COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

- its primary purpose is to transfer information from one place to another

> TRANSMISSION, RECEPTION & PROCESSING of INFORMATION between

two or more locations using electronic circuits

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM
TRANSMITTER or RECEIVER
COMMUNICATION CHANNEL

NOISE

TRANSMITTER - is a collection of one or more electronic devices or more

electronic devices or circuits that converts the original source information to a form
more suitable for transmission over a particular transmission medium

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM - provide a means of transporting signals between a

transmitter and receiver

RECEIVER - is a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the

transmitted signals from the transmission medium and then converts those signals
back to their original form

SYSTEM NOISE - is any unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the
information signal
TYPES OF ELECTRONICS COMMUNICATIONS

1. One - way or two way transmissions

2. Analog versus digital signals
3. Baseband or modulated signals

1. Classification of Communication Systems

A.) SIMPLEX , SX
- communication travels in one direction only
- receive-only , transmit only , one way only

E.g. Radio & TV broadcasting , telemetry

WIRE WIRELESS

A B A B

A B A B

B.) HALF DUFLEX , HDX

- two way communication but the direction alternates
- two way alternative , either way line

E.G. Radio communication in military,fire, police , fax machine , intercom

A B A B
C.) FULL DUPLEX , FDX
- can send and receive simultaneously
- two -way simultaneous , both way lines

E. G.

A B A B

D.)FULL/ FULL DUPLEX , F/FDX

- transmission of signals of many points

E.G. Networking, multipoint cellphone

2. Types of intelligence

A.) ANALOG SIGNAL

- continuously varying voltage or current

B.) DIGITAL SIGNAL

- earliest forms of both wire and radio communication uses on/off digital code

3. BASEBAND TRANSMISSION
- putting the original voice , video or digital signals directly into the medium

Info can be transmitted by themselves over the medium or may be used to modulate
a carrier
Eg.

Telephone and Intercom communication system

 Voice place on wires and transmitted same distance to the receiver
 Computer networks - digital signals are applied directly to coaxial cable for
transmission to another computer

BUT........ Incompatibility problems.........

BASIC PRINCIPLES

BASIC PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS:

1. FREQUENCY (f)- the number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a given

period of time
- may be a number of voltage polarity alternations or
electromagnetic
field oscillations that takes place in a span of time
- measured in cycle per second(cps) or Hertz(Hz)
* CYCLE - each alternation or oscillation

2. WAVELENGTH(  ) - is the distance between two points of similar cycles of a

periodic wave
- distance traveled by an electromagnetic wave during the time
of one cycle

C
 
f

3. BANDWIDTH(BW) - is the range of frequencies over which the operation of a

system is guaranteed satisfactory
- it is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a
certain signal

f
BW f f
2 1

Q
r
 Where: f2 = upper cut-off frequency
f1 = lower cut-off frequency
fr = resonant frequency
Q = quality factor

4. POWER (P) and DECIBELS (dB)

POWER - its the fundamental quantity representing the rate at which energy is used
- readily measurable since it can be converted to heat

DECIBEL - literally means one-tenth of a bel

“Everything here on earth is analog in nature”

CHARACTERSITIC of A SINE WAVE

1. AMPLITUDE - how high or low the signal varies

- called in sound energy as the LOUDNESS and SOFTNESS

PERFECT SINE WAVE - same peak to peak

- symmetrical

2. FREQUENCY - is the number of and per second

- numbers of repetition
- low and high

Alto - lowest female vocal voice

Bass - lowest male voice
Tenor - higest male voice
Soprano - highest singing voice

3. PHASE - phase angle of the signal

 in phase
 Out of phase
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

WAVES - form of energy that travels from one vibrating particle to the next vibrating
particle of the medium

 EMW - form of energy that travels in free space with the speed of light
 Antenna - most important for communication system
- it depends on the physical length or electrical length

RADIO-FREQUENCY WAVE PROPAGATION

“ once a radio signal has been radiated by the antenna , it will travel or propagate
through space and ultimately reach the receiving antenna”

FACTORS:

 Frequency of the signal

 Atmospheric conditions
 Time of the day

3 BASIC PATH
1. ) GROUND
 Leaves the antenna and remains close to the earth
 Will follow the curvature of the earth
 Strongest at low and medium frequency
 Amplitude modulation , broadcast signals
 At frequency beyond 3 MHz earth begins to attenuate with in several miles
of the antenna

2. ) SKYWAVE SIGNALS
 Radiated by the antenna into the uper atmosphere where it is bent or reflected
back to earth

