recently introduced, sometimes in combination with previously
learned items. Teachers often use structured output exercises as a transition
between the presentation stage and the practice stage of a lesson plan.
Textbook exercises also often make good structured output practice activities.
3. COMMUNICATIVE OUTPUT: here the learners' main purpose is to complete

a task, such as obtaining information, developing a travel plan, or creating a
video. To complete the task, they may use the language that the teacher has
just presented, but they also may draw on any other vocabulary, grammar, and
communication strategies that they know. In communicative output activities,
the criterion of success is whether the learner gets the message across.
Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it interferes with the message.
In everyday communication, spoken exchanges take place because there is

some sort of information gap between the participants. Communicative output
activities involve a similar real information gap. In order to complete the task,
students must reduce or eliminate the information gap. In these activities,
language is a tool, not an end in itself.
In balanced activities, the teacher uses a variety of activities from these different
categories of input and output. Learners at all proficiency levels, including
beginners, benefit from this variety; it is more motivating, and it is also more
likely to result in effective language learning.
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING SPEAKING SKILLS

Students often think that the ability to speak a language is the product of language
learning, but speaking is also a crucial part of the language learning process.
Effective teachers teach students speaking strategies -- using minimal responses,
recognizing scripts, and using language to talk about language that they can use to
help themselves expand their knowledge of the language and their confidence in
using it. Those teachers help the students learn to speak so that the students can
use speaking to learn.
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USING MINIMAL RESPONSES
Language learners who lack confidence in their ability to participate successfully
in oral interaction often listen in silence while others do the talking. One way to
encourage such learners to begin to participate is to help them build up a stock
of minimal responses that they can use in different types of exchanges. Such
responses can be especially useful for beginners.
Minimal responses are predictable, often idiomatic phrases that conversation

participants use to indicate understanding, agreement, doubt, and other
responses to what another speaker is saying. Having a stock of such responses
enables a learner to focus on what the other participant is saying, without
having to simultaneously plan a response.
SAMPLE OF MINIMAL RESPONSES

Agreeing with what was said: absolutely; yes, that's right; of course
Politely disagreeing: well, not really; perhaps not quite that bad; maybe not
Indicating possible doubt: really? Are you sure?
Agreeing to cooperate or not: yes, of course; okay; sorry, I can't; I'm afraid
not
Expressing an opinion: that's nice; how lucky!; that's too bad
Expressing interest, encouraging the speaker to continue: what happened
next? that's really interesting; what did you do?
RECOGNIZING SCRIPTS
Some communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken

exchanges: a script, greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations, and other
functions that are influenced by social and cultural norms often follow patterns
or scripts. So do the transactional exchanges involved in activities such as
obtaining information and making a purchase. In these scripts, the relationship
between a speaker's turn and the one that follows it can often be anticipated.
Teachers can help students develop speaking ability by making them aware of
the scripts for different situations so that they can predict what they will hear and
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what they will need to say in response. Through interactive activities, teachers
can give students practice in managing and varying the language that different
scripts contain.
SAMPLE OF SCRIPTS
SCRIPTED TRANSACTIONAL EXCHANGE:
A: May I help you?
B: I'd like to buy two movie tickets, please.
A: Which film? "Attack of the nightmare monsters" or "World's stupidest love
story"?
B: Nightmare monsters.
A: That will be $20.
B: Here you are. Thanks.
SCRIPTED INTERACTIONAL EXCHANGE:
A: Hey! How have you been? I haven't seen you in a long time.
B: Yeah, I had the flu, so I was out for a while.
A: Oh, that's too bad. I hope you're feeling better.
B: Getting there. It takes a long time.
USING LANGUAGE TO TALK ABOUT LANGUAGE
Language learners are often too embarrassed or shy to say anything when they
do not understand another speaker or when they realize that a conversation
partner has not understood them. Teachers can help students overcome this
reticence by assuring them that misunderstanding and the need for clarification
can occur in any type of interaction, whatever the participants' language skill
levels. Teachers can also give students strategies and phrases to use for
clarification and comprehension check.
By encouraging students to use clarification phrases in class when

misunderstanding occurs and by responding positively when they do, teachers
can create an authentic practice environment within the classroom itself. As
they develop control of various clarification strategies, students will gain
confidence in their ability to manage the various communication situations that
they may encounter outside the classroom.
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SAMPLES OF CLARIFICATION PHRASES
When you are not sure of the speaker's meaning, repeat what you think the
speaker said in the form of a question: Excuse me; did you say that the sun
rises in the west?
When you have missed most of the meaning, ask the speaker to repeat: Could
you say that again, please?
When you don't know the word for something, describe it and ask its name:
What do you call the stuff that falls out of the sky that is rain but frozen?
When you think the other person has misunderstood you, repeat what you said
and then say it another way: I'm sorry, I didn't express myself clearly. I said the
plane leaves at three-thirty. Half past three.
DEVELOPING SPEAKING ACTIVITIES
Traditional classroom speaking practice often takes the form of drills in which one
person asks a question and another gives an answer. The question and the answer
are structured and predictable, and often there is only one correct, predetermined
answer. The purpose of asking and answering the question is to demonstrate the
ability to ask and answer the question.
In contrast, the purpose of real communication is to accomplish a task, such as

conveying a telephone message, obtaining information, or expressing an opinion. In
real communication, participants must manage uncertainty about what the other
person will say. Authentic communication involves an information gap; each
participant has information that the other does not have. In addition, to achieve their
purpose, participants may have to clarify their meaning or ask for confirmation of
their own understanding.
To create classroom speaking activities that will develop communicative

competence, instructors need to incorporate a purpose and an information gap and
allow for multiple forms of expression. However, quantity alone will not necessarily
produce competent speakers. Instructors need to combine structured output
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activities, which allow for error correction and increased accuracy, with
communicative output activities that give students opportunities to practice
language use more freely.
STRUCTURED OUTPUT ACTIVITIES

Two common kinds of structured output activities are information gap and jigsaw
activities. In both these types of activities, students complete a task by obtaining
missing information, a feature the activities have in common with real
communication. However, information gap and jigsaw activities also set up practice
on specific items of language. In this respect they are more like drills than like
communication.
INFORMATION GAP ACTIVITIES
Filling the gaps in a schedule or timetable: Partner A holds an airline timetable

with some of the arrival and departure times missing. Partner B has the same
timetable but with different blank spaces. The two partners are not permitted
to see each other's timetables and must fill in the blanks by asking each other
appropriate questions. The features of language that are practiced would
include questions beginning with "when" or "at what time." Answers would be
limited mostly to time expressions like "at 8:15" or "at ten in the evening."
Completing the picture: The two partners have similar pictures, each with
different missing details, and they cooperate to find all the missing details. In
another variation, no items are missing, but similar items differ in appearance.
For example, in one picture, a man walking along the street may be wearing
an overcoat, while in the other the man is wearing a jacket. The features of
grammar and vocabulary that are practiced are determined by the content of
the pictures and the items that are missing or different. Differences in the
activities depicted lead to practice of different verbs. Differences in number,
size, and shape lead to adjective practice. Differing locations would probably
be described with prepositional phrases.
These activities may be set up so that the partners must practice more than just
grammatical and lexical features. For example, the timetable activity gains a social
dimension when one partner assumes the role of a student trying to make an
appointment with a partner who takes the role of a teacher. Each partner has pages
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PRODUCTION
from an appointment book in which certain dates and times are already filled in and
other times are still available for an appointment. Of course, the open times don't
match exactly, so there must be some polite negotiation to arrive at a mutually
convenient time for a meeting or a conference.
JIGSAW ACTIVITIES
Jigsaw activities are more elaborate information gap activities that can be done with
several partners. In a jigsaw activity, each partner has one or a few pieces of the
"puzzle," and the partners must cooperate to fit all the pieces into a whole picture.
The puzzle piece may take one of several forms. It may be one panel from a comic
strip or one photo from a set that tells a story. It may be one sentence from a written
narrative. It may be a tape recording of a conversation, in which case no two
partners hear exactly the same conversation.
In one fairly simple jigsaw activity, students work in groups of four. Each
student in the group receives one panel from a comic strip. Partners may not
show each other their panels. Together the four panels present this narrative:
a man takes a container of ice cream from the freezer; he serves himself
several scoops of ice cream; he sits in front of the TV eating his ice cream; he
returns with the empty bowl to the kitchen and finds that he left the container
of ice cream, now melting, on the kitchen counter. These pictures have a clear
narrative line and the partners are not likely to disagree about the appropriate
sequencing. You can make the task more demanding, however, by using
pictures that lend themselves to alternative sequences, so that the partners
have to negotiate among themselves to agree on a satisfactory sequence.
More elaborate jigsaws may proceed in two stages. First the students work in
input groups (groups A, B, C, and D) to receive information. Each group
receives a different part of the total information for the task. Students then
reorganize into groups of four with one student each from A, B, C, and D, and
use the information they received to complete the task. Such an organization
could be used, for example, when the input is given in the form of a tape
recording. Groups A, B, C, and D each hear a different recording of a short
news bulletin. The four recordings all contain the same general information,
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but each has one or more details that the others do not. In the second stage,
students reconstruct the complete story by comparing the four versions.
With information gap and jigsaw activities, teachers need to be conscious of the
language demands they place on their students. If an activity calls for language
your students have not already practiced, you can brainstorm with them when
setting up the activity to preview the language they will need, eliciting what they
already know and supplementing what they are able to produce themselves.
Structured output activities can form an effective bridge between teacher modeling
and communicative output because they are partly authentic and partly artificial.
Like authentic communication, they feature information gaps that must be bridged
for successful completion of the task. However, where authentic communication
allows speakers to use all of the language they know, structured output activities
lead students to practice specific features of language and to practice only in brief
sentences, not in extended discourse. Also, structured output situations are
contrived and more like games than real communication, and the participants'
social roles are irrelevant to the performance of the activity. This structure controls
the number of variables that students must deal with when they are first exposed to
new material. As they become comfortable, they can move on to true
communicative output activities.
COMMUNICATIVE OUTPUT ACTIVITIES

Communicative output activities allow students to practice using all of the language
they know in situations that resemble real settings. In these activities, students must
work together to develop a plan, resolve a problem, or complete a task. The most
common types of communicative output activity are role plays and discussions.
In role plays, students are assigned roles and put into situations that they may
eventually encounter outside the classroom. Because role plays imitate life, the
range of language functions that may be used expands considerably. Also, the role
relationships among the students as they play their parts call for them to practice
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and develop their sociolinguistic competence. They have to use language that is
appropriate to the situation and to the characters.
Students usually find role playing enjoyable, but students who lack self-confidence
or have lower proficiency levels may find them intimidating at first.
To succeed with role plays:
Prepare carefully: introduce the activity by describing the situation and making
sure that all of the students understand it
Set a goal or outcome: be sure the students understand what the product of
the role play should be, whether a plan, a schedule, a group opinion, or some
other product
Use role cards: give each student a card that describes the person or role to
be played. For lower-level students, the cards can include words or
expressions that that person might use.
Brainstorm: before you start the role play, have students brainstorm as a
class to predict what vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions they
might use.
Keep groups small: less-confident students will feel more able to participate if
they do not have to compete with many voices.
Give students time to prepare: let them work individually to outline their ideas
and the language they will need to express them.
Be present as a resource, not a monitor: stay in communicative mode to
answer students' questions. Do not correct their pronunciation or grammar
unless they specifically ask you about it.
Allow students to work at their own levels: each student has individual
language skills, an individual approach to working in groups, and a specific
role to play in the activity. Do not expect all students to contribute equally to
the discussion, or to use every grammar point you have taught.
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Do topical follow-up: have students report to the class on the outcome of their
role plays.
Do linguistic follow-up: after the role play is over, give feedback on grammar
or pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until another class
period when you plan to review pronunciation or grammar anyway.
Discussions, like role plays, succeed when the teacher prepares students first,
and then gets out of the way.
To succeed with discussions:

Prepare the students: give them input (both topical information and language
forms) so that they will have something to say and the language with which
to say it.
Offer choices: let students suggest the topic for discussion or choose from
several options. Discussion does not always have to be about serious
issues. Students are likely to be more motivated to participate if the topic is
television programs, plans for a vacation, or news about mutual friends.
Weighty topics like how to combat pollution are not as engaging and place
heavy demands on students' linguistic competence.
Set a goal or outcome: this can be a group product, such as a letter to the
editor, or individual reports on the views of others in the group.
Use small groups instead of whole-class discussion: large groups can make
participation difficult.
Keep it short: give students a defined period of time, not more than 8-10
minutes, for discussion. Allow them to stop sooner if they run out of things to
say.
Allow students to participate in their own way: not every student will feel
comfortable talking about every topic. Do not expect all of them to contribute
equally to the conversation.
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Do topical follow-up: have students report to the class on the results of their
discussion.
Do linguistic follow-up: after the discussion is over, give feedback on
grammar or pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until
another class period when you plan to review pronunciation or grammar
anyway.
Through well-prepared communicative output activities such as role plays and
discussions, you can encourage students to experiment and innovate with the
language, and create a supportive atmosphere that allows them to make mistakes
without fear of embarrassment. This will contribute to their self-confidence as
speakers and to their motivation to learn more.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown, and G. Yule. (1983). Teaching the spoken language. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Schmidt, R. W., &Frota, S. N. (1986).Developing basic conversational ability in a

second language: A case study of an adult learner of Portuguese. In R. R. Day
(Ed.), Talking to learn (pp. 237-326). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
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STRATEGIES AND PROCESSES TO DEVELOP WRITTEN
COMPREHENSION
COMPREHENSION
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, the purpose of learning to read in a language has been to have

access to the literature written in that language. In language instruction, reading
materials have traditionally been chosen from literary texts that represent "higher"
forms of culture.
This approach assumes that students learn to read a language by studying its
vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure, not by actually reading it. In this
approach, lower level learners read only sentences and paragraphs generated by
textbook writers and teachers. The reading of authentic materials is limited to the
works of great authors and reserved for upper level students who have developed
the language skills needed to read them.
The communicative approach to language teaching has given teachers a different

understanding of the role of reading in the language classroom and the types of
texts that can be used in class. When the goal of the classs is communicative
competence, everyday materials such as train schedules, newspaper articles, and
travel and tourism Web sites become appropriate classroom materials, because
reading them is one way communicative competence is developed. Instruction in
reading and reading practice thus become essential parts of language teaching at
every level.
READING PURPOSE AND READING COMPREHENSION
Reading is an activity with a purpose. A person may read in order to gain

information or verify existing knowledge, or in order to critique a writer's ideas or
writing style. A person may also read for enjoyment, or to enhance knowledge of
the language being read. The purpose(s) for reading guide the reader's selection of
texts.
The purpose for reading also determines the appropriate approach to reading
comprehension. A person who needs to know whether she can afford to eat at a
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COMPREHENSION
particular restaurant needs to comprehend the information provided on the menu,
but does not need to recognize the name of every appetizer listed. A person
reading poetry for enjoyment needs to recognize the words the poet uses and the
ways they are put together, but does not need to identify main idea and supporting
details. However, a person using a scientific article to support an opinion needs to
know the vocabulary that is used, understand the facts and cause-effect sequences
that are presented, and recognize ideas that are presented as hypotheses.
Reading research shows that good readers
Read extensively
Integrate information in the text with existing knowledge
Have a flexible reading style, depending on what they are reading
Are motivated
Rely on different skills interacting: perceptual processing, phonemic
processing, recall
Read for a purpose; reading serves a function
READING AS A PROCESS
Reading is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text,
resulting in comprehension. The text presents letters, words, sentences, and
paragraphs that encode meaning. The reader uses knowledge, skills, and
strategies to determine what that meaning is.
Reader knowledge, skills, and strategies include:
Linguistic competence: the ability to recognize the elements of the writing

system; knowledge of vocabulary; knowledge of how words are structured into
sentences
Discourse competence: knowledge of discourse markers and how they connect
one part of the text to another.
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COMPREHENSION
Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge about different types of texts and their
usual structure and content.
Strategic competence: the ability to use top-down strategies as well as
knowledge of the language (a bottom-up strategy)
The purpose(s) for reading and the type of text determine the specific knowledge,
skills, and strategies that readers need to apply to achieve comprehension.
Reading comprehension is thus much more than decoding. Reading
comprehension results when the reader knows which skills and strategies are
appropriate for the type of text, and understand how to apply them to accomplish
the reading purpose.
STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP READING
Teachers want to produce students who, even if they do not have complete control
of the grammar or an extensive lexicon, can fend for themselves in communicative
situations. In the case of reading, this means producing students who can use
reading strategies to maximize their comprehension of text, identify relevant and
non-relevant information, and tolerate less than word-by-word comprehension.
FOCUS: THE READING PROCESS
To accomplish this goal, teachers focus on the process of reading rather than on its
product.
They develop students' awareness of the reading process and reading

strategies by asking students to think and talk about how they read in their
native language.
They allow students to practice the full repertoire of reading strategies by
using authentic reading tasks. They encourage students to read for learning
(and have an authentic purpose for reading) by giving students some choice
of reading material.
When working with reading tasks in class, they show students the strategies
that will work best for the reading purpose and the type of text. They explain
how and why students should use the strategies.
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They have students practice reading strategies in class and ask them to
practice outside of class in their reading assignments. They encourage
students to be conscious of what they're doing while they complete reading
assignments.
They encourage students to evaluate their comprehension and self-report
their use of strategies. They build comprehension checks into in-class and
out-of-class reading assignments, and periodically review how and when to
use particular strategies.
They encourage the development of reading skills and the use of reading
strategies by using the target language to course-related information in written
form: office hours, homework assignments, and test content.
They do not assume that students will transfer strategy use from one task to
another. They explicitly mention how a particular strategy can be used in a
different type of reading task or with another skill.
By raising students' awareness of reading as a skill that requires active

engagement, and by explicitly teaching reading strategies, teachers help their
students develop both the ability and the confidence to handle communicative
situations they may encounter beyond the classroom. In this way they give their
students the foundation for communicative competence in the new language.
INTEGRATING READING STRATEGIES
Knowing reading strategies is not an add-on, but rather an integral part of the use
of reading activities in the language classroom.
Teachers can help their students become effective readers by teaching them how
to use strategies before, during, and after reading.
Before reading: plan for the reading task
Set a purpose or decide in advance what to read for

Decide if more linguistic or background knowledge is needed
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Determine whether to enter the text from the top down (attend to the overall
meaning) or from the bottom up (focus on the words and phrases)
During and after reading: monitor comprehension
Verify predictions and check for inaccurate guesses
Decide what is and is not important to understand
Reread to check comprehension
Ask for help
After reading: evaluate comprehension and strategy use
Evaluate comprehension in a particular task or area
Evaluate overall progress in reading and in particular types of reading tasks
Decide if the strategies used were appropriate for the purpose and for the task
Modify strategies if necessary
USING AUTHENTIC MATERIALS AND APPROACHES
For students to develop communicative competence in reading, classroom and

homework reading activities must resemble (or be) real-life reading tasks that
involve meaningful communication. They must therefore be authentic in three ways.
a. The reading material must be authentic: it must be the kind of material

that students will need and want to be able to read when traveling, studying
abroad, or using the language in other contexts outside the classroom.
When selecting texts for student assignments, remember that the difficulty of a
reading text is less a function of the language, and more a function of the
conceptual difficulty and the task(s) that students are expected to complete.
Simplifying a text by changing the language often removes natural
redundancy and makes the organization somewhat difficult for students to
predict. This actually makes a text more difficult to read than if the original
were used.
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Rather than simplifying a text by changing its language, make it more
approachable by eliciting students' existing knowledge in pre-reading
discussion, reviewing new vocabulary before reading, and asking students to
perform tasks that are within their competence, such as skimming to get the
main idea or scanning for specific information, before they begin intensive
reading.
b. The reading purpose must be authentic: students must be reading for

reasons that make sense and have relevance to them. "Because the teacher
assigned it" is not an authentic reason for reading a text.
To identify relevant reading purposes, ask students how they plan to use the
language they are learning and what topics they are interested in reading and
learning about. Give them opportunities to choose their reading assignments, and
encourage them to use the library, the Internet, and foreign language newsstands
and bookstores to find other things they would like to read.
c. The reading approach must be authentic: students should read the text in a
way that matches the reading purpose, the type of text, and the way people
normally read. This means that reading aloud will take place only in situations
where it would take place outside the classroom, such as reading for pleasure.
The majority of students' reading should be done silently.
READING ALOUD IN THE CLASSROOM
Students do not learn to read by reading aloud. A person who reads aloud and
comprehends the meaning of the text is coordinating word recognition with
comprehension and speaking and pronunciation ability in highly complex ways.
Students whose language skills are limited are not able to process at this level, and
end up having to drop one or more of the elements. Usually the dropped element is
comprehension, and reading aloud becomes word calling: simply pronouncing a
series of words without regard for the meaning they carry individually and together.
Word calling is not productive for the student who is doing it, and it is boring for
other students to listen to.
There are two ways to use reading aloud productively in the language
classroom. Read aloud to your students as they follow along silently. You
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have the ability to use inflection and tone to help them hear what the text is
saying. Following along as you read will help students move from word-by-
word reading to reading in phrases and thought units, as they do in their first
language.
Use the "read and look up" technique. With this technique, a student reads a
phrase or sentence silently as many times as necessary, then looks up (away
from the text) and tells you what the phrase or sentence says. This
encourages students to read for ideas, rather than for word recognition.
STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING READING SKILLS
USING READING STRATEGIES

