V ol. 25. N o. 185. March 1939.

TANK S T R A P P IN G .*
By P . K err, M.A., B.Sc., A.I.C. (Member).

S y n o p s is .

T h e p a p e r suggests decision in adv an ce on th e m ax im u m u n c e rta in ty p e r­

m issible in th e ta n k ta b le w hich is to be p roduced. M easurem ents on th e
ta n k m a y th e n be m ad e w ith th e low est perm issible precision, a n d therefore
w ith th e g re a te st ease. O nly those corrections a n d allow ances w hich are
necessary to secure th e desired accuracy in th e final tab le need be included.
A pplying th is principle, th e p a p e r sets o u t th e chief p re ca u tio n s necessary
w h en tab le s o f hig h accuracy are to be p re p a re d from e x te rn a l m ea su re m e n ts
o f ta n k circum ferences. O th e r m eth o d s o f ta n k c a lib ra tio n are discussed
only so fa r as th e y b e a r on th e m e th o d considered.
T he chief corrections to a p p a re n t e x te rn a l circum ferences re q u ire d to
o b ta in th e m ean horizo n tal in te rn a l cross-sectional a re a for each course are
th e n discussed. These include th e effects o f th e te m p e ra tu re , ten sio n or
erro rs o f g ra d u a tio n of th e ta p e , a n d o f d isp lacem en ts o f th e ta p e from th e
ta n k surface b y v e rtica l seam edges or o th e r obstacles, o r th ro u g h local
d isto rtio n o f th e ta n k p late s. T he effects o f slig h t conicity a n d e llip tic ity
of th e courses are considered, as also t h a t o f t il t o f th e ta n k as a w hole.
C orrections depending on th e m ea n te m p e ra tu re o f use o f th e ta n k a n d its
ex p an sio n u n d e r th e h e a d o f oil in it a re discussed, as also th o se for p la te
a n d p a in t thickness, a n d for in te rn a l fittin g s. T he a d ju s tm e n t o f ta b le s for
irreg u laritie s in th e shape o f th e ta n k b o tto m is also considered briefly.

T a n k s m ay be satisfactorily calibrated in m an y different ways. The

m ethod discussed below is th a t of “ strapping ” or m easuring ap p aren t
circumferences outside th e tan k . Correction is m ade la ter for all factors
which affect th e final tables.
W ith this m ethod th e principal m easurem ents m ay be tak en while th e
ta n k is in use, and less im p o rtan t m easurem ents m ay usually be tak en from
th e drawings. In a busy installation it is seldom easy to em pty a ta n k
completely. I t is, however, difficult to m easure th e effect of corrosion in th e
plates of old tan k s w ithout this.

P r e l im in a r ie s .

Before beginning work, th e degree of accuracy required in th e final tables

should be decided. This decision avoids w aste of tim e in taking unneces­
sarily exact m easurem ents, and again secures inclusion of all precautions in
working and corrections really required. I f oil shortages or discrepancies
require investigation later, it is essential to know how far one can rely on
the ta n k tables.
This degree of accuracy is m ost sim ply expressed as a tolerance-—say, th e
percentage error permissible in th e final tables. The exact error present in
tables is never know n : if it were, th e tables would be corrected. There is
therefore some advantage in expressing th e degree of accuracy aim ed a t or
achieved as a “ probable error ” or “ sta n d a rd deviation.”
Many non-technical considerations bear on th e choice of such tolerances.
Time an d staff m ay be lim ited, and costs have usually to be k e p t down.
A highly valuable p roduct w ould call for sm aller tolerances th a n would
* P a p e r p re se n te d for D iscu ssio n a t th e O ne H u n d re d a n d E ig h ty -fifth G eneral
M eeting of th e I n s t i tu t e of P e tro le u m h e ld on 10th J a n u a ry , 1939.
110 KERR : TANK STR A PPIN G .

water. On the other hand, if a ta n k tab le is to rem ain in use for several
years, it m ay pay to avoid even small errors. The to ta l effect of these
might ultim ately add up to a considerable cash value, even w ith a relatively
cheap product.
I t is sometimes argued th a t since it is im practicable to m easure the
am ount of oil in a ta n k exactly, and since th e un certain ty of a single measure­
m ent m ay represent a large num ber of gallons, it is therefore unnecessary to
aim a t high precision in tan k tables. In th e w riter’s view, th is is incorrect.
First, the unavoidable errors in m easuring oil quantities are often over­
estimated. Again, if gauging is properly carried out, th e m easurem ents
will sometimes slightly over-estim ate, som etim es under-estim ate, th e oil
quantity. Taken over a sufficient series of m easurem ents, such fortuitous
errors tend to cancel out in percentage. I f th e ta n k tables contain any
given percentage inaccuracy, this error will be present in all quantity
calculations. The error is system atic, and does n o t ten d to cancel out in
percentage, no m atter how m any consecutive m easurem ents are averaged.
The u tility of good ta n k tables in controlling w orking losses is obvious.
Technical considerations also bear on th e selection of tolerances. Meas­
urem ent difficulties increase rapidly as th e error allowable is reduced.
The precision with which m easurem ents m ust be tak en increases. Cor­
rections negligible for rougher work m ust be included in finer calibrations.
To a great extent, therefore, details m ust depend on th e circumstances of
the case. To be of general use, this note necessarily describes m ethods of
high accuracy. Those who feel th a t too m any corrections and precautions
are included are rem inded th a t by choosing lower standards of accuracy,
m any of these m ay be neglected.

C a l ib r a t io n by F il l in g .

For a given am ount of care, strapping tends to give higher percentage

uncertainties on small tanks th a n on large. A common m ethod of cali­
brating smaller tanks, often applied also to calibrate irregular p arts of larger
tanks, is to fill measured quantities of liquid into th e ta n k , th e resulting
depth of liquid being m easured after each addition. F o r any previously
chosen degree of uncertainty in the results, the trouble and expense of this
m ethod by filling increase w ith the size of th e ta n k calibrated. I t is usual,
therefore, to strap larger tanks and fill smaller. As th e size of the tank
decreases, a point is reached a t which the cost of securing a given accuracy
by strapping becomes greater th a n th a t by filling. I t is a t this point—
adm ittedly somewhat indefinite—th a t one should change over from the one
m ethod to the other. This note does not fully discuss m ethods other than
th a t of strapping, and this implies th a t tanks of suitably large diam eter are
alone considered. These norm ally approxim ate to vertical cylinders, and
other shapes are not considered here.

C a l ib r a t io n from D r a w in g s .

Tanks are now usually made in standard sizes, and th e accuracy of their
construction is much greater th a n formerly. The plates for any one course
are usually interchangeable. Such tanks approxim ate very closely to the
 KERR : TANK STR A PPIN G . I ll

dimensions shown on th eir drawings. Tables of very satisfactory accuracy

m ay th en be calculated from th e draw ings in advance of erection, this
allowing th e ta n k to be brought into use w ithout delay.
- Such tables do not, and cannot, allow for irregular deform ation of the ta n k
bottom on its foundations, b u t this p a rt of a ta n k is seldom used for precise
measurem ents. Oil received into or delivered from a ta n k m ay be fairly
satisfactorily m easured w ithout bottom calibration, provided th a t the ta n k is
no t em ptied. I t is perhaps th e rule ra th e r th a n th e exception to neglect
such irregularities. Oil-stock figures are affected by this neglect. W here
these are im p o rtan t, th e ta n k bottom m ay be calibrated. In some cases
w ater bottom s are p u t into tan k s, which elim inates th e effect on stocks,
b u t storage space is w asted b y this if th e ta n k bo ttom is known to be tight.
Official regulations in m an y countries dem and th e production of ta n k
tables from m easurem ents m ade on th e ta n k after erection. E xcept for
this, in th e a u th o r’s view th e production of th e final tables for standard
tan k s b y calculation from th e draw ings m ight usefully be applied more
widely th a n a t present. The verifications necessary are perhaps m ost
open to those who purchase a large num ber of tanks. Comparison of
recorded m easurem ents on tan k s previously erected w ith th e corresponding
figures calculated from th e drawings, th en shows w hether th e sta n d a rd tan k s
of a particular m aker m atch th e drawings sufficiently closely to allow tables
to be ten tativ ely calculated as suggested.
Before tables so calculated are accepted as final for a fu rth er ta n k , th e
erection engineer should rep o rt for this th a t little or no ream ing of th e
riv et holes has been necessary before rivets were driven, an d also th a t th e
ta n k after erection showed little or no leakage a t th e seams. A single
circumference m ay be m easured a t some convenient height on th e ta n k as a
check th a t all is in order. Such other check m easurem ents as are easily
m ade m ay also be taken. The savings are considerable, for n o t only are
m easurem ents largely avoided, b u t th e sta n d a rd tab le calculated for any
particular ta n k m ay be used again for other ta n k s of th e same size, so th a t
calculation an d printing are also reduced.
E ven when direct m easurem ents m u st be tak en, th e ta n k draw ings, if
available, give a valuable check. I t is useful to calculate out beforehand
th e circumferences and other m easurem ents w hich should be found by th e
strapper. A ny notable deviation of his m easurem ents from those expected
th en directs a tte n tio n a t once to th e need for careful verification of th e
m easurem ents found. Especially if th e crew has to be sent some distance
for th e work, or if th e production of reliable tables is an urgent m atter,
th e saving as com pared w ith la te r detection and verification of th e
discrepancies is often considerable.
In these prelim inary calculations it is useful to give n o t only th e figures
expected, b u t also th e tolerance allowable on each of these while still m ain ­
taining th e required accuracy in th e final tables. Rechecking of m inor
discrepancies in observed m easurem ents is th u s obviated.