3. ) DIRECT or SPACE WAVES

 Travels in a straight line directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving
antenna
 LINE-OF-SIGHT COMMUNICATIONS
 not refracted nor follow the curvature of the earth
 block due to the curvature of the earth
 Antenna must be high enough
 Limited to short distances and height of antennas
 Radio above 30 MHz
 FM and TV broadcast are limited
 Antennas on top of the building for good reception
PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

 Is to communicate information between two or more locations

 Accomplished by converting the original info into electromagnetic energy and
transmitting to one or more stations and converted back to original form

EM energy can propagate as a voltage or current along metallic wires , emitted

radio waves through space , or as light waves down to an optical fiber

 is distributed throughout an almost infinite range of frequencies

 are signals that oscillate
 Field intensities fluctuate up and down a given number of times/second
 The oscillations may occur at a very low or at an extremely high frequency

RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

BAND
NUMBER FREQUENCY DESIGNATIONS
1 Communication in water Special application
2 30 Hz - 300 Hz Extremely low frequency
3 300 Hz - 3KHz Voice frequency
4 3 KHz - 30 KHz Very low frequency
5 30 KHz - 300 KHz Low Frequency
6 300 KHz - 3MHz Medium Frequency
7 3 MHz - 30 MHz High Frequency
8 30 MHz - 300 MHz Very High Frequency
9 300 MHz - 3 GHz Ultra high Frequency
10 3 GHz - 30 GHz Super High Frequency
11 30 GHz - 300 GHz Extremely High Frequency
12 0.3 THz - 3 THz
13 3 THz - 30 THz INFRARED
14 30 THz - 300 THz
15 0.3 PHz - 3 PHz Visible light
16 3 PHz - 30 PHz Ultraviolet light
17 30 PHz - 300 PHz X-rays
18 0.3 EHz - 3 EHz Gamma rays
19 3 EHz - 30 EHz Cosmic rays
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

1. EXTREMELY LOW FREQUENCIES (ELF’s)

> 30 - 300 Hz
> Power line frequencies (50 and 60 Hz) and low end human hearing range

2. VOICE FREQUENCIES(VFs)
> 300 - 3000 Hz
> normal rang of human speech
> hearing ( 20-20,000 Hz)

3. VERY LOW FREQUENCIES (VLFs)

> higher end of the human range (15 - 20 KHz)
> musical instruments
> government and military communications

4. LOW FREQUENCIES (LFs)

> 30 300 kHz
> used in aeronautical and marine navigation
> used in subcarriers

5. MEDIUM FREQUENCIES (MFs)

> 300 - 3000 kHz
> AM broadcasting (535 - 1605 kHz)
> marine and aeronautical communication applications

6. HIGH FREQUENCIES (HFs)

> generally know as the short waves
> all kinds of two-way radio communications and shortwave radio broadcasting
> government and military services
> amateur radio and CB communications

7. VERY HIGH FREQUENCIES (VHFs)

> 30 - 300 MHz range
> used by many services ( mobile radio, marine and aeronautical communications)
> FM radio broadcasting (88 - 108 MHz)
> TV channels 2-13
> radio amateurs

8. ULTRAHIGH FREQUENCIES (UHFs)

> 300 - 3000 MHz
> extremely widely used portion
> UHF TV channels 14- 83
> widely used for land mobile communications and services
> military services
> radar and navigational services
> microwaves ( above 1000-MHz) 1GHz
9. SUPERHIGH FREQUENCIES (SHFs)
> 3 - 30 GHz
> microwave frequencies used in satellite communications and radar
> specialized two-way radio communications

10. EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCIES ( EHFs)

> 30 - 300 GHz
>equipment in this range is extremely complex and expensive
> signals above this range are referred as millimeter waves
> satellite communications and specialized radar

RADIO µWAVE INFRARED VISIBLE ULTAVIOLET X-RAY GAMMA RAY

INFRARED - sandwiched between the highest frequency and visible portion

-often given in microns

1 micron = i millionth of a meter

- two areas the long and the short infrared

A. Long infrared 0.01mm-1000nm

B. Short infrared 1000-700 nm

- refers to the radiation that is generally associated with heat

 Light bulbs , our bodies , physical equipment that generates heat

USES:
1. Astronomy
2. Guidance in weapons systems
3. TV remote controls

-uses optical devices to process and manipulate signals

VISIBLE SPECTRUM
- above the infrared region and as referred to LIGHT
- express in angstroms