Language teachers are often frustrated by the fact that students do not
automatically transfer the strategies they use when reading in their native language
to reading in a language they are learning. Instead, they seem to think reading
means starting at the beginning and going word by word, stopping to look up every
unknown vocabulary item, until they reach the end. When they do this, students are
relying exclusively on their linguistic knowledge, a bottom-up strategy. One of the
most important functions of the language teacher, then, is to help students move
past this idea and use top-down strategies as they do in their native language.
Effective language teachers show students how they can adjust their reading
behavior to deal with a variety of situations, types of input, and reading purposes.
They help students develop a set of reading strategies and match appropriate
strategies to each reading situation.
Strategies that can help students read more quickly and effectively include
PREVIEWING: reviewing titles, section headings, and photo captions to get a sense
of the structure and content of a reading selection
PREDICTING: using knowledge of the subject matter to make predictions about

content and vocabulary and check comprehension; using knowledge of the text
type and purpose to make predictions about discourse structure; using knowledge
about the author to make predictions about writing style, vocabulary, and content
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SKIMMING AND SCANNING: using a quick survey of the text to get the main idea,
identify text structure, confirm or question predictions
GUESSING THE MEANING FROM CONTEXT: using prior knowledge of the subject
and the ideas in the text as clues to the meanings of unknown words, instead of
stopping to look them up
PARAPHRASING:
Stopping at the end of a section to check comprehension by restating the

information and ideas in the text
Teachers can help students learn when and how to use reading strategies in
several ways.
By modeling the strategies aloud, talking through the processes of
previewing, predicting, skimming and scanning, and paraphrasing. This
shows students how the strategies work and how much they can know
about a text before they begin to read word by word.
By allowing time in class for group and individual previewing and predicting
activities as preparation for in-class or out-of-class reading. Allocating
class time to these activities indicates their importance and value.
By using cloze (fill in the blank) exercises to review vocabulary items. This
helps students learn to guess meaning from context.
By encouraging students to talk about what strategies they think will help
them approach a reading assignment, and then talking after reading about
what strategies they actually used. This helps students develop flexibility in
their choice of strategies.
When language learners use reading strategies, they find that they can control the
reading experience, and they gain confidence in their ability to read the language.
READING TO LEARN
Reading is an essential part of language learning at every level because it supports
learning in multiple ways.
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READING TO LEARN THE LANGUAGE
Reading material is language input. By giving students a variety of materials to
read, teachers provide multiple opportunities for students to absorb vocabulary,
grammar, sentence structure, and discourse structure as they occur in authentic
contexts. Students thus gain a more complete picture of the ways in which the
elements of the language work together to convey meaning.
READING FOR CONTENT INFORMATION

Students' purpose for reading in their native language is often to obtain information
about a subject they are studying, and this purpose can be useful in the language
learning classroom as well. Reading for content information in the language
classroom gives students both authentic reading material and an authentic purpose
for reading.
READING FOR CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE AND AWARENESS

Reading everyday materials that are designed for native speakers can give
students insight into the lifestyles and worldviews of the people whose language
they are studying. When students have access to newspapers, magazines, and
Web sites, they are exposed to culture in all its variety, and monolithic cultural
stereotypes begin to break down.
BASIC STEPS FOR READING TO LEARN

FIGURE OUT THE PURPOSE FOR READING
Activate background knowledge of the topic in order to predict or anticipate content
and identify appropriate reading strategies.
ATTEND TO THE PARTS OF THE TEXT THAT ARE RELEVANT TO THE

IDENTIFIED PURPOSE AND IGNORE THE REST
This selectivity enables students to focus on specific items in the input and reduces
the amount of information they have to hold in short-term memory.
SELECT STRATEGIES THAT ARE APPROPRIATE TO THE READING TASK
AND USE THEM FLEXIBLY AND INTERACTIVELY
Students' comprehension improves and their confidence increases when they use
top-down and bottom-up skills simultaneously to construct meaning.
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CHECK COMPREHENSION WHILE READING AND WHEN THE READING
TASK IS COMPLETED
Monitoring comprehension helps students detect inconsistencies developing
reading activities: Developing reading activities involves more than identifying a text
that is "at the right level," writing a set of comprehension questions for students to
answer after reading, handing out the assignment and sending students away to do
it. A fully-developed reading activity supports students as readers through
prereading, while-reading, and post-reading activities. As you design reading tasks,
keep in mind that complete recall of all the information in a text is an unrealistic
expectation even for native speakers. Reading activities that are meant to increase
communicative competence should be success oriented and build up students'
confidence in their reading ability.
1. CONSTRUCT THE READING ACTIVITY AROUND A PURPOSE THAT HAS
SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE STUDENTS: Make sure students understand what the
purpose for reading is: to get the main idea, obtain specific information,
understand most or the entire message, enjoy a story, or decide whether or
not to read more. Recognizing the purpose for reading will help the student
select appropriate reading strategies.
2. DEFINE THE ACTIVITY'S INSTRUCTIONAL GOAL AND THE APPROPRIATE TYPE

OF RESPONSE: In addition to the main purpose for reading, an activity can
also have one or more instructional purposes, such as practicing or reviewing
specific grammatical constructions, introducing new vocabulary, or
familiarizing students with the typical structure of a certain type of text.
3. CHECK THE LEVEL OF DIFFICULTY OF THE TEXT: The factors listed below
can help you judge the relative ease or difficulty of a reading text for a
particular purpose and a particular group of students.
How is the information organized? Does the story line, narrative, or topic
conform to familiar expectations? Texts in which the events are presented
in natural chronological order, which have an informative title, and which
present the information following an obvious organization (main ideas first,
details and examples second) are easier to follow.
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How familiar are the students with the topic? Remember that
misapplication of background knowledge due to cultural differences can
create major comprehension difficulties.
Does the text contain redundancy? At the lower levels of proficiency,
listeners may find short, simple messages easier to process, but students
with higher proficiency benefit from the natural redundancy of authentic
language.
Does the text offer visual support to aid in reading comprehension? Visual
aids such as photographs, maps, and diagrams help students preview the
content of the text, guess the meanings of unknown words, and check
comprehension while reading.
Remember that the level of difficulty of a text is not the same as the level
of difficulty of a reading task. Students who lack the vocabulary to identify
all of the items on a menu can still determine whether the restaurant
serves steak and whether they can afford to order one.
USE PRE-READING ACTIVITIES TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR READING

The activities you use during pre-reading may serve as preparation in several ways.
During pre-reading you may:
Assess students' background knowledge of the topic and linguistic content
of the text
Give students the background knowledge necessary for comprehension of
the text, or activate the existing knowledge that the students possess
Clarify any cultural information which may be necessary to comprehend
the passage
Make students aware of the type of text they will be reading and the
purpose(s) for reading
Provide opportunities for group or collaborative work and for class
discussion activities
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Sample pre-reading activities:
Using the title, subtitles, and divisions within the text to predict content and
organization or sequence of information
Looking at pictures, maps, diagrams, or graphs and their captions
Talking about the author's background, writing style, and usual topics
Skimming to find the theme or main idea and eliciting related prior
knowledge
Reviewing vocabulary or grammatical structures
Reading over the comprehension questions to focus attention on finding

that information while reading
Constructing semantic webs (a graphic arrangement of concepts or words

showing how they are related)
Doing guided practice with guessing meaning from context or checking

comprehension while reading
Pre-reading activities are most important at lower levels of language proficiency and
at earlier stages of reading class. As students become more proficient at using
reading strategies, you will be able to reduce the amount of guided pre-reading and
allow students to do these activities themselves.
MATCH WHILE-READING ACTIVITIES TO THE PURPOSE FOR READING
In while-reading activities, students check their comprehension as they read. The

purpose for reading determines the appropriate type and level of comprehension.
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When reading for specific information, students need to ask themselves,
have I obtained the information I was looking for?
When reading for pleasure, students need to ask themselves. Do I
understand the story line/sequence of ideas well enough to enjoy reading
this?
When reading for thorough understanding (intensive reading), students need
to ask themselves, Do I understand each main idea and how the author
supports it? Does what I'm reading agree with my predictions, and, if not,
how does it differ? Tocheckcomprehension in thissituation, studentsmay:
Stop at the end of each section to review and check their predictions, restate
the main idea and summarize the section
Use the comprehension questions as guides to the text, stopping to answer
them as they read and comprehension failures, helping them learn to use
alternate strategies
USING TEXTBOOK READING ACTIVITIES
Many language textbooks emphasize product (answers to comprehension

questions) over process (using reading skills and strategies to understand the text),
providing little or no contextual information about the reading selections or their
authors, and few if any pre-reading activities. Newer textbooks may provide pre-
reading activities and reading strategy guidance, but their one-size-fits-all approach
may or may not be appropriate for your students.
You can use the guidelines for developing reading activities given here as starting
points for evaluating and adapting textbook reading activities. Use existing, or add
your own, pre-reading activities and reading strategy practice as appropriate for
your students. Don't make students do exercises simply because they are in the
book; this destroys motivation.
Another problem with textbook reading selections is that they have been adapted to
a predetermined reading level through adjustment of vocabulary, grammar, and
sentence length. This makes them more immediately approachable, but it also
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means that they are less authentic and do not encourage students to apply the
reading strategies they will need to use outside of class. When this is the case, use
the textbook reading selection as a starting point to introduce a writer or topic, and
then give students choices of more challenging authentic texts to read as a follow
up.
ASSESSING READING PROFICIENCY

Reading ability is very difficult to assess accurately. In the communicative
competence model, a student's reading level is the level at which that student is
able to use reading to accomplish communication goals. This means that
assessment of reading ability needs to be correlated with purposes for reading.
READING ALOUD
A student's performance when reading aloud is not a reliable indicator of that
student's reading ability. A student who is perfectly capable of understanding a
given text when reading it silently may stumble when asked to combine
comprehension with word recognition and speaking ability in the way that reading
aloud requires.
In addition, reading aloud is a task that students will rarely, if ever, need to do
outside of the classroom. As a method of assessment, therefore, it is not authentic:
It does not test a student's ability to use reading to accomplish a purpose or goal.
However, reading aloud can help a teacher assess whether a student is "seeing"
word endings and other grammatical features when reading. To use reading aloud
for this purpose, adopt the "read and look up" approach: Ask the student to read a
sentence silently one or more times, until comfortable with the content, then look up
and tell you what it says. This procedure allows the student to process the text, and
lets you see the results of that processing and know what elements, if any, the
student is missing.
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COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS
Teachers often use comprehension questions to test whether students have
understood what they have read. In order to test comprehension appropriately,
these questions need to be coordinated with the purpose for reading. If the purpose
is to find specific information, comprehension questions should focus on that
information. If the purpose is to understand an opinion and the arguments that
support it, comprehension questions should ask about those points. In everyday
reading situations, readers have a purpose for reading before they start. That is,
they know what comprehension questions they are going to need to answer before
they begin reading. To make reading assessment in the language classroom more
like reading outside of the classroom, therefore, allow students to review the
comprehension questions before they begin to read the test passage.
Finally, when the purpose for reading is enjoyment, comprehension questions are
beside the point. As a more authentic form of assessment, have students talk or
write about why they found the text enjoyable and interesting (or not).
AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT
In order to provide authentic assessment of students' reading proficiency, a post-
listening activity must reflect the real-life uses to which students might put
information they have gained through reading.
It must have a purpose other than assessment
It must require students to demonstrate their level of reading comprehension

by completing some task
To develop authentic assessment activities, consider the type of response that

reading a particular selection would elicit in a non-classroom situation. For example,
after reading a weather report, one might decide what to wear the next day; after
reading a set of instructions, one might repeat them to someone else; after
reading a short story, one might discuss the story line with friends.
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Use this response type as a base for selecting appropriate post-reading tasks. You
can then develop a checklist or rubric that will allow you to evaluate each student's
comprehension of specific parts of the text.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ackersold, J. A., & Field, M. L. (1997).From reader to reading teacher: Issues and
strategies for second language classrooms. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Anderson, N. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and

strategies.Boston, MA: Heinle&Heinle.
Barnett, M. A. (1989). More than meets the eye: Foreign language learner reading
theory and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Bernhardt, E. (1991). Reading development in a second language. Norwood, NJ:

Ablex.
Carrell, P. L. (1989). Metacognitive awareness and second language

reading.Modern Language Journal, 73, 121-133.
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PRODUCTION
“Good writing does not just happen, the best writers spend a great deal of
time thinking, planning, rewriting and editing”
INTRODUCTION
The writing activities should be structured in ways that help students learn to
produce cohesive and coherent discourse on their way to become self-sponsors of
their own writings
A well-written piece can be described as incorporating elements of writing in such a
way that a reader can experience the writer's intended meaning, understand the
writer's premise, and accept or reject the writer's point of view.
Effective writing:
It is focused on the topic and does not contain extraneous or loosely related
information;
It has an organizational pattern that enables the reader to follow the flow of
ideas because it contains a beginning, middle, and end and uses transitional
devices;
It contains supporting ideas that are developed through the use of details,
examples, vivid language, and mature word choice; and
It follows the conventions of standard written English (i.e., punctuation,
capitalization, and spelling) and has variation in sentence structure.
STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP WRITING
The most important factor in writing exercises is that students need to be personally
involved in order to make the learning experience of lasting value. Encouraging
student participation in the exercise, while at the same time refining and expanding
writing skills, requires a certain pragmatic approach. The teacher should be clear on
what skills he/she is trying to develop. Next, the teacher needs to decide on which
means (or type of exercise) can facilitate learning of the target area. Once the
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target skill areas and means of implementation are defined, the teacher can then
proceed to focus on what topic can be employed to ensure student participation. By
pragmatically combing these objectives, the teacher can expect both enthusiasm
and effective learning. Choosing the target area depends on many factors. What
level are the students? What is the average age of the students? Why are the
students learning English? Are there any specific future intentions for the writing?
(i.e. school tests or job application letters etc.)
Other important questions to ask you are: What should the students be able to
produce at the end of this exercise? (a well written letter, basic communication of
ideas, etc.) What is the focus of the exercise? (structure, tense usage, creative
writing). Once these factors are clear in the mind of the teacher, he can begin to
focus on how to involve the students in the activity thus promoting a positive, long-
term learning experience. Having decided on the target area, the teacher can focus
on the means to achieve this type of learning. As in correction, he must choose the
most appropriate manner for the specified writing area. If formal business letter
English is required, it is of little use to employ a free expression type of exercise.
Likewise, when working on descriptive language writing skills, a formal letter is
equally out of place.
With both the target area and means of production, clear in the teachers mind, he
can begin to consider how to involve the students by considering what type of
activities are interesting to the students; Are they preparing for something specific
such as a holiday or test?, Will they need any of the skills pragmatically? What has
been effective in the past? A good way to approach this is by class feedback, or
brainstorming sessions. By choosing a topic that involves the students the teacher
is providing a context within which effective learning on the target area can be
undertaken.
Finally, the question of which type of correction will facilitate a useful writing
exercise is of utmost importance. Here the teacher needs to once again think about
the overall target area of the exercise. If there is an immediate task at hand, such
as taking a test, perhaps teacher guided correction is the most effective solution.
However, if the task is more general (for example developing informal letter writing
skills), maybe the best approach would be to have the students work in groups
thereby learning from each other. Most importantly, by choosing the correct means
of correction the teacher can encourage rather discourage students.
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30 IDEAS FOR TEACHING WRITING
1. USE THE SHARED EVENTS OF STUDENTS' LIVES TO INSPIRE WRITING
Make use of the real-life circumstances. To help students compose writing that, in
Frank Smith's words, is "natural and purposeful."
Topics: When a child comes to school with a fresh haircut or a tattered book bag,
these events can inspire a poem. When Michael rode his bike without training
wheels for the first time, this occasion provided a worthwhile topic to write about. A
new baby in a family, a lost tooth, and the death of one student's father were the
playful or serious inspirations for student writing.
2. ESTABLISH AN E-MAIL DIALOGUE BETWEEN STUDENTS FROM

DIFFERENT SCHOOLS WHO ARE READING THE SAME BOOK
When students are scheduled to read the same book at the same time, they set up
email communication between students to allow some "teacher less talk" about the
text.
Though teachers were not involved in student online dialogues, the conversations
evidenced the same reading strategies promoted in teacher-led discussion,
including predication, clarification, interpretation, and others.
3. USE WRITING TO IMPROVE RELATIONS AMONG STUDENTS
Situation: where boys out numbered girls four to one in her classroom.
Students face the problem head-on, asking them to write about gender-based
problems in their journals.
4. HELP STUDENTS WRITERS DRAW RICH CHUNKS OF WRITING FROM

ENDLESS SPRAWL
Situation: writing about a trip
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5. WORK WITH RELEVANT WORDS TO STUDENTS' LIVES AND HELP THEM
BUILD VOCABULARY
The more relevant new words are to students' lives, the more likely they are to take
hold.
One student describes her personality as sometimes 'caustic,' illustrating the word
with a photograph of a burning car in a war zone. Her caption explains that she
understands the hurt her 'burning' sarcastic remarks can generate.
6. HELP STUDENTS ANALYZE TEXT BY ASKING THEM TO IMAGINE

DIALOGUE BETWEEN AUTHORS
Students, for instance, "imagine you are the moderator of a panel discussion on the
topic these writers are discussing. Consider the three writers and construct a
dialogue among the four 'voices' (the three essayists plus you)."
7. SPOTLIGHT LANGUAGE AND USE GROUP BRAINSTORMING TO HELP

STUDENTS CREATE POETRY
Students are asked them to brainstorm language related to the sea, allowing them
time to list appropriate nouns, verbs, and adjectives. The students then used these
words to create phrases and used the phrases to produce the poem itself.
As a group, students put together words in ways, some students felt confident
enough to work alone.
8. ASK STUDENTS TO REFLECT ON AND WRITE ABOUT THEIR WRITING

It makes use of what he calls "metawriting" in his college writing classes. He sees
metawriting (writing about writing) as a way to help students reduce errors in their
academic prose.
"The idea is that students to dig into the topic as deeply as necessary, to come
away with a thorough understanding of the how and why of the usage, and to
understand any debate that may surround the particular usage."
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9. EASE INTO WRITING WORKSHOPS BY PRESENTING YOURSELF AS A
MODEL
The teacher is the model
Rather than taking away creativity, this kind of structure gives students a helpful
format for creativity.
10. GET STUDENTS TO FOCUS ON THEIR WRITING BY HOLDING OFF ON
GRADING
The weaker students stopped trying. Other students relied on grades as the only
standard by which they judged their own work.
Students were better able to evaluate their efforts themselves.
11. USE CASUAL TALK ABOUT STUDENTS' LIVES TO GENERATE WRITING
After the headlines had been posted, students had a chance to guess the stories
behind them. The writers then told the stories behind their headlines.
Students have been able to generate writing that is focused, detailed, and well
ordered.
12. GIVE STUDENTS A CHANCE TO WRITE TO AN AUDIENCE FOR REAL

PURPOSE
Situation: To understand the difference between writing for a hypothetical purpose

and writing to an audience for real purpose.
13. PRACTICE AND PLAY WITH REVISION TECHNIQUES
Revision sometimes means practicing techniques of revision. An exercise like 'find

a place other than the first sentence where this essay might begin' is valuable
because it shows student writers the possibilities that exist in writing.
"Playing at revision can lead to insightful surprises”

"When students come, revision doesn't seem such hard work anymore"
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14. PAIR STUDENTS WITH ADULT READING / WRITING BUDDIES
Ask the students about the kinds of books they wanted to read (mysteries,
adventure, ghost stories) and the adults about the kinds of books they wanted to
read with the young people (character-building values, multiculturalism, no ghost
stories). Use these suggestions for direction. They committed themselves to read
and discuss the book and write separate reviews.
15. TEACH "TENSION" TO MOVE STUDENTS BEYOND FLUENCY

It's the tension, the potential energy that rivets your attention. It's the same in
writing."
The initial prompt read, "Think of a friend who is special to you. Write about
something your friend has done for you, you have done for your friend, or you have
done together."
Students talked about times they had let their friends down or times their friends
had let them down, and how they had managed to stay friends in spite of their
problems. In other words, we talked about some tense situations that found their
way into their writing."
16. ENCOURAGE DESCRIPTIVE WRITING BY FOCUSING ON THE SOUNDS

OF WORDS
Students train their ears by asking them to make lists of wonderful sounding words.
Ask students to make sentences from some of the words they've collected. They
may use their own words, borrow from other contributors, add other words as
necessary, and change word forms.
17. REQUIRE WRITTEN RESPONSE TO PEERS' WRITING

Students respond to each others' writing on Post-it Notes. Students attach their
comments to a piece of writing under consideration.
18. MAKE WRITING REFLECTION TANGIBLE
Students understand better the concept of "reflection" if she anchors the discussion
in the concrete and helps students establish categories for their reflective
responses.
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Students use mirrors to teach the reflective process. Each student had one. As the
students gazed at their own reflections, they answer "What can you think about
while looking in the mirror at your own reflection?" Students can't be creative."
19. MAKE GRAMMAR INSTRUCTION DYNAMIC

Active learning, working in pairs, they tell each other what they are doing
20. ASK STUDENTS TO EXPERIMENT WITH SENTENCE LENGTH
Students discard old notions that sentences should be a certain length.
21. HELP STUDENTS ASK QUESTIONS ABOUT THEIR WRITING
Students consider as they re-examine their writing, reflecting on pieces they may
make part of their portfolios. Questions should not be considered a "reflection
checklist," rather they are questions that seem to be addressed frequently when
writers tell the story of a particular piece.
22. CHALLENGE STUDENTS TO FIND ACTIVE VERBS
Students breathe life into their nonfiction writing. Students make a relation among
the concept of "nouns as stuff" and verbs as "what stuff does."
23. REQUIRE STUDENTS TO MAKE A PERSUASIVE WRITTEN ARGUMENT IN
SUPPORT OF A FINAL GRADE
Students to make a written argument for the grade they think they should receive.
Drawing on work they have done over the semester, students make a case for how
much they have learned in the writing class.
24. GROUND WRITING IN SOCIAL ISSUES IMPORTANT TO STUDENTS
The class, working in groups, decides on a theme such as jealousy, sibling rivalry,
competition, or teen drinking. Each group
25. ENCOURAGE THE "FRAMING DEVICE" AS AN AID TO COHESION IN