R e c a l ib r a t io n .

Decision to recalibrate tan k ag e is usually tak en only when discrepancies

in m easurem ents have become troublesom e. Before th is is decided on, it
112 KERB : TANK STR A PPIN G .

is well to verify local m easurem ent procedure on all th e sim pler points in
which faults are likely to he found. I f visual inspection of a ta n k shows
it to be well made an d free from flats or deform ations, m easurem ent of a
single circumference a t some convenient level, usually near th e bottom of
the second course, taken in conjunction w ith external m easurem ent of the
plate thicknesses, overlaps and heights for all courses, is usually sufficient
to show whether th e cost of recalibration is or is n o t justified. The course
heights used in calculating the ta n k capacities m u st natu rally be th e internal
heights, b u t one can usually estim ate these w ith sufficient accuracy from the
external course heights and th e seam overlaps. Much depends on the
condition of the tank, b u t for tan k s w ithout visible irregularities an
excellent check is often obtained.
F urther check on th e accuracy w ith w hich th e final tables have been
constructed is often obtainable from oil transfers. The m easurements
made in another ta n k from which th e newly calibrated ta n k is filled, or
into which it is emptied, are com pared w ith those tak en in th e ta n k under
check. Auxiliary tanks used for this m ust them selves be know n to be well
calibrated. The precision w ith which such m easurem ents, purely internal
to the installation, are m ade in ordinary routine is sometimes no t very high.
I t m ay be necessary to average a sufficiently long series of transfers before
a good comparison is obtained. The greater th e variation in percentage
difference between separate comparisons, th e greater th e num ber of
individual cases which m ust be averaged before th e com parison is relied on.
This comparison is affected by pum ping losses in th e case of volatile
products. Some compensation for this evaporation m ay be obtained by
taking comparisons both into and out of th e ta n k concerned. I f the pum p­
ing operations are reasonably similar, then th e shortage due to loss in
receipts will be balanced, a t least to some extent, by th e shortage due to
loss in deliveries, both losses being best expressed as percentages on the
quantities handled.
S t r a p p in g L e v e l s .

The upper edges of external courses form a very convenient ledge on

which to rest the tape if a circumference a t th e bottom of th e next higher
inner course is being measured. In the a u th o r’s view, th e tem ptation to
use this as a level a t which to measure a circumference should be resisted.
Rivets are driven hot, and unless th e plate is very thick, it is often possible
to detect a local spreading of the plate. This local distortion is usually
completely negligible in its real effect on the ta n k capacity. I f the tan k is
strapped a t this level, however, the distorted circumference is then taken
as applying to the whole height of the course, or even to more th a n one
course, according to the num ber of levels measured. The edges of plates are
the parts most hable to slight irregularities. I t is preferable to avoid these
levels as much as possible in strapping.
I f the tan k to be strapped has been painted, a little p a in t often drains
down and is caught by the upper edges of outer plates. The effect is
irregular, and a satisfactory circumference can often be obtained a t this
luv el only after removal of the paint. The trouble is best avoided by making
the rule of not strapping within, say, four inches of th e seam. This rule is
also applied when strapping lower circumferences on outer courses.
 KERR : TANK STR A PPIN G . 113

“ Referee ” m ethods for strapping tan k s usually call for a t least one
circumference to be m easured on each course. I f there is sufficiently close
agreem ent betw een th e observed m easurem ents and those calculated from
th e drawings, th en some of th e courses— say, every second—m ight reason­
ably be om itted from m easurem ent. A ppropriate rules for such omissions
are, however, a little difficult to form ulate in a m anner suitable for use by
th e strappers. I t m ay aLso be doubted w hether such rules would effect
su b stan tial economies. Once th e expense of getting th e stra p p er’s crew
an d gear to th e ta n k has been faced, th e additional cost of strap p in g a
few m ore circumferences is not very great. The saving m ight be useful in
th e case of a very busy crew. Those m ethods in which a smaller num ber of
courses to be strapped is laid down in advance of an y inform ation as to th e
regularity of th e tan k , leave one som ew hat uncertain as to th e real accuracy
of th e resulting tables, if n o t of th e results them selves.
I f th is view is accepted, th en a circumference is m easured near th e bottom
of each course of th e ta n k , w ith another near th e to p of th e to p course.
These circumferences should n o t be m easured too close to th e joints, b u t
should be tak en , say, four to six inches above horizontal seams. The
exact levels used are chosen so th a t th e tap e passes w ith a m inim um am ount
of interference betw een th e rivets of th e vertical seams.

S t r a p p in g T a p e s .

Circumferences are m ost conveniently m easured by m eans of a steel tape.

This is stretched around th e ta n k a t some convenient tension— usually 10
lbs. I t is a little difficult to be quite sure th a t th e tension is tran sm itte d
uniform ly around th e tan k . Possible errors resulting from th is would be
minimized if th e tap e were of large cross-sectional area. This would be
secured by using a wide or th ick tape.
A gainst this, a narrow ta p e is to be preferred if it is to pass am ong th e
rivet-heads a t th e vertical seams w ith th e m inim um am ount of interference.
I t is n o t desirable th a t th e ta p e should be so wide th a t it m ust pass entirely
over these rivet-heads. Correction of circumferences so m easured for th e
displacem ent of th e ta p e by th e rivet-heads would n o t be difficult, b u t th e
great practical advantage of having th e ta p e pass nearer th e ta n k surface
is th a t th e rivet-heads help greatly in keeping th e tap e to its proper p a th
round th e tan k .
Again, tapes are m ost conveniently k e p t wound up on a fram e when not
in use. I f th e tap e is thick, it tends w hen unw ound to reta in th e set given
it by this winding, which leads to g re a t practical difficulties.
B oth th e w idth and th e thickness of th e ta p e are therefore a m a tte r of
compromise. I t is desirable th a t th e tap e should be flat, since it th en
tends n atu rally to follow its proper p a th betw een th e supporting rivet-
heads.
The m ethods used b y reputable m akers in th eir m anufacture of steel
tapes are of very high precision. E rrors of graduation in these seldom
am ount to m ore th a n a few p arts per 100,000 of th e length m easured. Tapes
used in ta n k strapping should of course be calibrated stretch ed horizontally
a t the tension a t which th ey are to be used. T h ey v ary in length with th eir
tem perature. The tem p eratu re a t which th e sm all corrections occasionally
114 KERR : TANK STR A PPIN G .

found necessary are given is now always 68° F. (20° C.) • I f errors are present
in the tape itself, the ap parent circumference figure is corrected for their
effect, the corrections being given on th e calibration certificate.

T a pe T e m per a tu r e.