1 Ǻ = 1 ten thousandth of a micron

- 800 Å (red) - 400 Å (violet)

- can be modulated and transmitted thru glass fibers
 *Fiber optics - fastest growing specialties of communications electronics
- high frequency to handle tremendous amount of information

-can be transmitted through free space

* Laser - can easily be modulated with voice,video and data information

POWER AND DECIBEL

- fundamental quantity representing the RATE at which ENERGY is used

- readily measurable since it can be converted to HEAT
- indicates relation between two powers
- ratio that indicates the relationship between 3 parameters

DECIBEL COMPUTATION

dBW =
dBm =
dBu =
dBn =

dBm  dB 
dBn  dB 
dBu  dB 
dBm  dBm 
dBm  dBm 

DECIBEL - logarithmic unit

E.g. it measures magnitude of earthquake

Richter scale - measures intensity of an earthquake relative to a reference

intensity

- measures the acoustical signals dB - SPL

0 dB - SPL - threshold of hearing

120 dB - SPL - threshold of pain
120 - 140 - engine
Electronic communication - power ratios are enormous range , excessively large or
extremely small numbers

1/6.) Convert the absolute value power ratio of 200 to a power gain in dB

2/6.) Convert a power gain Ap = 23 dB to an absolute power ratio

3/7.) Convert a power level of 200 mW to dBm

1 NEPER = 8.686 dB

20 / ln 10 = 8.686

GTx = 3 dBm
Po = 4 dB
Po = 4 dBm

1/8.) Convert a power of 23 dBm to an absolute power

2. A communication cable is installed and the signal level in volts increased by

1/2 or 50% . What is the increased in dB?

3. A signal is amplified 100 times in power , the dB gain is

4. A signal is attenuated from 5V - 0.1 V?

Homework #1:

2/8.) A three stage system comprised of two amplifiers and one filter . The input
power
Pin = 0.1 mW . Absolute power gains are Ap1 = 100 , Ap2 = 40 , Ap3 = 0.25

Determine
A. Input power in dBm
B. Output power in watts and dBm
C. dB gain of each three stages
D. Overall gain
ELECTRICAL NOISE

> as any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the passband of the signal
> random and unpredictable electrical signals produced by natural processes both
internal and external to the system

* message may be partially corrupted or totally obliterated

Classification:
1. Correlated
2. Uncorrelated

* Uncorrelated Noise - is present regardless of whether there is a signal present or

not

A. External noise
B. Internal noise
C. Man-made noise

A. External noise - noise that is generated outside the device or circuit

Primary Sources:

1. Atmospheric noise - also called Static electricity

- naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate
within Earth’s atmosphere
- caused by LIGHTNING discharges in thunderstorms
- sputtering ,crackling
- form of impulses that spread energy throughout a wide
range of frequencies
- relatively insignificant at frequencies above 30 MHz

2. Extraterrestrial noise - consist of electrical signals that originate from outside

Earth’s atmosphere
- deep space noise
-originates from the Milky way and other galaxies, and
the sun

A. Solar noise - directly from the sun’s heat

* quite condition - a relatively constant radiation intensity exist
* high intensity or sporadic disturbances caused by sunspot
activity and solar flare-ups
Solar cycle repeats every 11 years

SOLAR CYCLE - sunspot solar flares

- influences weather on earth

 Solar flares - magnetic energy associated with sunspots

 Sun’s spots - magnetic storm on the surface of the Sun
IT AFFECTS

 Damage 21st satellites and other hi-tech systems

 Radiation hazards for astronauts and satellites caused by quite sun
 Weather on Earth
 CO2 level volcanic eruptions
 Sun’s activity
 El Nino
 Global climate change

Solar flares 2014

 B. Cosmic noise - continuously distributed throughout galaxies
- black body noise

what they lack in nearness, they nearly makeup in numbers

- RF noise radiated by DISTANT STARS

3. Man- made noise - noise that is produced by mankind

- most intense in a more densely populated metropolitan and
industrial areas
- INDUSTRIAL NOISE

 Spark-producing mechanism
 Commutators in electric motors
 Auto mobile ignition systems
 Ac power generating
 Switching equipment
 Fluorescent lights

- impulsive in nature and contains wide range of frequencies

that are propagated through space in the same manner as radio
waves
B. Internal Noise - is electrical interference generated within a device or circuit