WRITING
Students to find a literary or historical reference or a personal narrative that can
provide a fresh way into and out of their writing, surrounding it much like a window
frame surrounds a glass pane.
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26. USE REAL WORLD EXAMPLES TO REINFORCE WRITING CONVENTIONS
The teacher brings to class two pieces of wire, the last inch of each exposed. And
ask the students "We need to join these pieces of wire together right now if we are
to be able to watch our favorite TV show. What can we do?
The more able we are to relate the concepts of writing to 'real world' experience, the
more successful we will be."
27. THINK LIKE A FOOTBALL COACH
The writing teacher can't stay on the sidelines. "Like the coach, the writing teacher
should praise strong performance rather than focus on the negative.
Practice and routine are important both for football players and for writing students,
but football players and writers also need the "adrenaline rush" of the big game and
the final draft.
28. ALLOW CLASSROOM WRITING TO TAKE A PAGE FROM YEARBOOK

WRITING
"How can I make my classroom as fascinating and consuming as the yearbook?"
Here are some ideas that yearbook writing inspired:
Take pictures, put them on the bulletin boards, and have students write captions for
them. Then design small descriptive writing assignments using the photographs of
events such as the prom and homecoming. Afterwards, ask students to choose
quotes from things they have read that represent what they feel and think and put
them on the walls.
Check in about students' lives. Recognize achievements and individuals the way
that yearbook writers direct attention to each other. Ask students to write down
memories and simply, joyfully share them. As yearbook writing usually does, insist
on a sense of tomorrow.
29. USE HOME LANGUAGE ON THE ROAD TO STANDARD ENGLISH

The additional challenge becomes to re-draft this writing, rendered in patois, into
standard English.
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PRODUCTION
Students expressed their thoughts more proficiently in standard English after
drafting in their vernaculars.
30. INTRODUCE MULTI-GENRE WRITING IN THE CONTEXT OF COMMUNITY

SERVICE
Students write in a number of genres: an objective report that describes the
appearance and activity of the facility, a personal interview/profile, an evaluation
essay that requires students to set up criteria by which to assess this kind of
organization, an investigative report that includes information from a second source,
and a letter to the editor of a campus newspaper or other publication.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Romance in the Classroom: Inviting Discourse on Gender and Power" by Diane

Waff is reprinted from The Voice of the Philadelphia Writing Project (3) 1. Copyright
© Winter 1994.
A Place for Talk in Writers' Workshop" by Erin (Pirnot) Ciccone is reprinted from
The Pennsylvania Writing and Literature Project Newsletter (21) 2. Copyright ©
2000.
A version of "Getting Real: Can a Writing Prompt Be Authentic?" by Patricia Slagle

first appeared in The Louisville Writing Project Network News.
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EVALUATING SPEAKING
EVALUATING SPEAKING
INTRODUCTION
This part looks at what a speaker needs to be able to do in order to use spoken
English as an effective form of communication. For example, speakers need to
pronounce individual sounds clearly, understand the functions of language, and
follow the conventions of turn-taking. In the second part of this handout we will look
at how these competencies can be evaluated, with specific discussion of formal
methods such as the IELT and Cambridge Main Suite speaking tests.
What speakers do Speaking is a complex act with many different elements

interacting to produce effective communication. In order to evaluate this skill
accurately, we need to identify and isolate each of these elements. We can then
develop frameworks to evaluate them. Below is a list of the things that speakers
need to be able to do in order to communicate effectively.
Phonological features of speech: speakers need to be able to produce the

phonological features of speech well enough to be understood, and understand
them when they hear them. These features include:
Individual sounds – consonants, vowels, diphthongs such as in day and

triphthongs such as in here.
The stressed and weak sounds in words; for example, the second syllable of
'banana' is stressed and the first and third are weak.
The stressed and weak words in speech; for example, in the order "Go to
bed!" 'Go' and 'bed' are stressed and 'to' is not.
The rhythm of speech in general. English is stress-timed, meaning that in
general stressed syllables have an equal amount of time between them.
The intonation patterns in speech, falling, rising, flat, etc
The features of connected speech, i.e. things that happen when we connect
sounds together. For example, connected speech produces contractions such
as doesn‟t, linking sounds such as the / j / in 'I am', lost sounds such as the / t
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/ in 'I don’t know', and changed sounds such as the / t / in 'white bag' changing
to a / p /.
Following the rules of language: speakers need to be able to understand and
follow the rules of language at a word, sentence and text level. This includes:
Choosing the right vocabulary. Speakers need to think about the meaning of a
word, its connotations, the level of formality, the type of register and genre,
and the words it normally goes with (collocations).
Using grammar structures to put clauses and sentences together.
Using features of discourse to give long and short turn cohesion and
coherence. For example, speakers need to use referencing "This is the
problem" and connectors "so..."
Paralinguistic devices: speakers need to be able to understand and use
paralinguistic devices as a communicative tool. There are different definitions of
paralanguage, but if we say that it does not involve words in any way then this
includes:
Non-verbal tools such as gestures and facial expressions.

Other body language, such as eye contact, posture, positioning and
movement of the head.
Verbal tools such as changes in volume, e.g. whispering and shouting, and
noises such as whew! and tsk!
Communicative functions: speakers need to be able to recognise, understand
and use the communicative functions of speech. This includes:
Understanding the communicative functions of vocabulary and grammar.

Forexample, whythisis a normal exchange:
A: "Did you walk the dog today?"
B: "I’ve been in bed all day with a cold."
Or what a speaker means when he says: "Do you know who I am?"
Understanding the functions of intonation and moving stress. For example,
intonation and stress can show attitude: "Oh, really?" Emphasis: "I said
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threebananas", and structure, e.g. a falling intonation at the end of a list of
items.
Recognising features such as repetitions, re-phrasing, pauses, and noises and
understanding their function.
Recognising non-linguistic features such as changes in volume and tone.
Social meaning: Speakers need to be able to understand and use the social
meaning of speech.This includes thinking about:
When to use formal and informal language: example the difference between
thin, slender and skinny.
How direct they can be, for example when to say;"Help me with this" and when
to say; "Would you mind helping me, please?"
What social factors are important? : e.g. social status, age and gender.
Conversational principals such as turn taking and exchanges – these can be
different in different cultures and societies.
The rules to start, maintain, manage, and close conversations.
WHAT CAN WE EVALUATE?
PHONOLOGICAL FEATURES
Speakers need to be able to produce the phonological features of speech well
enough to be understood, so it is fundamental that these are included in evaluation
in some way. Things such as the individual sounds, stressed and weak sounds in
words and speech, rhythm and intonation patterns are easy to elicit and identify.
We can then measure them against a standard based on whether we can
understand them or not, or perhaps more accurately, whether a typical listener
could.
RULES OF LANGUAGE
Speakers need to be able to understand and obey the rules of structure, lexis and
discourse when they speak. Again, this is easy to evaluate through observation,
although we need to start thinking now about providing the speaker with suitable
tasks and a suitable context, e.g. in interaction with other speakers. Observing the
speaker, we can ask questions such as:
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Is the speaker choosing the right vocabulary? Does it make sense? Is it formal
enough?
Does it collocate with other words correctly?
Is the speaker following rules about grammatical structure?
Is the speaker connecting together what they say and connecting this with what
other speakers say effectively? In other words, is it coherent and cohesive?
PARALINGUISTIC DEVICES
It is clear that speakers need to be able to understand and use paralinguistic
devices, as they are an essential part of communication, and competence includes
the ability to manage these devices. We can convey an enormous amount with use
of eye contact and facial expression, for example, and gestures work in the same
way as linguistic communication. However, there are problems. For example, it is
difficult to evaluate many of these features explicitly. The speaker's use of gestures,
expressions and verbal tools such as noises can be observed, but can we establish
a standard, correct use? Eye contact, movement of the body and head, and posture
all send powerful messages but how do we describe them in a framework for
evaluation? How do we elicit them in a controlled form? In addition to this, we may
feel that it is not appropriate to evaluate this area at all as part of spoken language
testing, and that the best way to address these may be under another heading,
such as intercultural communicative competence. This then means evaluating them
separately, using very different techniques.
COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS
Speakers need to be able to recognise, understand and use the communicative
functions of speech. This means what speakers actually communicate with their
choices of vocabulary and grammar, intonation and stress, changes in volume and
tone etc. These features can be evaluated through observation of the speaker's
performance and comparison against a standard. As we are evaluating
communicative functions, it is relevant to evaluate a speaker from this perspective,
for example by asking:
Does the speaker use intonation and stress effectively to support their
message?
Does the speaker use the right functional language (exponents) to express their
message?
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Does the speaker manage volume and tone appropriately to support
communication?
Does the speaker use pauses, repetition and noises appropriately to support
communication?
SOCIAL MEANING
Speakers need to be able to understand and use the social meaning of speech and
many aspects of this can be evaluated formally. We can for example assess the
ability to use formal and informal language, and the degree of directness, by using
suitable tasks which recreate social factors such as status and age. The speaker's
understanding of conversational principals and rules can be observed in interaction
with others, e.g. in a group task. Connotations of language can be included as part
of evaluation of use of vocabulary.
HOW DO WE EVALUATE?
As we can see most aspects of spoken language can be evaluated formally. The
challenge is to find a form for testing which enables us to do so. An effective format
for evaluation should enable us to isolate and analyze various elements, possibly
under a series of general headings, but also use tasks which allow us to measure
the speaker's communicative competence in general. Clearly if we want to measure
a speaker's language we want them to perform to their best ability, so we also need
to consider the best ways to reduce the impact of emotional factors such as stress
and nerves. Finally, we need to think about practical concerns around available
resources, such as time, examiners, equipment if we are going to record the
speaker, and space.
There are a wide range of test types and elicitation available. In this article we are
limiting discussion to formal evaluation by an examiner, as opposed for example to
self-assessment or informal evaluation during classes. Below then we review some
of the most common ways for a teacher or examiner to evaluate speaking formally;
many speaking tests use a mixture of different types, as will be seen in part 3 (Ed.
to be published later) of this article.
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DISCUSSIONS
The candidate has a conversation with the examiner, or with another candidate with
the examiner observing. Natural conversation gives the examiner an opportunity to
evaluate a wide range of areas (and helps the candidate produce a relaxed and so
realistic performance) but this is very difficult to achieve and requires skilful
handling by the examiner.
JOINT TASKS
A discussion activity can be given more focus and drive by asking the candidates to
complete a task which requires them to talk together and then make a decision.
This is an effective way to evaluate functions such as agreeing and disagreeing,
and making suggestions, as well as conventions of conversation such as turn-
taking.
PRESENTATIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS

The candidate has to give a short presentation on a topic, or describe or explain
something. The examiner just listens. Topics can include personal experiences and
current issues. Candidates can be asked to describe a process or a machine, give
advice and provide instructions for how to do something. The amount of time
candidates are given to prepare this presentation can vary from one minute to days
before, depending on the language focus and resources.
ROLE PLAYS / MAKING APPROPRIATE RESPONSES

The candidate is given a role or a situation and has to complete a task in an
appropriate way. This can be carried out with the examiner or with other candidates
while the examiner listens. The advantage of this kind of activity is that certain
candidates will feel more comfortable in a role and so perform better; the reverse is
of course also true.
INTERVIEWS / QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

The examiner asks the candidate a series of questions. In an interview these may
be related, and changeable, depending on what the candidate says. In questions
and answers these are usually unrelated, although usually increasingly complex,
and fixed. Interviews have a similar potential to produce useful samples as
conversations, but questions and answers enable a focus on specific aspects of
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speaking, require less training for the examiner, and are easier to evaluate against
a marking framework.
USING VISUAL PROMPTS

The candidate is required to describe a visual prompt such as a photograph or a
diagram. This can be developed by asking the candidate to compare order or link a
sequence of pictures. This kind of test is suitable for all levels of candidate and
enables the examiner to focus on a wide variety of language across a range of
levels.
RE-TELLING A STORY
The candidate is required to re-tell a story which they have read or listened to
before the test, or based on notes which the examiner gives them. They can also
be asked to comment on an extract from a set text that they have read before the
test. This kind of evaluation not only tests spoken language but also the ability to
retain, organize and recall information; how much this is emphasized depends on
the time between receiving the information and having to reproduce it, and on the
marking scheme used.
READING ALOUD
The candidate is given a text to prepare and then read aloud to the examiner. The
advantages of this kind of evaluation are that it can be controlled very easily, so the
examiner can focus on specific items of language, such as minimal pairs or
sentence stress, and that it is highly consistent, as all candidates work with the
same or similar tasks. The disadvantage is that reading aloud is not a realistic task
to evaluate communicative competence and can be challenging even for native
speakers.
ASSESSING LISTENING AND SPEAKING SKILLS

Even though many students have mastered basic listening and speaking skills,
some students are much more effective in their oral communication than others.
And those who are more effective communicators experience more success in
school and in other areas of their lives. The skills that can make the difference
between minimal and effective communication can be taught, practiced, and
improved.
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The method used for assessing oral communication skills depends on the purpose
of the assessment. A method that is appropriate for giving feedback to students
who are learning a new skill is not appropriate for evaluating students at the end of
a course. However, any assessment method should adhere to the measurement
principles of reliability, validity, and fairness. The instrument must be accurate and
consistent, it must represent the abilities we wish to measure, and it must operate in
the same way with a wide range of students. The concerns of measurement, as
they relate to oral communication, are highlighted below.
HOW IS ORAL COMMUNICATION AND LISTENING DEFINED?

Defining the domain of knowledge, skills, or attitudes to be measured is at the core
of any assessment. Most people define oral communication narrowly, focusing on
speaking and listening skills separately. Traditionally, when people describe
speaking skills, they do so in a context of public speaking. Recently, however,
definitions of speaking have been expanded (Brown 1981). One trend has been to
focus on communication activities that reflect a variety of settings: one-to-many,
small group, one-to-one, and mass media. Another approach has been to focus on
using communication to achieve specific purposes: to inform, to persuade, and to
solve problems. A third trend has been to focus on basic competencies needed for
everyday life for example, giving directions, asking for information, or providing
basic information in an emergency situation. The latter approach has been taken in
the Speech Communication Association's guidelines for elementary and secondary
students. Many of these broader views stress that oral communication is an
interactive process in which an individual alternately takes the roles of speaker and
listener, and which includes both verbal and nonverbal components.
Listening, like reading comprehension, is usually defined as a receptive skill
comprising both a physical process and an interpretive, analytical process.
However, this definition is often expanded to include critical listening skills (higher-
order skills such as analysis and synthesis) and nonverbal listening
(comprehending the meaning of tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures, and
other nonverbal cues.) The expanded definition of listening also emphasizes the
relationship between listening and speaking.
HOW ARE SPEAKING SKILLS ASSESSED?

Two methods are used for assessing speaking skills. In the observational approach,
the student's behavior is observed and assessed unobtrusively. In the structured
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approach, the student is asked to perform one or more specific oral communication
tasks. His or her performance on the task is then evaluated. The task can be
administered in a one-on-one setting with the test administrator and one student or
in a group or class setting. In either setting, students should feel that they are
communicating meaningful content to a real audience. Tasks should focus on topics
that all students can easily talk about, or, if they do not include such a focus,
students should be given an opportunity to collect information on the topic.
Both observational and structured approaches use a variety of rating systems. A

holistic rating captures a general impression of the student's performance. A
primary trait score assesses the student's ability to achieve a specific
communication purpose for example, to persuade the listener to adopt a certain
point of view. Analytic scales capture the student's performance on various aspects
of communication, such as delivery, organization, content, and language. Rating
systems may describe varying degrees of competence along a scale or may
indicate the presence or absence of a characteristic.
A major aspect of any rating system is rater objectivity: Is the rater applying the
scoring criteria accurately and consistently to all students across time? The
reliability of raters should be established during their training and checked during
administration or scoring of the assessment. If ratings are made on the spot, two
raters will be required for some administrations. If ratings are recorded for later
scoring, double scoring will be needed.
HOW ARE LISTENING SKILLS ASSESSED?

Listening tests typically resemble reading comprehension tests except that the
student listens to a passage instead of reading it. The student then answers
multiple-choice questions that address various levels of literal and inferential
comprehension. Important elements in all listening tests are (1) the listening stimuli,
(2) the questions, and (3) the test environment.
The listening stimuli should represent typical oral language, and not consist of
simply the oral reading of passages designed to be written material. The material
should model the language that students might typically be expected to hear in the
classroom, in various media, or in conversations. Since listening performance is
strongly influenced by motivation and memory, the passages should be interesting
and relatively short. To ensure fairness, topics should be grounded in experience
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common to all students, irrespective of sex and geographic, socioeconomic, or
racial/ethnic background.
In regard to questions, multiple-choice items should focus on the most important

aspects of the passage not trivial details and should measure skills from a particular
domain. Answers designated as correct should be derived from the passage,
without reliance on the student's prior knowledge or experience. Questions and
response choices should meet accepted psychometric standards for multiple-choice
questions.
An alternative to the multiple-choice test is a performance test that requires

students to select a picture or actually perform a task based on oral instruction. For
example, students might hear a description of several geometric figures and choose
pictures that match the description, or they might be given a map and instructed to
trace a route that is described orally.
The testing environment for listening assessment should be free of external

distractions. If stimuli are presented from a tape, the sound quality should be
excellent. If stimuli are presented by a test administrator, the material should be
presented clearly, with appropriate volume and rate of speaking.
HOW SHOULD ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENTS BE SELECTED OR

DESIGNED?
Identifying an appropriate instrument depends upon the purpose for assessment

and the availability of existing instruments. If the purpose is to assess a specific set
of skills for instance, diagnosing strengths and weaknesses or assessing mastery of
an objective the test should match those skills. If appropriate tests are not available,
it makes sense to design an assessment instrument to reflect specific needs. If the
purpose is to assess communication broadly, as in evaluating a new program or
assessing district goals, the test should measure progress over time and, if
possible, describe that progress in terms of external norms, such as national or
state norms. In this case, it is useful to seek out a pertinent test that has undergone
careful development, validation, and norming, even if it does not exactly match the
local program.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown, Kenneth L. TEACHING, SPEAKING AND LISTENING SKILLS IN THE

ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL. Boston, MA: Massachusetts
Department of Education, 1981. ED 234 440.
Lundsteen, Sara W. LISTENING: ITS IMPACT ON READING AND THE OTHER

LANGUAGE ARTS. Revised ed. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of
English and the ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills, 1979.
ED 169 537.
Powers, Donald E. CONSIDERATIONS FOR DEVELOPING MEASURES OF

SPEAKING AND LISTENING. New York: College Entrance Examination Board,
1984.
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EVALUATING WRITING
INTRODUCTION
You have decided it is important that your students write. It will not only help
them maintain or improve their writing skills, but also help them understand and
retain course content. However, you may be concerned that you will soon
disappear under a mountain of papers. This need not be the case. This handout
contains some tips and techniques for effectively managing and evaluating
student writing, including information on designing and giving assignments,
time-saving techniques, providing effective feedback, and types of evaluation.
DESIGNING ASSIGNMENTS
The first step to effective paper-management is designing
assignments effectively.Decide the purpose of the assignment (your
objectives for it), make that purpose very clear to your students, and evaluate
based on that. Some possible purposes include
To understand
To synthesize
To explain
To prove knowledge
To demonstrate awareness of terminology / vocabulary
When you first assign the writing let students know how you will
evaluate it. For example, you may be most concerned that your
students understand terminology specific to your field. Organization of
ideas is not as important, nor is "surface correctness" (spelling--except
of those terms--grammar, etc). In your assignment, make clear your
priorities, and stick to them when grading.
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RESPONDING TO AND / OR EVALUATING STUDENT WRITING
NEED NOT TAKE A GREAT DEAL OF YOUR TIME.
Provide most of your feedback informally as students plan and write,

then evaluate the final product quickly.
Having conferences with the student saves you time and can increase
clarity, as they can ask you questions. You can hold quick in-class
conferences while students work individually or in groups.
Build in other readers before you. Have students receive feedback
from their peers;
Not all writing has to be long. Rather than assigning one very long
paper, assign several short ones or have them write a series of drafts,
of which you read only one. Rather than only requiring "formal" writing,
have them do more informal writing which may be used in class, or
collected at random.
Don't read everything you have your students write. Collect, read and
grade their writing randomly.
Prioritize. Decide what is most important to you in each assignment
(format? clarity? demonstration of knowledge? audience awareness?
spelling?) and evaluate based on your top priorities.
Don't evaluate or comment on everything in a paper; focus your
evaluation on two or three aspects that are most important to you (and
that you identified as being most important in making theassignment).
Don't correct students' errors for them. Point out the most significant
shortcomings in the paper (based on your priorities) briefly, then
require that they make the corrections.
EFFECTIVE FEED BACK
Give feedback that establishes goals: for further drafts of that paper,
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in future writing, as a student in your course.
Ask questions which will help students clarify and develop their
writing to meet the goals you have set.
Respond first as reader, rather than as grammarian or grade giver,
so students can see what sort of effect their writing had.
Phrase suggestions in terms of the the particular paper at hand,
rather than generalizing. Studies show that students retain applied
information about writing better than generalized information.
TYPES OF EVALUATION
A number of options for evaluating papers exist; evaluating a paper need not
involve correcting every surface error and writing voluminous comments at the
end.
Give separate grades for form and content.
Use "performance" grading: if students do the assignment, they get
credit (or points). You make no value judgments about the quality of
the work; merely decide what an acceptable amount of work is.
Use "impression marking:" scan the paper and mark it based on your
general impression of paper's effectiveness. Again, have a clear set of
criteria in mind--or even written down--as you read.
Use portfolio evaluation: rather than evaluating individual papers,
evaluate a student's entire output at the end of the course.
Evaluate based strictly on clearly defined criteria, which may be set out
in the form of:
1. Contracts: you create a contract which spells out how much work
and/or what sort must be done to receive a particular grade. The
student chooses what grade to work for.
2. Checksheets: you list the criteria for an acceptable piece of work and
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evaluate based on how many criteria are met.
3. Scales: rank a student's work based on your criteria. Analytic and
Dichotomous are just two of a variety of scales; examples are below.
SAMPLE ANALYTICAL SCALE
low high
Ideas 2 4 6 8 10
General merit Organization 2 4 6 8 10
Wording 1 2 3 4 5
Spelling&punctuation 1 2 3 4 5
Mechanics Grammar&usage 1 2 3 4 5
Format 2 4 6 8 10
Understanding of terms 2 4 6 8 10
Comprehension
Application of concepts 2 4 6 8 10
Total Score:
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EVALUATING THE STUDENT´S WRITING
The evaluation of student writing should be the natural extension of our teaching of
writing. Therefore, our evaluation process (i.e., our grading of writing) begins when
we assign writing, it continues when we teach our assignments to our classes, and
it reaches crucial stages when we respond to students‟ preliminary drafts. By
connecting our evaluating to our assigning, teaching, and responding, we make our
grading a part of the learning process, not just a way of labeling student work.
Your goals for assigning writing should be clear to you and to your students. These
goals represent desired outcomes, things you want your students to know or do.
These goals become part of our evaluation process when they are translated into a
rubric, or a set of criteria used to evaluate writing. Here are
someguidelinesforeffectivecriteria-making:
 Create criteria that represent important goals of the assignment.