Since it is difficult to measure th e ta p e tem p erature, and since this

affects the readings obtained, it is desirable, w hen good figures are required,
to strap tanks a t such a tim e of d ay th a t th e air and th e ta n k contents are
at about the same tem perature. Especially if th e p late surfaces are rusty,
pitted or painted, the tape m ay easily n o t be in good therm al contact with
the tank. In strong sunshine the high tem p eratu re tak en up by th e tape in
such cases is readily detectable by running th e finger along it. Another
m ethod for avoiding the uncertainties which arise from this cause is to use
a nickel alloy tape of very low coefficient of therm al expansion. Such tapes
are, however, rather expensive. Since th ey are brittle, such care m ust be
taken in their use th a t, in the w riter’s opinion, th ey are h ard ly practicable
for routine strapping.
I f their tem perature changes, steel tan k s expand or contract both hori­
zontally and vertically, b u t such changes in their dimensions are not
measurable w ith steel tapes, since these rapidly tak e up th e tem perature of
the m aterials with which th ey are in contact. The effect of this on tank
tables is perhaps rath er unexpected. I f a ta n k is strapped when the air,
the tape and the tan k plates are all a t 20° C., then, setting aside other
corrections possibly necessary, th e circumference m easured will be correctly
th a t of the tan k a t 20° C., if this is th e tem p erature a t which the tape is
correct. I f the air, tape and ta n k tem peratures are all raised—say, to
30° C.—then the steel tap e will expand a t closely the same ra te as the steel
tank. The circumference obtained will no t be th e tru e circumference of
the tan k a t 30° C., b u t will still be th a t a t 20° C., th e tem perature of cali­
bration of the tape. I f the precautions described in th e preceding paragraph
have been taken, the circumferences obtained m ay and m ust be regarded as
those which the tan k would have a t the tem perature of calibration of the
tape.
I t is then permissible and possible to correct th e tables to th e normal or
average working tem perature of the tank. I f the ta n k has been strapped
w ithout these precautions, a small error, th e lim it of which is not exactly
known, will be introduced.

T a p e D is p l a c e m e n t s .

The courses of tanks, especially those of in-and-out construction, approxi­

mate closely to right cylinders on the same axis, each course differing slightly
in its dimensions from those above and below it. I f th e tape, in strapping,
is made to take a p ath lying in a plane a t rig h t angles to th e common axis,
the circumference so m easured will be approxim ately circular. The
exposed plate edges define such planes, even if the ta n k is tilted. The path
w ich the tape should tak e m ay either be m arked in advance by measure­
m ent from the nearest convenient edge, or th e tap e m ay be adjusted to the
path after it has been placed in approxim ate position.
 KEEK : TANK STR A PPIN G . 115

An assum ption underlying th e m ethod is th a t th e circumferences so

m easured are sufficiently circular to be corrected to tru e circles, and th a t
th e cross-sectional area of th e ta n k a t th a t level m ay be calculated from
these. I f th e ta n k were tru ly circular, as m ight be th e case w ith a welded
tan k , th e n th e ta p e would he in contact w ith th e p late surface throughout
its whole length. A ny dep artu re of th e ta p e from th e ta n k surface is th ere­
fore a w arning th a t steps m ay have to be tak en to apply an appropriate
correction.
I f th e ta n k plates have been bad ly handled before erection, or if th e ta n k
sides have been blown in b y th e w ind during this, perm anent flats or
deform ations m ay be left in th e ta n k sides. Slight flattening is also usually
noticeable above an d below vertical seams, especially w ith half-plate
staggering of these betw een courses. The form ation of a flat generally
forces th e p late on each side of th e flat to project a little outside th e circum ­
ference of a n undam aged plate. R elatively slight flattening is therefore
sufficient to cause th e ta p e to leave th e ta n k surface. The strapper should
be required to verify th a t th e tap e m aintains norm al contact w ith th e
ta n k over each circumference m easured.
W hen th e flattening is severe and a considerable length of tap e comes out
of contact, th e levels affected m ust be considered as irregular. The m ethod
of filling m ight be applied to obtain th e tab le for th e levels affected, or th e
effect of th e deform ation on th e ta n k capacity m ay be obtained by suitable
survey. Such cases are relatively rare, since serious deform ation of th e
plate will generally result in erection difficulties. The question is discussed
more fully below.
The ta p e m ay leave th e ta n k surface thro u g h passing over rivet-heads.
The level strap p ed m ay usually he chosen to avoid these supporting
in tern al fittings, b u t i t is often im practicable to avoid those of doubly or
treb ly riv eted vertical seams. E ven w ith single riveting, vertical seam
edges norm ally displace th e tape. B u tt-strap s, and in some cases external
fittings, cannot be avoided.
S t e p -O v e r s .

All these cases are m et b y using th e “ step-over,” a rigid fram e supporting

tw o scribing points. I ts shape and th e gap betw een th e points are so chosen
th a t w hen one of these is applied to th e ta n k surface on one side of th e
obstacle, th e other m ay be brought in contact on th e other side. The
points should touch th e plates well clear of a n y local distortions. Con­
venience m ay dem and m ore th a n one size of step-over.
F or large obstacles, such as fittings, th e level strapped is first m arked on
both sides of th e obstacle. A fine vertical line is th e n draw n a t right
angles to th is ta p e p a th on one side, an d th e p a rtial circumference u p to
th a t line is m easured w ith th e tape. One of th e scribing points is th en placed
on this “ zero ” line, and th e other point m ade to scribe a second zero line
a t th e proper level on th e other side. Strapping is continued on from th is
second line, th e effective length of th e step-over gap being added in later to
th e p a rts of th e circumference m easured w ith th e tape.
This effective length is not, of course, th e linear distance betw een the
scribing points, b u t th e arc of th e u ndisturbed course circumference con­
tained betw een them . This varies w ith th e radius of th e course, m ost
116 KERR : TANK STR A PPIN G .

rapidly if the tan k is of small diam eter. I f th e linear distance betw een the
points is measured j it is easy to calculate th e effecti\ e length for any course
radius. I f preferred, th e value of th e gap m ay be determ ined on th e course
itself. For this, the tap e is stretched out on th e course exactly as if a cir­
cumference were being measured, though it is n o t necessary th a t th e tape
should encircle the tan k completely. The step-over is th en applied to the
tape where it lies in good contact w ith th e ta n k surface— th a t is, usually
about the middle of a plate. The distance read off on th e tap e between
the scribing points is then th e effective length of the gap for th a t course.
I t is best to repeat this m easurem ent a t several points around th e tank
circumference, and to take the average of th e results as th e value for the
gap. This is esssential if the course is ou t of round—say, elliptical—in
section.
Alternatively, the circumference m ay be strap ped over th e obstacles, as
if they were not there. This is th e more convenient m ethod for a series of
small similar obstructions—say, vertical seams an d th eir rivets, or hutt-
straps. W ith the tape still in position under tension after strapping, the
step-over is applied across the obstacles, and th e ap p aren t distance between
the points is read off on the tape. The tru e value of the gap for the par­
ticular circumference being known, the difference between this and the length
read off on the tape is the effect of th e obstacle on th e circumference
measured.
The tape will norm ally pass in th e same w ay through all vertical seam or
bu tt-strap rivet-heads on any one course. The effect of one obstacle will
then be the same as th a t of another of the same type. I t is then unneces­
sary to apply the step-over across each obstacle. A sufficient number of
corrections are obtained to verify th a t th e obstacles are really similar in
effect, and to give a fair average figure for the correction. In correcting
the circumference, this average is m ultiplied by th e known number of
obstacles. Since the average is to be m ultiplied, often by a considerable
number, great care should be taken in the individual observations. The
average m ay usefully be calculated a decimal place fu rth e r th a n is obtain­
able with the individual measurements, to avoid arithm etical error from the
subsequent multiplication.
B utt-strap corrections naturally v ary w ith th e size an d thickness of the
butt-strap. Even for vertical seam corrections, th e average correction for
one course should not be applied to correct circumferences on another
course, unless the courses are sim ilar and th e tap e passes in the same
way through the rivet-heads.
W hen the types of tan k calibrated are standard, it is possible to tabulate
adequate corrections, best by averaging previous m easurem ents made on
similar tanks. This obviates much of the need for th e step-over, especially
on the higher parts of the tan k , which are usually troublesom e to reach.
The width of the tape used in strapping m ust also have been standardized
before such tables can be applied, since in general this w idth will affect the
amount by which the tape is raised from th e ta n k surface in passing through
vertical seam or b u tt-strap rivet heads.
On tanks which are not standard, or no t to the same standard, tape paths
across vertical seams m ay vary, altering th e value of th e correction applic-
a j c. ie edge of a seam norm ally projects above th e cylindrical surface of
 KERR : TANK STR A PPIN G . 117

th e ta n k , b u t seams sufficiently re-en tran t to allow th e tap e to pass over

them clear of all interference are occasionally m et with.