1. Shot noise
2. Partition noise
3. Excess noise
4. Transit time noise
5. Thermal noise

 Shot noise - is caused by the random arrival of carriers at the output element
of an electronic device
- randomly varying and is superimposed onto any signal present
- transistor noise
- first observed in the anode current of a vacuum tube amplifier
(W. Schottky)
- when amplified sounds like metal pellets falling in a thin roof
- additive to thermal noise

I n
 2qI B n

Where:

q = electron charge 1.60210 C
19

I = direct diode current , A
B n
= equivalent noise bandwidth , Hz

 Transit time noise - any modification to a stream of carrier as they pass from
the input to the output of the device
- produces irregular, random variation and is determine by
carrier mobility, bias voltage, and transistor construction
-significant @ high frequency

 Thermal noise (temperature dependent)

- is associated with the rapid and random movement of electrons
within a conductor due to thermal agitation
- Brownian noise, Johnson noise, White noise,random noise

 Brownian noise (discoverer)

- first observed by Robert Brown in a particle nature of matter in pollen grain same
phenomenon with the smoke particle

 Johnson noise (related to Brownian particle- Kinetic Theory)

- J.B. Johnson of Bell laboratory first recognize the random movement of electrons
Each flight of electrons between collisions with molecules constitutes a short pulse of
current and develops a small voltage

 Random noise - due to its random movement at all direction

- produces an AC component

 White noise - analogous to the color

- containing all colors or frequency of light
- prism test

Other noise:

 Partition noise - similar to shot noise but occurs only in dives of single current
separate into two or more path
 Excess noise ( flicker noise , 1/f noise , pink noise )
- more energy at lower frequency
- insignificant at 1 kHz

 Thermal noise sets the upper bound on the performance of a communication

system

> is the random motion of free electrons within a conductor caused by thermal
agitation

NOISE POWER

N = KTB
Where: N = noise power (watts)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
J
K  1.3810
 23

K
T = absolute temperature (Kelvin)

Noise Power, dBm

KTB
N ( dBm)
 10 log
0.001
 KT
N(dBm)  10log
0.001
10logB

N (dBm)
 174dBm10logB

NOISE VOLTAGE

V n
 4 KTBR

Example:

For an electronic device operating at a temperature of 17°C with a bandwidth of 10

kHz, determine
A. Thermal noise power in watts and in dBm
B. rms noise voltage for a 100-ῼ internal resistance and a 100-ῼ load resistance

NOISE DUE TO SEVERAL SOURCES

For Series Sources:

Vn total
 4 KTBRTotal
Where: R Total
 R1  R 2  R 3  ...... R n

For Parallel Sources:

Vn Total
 4KTBRTotal

1 1 1 1 1
Where:     ........
R total R R R
1 2 3 R n

Noise Due To Several Amplifiers in Cascade:

 Req  R  R 2
 R 3

A A A
1 2 2 2
1 1 2

H.W. 1 whole long bondpaper,copy and answer...Organize well your solution.

1. The first stage of a two stage amplifier has a voltage gain of 10, a 600ῼ input
resistance (R1), a 1600ῼ equivalent noise resistance and 27 kῼ output resistance. For
the second stage these values are 25, 81kῼ, 10kῼ, 1Mῼ respectively. Calculate the
Req input noise resistance of 2 stage amplifier. Calculate the noise figure of the
amplifier if it is driven by a generator whose output impedance is 50ῼ, bandwidth of
5 kHz.Calculate the equivalent noise temperature. Calculate the total noise voltage.

Research and do study noise temperature,noise factor,noise figure

 CORRELATED NOISE
- is a form on int rnal noise that is correlated to the signal and cannot be present
e
in a circuit unless there is a signal
- “NO SIGNAL, NO NOISE”
- produce by a non-linear amplification and includes harmonic and
intermodulation distortion

* nonlinear distortion - creates unwanted frequencies that interfere with the

signal and degrade performance

* harmonic distortion - occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are

produced through nonlinear amplification
- amplitude distortion
Harmonics - integers multiples of the original signal

Example:

Determine 2nd , 3rd and 12th harmonic for a 1-kHz repetitive wave

*intermodulation distortion - is the generation of unwanted sum and difference

frequencies produced when two or more signals mix in a non-linear device

Cross products - sum and difference of frequencies

- are produce when harmonics as well as fundamental frequencies
 mix in a non-linear device

Cross product = mf  nf
1 2

Where: f1 and f2 = fundamental frequencies

m and n = positive integers between 1 and ∞
f f1 2

Example:

2.For a non-linear amplifier with two input frequencies, 3 kHz and

8kHz,determine
A.) First three harmonics present in the output for each input frequency
B.) Cross- product frequencies produced for values of m and n of 1 and 2

IMPULSE NOISE - is characterized by a high amplitude peaks of short duration in

the total noise spectrum
- consist of sudden burst of irregularly shaped pulses that are
generally last between a few microseconds and several milliseconds,
depending on their amplitude and origin

Sources:
1. Transients from electromechanical switches
2. Electric motors
3. Appliances
4. Electric lights and power lines
5. Automotive ignition systems
6. Poor -quality solder joints and lightning

ELECTRICAL NOISE SOURCE SUMMARY:

Correlated noise ( internal)
Nonlinear distortion
Harmonic distortion
Intermodulation distortion
Uncorrelated noise
External
Atmospheric
Extraterrestrial
Solar
Cosmic
Man-made
Impulse
Interference
Internal
Thermal
Shot
Transient time
ELECTRICAL INTERFERENCE - occurs when information signals from one
source produce frequencies that fall outside their allocated bandwidth and interfere
with information signals from another source
- contamination by extraneous signals from sources and
other transmitters, power lines and machinery and
switching circuits
-occurs most often in radio systems whose receiving
antennas usually intercept general signals at the same time

RFI ( Radio Frequency Interference) -appears in cable systems

- occurs in the radio-frequency spectrum

Signal-to-Noise Power Ratio

- is the ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level

Mathematically,

S PS

N PN

Where: Ps = signal power (watts)

Pn = noise power ( watts)

> is often expressed as a logarithmic function with the decibel unit

(dB)  10log PS
S
N PN
Example:
1. For an amplifier with an output signal power of 10 W and output noise power
of
0.01 W,determine the signal-to-noise power ratio and in decibels

> can also be expressed in terms of voltages and resistances

 V 2 
 S 
( dB )  10 log 2 R in 
S  
N V n 

 Rout 
Where: S/N = signal-to-noise power ratio (decibels)
Rin = input resistance (ohms)
Rout = output resistance (ohms)
Vs = signal voltage ( volts)

(dB)  20logV S
S
N VN
Example:

For an amplifier with an output signal voltage of 4 V an output noise voltage 0.005 V,
and an input and output resistance of 50 ῼ, determine the signal-to-noise power ratio

NOISE FACTOR and NOISE FIGURE

Noise factor (F) and Noise figure (NF) - are figures of merits used to indicate how
much the signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a signal passes through a circuit or series
of circuits

Noise factor (F)- is simply a ratio of input signal-to-noise power ratio to output
signal-to-noise power ratio

input signal  to  noise power ratio

F (unitless )
output signal  to  noise power ratio

Noise figure (NF) - is simply the noise factor stated in dB

- a parameter used to indicate the quality of a receiver

input signal  to  noise power ratio

NF ( dB)  10 log
output signal  to  noise power ratio
 NF(dB)  10 log F
- indicates how much the signal-to-noise ratio deteriorates as a waveform
propagates from the input to the output of a circuit

For a perfect, noiseless circuit

F=1 NF = 0 dB

HOMEWORK #3:

For a nonideal amplifier and the following parameters, determine

A. ) input S/N ratio (dB)
B. ) output S/N ratio (dB)
C. ) Noise factor and noise figure
Input signal power = 210 W
10

210
18
Input noise power = W

Power gain = 1,000,000

Internal noise (Nd) = 610 W
12

FRISS’ FORMULA - is used to calculate the total noise factor of several cascaded
amplifiers

F T  F1  F 2  F3 F 1
1 1
 n

A 1 A A A A .... A
1 2 1 2 n

Note: In Friss’ formula , the noise figure must be converted to noise factors

NF (dB)  10log F
T T

Example:

For three cascaded amplifier stages, each with noise figure of 3dB and a power gains
of 10 dB, determine the total noise figure
EQUIVALENT NOISE TEMPEARTURE (Te)

- is a hypothetical value that cannot be directly measured

- a convenient parameter often used in VHF, UHF,microwave and satellite radio
receivers

N
T
KB
where: T = environmental temperature (kelvin)
N = noise power (watts)
K = Boltzmann’s constant (J/K)
B = bandwidth (Hz)

T e
 T ( F  1)
Where: Te = equivalent noise temperature (kelvin)
T = environmental temperature ( 290 K)
F = noise factor (unitless)

F  1 T e

T a

Determine

A. Noise figure for an equivalent noise temperature of 75 K

B. Equivalent noise temperature for a noise figure of 6 dB