 Describe various levels of success in each criterion.
 Include your criteria in your assignment sheet.
 Use the terminology of your criteria in class.
 If possible, involve students in evaluating sample writings according to the
criteria.
 If possible, respond to un-graded student drafts using the criteria.
 Engage students in the process of defining and applying your criteria;
encourage self-evaluation or peer evaluation.
In addition to considering student learning, you‟ll also want to consider your

personal style when you generate criteria. Our years of training have instilled in all
of us some instinctive responses to writing. These evaluative instincts can
sometimes conflict with our explicit teaching goals, and we can find ourselves
evaluating writing in unproductive ways. Ideally, we can become self-aware
responders, questioning our "natural" reactions and relating them to our teaching
goals. As much as possible, we hope to create instruments of evaluation (lists of
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criteria, rubrics, checklists, etc.) that combine our instructional goals, student needs,
and our best, individual practices.
 If you don‟t like to work with numeric systems, don‟t create a grading
instrument that requires you to do so.
 If you don‟t like to write detailed comments in order to justify your evaluation of
a draft, generate an instrument that provides the student with detailed
information without requiring you to write elaborate notes.
 If you‟re looking to cut down the amount of time you spend evaluating writing,
don‟t feel guilty. Createanevaluationinstrumentthatiseffective and efficient.
Our best efforts at assigning, teaching, and responding to student writing will make
the evaluation process easier and more valuable. Finally, though, we still have to
sit down with a stack of papers and begin to apply our grading instrument to
individual pieces of writing. That process requires us to be focused and attentive,
to maintain a consistent mindset, to weigh the importance of factors relating to each
individual student we evaluate, and, finally, to make difficult judgments about the
application of our criteria.
 Know yourself: work in a comfortable environment, at a good time of day.

 Re-read your assignment sheet before beginning.
 Only spend time writing revision-oriented notes if the assignment can be
revised.
 If you tend to write too much on student papers, set your pen down while you
read.
 Take breaks when you feel fatigued or frustrated.
 Read a few (or several) papers before making any evaluative decisions; you
might even read a whole stack of papers, placing them in a preliminary order,
before assigning any grades.
 Put aside papers that you‟re struggling with and return to them when you‟re
fresh.
 When you‟re stymied by a perplexing paper, consult with a colleague.
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 If you write end-notes to students, draw attention to positive qualities of their
papers as well as those areas where their work fell short of the mark.
Finally, our evaluation practices can help us to improve as teachers. While you‟re
working, keep a journal or some blank paper handy. Write down your observations
about the assignment, about your grading process, about your students‟ writing. All
of these notes may help you improve your teaching and streamline your evaluation
procedures. In fact, notes on evaluating writing can sometimes lead to important
realizations on curricular or programmatic levels.
SAMPLE DICHOTOMOUS SCALE
Yes No
____ ___ Ideas are insightful
____ ___ Ideas are original
____ ___ Ideas are logical
____ ___ Ideas are clearlyexpressed
____ ___ Thereis a thesis
____ ___ Thesisisadequatelydeveloped
Each paragraph is developed with concrete and relevant
____ ____ details
____ ___ Many misspellings
____ ___ Awkward sentences
ASSESSMENT RUBRIC FOR THE CRITICAL THINKING PRE- AND POST

TESTS:
1. Identifies the writer‟s main point. 1-5

2. Identifies the writer‟s supporting arguments. 1-5
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3. Evaluatesthesupportingarguments. 1-5
4. Evaluates the argument as a whole. 1-5
5. Articulates and defends his / her own position. 1-5
6. Employs an appropriate and consistent tone. 1-5
EXPLANATION OF THE POINTS IN THE RUBRIC
1. The student is able to identify the central issue addressed by the author.
Partial points for the identification of a secondary issue as the central one. No
points if the student never makes a statement about the author‟s overall
thesis.
2. A student may get 5 points if he or she identifies all or most of the supporting
arguments.
3. A student may get 5 points if he or she evaluates all or most of the supporting
arguments. In some cases, students may focus on one or two, deliberately
ignoring others, and this may earn 5 points as well. The student earns 1-2
points for if the basis of his or her evaluation is hasty or ill-founded, 3 points if
the evaluation is thoughtful but not well - supported, and 4-5 points if the
evaluation is logical, perceptive, and well supported.
4. The student should offer some kind of overall evaluation of the letter.
5. The student‟s own position may emerge clearly through the letter, or it may
appear in the first and last paragraphs.
6. Tone can be defined as the attitude a writer takes toward his or her subject
matter and audience as reflected in his or her style: diction, syntax,
punctuation, etc. A tone may be jocular, serious, reflective, ironic, sarcastic,
incredulous, etc., but it should be consistent and appropriate for the purpose
of the letter.
7. Alternative: Occasionally, students will develop creative responses to letters
that aren‟t full anticipated by these criteria. A student might write a parody of
the original letter, for example. Graders might assign as many as 5 additional
points to these kinds of letters.
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EVALUATING WRITING
FOCUS YOUR COMMENTING ENERGY
No matter how much you want to improve student writing, remember that students
can only take in so much information about a paper at one time. Particularly
because writing is such an egocentric activity, writers tend to feel overloaded
quickly by excessively detailed feedback about their writing.
Moreover, because most writing can be considered work in progress (because

students will continue to think about the content and presentation of their papers
even if they don't actively revise), commenting exhaustively on every feature of a
draft is counter-productive. Too many comments can make student writers feel as if
the teacher is taking control of the paper and cutting off productive avenues for
revision.
Focusing your energy when commenting achieves two main goals:
It leaves students in control of their writing so that they can consider

revising--or at least learning from the experience of having written the paper.
It gives teachers a sense of tackling the most important elements of a paper
rather than getting bogged down in detail that might just get ignored by the
student.
Typically, we recommend that teachers comment discursively on the one or
two most important features of a paper, determined either by your criteria for
the assignment or by the seriousness of the effect on a reader of a given
paper.
HANDLING GRAMMAR
If you assign write-to-learn tasks, you won't want to mark any grammatical flaws
because the writing is designed to be impromptu and informal. If you assign more
polished pieces, especially those that adhere to disciplinary conventions, then we
suggest putting the burden of proofreading squarely where it belongs--on the
writer.
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EVALUATING WRITING
You don't need to be an expert in grammar to assign and respond effectively to
writing assignments. Click on the list below to read some points to consider as
you design your assignments and grading criteria:
Don't edit writing to learn

Make students responsible for polishing their papers
Think of yourself first as a reader
Use peer editing
Try a time-saving short-cut
Sample policies on grading mechanics vs content
USE A GRADING SHEET
Grading comment sheets or checksheets give teachers and students two

advantages over free-form grading:
Grading sheets of some sort assure that teachers will give students feedback
about all the major criteria they set out on the assignment sheet. Even if you
decide to use a simple checksheet that ranks students' performance on each
criterion on a 1-10 scale, students will be able to see quickly where their
strengths and weaknesses are as writers for this assignment.
Grading sheets, particularly checksheets, typically save teachers time. Even
composition teachers don't comment exhaustively about each criterion for
each assignment; so, too, disciplinary teachers should be aware that they can
comment at some length on just one or two points (typically the major strength
and the major weakness) and then rely on the checksheet to fill in for less
crucial areas of the paper. If students are concerned about getting more
feedback than the checksheet provides, you can encourage them to come to
your office hours or send you an e-mail query.
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EVALUATING WRITING
SAMPLE GRADING SHEET
Strengths Weaknesses
I. Introductory paragraphs
A. Lead-in
B. Thesis (narrowed topic + clear

stance)
II. Body paragraphs:
(Effective transition, clear focus,

development with details, clear
transitional words)
A. Body paragraph one
B. Body paragraph two
C. Body paragraph three
D. Body paragraph four
E. etc.
III. Conclusion
IV. Punctuation, grammar, style,

spelling
Grade for essay: ___________
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EVALUATING WRITING
SAMPLE REPORT EVALUATION
Name: _________________ Subject: _________________
5 __cover
5 __title page
5 __table of contents
5 __report
5 __pictures
5 __diagrams
5 __map
5 __bibliography (3 sources)
5 __information page (notes)
5 __glossary (at least 10 words)
5 __oral reading and presentation
5 __neatness
______ total points
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EVALUATING WRITING
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rubin, Don. L., and Mead, Nancy A. LARGE SCALE ASSESSMENT OF WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION SKILLS: KINDERGARTEN THROUGH GRADE 12. Annandale,
VA: Speech Communication Association and the ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading
and Communication Skills, 1984. ED 245 293.
Speech Communication Association.RESOURCES FOR ASSESSMENT IN

COMMUNICATION. Annandale, VA.: Speech Communication Association, 1984.
SCA Guidelines: ESSENTIAL SPEAKING AND WRITING SKILLS FOR HIGH

SCHOOL STUDENTS Annandale, VA.: Speech Communication Association.
(Pamphlet, 1984).
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STRATEGIES TO KNOW ENGLISH FOR TEACHERS IN
FORMATION
FORMATION
INTRODUCTION
The term strategies, in the second-language-learning sense, has come to be

applied to the conscious moves made by second-language speakers intended to be
useful in either learning or using the second language. Strategies can be very
different in nature, ranging from planning the organization of one‟s learning (a
metacognitive learning strategy) through using mnemonic devices to learn
vocabulary (cognitive learning strategies) and rehearsing what one expects to say
(a performance strategy) to bolstering one‟s self-confidence for a language task by
means of “self-talk” (an affective strategy).
Ever since Naiman et al. (1976) noted that “good” language learners appeared to
use a larger number and range of strategies than “poor” language learners, the
implications of understanding strategy use have seemed increasingly important.
However, there are still many questions to resolve:
Does strategy use actually aid language learning, or is it just something that good
learners do?
Are some strategies better than others, or is it the number and range of strategies
used that counts?
Are there “bad” strategies that actually making learning or performance worse?
Can “poor” language learners benefit from being taught the strategies that “good”
learners use, or do you need to be a good learner already to use some of the
strategies?
Does strategy training affect language learning, and if so is the effect direct, or does
such training serve mainly to raise motivation and awareness?
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If learners are encouraged to use strategies to organize their own learning, for
example, what are the implications for the role of the classroom teacher?
Such issues have already prompted a considerable volume of research and

writing, and directly or indirectly made a significant impact on language learning, at
least in some places. For example, the establishment of self-access centres and
the encouragement of learner independence are essentially based on the
assumption that students will be able to use viable metacognitive learning
strategies.
Ellis (1994) writes: “The study of learning strategies holds considerable promise,
both for language pedagogy and for explaining individual differences in second
language learning. It is probably true to say, however, that it is still in its infancy. For
this reason, perhaps, discussions of learning strategies typically conclude with the
problems that have surfaced and that need to be addressed before progress can be
made”.
Studying strategies, also called learner strategies, are ways of learning. Good
learners use these strategies to make their learning more efficient.
There are two main types of learning strategies, the first are strategies for planning
how to learn, and secondly strategies for learning.
STRATEGIES FOR PLANNING HOW TO LEARN
ADVANCE ORGANIZATION: Doing a preview of what you are going to learn.

For example, if you want to improve your pronunciation, you can read the
introduction to different pronunciation books, and find out that you need to
study the sounds of consonants, vowels, intonation, stress and linking.
DIRECTING ATTENTION: This means paying attention to studying

something, and not doing other things like surfing the Internet.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION: This means studying things that you can

remember more easily, for example because they are useful for your
university course or for your job. If you need to do a presentation for your
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course you can study presentations, if you need to write a report at work, you
can learn how to write a report.
SELF-MANAGEMENT: It´s understanding the conditions that help you learn,

and organizing them. For example, if you like music, learning in a place with
music. You will also need materials like books and maybe a computer.
ADVANCE PREPARATION: Planning and learning English that you will
need for something, for example learning the correct pronunciation of
important words in a presentation.
SELF-MONITORING: Correcting yourself if you make a mistake when you
are using English. This is good for accuracy, but not for fluency.
DELAYED PRODUCTION: When you first start to learn a new language you
may decide not to try speaking until you have learned some vocabulary,
grammar and pronunciation. You may just want to try listening first, before
speaking.
SELF-EVALUATION (SELF-ASSESSMENT OR TESTING): Deciding if you
have finished learning a topic because your English is good enough to do the
things you need.
SELF-REINFORCEMENT: This means giving yourself a present when you
have successfully learned something. For example, chocolate or 10 minutes
playing computer games.
STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING
This is divided into:
Grammar: We need to know about vocabulary, syntax (grammar in sentences),

morphology (how to make words out of parts of words; eg. 'morph' = 'form', and
'-ology' = 'a science'), pronunciation and graphology (the shape of the letters
and how to write them etc.).
Text : We need to know about cohesion (how to join sentences and paragraphs
to make a single text; e.g. by using linking words (and, but, so, therefore, etc.),
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referencing words (this, those, he, they, it, that etc.), ordering words (firstly,
secondly, next, lastly ( NOT at last )
A. LISTENING STRATEGIES
It is easier to listen to a film or a TV programme than to an audio tape because in a

film you can usually see the speaker so you see their expression and their body
language. You can also often see the thing they are talking about. You can also get
pop videos of famous singers singing their hit songs. You can find internet pages
about them with the words to their songs (lyrics).
1. LISTEN TO A VIDEO OR TAPE: and check words that you don't understand in a
dictionary. Find another video or tape on the same topic, and listen again. See if
your listening to vocabulary has improved. You can watch videos and compare
what you hear to a script. You can find some film and TV scripts on the internet by
searching for the title of the film or TV program.
2. LISTEN TO YOUR CLASSMATES: for example when they are practising their
presentations. Ask them questions to check that you have understood correctly;
e.g. "You said that this is a new development in the field. When did it happen?"
PROBLEMS ABOUT LISTENING
Make a list of the problems that you have when you are listening and the situations
where you have these problems.
Problem 1: Foreigners talk too fast
Problem 2: I can't understand every word
B. SPEAKING STRATEGIES
1. QUESTIONS FOR CLARIFICATION: this means talking to English-speakers
and asking for them to repeat, paraphrase (summarize in different words),
explain or give examples. You can say:
Repeat: "I'm sorry, I didn't catch that, can you say that again?"
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Paraphrase: "I'm sorry; I'm not sure what you mean. Can you tell me
again?"
Explain: "Could you explain that for me?"
Examples: "Could you give me an example?"
2. RECORDING YOURSELF: record yourself speaking, either on your own, or

with other people. Later you can review the recording, listen for problems
such as saying "Um" too much, and research anything that you didn't know
how to say.
3. FORM A GROUP OF PEOPLE TO PRACTISE SPEAKING ENGLISH : do this
with a teacher or a classmate for speaking practice.
4. SING: you can sing English songs that you like, either alone, or with friends;
e.g. karaoke.
5. ACT: you can join a drama club or group that puts on English plays.
6. IMAGINE: imaging that you are in a situation where you need to speak
English; e.g. as a character you like in a movie. Try to imagine what you
would say. Do you know what to say? If you are not sure, you can research
it later.
C. PRONUNCIATION STRATEGIES
1. REPETITION: you can repeat a word out loud or silently to practice

pronunciation. Be careful to listen to a model to make sure that you
pronunciation is correct.
2. SOUND: this means remembering English sounds by using sounds in your

own language. For example, the English sound / i: /is very similar to the
Spanish “si”.
PROBLEMS ABOUT PRONUNCIATION
Problem 1: I'm nervous when I am speaking English.I am worried that I will make a
mistake and other people will laugh at me
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Advice: No-one will laugh at you. Everybody makes mistakes when they are
learning a language. English people make mistakes in their language too when they
are tired or under stress. People are listening to try to understand your meaning,
not to check on your grammar.
Problem 2: It's showing off to speak good English.
Advice: If you don't like speaking English because you feel that it is showing off in
front of your classmates or friends, you have an attitude problem which will prevent
you from learning efficiently. Which is more important to you, your friends' opinion
or the benefits that good English can help you get, such as a good job with good
pay? Don't let your friends' attitude hold you back from being successful. If your
friends are embarrassed that you are more successful than them, they are not good
friends
Problem 3: I can't remember all the grammar and vocabulary I need, so I speak
very slowly and I sound stupid.
Advice: most foreigners are very patient with people trying to speak English, so
don't worry. If you are practising speaking English with other Canadian people,
don't worry about speed because they will be having difficulty remembering the
meanings of the vocabulary and the grammar. Successful communication is more
important than speed.
D. READING STRATEGIES
Reading strategies you might find useful are: skimming, scanning, predicting,
understanding the organization of a text, guessing meanings and identifying a
writer's attitude and purpose.
1. SKIMMING is looking through a text very quickly to understand the main topics
and arguments. Read the introduction, headings, first and last sentence of
each paragraph, and the conclusion. This will help you read and find
information faster.
2. SCANNING is looking for details to answer questions that you have. Use the
results of your skimming (see above) to find relevant sections, and then look
quickly through those sections looking for key words that are relevant to your
question. This will help you read and find information and quotesfaster.
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3. PREDICTING is guessing the content of a text based on your knowledge of the

subject, the author's area of expertise and opinions, and the context. You can
do this by asking yourself 'journalistic questions' about the topic before
reading.
You need to understand the organization of a text at 2 levels, at the paragraph level
and at the whole text level. The paragraph level means understanding the
organization of the sentences in a paragraph, and the links between them. For
example you can draw arrows from words like 'he', 'she', 'they', and 'it', back to the
nouns they refer to, like this:
Reading is not something you can study on its own.