Oval and C o n ic a l Co u r s e s .

W ith o u t causing th e tap e to leave th e ta n k surface, ta n k courses m ay

d ep a rt from cylinders either horizontally or vertically. They m ay be
elliptical in section, or otherwise out of round. These general deform ations
m ust be severe before th ey have an y substantial effect on th e tables for the
tan k . The circle is th e figure of m axim um area for a given circumference.
I f therefore a course, originally circular in section, is slightly deformed in
such a w ay th a t it still gives th e same m easured circumference, th e resulting
alteratio n to th e cross-sectional area is necessarily of a t least th e second
order. If, for example, a course originally circular is slightly deformed
into an ellipse of th e same circumference, th e percentage correction to the
calculated cross-sectional area of th e ta n k is approxim ately 9e4, where e is
th e eccentricity of th e ellipse formed. The ta n k bottom and th e heavy
plates of lower courses ten d to keep these levels circular, as also roof-girders
th e to p courses. Tanks are m ost often ou t of round about m id-height.
W h at has ju st been said applies also to local deform ation of plates. Slight
local flattening of a plate throw s its centre tow ards, and its borders o u t­
w ards from th e ta n k centre. The real perim eter of th e ta n k is n o t altered,
an d its cross-section a t th a t level only negligibly. I f th e tap e still m ain­
tain ed contact w ith th e ta n k surface, there would seldom be an y need to
correct th e tables. The need for correction usually arises from th e ta p e ’s
leaving th e ta n k surface, which, so to speak, gives an erroneous
circumference.
I f a circumference on each course is called for, th e flat m ay often be avoided
by choosing a different level a t which to strap, relying on th e proof ju st
given th a t slight flats do n o t appreciably affect capacities. Special survey
of th e flattened area, or th e use of th e m ethod of filling, is seldom really
justified.
I f tan k s are strapped when th e y are full of oil or nearly so, th e oil head
tends to round ou t irregularities. As has been shown, this does n o t usually
alter th e ta n k capacity, b u t it does reduce th e risk of troubles from local
flattening, so th a t it is advantageous to strap tan k s when th e y are full.
“ Shingled ” tanks, or those in w hich th e lower edge of each course lies
outside th e u pper edge of th e course below, are sometimes m et with. Such
tan k s m ay be telescopic in construction, or th e general diam eter m ay be
preserved by coning th e courses.
I f th e course is only slightly coned, th e n a circumference m ight be
m easured a t th e m iddle of th e courses. T his would th en be sufficiently
close to th e m ean circumference of its course to be used in calculating
the ta n k table. The au th o r prefers, however, to retain th e m ethod sug­
gested above—th a t of m easuring a circumference near th e bottom of each
course, w ith one m ore near th e ta n k top. The circumference m easured
a t th e bottom of an y course is th en g reater th a n th e proper average for th e
course. A sufficiently correct average for th e course is, however, obtained
by calculating a circumference for th e to p of th e course, w ith subsequent
averaging of this w ith th e m easured bottom circumference.
118 KERB : TANK STR A PPIN G .

Calculation of the required top circumference is usually n o t difficult.

The bottom circumference of the n ex t higher p late is available. The chief
cause of difference between this and the calculated circumference required
is the thickness of the overlap between th e tw o courses. I f therefore the
measured circumference on th e n ex t higher plate is corrected for th e effect
of its plate thickness, the required second circumference is obtained. The
labour consists in taking the appropriate correction from th e tabulated
effects of plate thickness m entioned below, subtraction of this from the
upper plate circumference, w ith subsequent averaging as described.
Neither of the two procedures ju st discussed is theoretically quite correct.
In forming the table, it is the tru e capacity of th e course th a t is to be aimed
at. The volume of the frustum of a cone is n o t obtained exactly by m ulti­
plying the area of its mid-section by th e height of th e frustum . The
correction is usually entirely negligible in th e cases under consideration,
but the m ethod suggested allows a small and easily calculated correction to
be applied, if this is thought necessary. The chief advantage of the
suggested method, however, is th a t it allows a single stan d ard strapping
procedure to be adopted for any common form of ta n k construction.
Where coning is intentional and severe, radically different m ethods of
calibration would be adopted. Such cases arise w ith coned bottom s of
agitators, and the like.

E x p a n s io n under O il H ead.

W hen tanks are strapped full of oil, slight conicity of th eir courses is
always present. The m etal of the plates expands under th e oil head, and
this effect is greater a t the bottom of a course th a n a t th e top. The
procedure just given is sufficient to allow for this conicity, except some­
times for the bottom course.
The bottom plates stiffen the resistance to expansion of th e lower part of
the bottom course. I t is usually impossible to detect any expansion under
oil head near the bottom angle iron. Higher up th e course th e resistance
lessens, until a t the top, if not before, the expansion under oil head is very
closely th a t calculated from theory. The shape of th e bottom course is
then roughly th a t of an inverted conical frustum , b u t th e sides of this
frustum are slightly convex outwards. To allow properly for this effect
in the tables, it m ay be necessary to measure a circumference near the
middle of the course, in addition to th a t near th e bottom . The bottom
course is then treated in calculation as if it were two courses, each of slight
conicity.
T il t .

If a tank is tilted from the vertical, th en th e oil sui'face is not circular,

but elliptical. The capacity of th e ta n k per u n it depth, gauged in the
usual way, is greater th an if the tan k were tru ly vertical. In almost all
practical cases the effect is so slight th a t it m ay be neglected. I f a tilted
tank were brought back to the vertical and th en inclined to th e other side,
the surface area of the oil in it would pass through a m inim um as the tank
passes through the vertical. The effects of slight tilt are, therefore, of the
second order. I t may easily be shown th a t a ta n k m ust be tilted by 0-8
 KERR : TANK STR A PPIN G . 119

of a degree from th e vertical before its volum e per u n it depth, taken

vertically, is altered by 0 01 per cent. Long before such tilts are reached—
say, b y settlem ent of th e ta n k foundations—th e ta n k has usually been
re-levelled b y th e engineers in charge. Especially if th e tilted ta n k stands
among others which are vertical, th e eye appears to be very sensitive to
any lack of verticality. The strap p er m ay be asked to rep o rt an y visible
tilt, b u t th is usually leads to more cases being reported th a n really require
correction.
P late and P a in t T h ic k n e s s .

The capacity of a ta n k is determ ined b y its internal, n o t its external

dimensions, an d th e la tte r m ust therefore be suitably corrected. The
thickness of th e plates and of th e p ain t, if any, over which strappings have
been ta k e n m ust be allowed for. One m ay, if one chooses, calculate th e
external radius of each course, an d su b tra c t th e corresponding p late and
p ain t thicknesses. I t is, however, m athem atically equivalent, and in
practice m ore convenient, to reduce external circumferences directly to
internal b y suitable allowances for plate and p a in t thicknesses.
These tw o thicknesses are conveniently tak en together. F or every
l/1 6 th of an inch in th is combined thickness, th e external circumference
should be reduced b y 0 0327 of a foot. I t is convenient to m ake a short
table of m ultiples of this figure, from which m ay be tak e n directly th e
correction for an y whole num ber of sixteenths of thickness. The corrections
for l/3 2 n d and l/6 4 th of an inch are proportional, an d m ay be given
separately, to be added in when necessary.
L ater on, w hen th e fully corrected m ean internal circumference of a
course has been obtained, m ultiplication of th e square of this figure ex­
pressed in feet b y th e factor 0-0413063 gives directly th e num ber of Im perial
gallons per inch dep th in th e course. The result is th en used in building up
th e table over th e course concerned.
F or new tan k s, th e plate thicknesses m ay be tak en from th e m akers’
drawings if th e tolerances in thickness are low enough n o t to affect th e
accuracy required in th e tables. The plates m ay otherwise be m easured
by suitable calipers before erection, or by weighing, using th e know n area
of th e plates an d weight per cubic foot of th e ir steel.
I f th e ta n k is already erected, th e thicknesses given on th e drawings m ay
be checked b y m easuring th e exposed edges of th e plates. In th is it is
often necessary to m ake allowance for th e thickening of th e edge which
results from caulking. Experience helps in th is estim ate, b u t if drawings
are available, it is b e tte r to regard edge m easurem ents as checking these,
rath er th a n as m easurem ents to be included in subsequent calculations.
Drilling of plates to determ ine th e ir thickness is seldom practicable.
The plates of tan k s which have been in use m ay show corrosion of varying
extent and character. The choice of a good average figure for th e thickness
of such plates is often a m a tte r of considerable difficulty. I f th e ta n k can
be em ptied, th en th e ex ten t of an y general corrosion can usually be estim ated
by examining th e plates near in tern al fittings or seam overlaps. Taking
the overlaps as exam ple, th e inner p late p rotects th e outer p late from
corrosion. I f th e original jo in t betw een th e tw o plates is located, the
radial distance betw een th is and th e general surface of th e outer plate near
 KERB I TANK STR A PPIN G .
120
it is a fair measure of any general corrosion. Several m easurem ents should
be made and an average calculated.
If corrosion is of the p itted variety, it is often difficult to m ake more than
an estimate of its effect on the average p late thickness. Magnetic or
electrical plate thickness testers m ight perhaps be used to determ ine the
residual plate thickness, b u t one usually contents oneself w ith estimates
made with less elaborate equipm ent.
Paint thicknesses can usually be satisfactorily m easured by lifting
a few flakes with a penknife from levels over which th e ta n k has been
strapped. These flakes are th en held against th e edge of a finely divided
steel rule and their thickness measured. Soft paint, especially if thick,
or paint containing m any lumps—say, th e bodies of insects caught in it
when wet—is best cleaned from th e tap e p ath s before strapping is begun.
Lagged tanks are best strapped before th e lagging is p u t on. I f these
come° forward for calibration later, it is convenient to calculate their
tables from the drawings, or, if this is insufficient, to calibrate them from
internal measurements.

C o r r e c t io n for O il T em perature.

As explained above, circumferences properly m easured are those which

would have been obtained if the ta n k and its contents were a t the tem­
perature of calibration of the tape. W hen th e tem perature a t which the
tank is to be used differs from this, correction m ay have to be applied if
the tables are to m aintain high accuracy.
Heavy fuels are often kept artificially a t high an d roughly constant
tem peratures all the year round. For other products th e tem perature of
the oils stored varies w ith the season of th e year, th e range of variation
depending on the local climate. I t is, however, hardly practicable to use
more th an one table for the same tank. In practice th e tables may be
corrected to the average tem perature of the oil stored. t This average may
be sufficiently estim ated from records a t the same installation, or from
records a t other installations in similar climates.
Correction of measured circumferences for the linear expansion of the
tape between its tem perature of calibration and th e average temperature
of the oil would be sufficient for this purpose. In norm al gauging, however,
the tem perature of the dip-tape is also affected. This in tu rn affects gauges
or dips obtained in routine, so th a t these m ay reasonably be corrected to
the mean tan k tem perature also.
If the dip-tapes used are standardized to be correct a t th e same temperature
as the tape used in strapping, it is possible and convenient to combine these
tv o corrections and insert them in the ta n k table. Strappings are then left
uncorrected, but the volumes calculated from them are later corrected by
means of the cubical coefficient of expansion of steel, using th e appropriate
tem perature difference. The ta n k table th en shows th e volumes contained
in the tank a t its mean tem perature of use, and as m easured by steel dip-
tapes. In the method of calculation preferred by th e author, this cor­
rection is applied to the volume per u n it dep th calculated for each course,
this being an equivalent and more convenient process.
 KERR : TANK STR A PPIN G . 1 21

C o r r e c t io n for E x p a n s io n u n d e r O il H e a d .

Tanks expand under th e pressure of th e oil contained in them . The

effect is negligible in tan k s of sm all diam eter, b u t it increases w ith the
square of th e diam eter. For large tan k s, th e increase in capacity on f i l l i n g
with oil, as com pared w ith th e volum e when em pty, m ay require considera­
tion. I f th e ta n k is not norm ally full on strapping, its to ta l capacity cal­
culated from th e strappings will be less th a n its actual capacity for oil.
If, before strapping, th e ta n k has been filled to its norm al m axim um content,
then th e resulting expansions are included in th e circumferences measured.
Factors affecting th e am o u n t of th is expansion are th e radius or circum ­
ference of th e tan k , th e g rav ity and dep th of th e oil above th e level con­
sidered, and th e thickness and elasticity of th e plate a t th a t level. The
usual calculation for boiler expansion m ay be applied to obtain an exact
formula. An approxim ate form ula, w hich assumes fixed values for some
of these factors, b u t which has m et th e w riter’s needs, is given in Bell’s
“ A merican Petroleum Refining,” 2nd edition, page 467. This gives th e
linear expansion in feet of the circumference as being th e product of the
square of th e circumference in feet and th e head of oil in feet, divided by
three million tim es the plate thickness, expressed in sixteenths of an inch.
In symbols :
E = 27(72/3,000,000f

Since th e expansion is proportional to th e head H of oil, th e average

expansion for each course will occur a t m id-level if th e course is full of oil.
Since for any ta n k of th e types considered th e circumference C is approxi­
m ately th e same for all courses, (7/3,000,000 m ay be w ritten as K , a constant,
when the form ula gives :
E /C = K H ¡t

E[C is th e fractional increase in circumference, and if this is m easured or

calculated a t mid-level in a course full of oil, it is th e m ean fractional
increase in circumference for th a t course. The m ean fractional increase in
area of th e course is th en sufficiently closely 227/(7, or 2 K H /t. F or a course
completely filled w ith oil, therefore, th e increase in volume due to oil head
will be :
v = 2 K V H /t

where V is th e approxim ate volume of th e course, and H is m easured

upwards from m id-level in th e course to th e oil surface.
If the ta n k courses are of equal height, th eir volumes will be approxim ately
equal. I t is often sufficient in this calculation to tak e th e average volume
of all courses as th e volume for an y course, when 2 K V is a constant for the
whole tan k , and m ay be w ritten as R . The form ula for any course then
becomes
v = R H /t

For any p articu lar course, th e p late thickness t is constant. Taking

R¡t, which is now constant, as Q, th e form ula reduces to
 KERB, : TANK STR A PPIN G .
122

the suffixes being inserted as a rem inder th a t all th e quantities will vary
from course to course.
Summarizing, the general constant for th e tan k , R = C F / l ,500,000 is
first calculated. The course constants Qn are th en calculated by dividing
R by the known plate thicknesses for each course. W hen H n, which will
vary from course to course, is known or assum ed, m ultiplication of Qn by
H n for all the courses which are completely full of oil, and sum m ation of the
resulting values of vn, gives the to ta l expansion of th e ta n k under the head
of oil considered.
The units of volume in which th e ta n k expansion is obtained are of
course those in which V has been expressed. The units in which C, H and
t are to be taken are given above. The calculation does n o t consider the
expansion of courses which are not completely full, b u t tables m ay be
satisfactorily corrected w ithout this, as explained below.
I t is usual to strap tanks full, and to tak e this as correcting the tables
sufficiently for the expansion of the ta n k under oil head. W hen relatively
small quantities of oil are delivered from a large ta n k which is nearly full,
however, the removal of the oil reduces the oil head on all courses below.
These lower courses contract as a result of this. A n error in th e quantity
calculated as delivered therefore arises when th e ta n k tables have been made
on the assumption th a t the plates of all courses are always fully expanded.
Calculated as a percentage of the q u an tity delivered, th e effect may be
substantial, over 0-1 per cent. In the case ju st m entioned rather more
oil is delivered th an the usual tables indicate. Since th e tables give the
full capacity of the tan k correctly, it follows th a t if relatively small quanti­
ties of oil are delivered from the lower courses, th e am ounts delivered are
overestimated. Corresponding effects are shown when relatively small
quantities are received into large tanks.
By calculating the to tal expansion of the tan k when th e oil surface is at
the top of the top course, the top of the next course, and so on down the tank,
the variations in capacity are obtained a t a sufficient num ber of levels to
allow correction of the tables. The way in which this correction is most
conveniently incorporated depends on the m ethod adopted for calculation
of the tables.
If the tank has been strapped full of oil, all circumferences will have been
fully expanded. Course capacities calculated from these effectively contain
the corrections applicable when the tan k is completely full. Correction at
any oil level then involves applying the difference between th e correction
already contained in the tables, and th a t properly applicable when the
tank is filled only to the level under consideration.
If the tank has been strapped em pty, the corrections are simply additive
to the capacities calculated w ithout them . I t is useful to m ake the rule
th a t a complete gauge of the oil in the ta n k is taken a t th e tim e of strapping.
Tanks m ay have to be strapped p artly full, when th e d a ta so given allow
adequate correction of the resulting tables. W hether th e tank has
een full, partly full, or em pty a t strapping, convenient methods for
incorporating the appropriate corrections are no t difficult to devise.
ver aps a t horizontal seams strengthen th e ta n k against this expansion,
an s are less expanded by oil pressure near these seams th a n above or
e ow em. In those few cases which have been carefully examined by
 KERR : T A K E STR A PPIN G . 123