You need to know about vocabulary and grammar
as well. It is like speaking in which you also need to
understand them .
You also need to understand the logic of the paragraph or group of paragraphs, for
example by drawing a mind-map of the organization, with words like 'and', 'but' and
'so' linking the topics and sub-topics.
The whole text level is organized in different ways according to the type of
document you are reading, for example a memo might have a situation, problem,
suggested solution and a request for action. A report usually has a title page,
abstract, table of contents, methodology, findings, conclusions and
recommendations sections.
4. GUESSING MEANINGS OF WORDS AND PHRASES is possible because you

know the situation. However, if you are using the internet you can use one of
the online dictionaries to find the meaning.
5. IDENTIFYING A WRITER’S ATTITUDE is done by knowing the connotation (a nice

or a bad meaning) of the words he uses. If you see a word that you think may
have a special connotation, check in a dictionary and look for the abbreviation
'derog.', which means that the word has a bad meaning. It is also important to
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know if a writer is 'objective' (gives good and bad points) or 'biased' (gives only
good, or only bad points).
The writer's purposes may include to inform, to teach, to entertain, to persuade,

or to criticize, etc.
6. TRANSFER: this means using ideas that you already have to make learning
easier. For example, if you know that a paragraph (like a hamburger) usually
has an introduction, a middle containing supporting detail, and a conclusion, you
can use this knowledge to skim (read very quickly, by missing out non-important
information, to understand the general topic) a text because you know that you
only have to read the introduction and conclusion of both the whole text and the
paragraphs.
7. TRANSLATION: you can read a story in a newspaper in your own language first,
and then read the same story in an English newspaper. Most of the story will
probably be the same, so the story in your own language will help you to
prepare for reading in English. For example, it will give you vocabulary, and
when you read the English story and there is some vocabulary that you don't
know, you can use your knowledge of the story to guess what the new
vocabulary is.
8. INFERENCING: you can also use the strategy of reading a newspaper story in
your own language first for prediction. You can predict the contents of the same
story in an English newspaper. Reading to confirm your predictions is easier
than reading with no background information.
9. PREDICTION: as well as predicting from newspaper stories in your own

language, you can predict from your knowledge of the world, you knowledge of
how people think, write and talk, and your knowledge of what the writer is like.
For example, if you are reading a book it is a good idea to read about the author
and the contents (on the cover or at the front of the book) to help you make
predictions about what he or she believes.
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PROBLEMS ABOUT READING
Problem 1: vocabulary - when I am reading my course books. (This is a vocabulary
problem, so read the vocabulary section)
Problem 2: Speed - I want to read faster.
Problem 3: I can't find information quickly in a book.
E. WRITING STRATEGIES
1. NOTE-TAKING: it's a good idea to write down the main ideas, important points,
an outline or a summary of a topic.
2. ORGANIZATION: you can use a mind-map, organization tool or pros and cons
calculator to help you organize the information.
3. PROOF-READING: you can use this action to automatically check for some
common mistakes.
4. PEER-REVIEW: ask your friends to read your text and comment on it. Do they
understand it? Can they suggest any improvements?
5. TO-DO LIST: write a list of 10 specific problems you have with your writing. Put
them in order of seriousness or solvability. Work on the highest priority
problems until you solve them. When you have solved them, cross them out,
and add new problems to the bottom of the list.
PROBLEMS ABOUT WRITING
Problem 1: My grammar is not good ( this is a grammar problem, not just a writing
problem!)
Problem 2: Speed - I want to write faster.
Problem 3: I don't want to copy large sections from books - I want to paraphrase.
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F. GRAMMAR STRATEGIES
1. DEDUCTION: this means using rules to work out the answer or how to do
something. It is especially useful for grammar, for example: to change
normal speech to reported speech; e.g. For writing minutes of a meeting,
move the tenses back one past tense. Example: Mr. Chan - "I will see her
tomorrow." Reported speech - 'Mr. Chan said that he would see her the next
day.
2. RECOMBINATION: this means joining together things you already know to

make new things. For example, if you know that the simple past tense is
used to describe things that happened in the past which have finished, and
you know that the present perfect tense is used to describe experience, you
can make a sentence that includes both of them:"I first visited America in
1990. Last summer I went there again, so I have been there twice."
3. WRITING YOUR OWN GRAMMAR BOOK : this can contain rules, examples
(e.g. from newspapers or magazines), your notes (e.g. on things you don't
understand), lists of exceptions, etc.
4. USING NEW GRAMMAR: after you learn some new grammar, use it in
conversation or writing, and see what your listener's or reader's reaction is:
do they understand you? You can ask "did I say that right?"
5. GET A GRAMMAR BOOK: go to a bookshop and look at the different
grammar books. Choose one that you understand.
6. READ AND LISTEN: to see how writers and speakers use English grammar
to communicate their ideas.
GRAMMAR PROBLEMS
Problem 1: my grammar is not good.
Problem 2: speed - I want to speak and write with better grammar.

Problem 3: I don't want to copy large sections from books - I want to paraphrase
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G. VOCABULARY STRATEGIES
1. CONTEXTUALISATION: this means putting new vocabulary words into

sentences to help you remember them and to test if you are using them
correctly. You can use these sentences when talking to an English-speaker to
see if they understand, you can write these sentences in your learner portfolio
for the tutors to see, or you can e-mail the tutors and ask them to check these
words in your sentences. The most independent ways are talking to an
English speaker, and searching the internet to find examples of the word
being used in sentences.
2. ELABORATION: this means relating new information to information you

already know. For example, if you know the meaning of 'information', it is easy
to remember that the verb is 'to inform', and that 'informative' is an adjective,
and that 'an informant' is someone who gives information.
3. INFERENCING: this means using available information to predict or guess the

meanings of; e.g. new vocabulary items. For example, if you know that you
are reading about football, and you know that a field is often a large area
covered in grass, then you can guess that a football field is a large, grassy
area for playing football.
4. TRANSLATION: first you can read a story in a newspaper in your own

language, and then read the same story in an English newspaper. Most of the
story will probably be the same, so the story in your own language will help
you to prepare for reading in English. For example, it will give you vocabulary,
and when you read the English story and there is some vocabulary that you
don't know, and then you can use your knowledge of the story to guess what
the new vocabulary is.
5. PERSONALISATION: you can write down why the vocabulary item (i.e. the
word or phrase) is important to you, where you first saw it, and when you used
it, for example, you may have heard the item in a movie you liked (click here
for list of movies and famous phrases in them), and used the item when you
talked about the movie with your friends.
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6. KEEPING YOUR OWN DICTIONARY / VOCABULARY BOOK : writing entries for
the dictionary will help you to learn words, and using your own dictionary can
be faster than a normal dictionary.
7. GROUPING: you can group words into different areas, such as words in the
different courses you study. For example, business students could group
vocabulary items into marketing vocabulary, accounting vocabulary, and
human resources vocabulary.
VOCABULARY PROBLEMS
Problem 1: I don't know enough vocabulary about my course subject.

Problem 2: I can't remember all the different things about a word, like how to
pronounce it, is it a verb or a noun, what preposition goes with it, is it formal or
informal etc.
HOW NATIVE SPEAKERS USE THE LANGUAGE

This is divided into:
How to use the language in social situations: you need to know about the
culture of the native speakers, slangs and idioms; what is natural speech,
different accents (eg. a London accent), varieties (British English, American
English etc.) register (politeness, formality, and suitable language for a
situation).
Knowing how to describe the world in the language: you need to know about
how to use the language to describe the world and your ideas about it
HOW TO COMMUNICATE IN THE LANGUAGE
This is how to take part in communication in the language. We need to know, for
example:
About gestures that are acceptable and unacceptable to the native speakers
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About body language
How to plan what you want to say in a conversation,
How to take turns in a conversation
How to solve a problem in a conversation (such as asking for a repetition or
a paraphrasing)
How to finish a conversation politely.
BILBIOGRAPHY
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should

know. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., Stern, H. H. &Todesco, A. ( 1976).The good language

learner.Research in Education Series No. 7. Toronto: The Ontario Institute for
Studies in Education.
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We can do it ourselves - with a little bit of help....
INTRODUCTION
Most professions are heavily content oriented. With a mastery of subject matter,
theory, application, and execution and a considerable amount of devotion and hard
work, one can succeed in one‟s profession. In the world of teaching, those factors,
while necessary, are useless without the additional qualities of having a pleasing
personality and possessing the ability to communicate with other human beings.
Thus, to be an effective teacher, it is necessary that one be multitalented and
multidisciplined.
Basic characteristics of good teaching are:
Knowing one‟s subject content
Knowing and liking students
Understanding one‟s culture
PERTINENT POINTS FOR PROFESSING
Be a facilitator of learning
Know how to develop learning skills and teach students to learn and
to organize their materials.
You are an actor or actress on stage.
You are responsible to your audience. Your appearance, conduct,
communication techniques, your voice and physical traits are constantly under
scrutiny. You are the star of the show.
Vary your teaching activities.
Change format to keep students interested.
Use a variety of teaching aids; films, videos, demonstrations, guest
speakers, and field trips.
Be sensitive to barriers.
a. Be alert to early signs of difficulty and provide assistance and referrals.
b. Be aware of time commitments for the course. Be realistic about amount
of time required of the student.
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c. Be knowledgeable of college policies and procedures concerning
activities such as the library, dropping and adding classes, student ID's,
etc., that can be passed on to the students.
d. Try to recognize and assist students with limitations in areas such as
writing, reading, and math. They should be referred for appropriate help
before it affects their class standing.
e. Be aware that students may be under significant stress. Avoid
confrontations. Be considerate of such students.
f. Disabled students may not wish to share their limitations publicly. Be
sensitive to this as well as the need to assist them. At the beginning of
the class, it is advisable to simply comment, “ifanyone needs special
seating, etc. please see me after class.”
May become simply a conversation.
Refer irrelevant questions (distracters) to the goals and objectives of the
course.
Ask a colleague who has a reputation as a good teacher if you may observe
his/her class.
Read literature and books about teaching. You will be surprised how much
there is to know about successful classroom instruction.
Use icebreakers. This technique works not only in the first class but in other
sessions as well.
THE FIRST CLASS

It is normal when you begin your teaching assignment to experience some anxiety
and nervousness. This can be a positive force, which sharpens the skills to do a
better job.
TIPS:
Be over-prepared rather than under-prepared
Plan an activity that allows students to get involved immediately. This may
simply be an information gathering exercise.
Initiate casual conversation between yourself and students and among
students prior to launching into the specifics of the course.
Narrate an anecdote about a trip a concert attended a sports event, a current
news event or a college happening to bridge the communication gap.
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Acknowledge confusion at the beginning of class. Confusion is not
detrimental. It is part of the “cooling in” process as students reduce anxieties
with each other,
Present the program on an overhead or handout. Discuss it in detail with the
class, emphasizing the sections describing requirements for the students.
Remember the program is often interpreted as the legal document of the
classroom.
Conduct the class. Don‟t meet and dismiss the class. First impressions are
most lasting.
Share your background, training, and work with the class. Let the students
know who you are and that you are willing to share information as well as
gather it in.
SETTING THE TONE

Reducing anxieties sometimes involves what is called “setting the tone” of the
classroom. Creative and positive feelings about a course and the expectations of
the class are important. A professional appearance and planned process for
initiating activity is an added positive factor. Above all, it is important to
communicate to the class that you are a friendly, helpful person and not an
inflexible disciplinarian, whether it is in the academic or behavioral sense.
There are two extremes in classroom behavior that must be avoided by a college
teacher. They are the traditionally rigid “stay in your place” strategy and the laissez-
faire “what should we do today gang” approach. In teaching, the middle road is the
successful road.
CLASSROOM COMMUNICATION
An important ingredient to professional teaching is the ability to communicate
clearly. In a classroom situation communication is more than talking and lecturing,
Communication involves eye contact, physical gestures behavior traits classroom
presence proper media and blackboard usage and other non-verbal activity that
may be overlooked in other social situations.
It would be well for you to become acquainted with some non-verbal communication
indicators in our culture and above all to be conscious of behavioral traits that you
may possess which may be offensive or distracting to students. At the same time
you should be conscious of your strengths and positive traits that add to a happy
classroom. The positive actions of an individual are the same in the classroom as
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they are in social situations; thus, you may examine and reflect upon your most
positive features and mannerisms and incorporate them into your teaching
strategies.
The three R‟s of teaching are repeat, respond, and reinforce. Very simply, they
mean that student comments and contributions, if worthy of being recognized in a
class are worthy of being repeated, responded to and reinforced by both verbal and
other techniques at the command of the teacher.
SEVEN PRINCIPLES FOR A GOOD PRACTICE

The apathetic students, illiterate graduates, incompetent teaching, impersonal
campuses are the reasons for the drumfire of criticism of higher education. More
than two years of reports have spelled out the problems. States have been quick to
respond by holding out carrots and beating with sticks.
There are neither enough carrots nor enough sticks to improve undergraduate
education without the commitment and action of students and faculty members.
They are the precious resources on whom the improvement of undergraduate
education depends.
But how can students and faculty members improve undergraduate education?
Many campuses around the country are asking this question. To provide a focus for
their work, we offer seven principles based on research on good teaching and
learning in colleges and universities.
Good practice in under graduate education:
1. Encourages contact between students and teacher

2. Develops reciprocity and cooperation among students
3. Encourages active learning
4. Givespromptfeedback
5. Emphasizes time ontask
6. Communicateshighexpectations
7. Respects diverse talents and ways of learning
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bonwell, C.C. and Eison, J.A. Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the
Classroom. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 1, 1991. Washington, D.C.:
George Washington University, 1991.
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INTRODUCTION
The development of communicative competence and meaningful learning require

the teacher to develop materials that help the better development of his / her work
honoring the saying “a picture is worth a thousand words”
FEATURES OF MATERIALS
1. Must respond to the needs and interests of students
2. Should arouse curiosity
3. Should promote recreational activity
4. Must be presentable
5. Should be guiding
6. It must promote a mutual learning
7. Should be motivating
ADVANTAGES
Sets horizontal communication
Reinforces learning
Facilitates the construction of learning
Promotes communication
TV, radio, DVD

pictures, flash cards projector, videos,
internet
textbook,
markers,colors RESOURSES AND
notebook
MATERIALS
chalk,board,
games, songs eraser
realia, puppets, posters,wallcharts
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TYPES OF MATERIALES AND RESOURSES

WALL CHARTS / POSTERS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
- Easy and inexpensive to make and
update - Unsuitable for large groups
- Portable and transportable - Anxiety-provoking for facilitator with
- Left in view of the audience poor handwriting or poor spelling
- Good for interaction with the
audience
SLIDES
- Formal and impersonal
- Shown in the dark
- Professional in appearance - Not good for discussion and
- Good for large groups interaction
- More difficult to update than other
visual aids
- Require special equipment
VIDEOS
- More expansive than other visual
aids
- Professional in appearance - Requires special equipment
- Good for large or small groups - Not good for discussion and
interaction
- Require accurate designing
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OVERHEAD TRANSPARENCIES
- Good for large groups
- Easy to create - Impermanent; they yellow with age
- Easy to transport - Require less common equipment
- Provide an informal atmosphere
- Open to interaction with groups
- Easy to update
LEARNING RESOURCES: ESL / EFL TEACHING TEFL / TESL GAMES

AND ACTIVITIES DIRECTORY
ESL: GAMES
<http://iteslj.org/links/ESL/Games/>: includes crossword puzzles, hangman,
vocabulary, other
FLASHCARD EXCHANGE
www.flashcardexchange.com: use pre-made flashcards or create your own slide
show of flashcards, with definitions on the back side (flip); then create memory
exercises/games, print, and/or download (export) them; available for several
languages
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ESL EFL GAMES
http://www.genkienglish.net/games.htm>
CGI HANGMAN GAMES FOR ESL STUDENTS
<http://www.manythings.org/hm/> -- by Charles Kelly
BOARD GAME TEMPLATES
(from the ESL Lounge) <http://www.esl-lounge.com/board_gamesindex.html>
Create your own board game with these templates for use with any vocabulary or
grammar point or issue. The site includes a pre-made board game for Present
Perfect, a Symbols board game that can have students doing different activities
when they land on particular symbols, as well as cues for various games (Present
Simple Question Cards for Symbols Board Game., Zero, First and Second
Conditional, Like, Is Like, Look Like, You Don't Say!!!, Draw It!!!)
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WORD MANIA - THE INTERNET WORD GAME
http://www.4developers.com/wordmania/>-- WordMania is a fun and challenging,
Web enabled word game for all ages. The power of the WordMania is that it allows
the player to play with words that are taken from any web site in the world or from
his own PC.
ACTIVITIES FOR ESL STUDENTS
<http://www.aitech.ac.jp/~iteslj/s/> -- This web site has over 1,000 activities to help
you study English as a Second Language.
ANIMAL GUESSING GAME
http://efsa.sourceforge.net/archive/bielak/animal_guess.htm>
KIDS DOMAIN
<http://www.kidsdomain.com/> --Many young kids can share games and ideas
together in English!
INTERACTIVE WWW GAMES
<http://scv.bu.edu/Games/games.html>
SYNDICATE.COM
<http://www.syndicated.com> -- collection of puzzles, comic strips, word games,
etc.
VOCABULARY.COM
<http://www.vocabulary.com> -- collection of vocabulary puzzles for all levels
WHERE'S THAT FROM?
<http://www.intuitive.com:80/origins> -- Guess the origins of English words
WORD GAMES AND PUZZLES
<http://www.literacynet.org/vtd/Puzzles.html> -- Scrambled sentences, health
idioms, intermediate level. Put the words in the correct order to make sentences.
CROSSWORD FUN (Alpha Dictiionary)
http://www.alphadictionary.com/fun/puzzles.html> -- different topics and languages
ESLGAMES.COM
<http://www.eslgames.com> -- Language through games.
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ERNIE'S ACTIVITY PAGE
<http://www.lingolex.com/userpages/Ernie.html> -- Activities and games in

language classroom
THE CASE.COM'S SEE-N-SOLVE

<http://www.thecase.com/see/>
WORD FALL GAMES<http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/games/fall_games/>
NOBELPRIZE.ORG
<www.nobelprize.org> -- "I (Mary Lynne Isham) think this site has potential in
several ways: (1) as a research site, it's a resource for some basic information on
Nobel Prize winners, incl. their bios, nomination & acceptance speeches, and add'l.
info related to the reason each won the prize. (2) on-line interactive games related
to the reason for the prize being given. For example, a blood typing game related to
the 1901 Nobel Prize in medicine (click on blood typing at the bottom of the home
page). This game could be used to determine how well a S understood the
instructions on how blood typing works - try the game and see if you like it. (Be
careful not to accidently prick the doctor with the needle - she reacts!) This game
checks comprehension in a completely fun way."
SOME EXAMPLES OF ACTIVITIES

ALPHABET CHASE
ACTIVITY TYPE: This activity practices the sequence of the alphabet. It also helps to
review the students‟ vocabulary.
LEVEL: Beginners and above – it is particularly useful with younger learners
TEACHER'S NOTES:
1. Go around the class and ask the students to shout out the letters of the
alphabet- they should do this sequentially; the first student begins with „a‟, the
next „b‟ and so on. Thisistogetthestudentswarmed up.
2. Now ask the students to say a word which begins with each letter of the
alphabet in the correct alphabetical sequence. For example: the first student
could say apple, the next big, the next cat and so on.
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3. You can do this as a class effort i.e. all of the students shout out at once or
you could do it individually around the class.
4. You could also make it a team game i.e. divide the class into two teams, ask
the first team to begin with a and so on. The first team that can‟t say a word
are out.
20 QUESTIONS
ACTIVITY TYPE: This activity practices yes/ no questions
LEVEL: Lower Intermediate and above students.
TEACHER'S NOTES:
1. Ask the students to each think of a famous person.

2. Put a chair in front over the class and ask one student to sit on it.
3. The other students should try to guess which famous person the student is
by asking twenty questions. These questions can only be answered with
YES / NO OR MAYBE.
For example:
Are you dead?
Are you an actor?
Do you come form the USA?
Do you work in Hollywood?
Have you written a famous book?
4. The students should guess who the person is before they reach the
twentieth question.
5. Go around the entire class until all of the famous people are know.
-ING FORMS
TEACHER'S NOTES:
1. Ask the students to work in pairs and to complete the sentences below using
the correct verb forms.
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2. Once the students have finished this activity, have them answer the questions
below the text.
3. At the end or as a homework activity, students should complete the rest of the
story.
John denied _______________________ (have) anything to do with the robbery.

He was picked up by the police ___________ (walk) home after a night at the
pub. He resisted arrest and resented _____________ (have) to answer the
policeman's questions. He admitted _________________(run) out of the store but
he said he was trying to catch the robbers. The policeman told him that he risked
_________________ (be) put into a cell to cool down. John considered
______________(call) his lawyer but instead asked for his mother. John couldn't
stop _____________(laugh) when he heard his mother ____________(complain)
that she couldn't watch Oprah Winfrey because of this mess. His mother was
really angry and said that she regretted ____________ (have) him as her son.
John couldn't believe what was _____________. (happen)
Answer the following questions:
What happened next?

Who is John?
What's his mother like?
PARENTS, PARENTS!
ACTIVITY TYPE: this is a role play activity in which students act out being parents
and teachers.
LEVEL: intermediate and above
TEACHER'S NOTES:
1. Begin the lesson by asking students to discuss parents and what they think of
them in terms of their roles, how they should behave etc.
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2. You could dictate a few statements questions to get the students talking about
the subject.
 Parents do not pay enough attention to their children these days.

 Most parents do not know much about their children e.g. if they smoke or
not, who they hang out with etc.
 Television is the reason children are so violent these days; parents are
not to blame.
 The Internet is causing children more children to be anti-social and for
parents to have little time with their children.
3. Ask the students to discuss the sentences in pairs and then bring the class
together into a big debate.
4. At this point, you may want to go over some useful vocabulary i.e. the sheet
below.
5. Once you have gone over the lexical set. Ask them to use the language to
answer the questions below:
VOCABULARY
To be out of control
To be strict
To be lenient
To be difficult to handle
To be spoilt
To be the apple of his / her mother‟s / father‟s eye
Butter wouldn‟t melt in his / her mouth
To be as good as gold
To be told off
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FUN WITH ANIMALS
ACTIVITY TYPE: this is a kinesthetic activity in which students have to guess which
animals are on their backs.
LEVEL: pre-intermediate
TEACHER'S NOTES:
1. Take pieces of paper and write the names of animals on them; make sure that
you have enough pieces of paper for each student in class.
2. Ask the students to come forward and as they do so tape one of the pieces of
paper onto their backs.
3. Students should then mingle; as they do so they must find out from the other
students which animal they have on their backs.
4. They can only ask questions which are answered with „yes‟ or „no‟ i.e. short
questions: Do I eat…? Am I a wild animal? etc.
5. If a student finds out what kind of animal he/she is, stick another animal on his
/ her back.
6. Do this activity for about 15 minutes. It practices the present simple well.
This game can be easy or difficult depending on which kind of animals you
choose.Sample questions:
Do I eat meat?
Do I live in Africa / Asia / USA..?
Do I live in a jungle?
Am I very, very big?
Do I have legs?
Do I crawl / run / swim?
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Note: that you may want to precede this activity with a lexical set based around
animals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://www.btinternet.com/~ted.power/index.html
http://eslsite.com/rd/Beginner_Students/alphabet_chase.html
http://www.eslsite.com/resources/pages/Resources_and_Teaching_Ideas/Games/i
ndex.html
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THE USE OF ICT IN LANGUAGE TEACHING
INTRODUCTION
Information Technology and Communication (ICT) plays an important role in
theprocess of teaching and learning and especially in teaching a foreign
languageICT is a set of methodological resources that provide students the
opportunity to make a number of real content and interactive activities.
There are countless tools, technological issues that can be used by teachers in the
classroom. ICT used to work search skills information, using internet and certain
multimedia software, and offering strategies for its use. While noting that the
information sought on the internet is always real, immediate and updated, which
makes it invaluable?
The systematic use of ICT in the area of English helps us to work one of the core
competencies of the EFL. ICT is a new content themselves, whose learning and is
covered in the curriculum of education, but not for "studying" but to learn through its
use.
In short, ICT offers a range of possibilities, especially as audio and visual media,
which is particularly useful in teaching a foreign language.
ADVANTAGES OF THE USE OF ICT

If we have sufficient technological means to use ICT, even if the resources we
have are very few and limited, we are making great strides to improve the
educational work in the area of English.
Having overcome the initial fears, if we introduce ICT in classroom routines, we can
see for ourselves, some of the advantages below.
The use of these resources allows us to make classes more active and
motivating for our students.
The use of tablet PCs motivates students and improves their attention and
interest at the time to explain, correct and make a self assessment.
We may use vocabulary and situations with routine expressions to enhance
their English speaking spontaneously.
It facilitates the use of real information content, which promotes the
importance of learning English.
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ICTs enable the task to adapt and respect the learning pace of individual
students. To this end, work in pairs of similar levels is essential, enabling them
to proceed according to their means.
The use of ICT allows us to work in an interdisciplinary content for students to
discover that English not only serves as a subject but as a resource for
understanding the information they find on the net on other areas of
knowledge.
We can teach to work cooperatively, valuing the production of others.
We can include all the teaching units using the network as a teaching and
practice of interactive content that are working.
Allow us to use ICT in the classroom communication channels such as e-mail,
for both language teachers and students to establish contact with people from
other countries, using English in a real and direct.
The multimedia resources allow us to use the sounds as objects (compare

sounds associated with pictures, etc.). Added to this is that today is the most
economical and fast recording and playback of voice.
OBJECTIVES OF THE USE OF ICT IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH

The potential use of ICT in the area of English is big. In fact, English is the majority
language in the network (Spanish is the second). Internet is a means to achieve
optimal authentic material for use in the classroom.
With the application of ICT in the area of English can achieve the following
objectives:
a. Have the children enjoy learning English, adding variety, authenticity and fun
into the English class.
b. Reinforce children's understanding and use of foreign language, using
videos demonstrating the vocabulary learned in the classroom, in a real
English-speaking world (in its natural context.)
c. Promote students' cooperative learning, develop their autonomy and
encourage self-learning.
d. Help students achieve basic competency: Information processing technology
and digital competence.
e. Promote the search for information as a resource for promoting autonomous
learning and learning to learn.
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f. Conduct based on the use of Internet, that provide real and current
information, encouraging them to use the language acquired in a real
interactive learning.
g. Promote the learning of oral skills (production-talking-and listening) through
continuous work with ICT.
TWO TIPS FOR WORKING WITH ICT

1. You need to select the most appropriate material for each cycle or level,
taking the contents that are working and the objectives to be achieved with the
material, for use technologies are a means of learning and not an end.
2. It should provide students the necessary software to encourage self-learning
and self-correction, and thus be able to respond to the heterogeneity of levels
that exist in the same group, and may use both in the classroom and home.
ICT LEARNING
ICT helps students learn in English by enabling them to communicate, edit,

annotate and arrange text quickly and flexibly.
Using ICT can help students to:

Access, select and interpret information
Recognise patterns, relationships and behaviours
Model, predict and hypothesise
Test reliability and accuracy
Review and modify their work to improve the quality
Communicate with others and present information
Evaluate their work
Improve efficiency
Be creative and take risks
Gain confidence and independence.
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ICT can be used to integrate speaking, listening, reading and writing. It enhances
interactive teaching and learning styles. It also extends students' ability to exercise
choice, work independently and make connections between their work in English
and in other subjects.
For example, ICT can help students:

Use a wide range of strategies to explore contrasts, comparisons and
connections dynamically
Annotate text in innovative ways
Enrich or broaden the context of literary study
See texts in alternative versions
Use a wide range of analytical and critical techniques
Sort and process text and data quickly and efficiently
Order and arrange text and data experimentally, using combinations of word,
image, sound and hypertext
Save, record, edit and adapt their work quickly and efficiently
Retain evidence of the editing process so that it can be examined
Change the organisational structure and qualities of texts to suit different
audiences and purposes
Composemulti-authoredtexts
Select from a wider range of audiences, throughout the world
Exercise choice of medium and design while composing.
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
English and ICT have long been linked in the use of word-processing, and this
continues to be a major feature of the ICT-English integration. However,
opportunities for integrating work done by students on PCs with whole-class
teaching are provided by data projectors and interactive whiteboards. Software
153
specifically designed for learning English is constantly developing, and often has an
interactive element.
The following hardware can help students' learning in English:
A data projector
An interactive whiteboard
Laptops
Networked PCs, with internet access.
The following generic software can help students' learning in English:
Word-processing programs
Spreadsheet software
Creative software packages, such as desktop-publishing programs
Recording software.
The following software dedicated to the teaching and learning of English can help
students' learning in English:
Online resources - either free access or subscription services

CD-ROMs
Specialist educational software.
The following World Wide Web resources can help students' learning in English:
Sites directed specifically at teachers, offering resources such as lesson

plans, links, ideas for lessons, discussion groups
Portal sites directed at teachers or learners, either for English teaching in
general or particular genres, media and authors
Sites created by educational or cultural institutions, such as universities and
museums, which are dedicated to particular authors or works.
The increasing sophistication of word-processing packages means that the ways in

which this technology can be used are changing. As well as searching and
replacing, inserting footnotes and endnotes, and using a range of formatting
options, such as boxes and columns, recent developments allow pupils to insert
154
hypertext links, annotate with mouse-over comment boxes, and track changes in
documents.
CONTENIDO Y/O TIPO DE

DENOMINACIÓN Y URL´S
MATERIALES
Contiene actividades
interactivas, vocabulario,
Libro Coolkids. Editorial Oxford. fichas decolorear, juegos y
http://www.oup.com/elt/global/products/ cuentos sobre los libros de
coolkids/ clase organizados por cursos
y por temas sobre los
principales contenidos de
inglés.
Incluye juegos interactivos,
banco de imágenes,
Libro Galaxy. Editorial Oxford. audiciones, fichas de colorear
http://www.oup.com/elt/global/products/ y otras muchas actividades
galaxy/ interactivas que requieren el
uso de auriculares. Muy
recomendable.
Sitio web del libro Happy
house que contiene un amplio
Libro HappyHouse. Editorial Oxford abanico de historias, juegos
http://www.oup.com/elt/global/products/ interactivos, tarjetas
happyhousespainnoflash/ imprimibles, vocabulario muy
atractivo para los alumnos.
Recomendable.
Página del libro de Oxford
Libro Happy Street. Editorial Oxford. que incluye un banco de
http://www.oup.com/elt/global/products/ actividades, juegos,
happystreetspainnoflash/ diccionario de imágenes y
muchas actividades
interactivas. Recomendable.
Sitio web del libro Top class
que incluye actividades
Libro Top Class. Editorial Oxford. multimedia muy sencillas,
155
http://www.oup.com/elt/global/products/t tarjetas postales y cuentos
opclass/ sobre ellibro muy fáciles de
realizar. Recomendable.
Contiene puzzles, canciones

Libro English Adventure. Longman. y juegos interactivos que
http://www.englishadventure. motivan mucho a los alumnos
net/students/index.html / as para aprender inglés
demanera divertida.
Recomendable.
Incluye enlaces a otras
Libro Zoom. Editorial Richmond. páginas webs de la BBC
http://www.zoomrichmond.net/spain/stu ,Sesame Street, Penguin
dent/index.htm readers… que trabajan los
contenidos curriculares del
área de inglés en Primaria.
Diccionario interactivo muy
The House. Ramón Raventos. 2002. lúdico que enseña el
http://www.xtec.es/satis/ra/lacasa/lacasa. vocabulariode las partes de la
html casa así como todo su
mobiliario en inglés, español.
Muy recomendable.
Diccionario de imágenes en
The Internet Picture Dictionary. inglés para primaria que
http://www.pdictionary.com/ permitela búsqueda rápida de
palabras hasta en seis
idiomas diferentes. Muy
recomendable.
Página de la Junta de Castilla
Internet en el Aula. M.E.C. y León para la enseñanza
http://ares.cnice.mec.es/inglesep/ delinglés en primaria con
index.html ejercicios y tareas interactivas
con diferentes campos
semánticos a tratar.
Recomendable.
Contiene una serie de
Comics en Inglés. Editorial Oxford. historietas gráficas que los
156
http://www.oup.com/elt/global/products/ alumnos assiguen
oxfordexchange/cartoons/ simultáneamente con la
lectura y la audición de estas
historias.
Banco de actividades de
Agenda Web de Sergio Peral. ejercicios de inglés gratuitos
http://www.agendaweb.org/listening/ de nivel básico, intermedio y
easy_interm.html avanzado. Ofrece gran
cantidad de actividades de
listening, reading and writing.
Incluye diferentes tipos de
BBC. Cbeebies. actividades que trabajan las
http://www.bbc.co.uk/cbeebies/ instrucciones, los colores, los
números, la hora,
cuentos,habilidades
informáticas básicas etc.
Contiene actividades
Sitio Web Up to Ten. interactivas para practicar
http://www.uptoten.com/kids/uptotenhome.html formas, colores, números,
animales asi como
actividades diversas .Sitio
web Muy recomendable
Este sitio web contiene
Sitio Web de Miguel Mllop. ejercicios de inglés por
http://www.miguelmllop.com/index.php niveles, crucigramas, juegos,
webquest, canciones y foros
en inglés.
Pizarra interactiva que
permite la realización de
Sitio Web de Saul Ramos. ejercicios sencillos de
http://www.saulramos.com/ vocabulario, gramática, así
como lecturas, canciones y
otras actividades.
Portal web que ofrece un
amplio abanico de actividades
Sitio Web de Will McCulloch. de vocabulario de todos los
157
http://www.wordsurfing.co.uk/ tópicos así como juegos y
ejerciciosmuy sencillos para
los alumnos / as.
Recomendable.
Contiene enlaces y cientos de

recursos sobre casas del
Sitio Web de Isabel Pérez. tesoro y webquests que ella
http://www.isabelperez.com/ misma como profesora ha
recopilado con sus alumnos /
as. Muy recomendable.
Sitio web para la enseñanza
Sitio Web English Zone. de inglés que contiene
http://english-zone.com/index.php páginas de libre acceso con
ejercicios de vocabulario
básico, gramática y
pronunciación.
Contiene gráficos e imágenes
Sitio Web Colouring Page. para colorear que a la vez
http://www.coloringpage.org/ repasan los colores las
formas las figuras. Se
encuentra dentro del portal up
to ten.
Incluye una gran cantidad de
Sitio Web Kids and Games. juegos educativos para la
http://www.uptoten.com/kids/kidsgameshome.html enseñanza del inglés en
primaria. Además permite
utilizarlos sin descarga previa.
Página web que contiene
actividades de geografía en
inglésasí como un amplio
Sitio Web Pen Pals for kids. listado de amigos de carta
http://studentsoftheworld.info/ (penpals) con los que
podremos establecer
relaciones con otros centros
de otros países. Muy
recomendable.
158
The use of generic templates to structure pupils' work can be helpful - all pupils can
access a task if differentiated levels of scaffolding are provided by a number of
alternative templates (for example, for writing a letter).
Spreadsheet software offers different options in the way information can be

arranged and ordered. The ability to create automatic charts from data can add an
instant graphic representation of information collected.
Increasing uses are being found for software packages that can incorporate text
and images, and produce animations and slide shows to make interaction with text
dynamic. There are many creative learning opportunities with this sort of
presentational technology.
MATERIALS AND RESOURSES FROM INTERNET FOR THE ENGLISH

CLASS
Las direcciones de internet se han ordenado según sean para utilizar directamente
en clase con los estudiantes o bien por el profesor, con recursos fotocopiables,
banco de imágenes, lecturas, flashcards, canciones, gráficos, vídeos, vocabulario
interactivo, cuentos y otros materiales didácticos muy prácticos para la clase de
inglés.
INTERNET COMO LUGAR DE APRENDIZAJE
Las páginas que a continuación se detallan proporcionan diversas actividades que

pueden ser realizadas en línea dentro de clase. Solo requieren que los estudiantes
traigan auriculares o se utilicen pequeños altavoces.
No necesitan descargas ni instalaciones previas y permiten al instante la
realización de ejercicios interactivos de enseñanza en el área de inglés.
INTERNET COMO BÚSQUEDA DE RECURSOS COMPLEMENTARIOS

Además de utilizar las TICs en el aula como herramienta de aprendizaje que
refuerza y amplia los contenidos, internet también ayuda a encontrar recursos
complementarios que en ocasiones notamos que falta en nuestro libro.
Principalmente recursos como flashcards, fichas de trabajo, imágenes o
simplemente canciones que luego se pueden usar en clase. Pero existen muchos y
variados recursos educativos que podemos utilizar para mejorar nuestro trabajo y
hacer más divertida la clase de Ingles. A continuación se detallan:
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CONTENIDO Y/O TIPO DE

DENOMINACIÓN Y URL´S
MATERIALES
Sitio web que contiene fotocopiables y
Abcteach. gráficos sobre números, letras,
http://www.abcteach.com/ colores, animales, vocabulario
básico,flashcards en inglés, páginas
de colorear .Muy recomendable
Página web de Macmillan Heinemann
The Bus Stop. Editorial Heinemann. con un banco de recursos gratuitos
http://www.the-bus-stop.net/ para imprimir o descargar
directamente en el ordenador.
Recomendable
Incluye un banco enorme de
DLTK- Kids. materiales con los que trabajar los
http://dltk-kids.com/ números, los colores, las formas,
todos ellos imprimibles. Muy
recomendable.
Colección de materiales y recursos
English Raven. gratuitos para el área de inglés.
http://www.englishraven.com/ Especialmente útiles la enorme
colección de flashcards que contiene.
Muy recomendable.
First School. Banco de actividades para trabajar las
http://www.first-school.ws/ nociones básicas en inglés en los
primeros cursos de primaria e inicial.
Sitio web de Macmillan en el que
encontramos flashcards, imprimibles y
Onestopenglish. Editorial Heinemann. una gran cantidad de canciones
http://www.onestopenglish.com/ formato MP3 con sugerencias
didácticas para su empleo en el aula
de inglés. Recomendable.
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La Mansión del Inglés. Portal en español para aprender

http://www.mansioningles.com/ inglés con un enlace arecursos muy
útil tanto para maestros de primaria
como de secundaria.
Sitio Web que contiene material para

Lecturas para Principiantes ser impreso para trabajar el alfabeto y
http://beginningreading.com/ los números en inglés además de
pequeñas lecturas que se pueden
imprimir.
Los Osos Berenstain. Contiene recortables con prendas de

http://www.berenstainbears.com/ vestir, manualidades y actividades en
las que aparece la familia de los osos.
Sitio Web de Jan Brett. Sitio web que incluye imprimibles,

http://www.janbrett.com/index.html videos, murales, postales en inglés,
así como otros muchos recursos para
la clase de inglés. Recomendable
161
INTRODUCTION
The change of paradigms of instruction involves, implicitly, the change of teaching-
learning process and the roles of the teacher and student. The first goes from being
a dictator on behaviourism, to a guide on constructivism. The second goes from
being a "data container", to a person capable of analyzing and reasoning. Hence
learning strategies and its importance in learning English begin to take great
importance in this complex process.
The handout's main purpose is to know the main characteristics and contributions
of learning strategies and identify the elements that make up, which allow the
acquisition of a second language such as English.The importance of this work lies
in the applied nature of learning strategies in educational tasks and academic.
OVERVIEW OF THE STRATEGIES OF LEARNING IN THE LEARNING

Source of Learning
Strategies since the seventies, the study of learning strategies in learning has
received attention from many different schools of teaching positions that show
active student participation.Within these positions include teaching cognitive
historical approach - cultural, communicative approaches to language teaching,
among others. These schools will give a key role in teaching strategies and support
its use and development as a way to achieve more effective learning to help
students become more responsible beings, active and independent. In addition,
foster a better understanding of why the use of strategies plays a dominant and
decisive role in the process of learning.
Today the emphasis is on "learning to learn" in the sense of achieving an intelligent
learning, to facilitate productive and creative adaptation to the many demands of
the environment and especially its variability. This is not enough cognitive
development of students, it is necessary an education directed to the development
of internally and externally, where conducive to learn and to be.
CONCEPTUALIZATION OF LEARNING STRATEGIES

They include several technical procedures, operations or activities that seek a
purpose in learning and problem solving academic and / or those aspects that are
related to them rather than "study habits" because they are performed flexibly.
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Rubin (1975) Strategies are those techniques and mechanisms that a learner can
use to acquire knowledge
Chamot (1987 Learning strategies are the techniques, approaches, or deliberate

actions that students use to facilitate learning and memory, both linguistic and
content.
Rubin (1987) Learning strategies are strategies that contribute to the development
of the system of language that the students build and affect learning directly.
Mayer (1984) Teaching strategies are the resources and the procedures used by
the teaching staff to promote meaningful learning.
Diaz Barriga and Luke (1997) Learning strategies are a set of steps and skills a
student possesses and uses to learn, remember and use information.
CHARACTERISTIC OF LEARNING STRATEGIES

Promote effective learning
Allow sequencing, sorting and working with content accuracy for better use
Avoid improvisation
Certainty for stakeholders (student, teacher)
They encourage self-reliance
Encourage cooperative work
Energize the teaching-learning process
Encourage the participation and socialization
Avoid rote memorization of course material
The student ceases to be a receiver in order to be an actor in their own
learning
GENERAL TEACHING STRATEGIES

THE JIGSAW STRATEGY
Have you struggled with group work in class? The jigsaw technique can be a useful,
well-structured template for carrying out effective in-class group work. The class is
divided into several teams, with each team preparing separate but related
assignments. When all team members are prepared, the class is re-divided into
mixed groups, with one member from each team in each group. Each person in the
group teaches the rest of the group what he/she knows, and the group then tackles
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an assignment together that pulls all of the pieces together to form the full picture
(hence the name "jigsaw").
THE GALLERY WALK
The gallery walk is a cooperative learning strategy in which the teacher devises
several questionsand posts each questionat a different table or at a different place
on the wall (hence the name "gallery"). Students form as many groups as there are
questions, and each group moves from question to question (hence the name
“walks"). After writing the group's response to the first question, the group rotates to
the next position, adding to what is already there. At the last question, it is the
group's responsibility to summarize and report to the class.
EFFECTIVE DISCUSSION
Discussion is an excellent way to engage students in thinking and analyzing or in
defending one side of an issue, rather than listening to lecture. Students must also
respond to one another, rather than interacting intellectually only with the teacher.
Good discussion can be difficult to generate but try to do it little by little.
CONCEPT SKETCHES
Concept sketches (different from concept maps) are sketches that students can do
orally or written with short statements that describe the processes, concepts, and
interrelationships shown in the sketch. Having students generate their own concept
sketches is a powerful way for students to process concepts and convey them to
others. Concept sketches can be used as preparation for a class, as a class
activity, in the field, or as an assessment tool.
USING CASE STUDIES
Case studies have been used successfully for many years in business and in
medical school for actively engaging students in problem-solving relevant to the
discipline. The primary hallmark of a case study is presentation of students with a
problem to solve that revolves around a story (the "case"). In medical school case
studies, the "story" typically involves a sick patient. In science case studies,
"stories" can range from public policy issues to science research questions. Good
case studies give the students considerable latitude in deciding how to solve the
problem, rather than leading them through the problem by the nose, and provide
excellent opportunities to engage studentstalking in the classroom.
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DEBATES
Debates can be a very useful strategy for engaging students in their own learning.
Debates force students to deal with complexity and "gray areas", and they are rich
in imbedded content. Debates can also help provide relevancy of course material to
everyday issues, which can improve student learning. Debates also improve
student's oral communication skills.
JUST-IN-TIME TEACHING
Just-in-Time Teaching (JITT) was developed as a way of engaging students in
course material before class and preparing them to come to class and participate
actively during class.
ROLE PLAYING
Role-playing and simulations in class can be an excellent way to engage students
in communication. A well-constructed role-playing or simulation exercise can
emphasize the real world and require students to become deeply involved in a
topic.
AUTHENTIC MATERIALS (REALIA)
To overcome the typical problem that students can‟t transfer what they learn in the
classroom to the outside World and to expose to students to natural language in a
variety of situations, adherents to the Communicative approach advocate the use of
authentic materials.
For students of lower proficiency in the target language, it may not be possible to
use authentic materials. Simpler authentic materials for example, the use of
weather forecast when working on predictions. Another possibility for the use of
authentic materials with a lower level class is to use realia that do not contain a lot
of language, but about lot of discussion can be generated.
SCRAMBLED SENTENCES
The students are given a passage (a text) in which the sentences are in a
scrambled order. This can be a passage they have already worked with or one they
haven‟t seen before. They are told to unscramble the sentences so that the
sentences are restored to their original order. This type of exercise teaches about
the cohesion and coherence properties of the language. They learn how sentences
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are bound together at the suprasentential level through formal linguistic devices
such as anaphoric pronouns, which make a text cohesive, and semantic
propositions, which unify a text and make it coherent.
In addition to write passages, students can also be asked to unscramble the lines of
a mixed-up dialog or they might be asked to put the pictures of a picture strip store
in order and write lines to accompany the pictures.
SOME REAL EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATIVE EXERCISES

In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passing
out cards, each with a different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to
model an exchange of introductions in the target language: "Good morning. What‟s
your name?" Reply: "Michael," for example. Using a combination of the target
language and gestures, the teacher conveys the task at hand, and gets the
students to introduce themselves and ask their classmates for information
The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation where they must report
information. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a class discussion
could follow, in the target language, about their experiences. Communicative
exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of their choice, at an
appropriately challenging level.
Another exercise for beginning students is to listen about transportation service to
the international airport .forty-two luxury rooms, with air conditioned international
and elegant restaurant...."
(The announcement can be read by the teacher or played on tape.) Then ask
students to circle the letter of the most appropriate answer on their copy, which
consists of the following multiple-choice options:
a. a taxi service
b. a hotel
c. an airport
d. a restaurant
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
RICHARDS, Jack. (2001).Approaches and methods.Cambridge University Press.
REVELL Jane.Teaching techniques for Communicative English.Macmillan

Publishers.
BRUNFIT Christopher. (1989) Communicative methodology in language teaching.