th e author, th e effect does n o t appear to extend more th a n a few inches

above or below th e seam. This is w hat one would expect, since th e over­
laps are of sm all depth. The real effect on th e ta n k capacity is very slight,
b u t th e fact th a t it is possible to detect th e effect offers another reason for
not m easuring circumferences too close to horizontal seams.
As a resu lt of th e additional resistance to expansion given by th e bottom
plates and angle iron, Bell’s form ula is inapplicable near th e bottom of th e
bottom course. E xpansion under oil-head is usually no t detectable a t th e
bottom of th e bottom course, b u t full expansion in close agreem ent w ith th e
form ula is usually obtained tow ards th e to p of this course. I n calculating
th e expansion of th e bottom course, a reasonable approxim ation is usually
given by assum ing th a t th e bo tto m of th e course does n o t expand, while
th e to p is fully expanded.
D ead w ood.

Tanks usually contain “ deadwood,” or fittings which affect their capacity

for oil. F ittin g s which affect th e desired accuracy of th e tables m ust be
allowed for, a t th e levels which th ey occupy. Swing-pipes are seldom
allowed to project from th e oil while m easurem ent takes place, so th a t it is
sufficient to allow for these and th e ir incidental fittings a t th eir lowest
position. Manholes add to th e ta n k capacity, and m ust be so tre a te d in
th e calculations. No a tte m p t need be m ade here to give a complete list of
possibilities : th e sam e principle is applied to all cases. Calculation of th e
volumes of deadwood, though simple enough, takes tim e. I t is therefore
b est begun well in advance of th e actu al strapping. W hen stan d ard
fittings are used, results should be filed for ready reference in subsequent
cases.
In te rn a l seam edges project inw ards from th e inner surface of th e plates,
and so form a ty p e of deadwood. In te rn a l rivet-heads sim ila r l y displace
oil. Sufficient check on such sm all deadwood should be kept, b u t it will
often be found, especially for large tanks, th a t these sm all corrections do
not affect th e required accuracy in th e tables.

H a n d l in g of C o r r e c t io n s .

F or an y previously chosen stan d ard of u n certain ty in th e final tables, it

will be found th a t certain of th e deadwood and other corrections given
above are so large th a t th eir effects m u st certainly be included. Others
will be as certainly negligible, w hilst a th ird class is on th e border line
between inclusion and exclusion. Care has to be tak en w ith th is th ird
class, since, although individually negligible, neglect of th eir to ta l m ay
affect the accuracy desired.

T a n k -B o tto m Ca l ib r a t io n .

Unless on adequate concrete foundations or iron-work supports, ta n k

bottom s are seldom really flat. Tables are, however, frequently calculated
as if th e bottom s were flat, even w hen great irregularity is p re se n t; th is
on th e grounds th a t these lower p a rts are seldom used in m easuring either
receipts or deliveries of oil. The stock of oil calculated as being in the
124 K ERR : TANK STR A PPIN G .

tank will however contain an error owing to this neglect. W here this is
im portant, it m ay be necessary to correct th e tables for the irregularity of
the bottom. The m ethod of filling is usually used in such cases.
In the simplest m ethod m easured quantities of w ater are filled into the
tank until all bottom irregularities are fully covered, when th e resulting
depth of water is measured. This gauge or dip and th e corresponding
measured volume form the first entries in th e ta n k table, no good m easure­
ments below this being possible. I f a t th e same tim e th e level of th e water
relative to the under side of th e bottom angle iron, or to th e first horizontal
seam, is measured, the ta n k table m ay be com pleted to th e to p of the tank
by the m ethod of strapping. The volumes deduced from th e strappings
are added on to the first volume determ ined by filling.
A more thorough m ethod is to fill th e ta n k w ith w ater till th e point on
the bottom which will later be touched by the dip-weight in routine dipping
is j ust wet, the volume of w ater necessary for this being m easured. Measured
volumes of water are then added, a w ater gauge or dip being taken after
each addition, until bottom irregularities are fully covered. From the
tabulated results a suitable table for the irregular p a rt of th e ta n k is readily
formed.
M e n is c u s C o r r e c t i o n .

One further correction m ay be included in forming the final tables.

When the oil in a tan k is dipped, it touches th e steel tap e in a meniscus,
this reaching about 1/12th inch above the tru e surface of th e oil. Oil
depths are therefore always read about 1/12th inch too great. I t is how­
ever easy to adjust the tables so th a t th e tru e volume is given against the
gauged depth of the oil.
A cknow ledgm ent.

This paper covers the results of work done for the M easurement and Loss
D epartm ent of the Asiatic Petroleum Company, whose permission to
publish the writer gratefully acknowledges.
 125
ttúií
titji

T H E IN S T IT U T E O F P E T R O L E U M .
Slli
)®íe.; T h e One H undred and E ig h ty -F ifth Meeting of th e In s titu te was held
a t th e R o y al Society of A rts on Tuesday, Ja n u a ry 10th, 1939, following
the Special General M eeting a t 5.30 p.m . T he President, Lt.-Col. S. J . M.
Auld, O .B.E., M.C., D.Sc., occupied th e Chair. Mr. P. K err, M.A., B.Sc.,
A.I.C. (Member), presented th e paper on T an k Strapping (pp. 109-124).

M e . P. K e k r , in presenting his paper, said th a t it had been w ritten in

response to a request m ade by Sub-Com m ittee No. 10 (M easurem ent
of Oil in Bulk) of th e In s titu te th a t he should w rite o u t his views on
ta n k calibration, so th a t th ey m ight have a chopping-block, so to speak,
on which to work out th eir own stan d ard m ethods. H e had therefore set
out th e th eo ry on which his own views were based, ra th e r th a n th e
practical m ethods by which th e m easurem ents necessary m ight be m ade.
I n his own view, th e m ost useful suggestion m ade in th e paper was th a t
of choosing in advance th e percentage error, or ra th e r un certain ty , perm iss­
ible in th e final tables. I f th a t was done, it seemed to him th a t everything
else followed. H e could not be sure th a t he h ad seen everything w ritte n
on ta n k calibration, and he m ade no suggestion th a t th e idea of adopting
such a lim it was novel, b u t it was original in th e sense th a t he h a d th o u g h t
of it himself.
Some of th e uses to which such a lim it m ight be p u t were as follows.
The expected external circumference o f any course m ight be calculated
in advance from th e drawings, and, in th e light of th e accuracy required
in th e tables, upper and lower lim its also, w ithin which th e a c tu al s tra p ­
pings m ust lie if th e y were to be in th e required agreem ent w ith th e draw ­
ings. If, on strapping, th e circumference found lay w ithin those lim its,
there was no need to repeat th e m e a su re m e n t: i t was already checked.
A lternatively, if circumference m easurem ents were to be checked by direct
repetition, th en , even if th e duplicate figures differed slightly, fu rth e r
checks were unnecessary, provided th a t b o th figures lay w ithin th e allowable
range. Calculation of th e allowable range was sim pler in th e second
application; th e check obtained did n o t depend on th e drawings, b u t a
little more w ork was throw n on th e strap p in g crew. The use of th e lim it,
for including significant and rejecting insignificant deadwood or other
corrections was obvious. Again, th e num ber of decim al places to which
calculations should be tak en was th a t which left th e final tables free from
arithm etical errors affecting th e desired accuracy. I n practice, for an y
particular tan k , th e accuracy aim ed a t for its tables m ight n o t be fully
attained, or it m ight be slightly exceeded. I t was th e order of accuracy,
rather th a n too rigid a figure, which he suggested should be chosen in
advance.
There was one w ay in which he th o u g h t th e lim it should n o t be applied.
I t was possible to calculate beforehand th a t m easurem ents to th e nearest
half inch, say, were all th a t were necessary to secure th e accuracy aim ed
at, and one m ight in stru ct th e strap p ers to read th e ir tap e to th e nearest
 DISCUSSION ON “ TANK S T R A P P IN G .”
126

half inch only. To read th e tap e as accurately as its graduations per­

mitted, however, was really no more tro u b lesom e; he felt one should not
reject any additional accuracy so easily obtainable. I he strapping tape
should always be read as accurately as possible, interpolation being made
between its graduations. Even if it was found th a t th e circumference
figures were a little more accurate and th e final tables a little more reliable
than was a t first intended, surely no one would be disappointed.
There was, of course, a practical lim it to th e accuracies obtainable.
Independent checks suggested th a t, in norm al cases and where strapping
was a suitable method, it was easy to m ake sure of th e tables w ithin 1 part
in 1000, or 0-1 per cent. P articularly for larger tanks, accuracies of about
1 part in 10,000, or 0-01 per cent., were obtainable w ith a little more care
and attention, b u t still w ithout serious p ractical difficulties. T h at was
for the body of the t a n k ; stock figures m ight be less reliable through
uncertainties in bottom calib ratio n ; b u t, as was well known, it was still
usually possible to m aintain good accuracies in receipts and deliveries.
He thought th a t higher accuracies were outside practical politics. The
increase in practical difficulty between accuracies of 0-1 and 0-01 per cent,
was not very great, b u t serious trouble was encountered if one tried to go
much further. The list of corrections to which th e m ajor p a rt of the
paper was devoted was therefore lim ited to those which, either individually
or in total, m ight affect the resulting tables to th e e x te n t of 0-01 per cent.
W ithin th a t limit, th e list was intended to be exhaustive, an d he would
therefore very much appreciate th e advice of th e m em bers if he had omitted
any correction which should appear in the list.
The importance of any particular correction depended on circumstances,
and notably on the local climate. H e had tried to consider w hat might
be necessary in any climate, and th a t was reflected in th e paper. In any
single case or single climate, th e smaller corrections were often inherently
negligible; occasionally one or two m ight cancel o u t against other
corrections of opposite effect.

D ISCUSSIO N ON “ T A N K S T R A P P IN G .”
Mb . J . K e w l e y said th a t he h a d w orked in close c o n ju n c tio n w ith Mr. K err for
m any years, so t h a t Mr. K e rr’s views were n a tu ra lly his view s.
H e would like, in th e first place, to a c t as spokesm an for th e num erous people who
were going to ask Mr. K e rr questions in th a n k in g h im for th e excellent p ap er he had
w ritten. The whole subject of th e m easurem ent of oil w as one of v ery g re a t importance.
Vast quan tities were involved. V ery often in th e p a s t m easu rem en t h a d been done
in a slipshod fashion, sta n d a rd in stru m e n ts n o t h a v in g been used. W hen one looked
into th e subject, one was surprised a t th e large n u m b er of p itfa lls t h a t existed. For
exam ple, a ta n k of oil w hen m easured e m p ty h a d a sm aller c a p a c ity th a n when
m easured full, because of its expansion u n d e r th e h e av y liquid. T here were many
points like th a t w hich were of im portance.
Ho th o u g h t t h a t th e subject of th e paper, w hich h a d arisen in connection w ith the
work of Com m ittee 10, of w hich Mr. K e rr w as a n a c tiv e m em ber, w as one which
s ould be followed up and one w hich gave th e In s titu te a n o p p o rtu n ity of taking a
definite lead, because, as far as he knew , very little h a d been pub lish ed on th e question
of ta n k m easurem ent and m easurem ent of oil generally. H o hop ed t h a t eventually
om m ittee 10 and th e A m erican P e tro le u m In s titu te , for exam ple, m ight come
together and try to arrive a t some general agreem ent on m eth o d s of m easurem ent.
o far success had n o t been achieved b y th e a tte m p ts to o b ta in in te rn atio n al agree­
m ent even on testing m ethods,
 DISCUSSION ON “ TANK S T R A P P IN G .” 127
W ith reference to th e s ta te m e n t in th e second p a ra g ra p h of th e p a p er, “ I t is difficult
to m easure th e effect of corrosion in th e p la te s of old ta n k s w ith o u t th is ,” i.e., w ith o u t
e m p ty in g th e ta n k com pletely, h e h a d seen a t th e P h y sic a l E x h ib itio n tw o years ago
a sm all a p p a ra tu s w ith w hich th e th ick n ess of a p la te of iro n could b e m ea su re d b y
m eans of changes in m ag n etic flux, a n d he th o u g h t t h a t possibly one could explore
th e o u tsid e surface of a ta n k in t h a t w a y a n d g e t som e idea of th e e x te n t to w hich
corrosion h a d been ta k in g place.

M e . K e r b sa id th e re w ere electrical in stru m e n ts w hich enab led th e thick n ess of a

ta n k p la te to b e determ in ed , b u t, so fa r as he h a d looked in to th em , th e y scarcely
seem ed to offer th e a c c u rac y t h a t w as desired. T he line along w hich he th o u g h t
in te rn a l corrosion could be m o st easily ta c k le d — a line w hich he h a d n o t y e t h a d tim e
t o explore fully—w as as follow s. T h e exp an sio n of a ta n k u n d e r oil h e a d depended on
t h e th ick n ess of th e p la te ; if th e low er courses of a ta n k w ere stra p p e d w ith th e ta n k
e m p ty a n d also w ith th e t a n k full, inv ersio n of th e u su a l boiler ex p an sio n form ula
e n ab led one to calcu late th e a c tu a l p la te thickness.

M e . H . H y a m s , referring to th e s ta te m e n t m ad e b y M r. K e rr in his re m a rk s t h a t
evening, t h a t w ith his m eth o d of ta n k stra p p in g he could o b ta in a n a ccu racy of 1 p a rt
in 10,000 in th e case of large ta n k s , sa id i t w ould be in te re stin g to know w h a t evidence
Mr. K e rr could b ring forw ard in su p p o rt of t h a t claim .

M e . K e r r said it w as difficult to o b ta in in d ep e n d en t m eth o d s of check w hich w ould

verify accuracies of th e order in questio n . T he first tria ls t h a t h e h a d m ade w ere to
d e te rm in e how closely h e could re p e a t th e m ea su re m e n ts of th e circum ference of a
ta n k . A t t h a t tim e he h a d a ta p e w hich w as only 50 ft. in len g th , a n d he stra p p e d
a ta n k th e circum ference of w hich w as a little less th a n 250 ft. in five sections. H e
se t o u t five fine v e rtic a l lines a ro u n d th e ta n k circum ference a n d m ea su re d th e in te rv a ls
b etw een these, a d d in g th é m easu rem en ts to g e th e r to g e t th e t o ta l circum ference of
t h e ta n k . T ak in g a new s e t of lines, h e re p e a te d th e pro cess; t h e m an a g er of th e
in stallatio n , w ho w as in te re s te d , re p e a te d th e m ea su re m e n t tw ice indepen d en tly ,
ag ain w ith new zero lines. O n th e t o ta l circum ference th e g re a te s t difference b etw een
a n y p a ir of th e fo u r re su lts w hich th e m an a g er a n d he o b tain e d w as only 1/32 in.
T h a t w as p e rh a p s acc id e n tal, as th e y w ere w orking u n d e r v e ry good conditions,
stra p p in g a level w hich w as easily accessible a n d n o t a less accessible lev e l h igher u p
th e ta n k , b u t i t a t le a st show ed t h a t th e fu n d a m e n ta l p a r t of th e m easu rem en t, th e
circum ference, could be ta k e n to a high degree of accuracy.
A gain, h e h a d stra p p e d ta n k s in F ra n c e, w here th e original ta b le s w ere, of course,
m ade b y th e F re n c h B u re a u of W eights a n d M easures, a n d he h a d fo u n d t h a t his
re su lts u su a lly cam e w ith in 0-01 o r 0-02 p e r c en t, of th e figures w hich th e B u re au h a d
o b tain e d . T h a t m ig h t be challenged, because th e B u re a u also c a lib ra te d th e ta n k s
b y m easu rem en t ; it m ig h t be h e ld t h a t th is p ro v e d m erely t h a t m eth o d s of stra p p in g
w ere self-consistent.
A t one in sta lla tio n w hich he h a d v isite d , fuel oil deliveries w ere w eighed in ra il
cars, a n d as co m p ared w ith th e a m o u n ts reco rd ed as being ta k e n o u t of th e storage
ta n k , th e in sta lla tio n w as g aining o n its deliveries, th e gain show n being 0-35 p e r
c ent. O n re -stra p p in g th e ta n k he fo u n d t h a t th e ta b le s u n d e r-e stim a ted its c ap a city
b y 0-33 p e r c e n t. A gain t h a t ag reem en t w as p e rh a p s a little a ccid en tal, because, in
o rder to o b ta in it, h e h a d to see t h a t th e w eighbridge used b y th e in sta lla tio n w as in
n early p e rfe c t o rd e r a n d , of course, th e re w ere alw ays difficulties in w eighing rail
w agons ; th e w ind h a d a n effect on th e ir w eights, a n d if th e w e ath e r w as w e t t h a t h a d
a n effect also. H e th o u g h t, how ever, t h a t th e ag reem en ts w hich he h a d ju s t set o u t
in d icated t h a t th e order of acc u rac y o b tain a b le on large ta n k s b y stra p p in g w as a b o u t
0-01 p e r c en t.