Great Britain, Cambridge Language Teaching Library.
PATTISON, P. (1987).The communicative approach and classroom realities.
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ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT
INTRODUCTION
In the 1990's, educational reformers are seeking answers to two fundamental
questions:
1. How well are students learning?
2. How effectively are teachers teaching?
Classroom research and classroom assessment respond directly to concerns about
better learning and more effective teaching. Classroom research was developed to
encourage teachers to become more systematic and sensitive observers of learning
as it takes place every day in their classrooms. Classroom assessment, a major
component of classroom research, involves student and teachers in the continuous
monitoring of students' learning. It provides school with feedback about their
effectiveness as teachers, and it gives students a measure of their progress as
learners. Most important, because classroom assessments are created,
administered, and analyzed by teachers themselves on questions of teaching and
learning that are important to them.
Through close observation of students in the process of learning, the collection of

frequent feedback on students' learning, and the design of modest classroom
experiments, teachers can learn much about how students learn and, more
specifically, how students respond to particular teaching approaches. Classroom
assessment helps individual teachers obtain useful feedback on what, how much,
and how well their students are learning. They can then use this information to
refocus their teaching to help students make their learning more efficient and more
effective.
Teachers who have assumed that their students were learning what they were
trying to teach them are regularly faced with disappointing evidence to the contrary
when they grade tests and term papers. Too often, students have not learned as
much or as well as was expected. There are gaps, sometimes considerable ones,
between what was taught and what has been learned. By the time faculty notice
these gaps in knowledge or understanding, it is frequently too late to remedy the
problems.
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ASSESSMENT
To avoid such unhappy surprises, schools and students need better ways to
monitor learning throughout the year. Specifically, teachers need a continuous flow
of accurate information on student learning. For example, if a teacher's goal is to
help students learn points "A" through "Z" during the course, then that teacher
needs first to know whether all students are really starting at point " A" and, as the
course proceeds, whether they have reached intermediate points " B," "G," "L," "R,"
"W," and so on. To ensure high-quality learning, it is not enough to test students
when the syllabus has arrived at points "M" and "Z." Classroom assessment is
particularly useful for checking how well students are learning at those initial and
intermediate points, and for providing information for improvement when learning is
less than satisfactory.
Through practice in classroom assessment, schools become better able to

understand and promote learning, and increase their ability to help the students
themselves become more effective, self-assessing, self-directed learners. Simply
put, the central purpose of classroom assessment is to empower both teachers and
students to improve the quality of learning in the classroom.
Classroom assessment is an approach designed to help teachers find out what

students are learning in the classroom and how well they are learning it. This
approach has the following characteristics:
LEARNER-CENTERED
Classroom assessment focuses the primary attention of teachers and
students on observing and improving learning, rather than on observing and
improving teaching. Classroom assessment can provide information to guide
teachers and students in making adjustments to improve learning.
TEACHER-DIRECTED
Classroom assessment respects the autonomy, academic freedom, and
professional judgment of schools. The individual teacher decides what to
assess, how to assess, and how to respond to the information gained
through the assessment. Also, the teacher is not obliged to share the result
of classroom assessment with anyone outside the classroom.
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MUTUAL BENEFICIAL
Because it is focused on learning, classroom assessment requires the active
participation of students. By cooperating in assessment, students reinforce their
grasp of the course content and strengthen their own skills at self-assessment.
Their motivation is increased when they realize that schools are interested and
invested in their success as learners. School can also sharpen their teaching focus
by continually asking themselves three questions: "What are the essential skills and
knowledge I am trying to teach?" "How can I find out whether students are learning
them?" "How can I help students learn better?" As teachers work closely with
students to answer these questions, they improve their teaching skills and gain new
insights.
FORMATIVE
Classroom assessment's purpose is to improve the quality of student learning,
not to provide evidence for evaluating or grading students. The assessment is
almost never graded and is almost always anonymous.
CONTEXT-SPECIFIC
Classroom assessments have to respond to the particular needs and
characteristics of the teachers, students, and disciplines to which they are
applied. What works well in one class will not necessary work in another?
ONGOING
Classroom assessment is an ongoing process, best thought of as the creating
and maintenance of a classroom "feedback loop." By using a number of simple
classroom assessment techniques that are quick and easy to use, teachers get
feedback from students on their learning. School then completes the loop by
providing students with feedback on the results of the assessment and
suggestions for improving learning. To check on the usefulness of their
suggestions, teachers use classroom assessment again, continuing the
"feedback loop." As the approach becomes integrated into everyday classroom
activities, the communications loop connecting teachers and students -- and
teaching and learning -- becomes more efficient and more effective.
ROOTED IN GOOD TEACHING PRACTICE
Classroom assessment is an attempt to build on existing good practice by
making feedback on students' learning more systematic, more flexible, and
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ASSESSMENT
more effective. Teachers already ask questions, react to students' questions,
and monitor body language and facial expressions, read homework and tests,
and so on. Classroom assessment provides a way to integrate assessment
systematically and seamlessly into the traditional classroom teaching and
learning process
As they are teaching, faculty monitor and react to student questions, comments,
body language, and facial expressions in an almost automatic fashion. This
"automatic" information gathering and impression formation is a subconscious
and implicit process. Teachers depend heavily on their impressions of student
learning and make important judgments based on them, but they rarely make
those informal assessments explicit or check them against the students' own
impressions or ability to perform. In the course of teaching, college faculty
assumes a great deal about their students' learning, but most of their
assumptions remain untested.
Even when college teachers routinely gather potentially useful information on

student learning through questions, quizzes, homework, and exams, it is often
collected too late -- at least from the students' perspective - to affect their
learning. In practice, it is very difficult to "de-program" students who are used to
thinking of anything they have been tested and graded on as being "over and
done with." Consequently, the most effective times to assess and provide
feedback are before the chapter tests or the midterm an final examinations.
Classroom assessment aims at providing that early feedback.
Classroom assessment is based on seven assumptions:

1. The quality of student learning is directly, although not exclusively, related to
the quality of teaching. Therefore, one of the most promising ways to improve
learning is to improve teaching.
2. To improve their effectiveness, teachers need first to make their goals and
objectives explicit and then to get specific, comprehensible feedback on the
extent to which they are achieving those goals and objectives.
3. To improve their learning, students need to receive appropriate and focused
feedback early and often; they also need to learn how to assess their own
learning.
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ASSESSMENT
4. The type of assessment most likely to improve teaching and learning is that
conducted by teachers to answer questions they themselves have formulated
in response to issues or problems in their own teaching.
5. Systematic inquiry and intellectual challenge are powerful sources of
motivation, growth, and renewal for schools teachers, and classroom
assessment can provide such challenge.
6. Classroom assessment does not require specialized training; it can be carried
out by dedicated teachers from all disciplines.
7. By collaborating with colleagues and actively involving students in classroom
assessment efforts, teachers and students enhance learning and personal
satisfaction.
To begin classroom assessment it is recommended that only one or two of the

simplest classroom assessment Techniques are tried in only one class. In this way
very little planning or preparation time and energy of the teacher and students is
risked. In most cases, trying out a simple Classroom Assessment Technique will
require only five to ten minutes of class time and less than an hour of time out of
class. After trying one or two quick assessments, the decision as to whether this
approach is worth further investments of time and energy can be made. This
process of starting small involves three steps:
Step 1: Planning
Select one, and only one, of your classes in which to try out the classroom
assessment. Decide on the class meeting and select a classroom assessment
technique. Choose a simple and quick one.
Step 2: Implementing
Make sure the students know what you are doing and that they clearly understand
the procedure. Collect the responses and analyze them as soon as possible.
Step 3: Responding (assessing)
To capitalize on time spent assessing, and to motivate students to become actively
involved, "close the feedback loop" by letting them know what you learned from the
assessments and what difference that information will make.
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ASSESSMENT
Five suggestions for a successful start:
1. If classroom assessment techniques do not appeal to your intuition and

professional judgment as a teacher, don't use it.
2. Don't make classroom assessment into a self-inflicted chore or burden.
3. Don't ask your students to use any classroom assessment technique you
haven't previously tried on yourself.
4. Allow for more time than you think you will need to carry out and respond to
the assessment.
5. Make sure to "close the loop." Let students know what you learn from their
feedback and how you and they can use that information to improve learning.
Many teachers dislike preparing and grading exams, and most students dread
taking them. Yet tests are powerful educational tools that serve at least four
functions. First, tests help you evaluate students and assess whether they are
learning what you are expecting them to learn. Second, well-designed tests serve to
motivate and help students structure their academic efforts. Crooks ( 1988),
McKeachie (1986), and Wergin (1988) report that students study in ways that reflect
how they think they will be tested. If they expect an exam focused on facts, they will
memorize details; if they expect a test that will require problem solving or
integrating knowledge, they will work toward understanding and applying
information. Third, tests can help you understand how successfully you are
presenting the material. Finally, tests can reinforce learning by providing students
with indicators of what topics or skills they have not yet mastered and should
concentrate on. Despite these benefits, testing is also emotionally charged and
anxiety producing. The following suggestions can enhance your ability to design
tests that are effective in motivating, measuring, and reinforcing learning.
A note on terminology: instructors often use the terms tests, exams, and even
quizzes interchangeably. Test experts Jacobs and Chase ( 1992), however, make
distinctions among them based on the scope of content covered and their weight or
importance in calculating the final grade for the course. An examination is the most
comprehensive form of testing, typically given at the end of the term (as a final) and
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ASSESSMENT
one or two times during the semester (as midterms). A test is more limited in scope,
focusing on particular aspects of the course material. A course might have three or
four tests. A quiz is even more limited and usually is administered in fifteen minutes
or less. Though these distinctions are useful, the terms test and exam will be used
interchangeably throughout the rest of this section because the principles in
planning, constructing, and administering them are similar.
GENERAL STRATEGIES
1. SPEND ADEQUATE AMOUNTS OF TIME DEVELOPING YOUR TESTS
As you prepare a test, think carefully about the learning outcomes you wish to
measure, the type of items best suited to those outcomes, the range of difficulty of
items, the length and time limits for the test, the format and layout of the exam, and
your scoring procedures.
2. MATCH YOUR TESTS TO THE CONTENT YOU ARE TEACHING
Ideally, the tests you give will measure students' achievement of your educational
goals for the course. Test items should be based on the content and skills that are
most important for your students to learn. To keep track of how well your tests
reflect your objectives, you can construct a grid, listing your course objectives along
the side of the page and content areas along the top. For each test item, check off
the objective and content it covers.
3. TRY TO MAKE YOUR TESTS VALID, RELIABLE, AND BALANCED
A test is valid if its results are appropriateand useful for making decisions about an
aspect of students' achievement (Gronlund and Linn, 1990). Technically, validity
refers to the appropriateness of the interpretation of the results and not to the test
itself, though colloquially we speak about a test being valid. Validity is a matter of
degree and considered in relation to specific use or interpretation (Gronlund and
Linn, 1990). For example, the results of a writing test may have a high degree of
validity for indicating the level of a student's composition skills, a moderate degree
of validity for predicting success in later composition courses, and essentially no
validity for predicting success in mathematics or physics. Validity can be difficult to
determine. A practical approach is to focus on content validity, the extent to which
the content of the test represents an adequate sampling of the knowledge and skills
taught in the course. If you design the test to cover information in lectures and
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ASSESSMENT
readings in proportion to their importance in the course, then the interpretations of
test scores are likely to have greater validity An exam that consists of only a few
difficult items, however, will not yield valid interpretations of what students know. A
test is reliable if it accurately and consistently evaluates a student's performance.
The purest measure of reliability would entail having a group of students take the
same test twice and get the same scores (assuming that we could erase their
memories of test items from the first administration). This is impractical, of course,
but there are technical procedures for determining reliability. In general, ambiguous
questions, unclear directions, and vague scoring criteria threaten reliability. Very
short tests are also unlikely to be highly reliable. It is also important for a test to be
balanced: to cover most of the main ideas and important concepts in proportion to
the emphasis they received in class.
4. USE A VARIETY OF TESTING METHODS
Research shows that students vary in their preferences for different formats, so
using a variety of methods will help students do their best (Jacobs and Chase,
1992). Multiple-choice or shortanswer questions are appropriate for assessing
students' mastery of details and specific knowledge, while essay questions assess
comprehension, the ability to integrate and synthesize, and the ability to apply
information to new situations. A single test can have several formats. Try to avoid
introducing a new format on the final exam: if you have given all multiple-choice
quizzes or midterms, don't ask students to write an all-essay final.
5. WRITE QUESTIONS THAT TEST SKILLS OTHER THAN RECALL
Research shows that most tests administered by faculty rely too heavily on
students' recall of information (Milton, Pollio, and Eison, 1986). Bloom (1956) argues
that it is important for tests to measure higher-learning as well. Fuhrmann and
Grasha (1983) have adapted Bloom's taxonomy for test development. Here is a
condensation of their list:
To measure knowledge (common terms, facts, principles, procedures), ask these
kinds of questions: Define, describe, identify, label, list, match, name, outline,
reproduce, select, state. Example: "List the steps involved in titration."
To measure comprehension (understanding of facts and principles, interpretation of
material), ask these kinds of questions: Convert, defend, distinguish, estimate,
explain, extend, generalize, give examples, infer, predict, summarize. Example:
"Summarize the basic tenets of deconstructionism."
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ASSESSMENT
To measure application (solving problems, applying concepts and principles to new
situations), ask these kinds of questions: Demonstrate, modify, operate, repare,
produce, relate, show, solve, use. Example: "Calculate the deflection of a beam
under uniform loading."
To measure analysis (recognition of unstated assumptions or logical fallacies,
ability to distinguish between facts and inferences), ask these kinds of questions:
Diagram, differentiate, distinguish, illustrate, infer, point out, relate, select, separate,
subdivide. Example: "In the president's State of the Union Address, which
statements are based on facts and which are based on assumptions?"
To measure synthesis (integrate learning from different areas or solve problems by
creative thinking), ask these kinds of questions: Categorize, combine, compile,
devise, design, explain, generate, organize, plan, rearrange, reconstruct, revise,
and tell. Example: "How would you restructure the school day to reflect children's
developmental needs?"
To measure evaluation (judging and assessing), ask these kinds of questions:
Appraise, compare, conclude, contrast, criticize, describe, discriminate, explain,
justify, interpret, support. Example: "Why is Bach's Mass in B Minor acknowledged
as a classic?"
Many faculty members have found it difficult to apply this six-level taxonomy, and
some educators have simplified and collapsed the taxonomy into three general
levels (Crooks, 1988): The first category knowledge (recall or recognition of specific
information). The second category combines comprehension and application. The
third category is described as "problem solving," transferring existing knowledge
and skills to new situations.
6. IF YOUR COURSE HAS GRADUATE STUDENT INSTRUCTORS (GSIS),

INVOLVE THEM IN DESIGNING EXAMS
At the least, ask your GSIs to read your draft of the exam and comment on it.
Better still; involve them in creating the exam. Not only will they have useful
suggestions, but their participation in designing an exam will help them grade the
exam.
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ASSESSMENT
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE PROBE
Description:
At the first class meeting, many college teachers ask students for general
information on their level of preparation, often requesting that students list courses
they have already taken in the relevant field. This technique is designed to collect
much more specific, and more useful, feedback on students' prior learning.
Background Knowledge Probes are short, simple questionnaires prepared by
instructors for use at the beginning of a course, at the start of a new unit or lesson,
or prior to introducing an important new topic. A given Background Knowledge
Probe may require students to write short answers, to circle the correct response to
multiple-choice questions, or both.
Step-by-Step Procedure:
1. Before introducing an important new concept, subject, or topic in the
course syllabus, consider what the students may already know about it.
Recognizing that their knowledge may be partial, fragmentary, simplistic,
or even incorrect, try to find at lease one point that most students are likely
to know, and use that point to lead into others, less familiar points.
2. Prepare two or three open-ended questions, a handful of short-answer
questions, or ten to twenty multiple-choice questions that will probe the
students' existing knowledge of that concept, subject, or topic. These
questions need to be carefully phrased, since a vocabulary that may not
be familiar to the students can obscure your assessment of how well they
know the facts or concepts.
3. Write your open-ended questions on the chalkboard, or hand out short
questionnaires. Direct student to answer open-ended questions succinctly,
in two or three sentences if possible. Make a point of announcing that
these Background Knowledge Probes are not tests or quizzes and will not
be graded. Encourage students to give thoughtful answers that will help
you make effective instructional decisions.
4. At the next class meeting, or as soon as possible, let students know the
results, and tell them how that information will affect what you do as the
teacher and how it should affect what they do as learners.
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ASSESSMENT
MINUTE PAPER
Description:
No other technique has been used more often or by more schools college teachers
than the Minute Paper. This technique also known as the One-Minute paper and
the Half-Sheet response - provides a quick and extremely simple way to collect
written feedback on student learning. To use the Minute Paper, a teacher stops
class two or three minutes early and asks students to respond briefly to some
variation on the following two questions: "What was the most important thing you
learned during this class?" and "What important question remains unanswered?"
Students they write their responses on index cards or half-sheets of scrap paper
and hand them in.
1. Decide first what you want to focus on and, as a consequence, when to
administer the Minute paper. If you want to focus on students' understanding
of a lecture, the last few minutes of class may be the best time. If your focus is
on a prior homework assignment, however, the first few minutes may be more
appropriate.
2. Using the two basic questions from the "Description" above as starting points,
write Minute paper prompts that fit your course and students. Try out your
Minute paper on a colleague or teaching assistant before using it in class.
3. Plan to set aside five to ten minutes of your next class to use the technique,
as well as time later to discuss the results.
4. Before class, write one or, at the most, two Minute paper questions on the
chalkboard or prepare an overhead transparency.
5. At a convenient time, hand out index cards or half-sheets of scrap paper.
6. Unless there is a very good reason to know who wrote what, direct students to
leave their names off the papers or cards.
7. Let the students know how much time they will have (two to five minutes per
question is usually enough), what kinds of answers you want (words, phrases,
or short sentences), and when they can expect your feedback.
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ASSESSMENT
MUDDIEST POINT
Description:
The Muddiest point is just about the simplest technique one can use. It is also
remarkable efficient, since it provides a high information return for a very low
investment of time and energy. The technique consists of asking students to jot
down a quick response to one question: "What was the muddiest point in ........?"
The focus of the Muddiest point assessment might be a lecture, a discussion, a
homework assignment, a play, or a film.
1. Determine what you want feedback on: the entire class session or one self-
contained segment? A lecture, a discussion, a presentation?
2. If you are using the technique in class, reserve a few minutes at the end of
the class session. Leave enough time to ask the question, to allow students to
respond, and to collect their responses by the usual ending time.
3. Let students know beforehand how much time they will have to respond and
what use you will make of their responses.
4. Pass out slips of paper or index cards for students to write on.
5. Collect the responses as or before students leave. Stationing yourself at the
door and collecting "muddy points" as students file out is one way; leaving a
"muddy point" collection box by the exit is another.
6. Respond to the students' feedback during the next class meeting or as soon
as possible afterward.
ONE SENTENCE SUMMARY

Description:
This simple technique challenges students to answer the questions "Who does
what to whom, when, where, how, and why?" (represented by the letters
WDWWWWHW) about a given topic, and then to synthesize those answers into a
simple informative, grammatical, and long summary sentence.
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ASSESSMENT
Step-by-step procedure:
1. Select an important topic or work that your students have recently studied in
your course and that you expect them to learn to summarize.
2. Working as quickly as you can, answer the questions "Who Did / Does What
to Whom, When, Where, How and Why?" in relation to that topic. Note how
long this first step takes you.
3. Next, turn your answers into a grammatical sentence that follows

WDWWWWHS pattern. Not how long this second step takes.
4. Allow your students up to twice as much time as it took you to carry out the
task and give them clear direction on the One-Sentence Summary technique
before you announce the topic to be summarized.
WHAT´S THE PRINCIPLE

Description:
After students figure out what type of problem they are dealing with, they often must
then decide what principle or principles to apply in order to solve the problem. This
technique focuses on this step in problem solving. It provides students with a few
problems and asks them to state the principle that best applies to each problem.
1. Identify the basic principles that you expect students to learn in your course.
Make sure focus only on those that students have been taught.
2. Find or create sample problems or short examples that illustrate each of these
principles. Each example should illustrate only one principle.
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ASSESSMENT
3. Create a What's the Principle? Form that includes a listing of the relevant
principles and specific examples or problems for students to match to those
principles.
4. Try out your assessment on a graduate student or colleague to make certain it

is not too difficult or too time-consuming to use in class.
5. After you have made any necessary revisions to the form, apply the
assessment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ebel, R. L., and Frisbie, D. A. Essentials of Educational Measurement. (5th ed.)
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1990.
Gronlund, N. E., and Linn, R. Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. (6th ed.)
New York: Macmillan, 1990.
Mehrens, W. A., and Lehmann, I. J. Measurement and Evaluation in Education and

Psychology. (4th ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1991.
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EVALUATING LEARNING
EVALUATING LEARNING
INTRODUCTION
New approaches in the curriculum bring with them words with slightly changed
meanings. „Evaluation‟ and „assessment‟ are two examples of this changed
vocabulary. Neither term is new to teachers or students but what have changed are
the different strategies which can be used to make clearer distinctions between
them.
Evaluation and assessment are often thought of as having the same meaning
because they can sometimes be carried out by one event. However, each serves
different purposes because assessment and evaluation are each concerned with
different aspects of teaching and learning. We assess our students to establish
„what‟ and „how much‟ they have learnt but we evaluate our students and they
evaluate themselves to find out „how‟ the learning process is developing.
ASSESSMENT WITHOUT EVALUATION
The most straightforward example of assessment without evaluation is the end of
year examinations where the grade indicates the „attainment‟ or „achievement‟ level
of each student, which can be measured against the other students. The result is
simply that students know whether they have passed or failed and teachers know
who are the „good‟, „average‟ and „weak‟ students.
ASSESSMENT WITH EVALUATION
However, in addition to end of year tests, during the course of a school year
students may take smaller tests. Generally, the scores from these smaller tests
(such as 6/10 or 60%) will give the teacher the rank order for the students in the
class but will probably not tell the students where and why they are going wrong nor
will it give them strategies to help them improve. Neither will the scores inform the
teacher about how and why the students behaved in a certain way.
SOME PRACTICAL IDEAS FOR VOCABULARY TESTS IN THE SCHOOL
YEAR
These smaller tests are ideal mechanisms to use to „observe effects in context‟ – in
other words, to build evaluation into assessment and move them away from being
„attainment‟ or „achievement‟ tests to become, instead, „formative‟ or „diagnostic‟
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tests. In this case evaluation is used to change or add different activities in order to
improve progress before the final examination.
These short tests usually refer back to units recently covered in class and usually
focus on grammar and vocabulary. Often they are „gap fill‟ so the teacher or even
students can mark them quickly. These provide quantitative feedback – they tell us
how much the students have remembered but they do not tell us how they learnt it
or which kinds of tasks the students found most useful to help them understand it.
However, if the students are involved in evaluating the contents of the test, we can
acquire qualitative feedback on the basis of which we can re-assess our teaching
and testing behaviours. How can we do this?
EVALUATION IN VOCABULARY ASSESSMENT: INVOLVING THE
STUDENTS
First, all tests consist of „what‟ and „how‟: students usually know „what‟ they will be
tested on but they are probably not told „how‟. We often underestimate the „how‟:
that is, the exercise type we choose may not be a factor taken into account when
we design the test. Nevertheless, it is this „how‟ of the test which can help us make
our teaching and the students‟ learning more effective. We can bring the students
into the process of „how‟ by, for example, telling them that there will be a vocabulary
test and inviting them to think about what kind of exercise would test their
knowledge. First, students can look at the kinds of vocabulary exercises they did in
previous tests. If the vocabulary exercise in all the tests is always the same type it
will be worth spending some time thinking about why this is the case.
EXERCISE TYPES
If, however, there is a range of exercise types which test vocabulary, students can
be asked to consider how successful they think each exercise type is: how much
guesswork is involved in each exercise? What kind of guesswork? Guessing from
context in a cloze text, for example, is a different kind of guessing from three or four
choices in a multiple choice sentence. What other language knowledge do they use
to make guesses in multiple choice sentences? Which kinds of exercise ask them
to think about the words? Which ones ask them to use the words creatively? Which
exercise types require other skills? (Comprehension questions require reading skills
for example.) Which kind of exercise do they prefer and why?
Then, to get a broader picture, students can look through their Students‟ Books and
Workbooks and find as many different kinds of vocabulary exercises as they can,
and, at the same time, they can consider which types are appropriate to use in a
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EVALUATING LEARNING
test. By this time, a list of different vocabulary exercise test types can be written on
the board and students can be asked to rank them in order on a piece of paper:
putting the ones which they like and are good at the top and the ones they don‟t like
and are not so good at the bottom.
In pairs they can then discuss reasons for their reactions and write them on their
sheet. The sheets are collected in and the results are collated on a poster or
overhead transparency.
Already the students have been able to evaluate „how‟ they are tested, to think
about a variety of options and to think about which type of exercise suits them best.
The teacher has collected in some important qualitative information about the
process of testing which can be used to inform the construction of the next test and,
perhaps also, the teaching which leads up to the next test.
THE NEXT TEST
The next test can be prepared in the normal way except that, on the test paper, the
teacher can put two different kinds of exercises to test the same material from
which the students have a choice: they must do the exercise which they think they
will do best at. The teacher marks the test as usual but at the same time, makes a
note of the choices the students made and checks whether students did better or
worse than they did on previous tests. When the test is returned to the students
they will know not just how much they know but also how correct they were in their
choice. In other words, they will have learnt something more about their own
learning strength.
This kind of evaluation process allows the teacher to understand more about the
individual student‟s learning preferences but also shows that often it may not be the
material, in this case, the vocabulary, which is causing a problem for the students,
but the manner – the way – in which it is being tested, or, possibly even being
taught. This kind of approach to a test allows for the results to become the next
stage of the teaching process and the next stage of the students‟ learning process.
If the students have chosen which part of the test to do, the success or failure of
that choice can become a subject of discussion: how did they prepare for the
vocabulary test? What different approaches did they use and why? Finding out
what students do to help themselves learn provides fundamental qualitative data for
all teachers. Some students may not prepare well for a test because they are not
sure what to do or they know that the strategies they have used before have been
unsuccessful and they don't know how to replace them. Unless they learn other
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EVALUATING LEARNING
strategies they may stop preparing for tests altogether because they know they will
fail. Some students may like to keep an evaluation „diary‟ or journal in which they
can record what kinds of strategies they used to prepare for tests or learn their new
vocabulary.
Students spend about 10,000 hours of their lifetime trying to learn at school: it is
important that some of those hours are spent on evaluating and discussing how
that learning happens, or doesn‟t happen!
Assessment and evaluation cannot always walk hand in hand: assessment is
needed for administration purposes. However, the process of teaching and learning
can benefit enormously from the flexibility provided by building evaluative systems
into smaller assessment tests so that ongoing testing becomes a „user-friendly',
„hand-holding‟ activity rather than an isolating threat.
REASONS FOR TESTING
1. WHAT BASIC QUESTIONS SHOULD A TEACHER ASK HIMSELF /
HERSELF BEFORE SETTING A TEST?
What to test. How to do it. Whether to test at all. Why the assessment is
being made. What it should contain. The consequences for teaching,
learning and administration. The quality of the proposed test material.
The characteristics of a good test are:
VALIDITY - it should measure what it is intended to measure and nothing
else.
RELIABILITY - (unless valid it cannot be reliable): if administered a 2nd
time a reliable test would result in the same order of merit when neither
learning nor teaching has intervened.
Discrimination: decide first whether the primary purpose is to discriminate
between testees. School exams are generally designed to discriminate as
widely as possible among the testees.
Backwash: effects of the test on learning & teaching. Does it have a good
influence on the learning & teaching that takes place before the test?
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EVALUATING LEARNING
2. WHAT ARE THE MAIN CLASSES OF TESTING?
ACHIEVEMENT / ATTAINMENT TESTS: usually more formal, designed to
show mastery of a particular syllabus (e.g. end-of-year tests, school-
leaving exams, public tests) though similar (re-syllabus) to progress tests.
It´s rarely constructed by classroom teacher for a particular class. It´s
designed primarily to measure individual progress rather than as a means
of motivating or reinforcing language.
PROGRESS TESTS: most classroom tests take this form. Assess progress
students make in mastering material taught in the classroom. Often given
to motivate students. They also enable students to assess the degree of
success of teaching and learning and to identify areas of weakness &
difficulty. Progresstests can also be diagnostic to some degree.
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS: can include Progress, Achievement and Proficiency
tests, enabling teachers to identify specific weaknesses/difficulties so that
an appropriate remedial programme can be planned. Diagnostic Tests are
primarily designed to assess students' knowledge & skills in particular
areas before a course of study is begun.
PLACEMENT TESTS: sort new students into teaching groups so that they
are approx. the same level as others when they start. Present standing.
General ability rather than specific points of learning. Variety of tests
necessary. Reference forward to future learning. Results of Placement
Tests are needed quickly. Administrative load.
PROFICIENCY TESTS: Measure students' achievements in relation to a

specific task which they are later required to perform (e.g. follow a
university course in the English medium; do a particular job). Reference
forward to particular application of language acquired: future performance
rather than past achievement. They rarely take into account the syllabus
that students have followed. Definition of operational needs. Practical
situations. Authentic strategies for coping. Common standard e.g. driving
test regardless of previous learning. Application of common standard
whether the syllabus is known or unknown.
APTITUDE TESTS: measure the student probable performance. Reference

forward but can be distinguished from proficiency tests. Aptitude tests
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EVALUATING LEARNING
assess proficiency in language for language use (e.g. will S experience
difficulty in identifying sounds or the grammatical structure of a new
language?) while Proficiency tests measure adequacy of control in L2 for
studying other things through the medium of that language.
3. TESTING COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

Testing language has traditionally taken the form of testing knowledge about
language, usually the testing of knowledge of vocabulary and grammar. However,
there is much more to being able to use language than knowledge about it. Dell
Hymes proposed the concept of communicative competence. He argued that a
speaker can be able to produce grammatical sentences that are completely
inappropriate. In communicative competence, he included not only the ability to
form correct sentences but to use them at appropriate times. Since Hymes
proposed the idea in the early 1970s, it has been expanded considerably, and
various types of competencies have been proposed. However, the basic idea of
communicative competence remains the ability to use language appropriately, both
receptively and productively, in real situations.
What do communicative language tests measure?
Communicative language tests are intended to be a measure of how the students
are able to use language in real life situations. In testing productive skills, emphasis
is placed on appropriateness rather than on ability to form grammatically correct
sentences. In testing receptive skills, emphasis is placed on understanding the
communicative intent of the speaker or writer rather than on picking out specific
details. And, in fact, the two are often combined in communicative testing, so that
the student must both comprehend and respond in real time. In real life, the
different skills are not often used entirely in isolation. Students in a class may listen
to a lecture, but they later need to use information from the lecture in a paper. In
taking part in a group discussion, they need to use both listening and speaking
skills. Even reading a book for pleasure may be followed by recommending it to a
friend and telling the friend why you liked it.
The "communicativeness" of a test might be seen as being on a continuum. Few
tests are completely communicative; many tests have some element of
communicativeness. For example, a test in which testees listen to an utterance on a
tape and then choose from among three choices the most appropriate response is
more communicative than one in which the testees answer a question about the
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EVALUATING LEARNING
meaning of the utterance. However, it is less communicative than one in which the
testees are face- to-face with the interlocutor (rather than listening to a tape) and
are required to produce an appropriate response.
TASKS
Communicative tests are often very context-specific. A test for testees who are
going to British universities as students would be very different from one for testees
who are going to their company's branch office in the United States. If at all
possible, a communicative language test should be based on a description of the
language that the testees need to use. Though communicative testing is not limited
to English for Specific Purposes situations, the test should reflect the
communicative situation in which the testees are likely to find themselves. In cases
where the testees do not have a specific purpose, the language that they are tested
on can be directed toward general social situations where they might be in a
position to use English.
This basic assumption influences the tasks chosen to test language in
communicative situations. A communicative test of listening, then, would test not
whether the testee could understand what the utterance, "Would you mind putting
the groceries away before you leave" means, but place it in a context and see if the
testee can respond appropriately to it.
If students are going to be tested over communicative tasks in an achievement test
situation, it is necessary that they be prepared for that kind of test, that is, that the
course material covers the sorts of tasks they are being asked to perform. For
example, you cannot expect testees to correctly perform such functions as requests
and apologies appropriately and evaluate them on it if they have been studying
from a structural syllabus. Similarly, if they have not been studying writing business
letters, you cannot expect them to write a business letter for a test.
Tests intended to test communicative language are judged, then, on the extent to
which they simulate real life communicative situations rather than on how reliable
the results are. In fact, there is an almost inevitable loss of reliability as a result of
the loss of control in a communicative testing situation. If, for example, a test is
intended to test the ability to participate in a group discussion for students who are
going to a British university, it is impossible to control what the other participants in
the discussion will say, so not every testee will be observed in the same situation,
which would be ideal for test reliability. However, according to the basic
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EVALUATING LEARNING
assumptions of communicative language testing, this is compensated for by the
realism of the situation.
EVALUATION
There is necessarily a subjective element to the evaluation of communicative tests.
Real life situations don't always have objectively right or wrong answers, and so
band scales need to be developed to evaluate the results. Each band has a
description of the quality (and sometimes quantity) of the receptive or productive
performance of the testee.
EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATIVE TEST TASKS
SPEAKING / LISTENING
INFORMATION GAP
An information gap activity is one in which two or more testees work together,
though it is possible for a confederate of the examiner rather than a testee to take
one of the parts. Each testee is given certain information but also lacks some
necessary information. The task requires the testees to ask for and give
information. The task should provide a context in which it is logical for the testees to
be sharing information.
The following is an example of an information gap activity.
STUDENT A
You are planning to buy a tape recorder. You don't want to spend more than about
80 pounds, but you think that a tape recorder that costs less than 50 pounds is
probably not of good quality. You definitely want a tape recorder with auto reverse,
and one with a radio built in would be nice. You have investigated three models of
tape recorder and your friend has investigated three models. Get the information
from him/her and share your information. You should start the conversation and
make the final decision, but you must get his / her opinion, too.
(Information about three kinds of tape recorders)
STUDENT B
Your friend is planning to buy a tape recorder, and each of you investigated three
types of tape recorder. You think it is best to get a small, light tape recorder. Share
your information with your friend, and find out about the three tape recorders that
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EVALUATING LEARNING
your friend investigated. Let him/her begins the conversation and make the final
decision, but don't hesitate to express your opinion.
(Information about three kinds of tape recorders)
This kind of task would be evaluated using a system of band scales. The band
scales would emphasize the testee's ability to give and receive information, express
and elicit opinions, etc. If its intention were communicative, it would probably not
emphasize pronunciation, grammatical correctness, etc., except to the extent that
these might interfere with communication. The examiner should be an observer and
not take part in the activity, since it is difficult to both take part in the activity and
evaluate it. Also, the activity should be tape recorded, if possible, so that it could be
evaluated later and it does not have to be evaluated in real time.
ROLE PLAY
In a role-play, the testee is given a situation to play out with another person. The
testee is given in advance information about what his/her role is, what specific
functions he / she needs to carry out, etc. A role-play task would be similar to the
above information gap activity, except that it would not involve an information gap.
Usually the examiner or a confederate takes one part of the role-play.
The following is an example of a role-play activity.
STUDENT
You missed class yesterday. Go to the teacher's office and apologize for having
missed the class. Ask for the handout from the class. Find out what the homework
was.
EXAMINER
You are a teacher. A student who missed your class yesterday comes to your
office. Accept her / his apology, but emphasize the importance of attending classes.
You do not have any extra handouts from the class, so suggest that she/he copies
one from a friend. Tell her / him what the homework was.
Again, if the intention of this test was to test communicative language, the testee
would be assessed on his/her ability to carry out the functions (apologizing,
requesting, asking for information, responding to a suggestion, etc.) required by the
role.
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EVALUATING LEARNING
TESTING READING AND WRITING
Some tests combine reading and writing in communicative situations. Testees can
be given a task in which they are presented with instructions to write a letter, memo,
summary, etc., answering certain questions, based on information that they are
given.
LETTER WRITING: In many situations, Testees might have to write business letters,
letters asking for information, etc.
The following is an example of such a task.
Your boss has received a letter from a customer complaining about problems with a
coffee maker that he bought six months ago. Your boss has instructed you to check
the company policy on returns and repairs and reply to the letter. Read the letter
from the customer and the statement of the company policy about returns and
repairs below and write a formal business letter to the customer.
(The customer's complaint letter; the company policy)
The letter would be evaluated using a band scale, based on compliance with formal
letter writing layout, the content of the letter, inclusion of correct and relevant
information, etc.
SUMMARIZING: Testees might be given a long passage--for example, 400 words
and be asked to summarize the main points in less than 100 words. To make this
task communicative, the Testees should be given realistic reasons for doing such a
task. For example, the longer text might be an article that their boss would like to
have summarized so that he/she can incorporate the main points into a talk.
The summary would be evaluated, based on the inclusion of the main points of the
longer text.
TESTING LISTENING AND WRITING / NOTE TAKING
Listening and writing may also be tested in combination. In this case, Testees are
given a listening text and they are instructed to write down certain information from
the text. Again, although this is not interactive, it should somehow simulate a
situation where information would be written down from a spoken text.
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EVALUATING LEARNING
SUMMARY
Communicative language tests are those, which make an effort to test language in
a way that reflects the way that language is used in real communication. It is, of
course, not always possible to make language tests communicative, but it may
often be possible to give them communicative elements. This can have beneficial
backwash effects. If students are encouraged to study for more communicative
tasks, this can only have a positive effect on their language learning.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Larsen-Freeman, D. y M. H. Long. 1994. An Introduction to Second
Language Acquisition Research. New York: Longman.
Littlewood, W. 1984. Foreign and Second Language Learning. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
Long, M. 1985. Input and second language acquisition theory. In S. Gass
and C. Madden (eds.), Input in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA:
Newbury House.
Nunan, D.1991. Language Teaching Methodology. New York: Prentice Hall.
O‟Malley, M. J. y A. Uhl Chamot. 1993. Learning Strategies in Second
Language Acquisition. N.Y. C.U.P.
Richards, J. C. & Rogers, T. (Eds.) (2001). Approaches and methods in
language Teaching. (2nd Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
192

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THE

Mg. CARLOS FIDEL LOPEZ INCA

Mg. ARNALDO VESALIO GONZALES MEZA

Autor : Mg. Carlos Fidel LOPEZ INCA

Hecho el Depósito Legal en la Biblioteca Nacional del Perú Nº 2013-07002

English is the international language for any purpose, whether diplomatic,

Fortunately, English is a language simple enough; perhaps one of the easiest

For this reasons we as teacher need to be updated in different aspects of the

STRATEGIES AND PROCESSES TO DEVELOP ORAL PRODUCTION

STRATEGIES AND PROCESSES TO DEVELOP WRITTEN COMPREHENSION

STRATEGIES AND PROCESSES TO DEVELOP ORAL PRODUCTION

STRATEGIES TO KNOW ENGLISH FOR TEACHERS IN FORMATION

RESOURSES AND MATERIALS

RESOURSES AND MATERIALS

The teaching of foreign languages and especially in schools is no exception in the

1. The number of native inhabitants who use it.

DEVELOPMENT OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Chomsky's notion of communicative competence in relation with the tacit intuitive

Communicative competence is seen as the ability to control speech situations result

1. Linguistic grammatical competence: The teaching of language must meet the

The development of communication skills, despite being essentially an active

Currently teaching should aspire to qualitative changes in the structures and

Antich, R. 1881. English Composition. Book Publishing for education.

USEFUL STRATEGIES FOR SPEAKING AND WRITING

STRATEGY STRATEGY SET STRATEGY

Where does communicative language teaching come from?

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

a. Focuses on language as a mean of communication. Recognizes that all

b. Communication embraces a whole spectrum of functions (e.g. seeking

c. New syllabuses based on communicative method offered some

d. Professor Dodson distinguishes between language as a 'medium' level

e. Classroom activities maximize opportunities for learners to use target

f. Use of target language asnormal medium for classroom management and

g. Communicative approach is much more student-orientated, because dictated

h. Accent is onfunctional / usable language. Learners should be able to go to

i. Classroom should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations and

j. More emphasis on active modes of learning, including pairwork and group -

n. Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional ways

p. Communicative approach seeks to personalize and localize language and

q. Use of idiomatic / everyday language (even slang words as 'out-pocket'). This

t. Language need not be laboriously monotonous and 'medium' orientated.Can

v. Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources. More interesting

w. Important not to be restricted to textbook, never feel that text-book must be

x. Use of visual stimuli - flashcards - important to provoke practical

BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHERS

 Emphasis on engaging learners in more useful and authentic language rather

 Emphasis on communication and meaning rather than accuracy. Being

 Emphasis is put on the “appropriacy” of language. What are the most

 Communicative competence is the desired goal. i.e. being able to survive,

 Emphasis is put on correct pronunciation and choral (group) and individual

BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR LEARNERS

Communicative Competence ( Canale and Swain, 1980 )

Grammatical Sociolinguistic Competence Strategic Competence

Fluency practice can be contrasted with accuracy practice, which focuses on

ACCURACY vs FLUENCY ACTIVITIES

• Focus on achieving communication

• Require meaningful use of language

• Require the use of communication strategies

• Produce language that may not be predictable

• Seek to link language use to context.

ACTIVITIES FOCUSING ON ACCURACY

• Focus on the formation of correct examples of language

• Practice language out of context