D r . F . H . G a r n e r a sk e d M r. K e rr w h a t a p p a re n t change in volum e w as o b tain e d

if a m easu red volum e of oil in a t a n k c a lib ra te d b y his m eth o d s w as tra n s fe rre d to
a n o th e r c a lib ra te d t a n k ?

M r . K e r r said he h a d n o t c arried o u t m an y v ery close tra n sfe rs of oil. T he q uestion

of errors in gauges a n d errors in te m p e ra tu re w as so troublesom e t h a t m easu rem en ts
of t h a t so rt w ould h a v e to b e re p e a te d several tim es w ith th e b e st a tta in a b le p re ­
 DISCUSSION ON “ TANK S T R A P P IN G .”
128
cision before a check w as o b tained on a m e th o d w hich seem ed to give a n a ccuracy
of about 0 01 per cent. F uel oil w ould h a v e to be used, so t h a t th e re w ould be no
loss by evaporation; otherw ise th ere w ould be a difficult co rre c tio n to be m ade for
th e am ount of vapour lost in tran sfer. H e h a d no sufficiently a c c u ra te se t of figures
for such tra n sfe rs; th e y did n o t prom ise enough in th e w ay of checking.
Mb W. F. J e l f f s said he believed it w as n o t th e general c u sto m to a p p ly c o r­
rections for expansion u nder oil-head, a n d he w ould like to know w h e th er M r. K e rr
considered th a t th a t should be th e p ractice in fu tu re .
M b . K e r b said it w ould be seen t h a t th e p a p e r d id n o t suggest a n y p a rticu la r
standard of accuracy w hich should be a d o p te d in th e c alib ra tio n of tan k a g e. The
need for the correction of ta n k tab le s fo r th e e x p an sio n of th e ta n k u n d e r oil-head
depended on the sta n d ard of a ccuracy t h a t one w ished to a tt a in in th e tab le s th em ­
selves. I t was only for larger ta n k s t h a t th is co rre c tio n w as of m u ch im portance,
bu t, as he had explained in th e paper, it w as of r a th e r m ore im p o rta n ce th a n it appeared
to be a t a first glance, since w hen a sm all q u a n tity of oil w as d elivered from th e upper
levels of a large ta n k , co n tra ctio n of th e p la te s to o k place on all courses below the
level from which delivery h a d been m ade. A s a re su lt of n eglecting th e expansion
correction, there m ight th e n be a n u n e x p ec te d ly serious p erce n ta g e error in the
quan tity calculated as delivered or received. H e w ou ld like to see as good accuracy
as was commercially possible in oil m easu rem en t, a n d th ere fo re h e favoured the
insertion of an expansion correction in all cases w here t h a t seem ed to b e justified.
D r. A. I. V. U n d e r w o o d asked w h e th er in th e form ula given in th e paper for
expansion under oil-head— i.e., E = H C 2/3,000,000i— i t w as th e d e p th of oil th a t was
referred to or th e pressure h e ad of th e oil. T he l a tte r w ould v a ry w ith th e specific
gravity of th e o il; th e correction req u ired w ould be different, according to whether
the ta n k was used for p e tro l or for h e a v y fuel oil. T h e effect of th e correction for
expansion under oil-head w as given b y Mr. K e rr as being a p p ro x im a te ly 0-1 per cent,
in certain circum stances. If one to o k th e difference in th e specific g ra v ity of petrol
and heavy fuel oil—a difference of roughly 25 p e r c e n t.— th e erro r d u e to t h a t difference
in specific grav ity w ould be 1 in 4000. T h a t w ould be a p p rec ia b ly larger th a n the
error of 1 in 10,000 w hich Mr. K e rr regarded as th e ideal.
M r . K e r r said t h a t th e sta te m e n t in th e p a p e r : “ C alcu lated a s a percentage of
the q u a n tity delivered, th e effect m ay be su b sta n tia l, over 0 1 p e r c e n t.,” applied
to relatively sm all deliveries from th e ta n k . T h e to ta l correction, considered as a
percentage of th e ta n k contents, reached 0 05 or 0 07 p e r c en t, on large ta n k s only,
so th a t the variation was a little less th a n D r. U nderw ood h a d ju s t suggested.
He was glad th a t a tte n tio n h a d been d irec te d to th e p o in t in question, because he
had already been to ld th a t he o ught to apologize for inflicting e le m en tary m athem atics
a t such great length on so distinguished a body as th e I n s titu te of P etroleum . The
discussion on th e correction for expansion u n d e r oil-head w as v e ry s im p le indeed,
and it could have been condensed, b u t he h a d a c e rta in reaso n for se ttin g it out at
some length. I t was clear t h a t it w as n o t every ta n k t h a t could b e tre a te d in the
way described. Some ta n k s h a d courses w hich w ere n o t e q u al in height, and the
user of th e form ula m ight d e p a rt from th e calcu latio n s given in th e pap er a t any
particular stage of th e discussion. H e h a d therefo re p u t in each stage in full, so th at
anyone who wished to calculate th e expansion m ore a c c u ra te ly th a n th e approxim ate
form ula allowed could easily see th e p o in t a t w hich he m u st d e p a rt from th e procedure
suggested in the paper.
He accepted D r. U nderw ood’s com m ent in principle. I t w as tru e t h a t th e formula
in the paper was ap proxim ate o n ly ; it w as d erived from th e e x a c t form ula by taking
0-750 as a fixed g ravity for th e oil, a m ean v alue being also ta k e n for Y oung’s Modulus.
The form ula given did n o t balance in d im e n sio n s; th e c o n s ta n t 3,000,000 necessarily
contained factors which h a d dim ensions.
As suggested by Dr. U nderw ood th e a ccu racy of th e fo rm u la given would be
im proved by taking in its place
E = HC'-g12,250,000t
where the new factor g is the specific g ra v ity of th e oil, th e o th e r q u an tities being as
given m the paper.
 DISCUSSIO N ON “ TANK S T R A P P IN G .” 129
T h e general form ula is
E = p C 2l2ntM
where E is th e ex p an sio n of th e circum ference, p th e pressure due to oil-head, t th e
p la te th ick n ess, a n d M Y o u n g ’s M odulus for th e ste el p late s, a t th e level concerned.
E ith e r of th ese m a y obviously b e a p p lied as suggested in th e paper.

D r . M. B . B l a c k l e r c o n g ra tu la te d Mr. K e rr on v e n tila tin g a su b je ct w hich w as of

u n d o u b te d im p o rta n ce to th e oil in d u stry in general. H e did n o t believe t h a t qu es­
tio n s of h ead , expansions a n d c o n tra ctio n s of t a n k m ate ria ls seriously affected com ­
m ercial m easu rem en ts. T an k s as m a n u fa c tu re d to -d ay , w hen tra n s p o rte d a n d
e rec te d u n d e r reasonable conditions, could be c a lib ra te d w ith in th e lim its of com ­
m ercial a ccu racy from th e m ak e rs’ draw ings, b u t if erec te d a b ro a d a fte r th e p late s
h a d b e en tra n s p o rte d long distan ces b y sea, ra il a n d ro a d , th e n c alib ra tio n b y d irec t
m ea su re m e n t w as essential. I n such cases h e h a d a d o p te d th e follow ing p la n in
ord er to o b ta in reliable c alib ra tio n figures. F irs t levels w ere ta k e n over th e b o tto m
of th e ta n k , a n d th e general configuration w as d ra w n o u t so t h a t th e c alib ra tio n of
th e first foot of h eig h t could be d ete rm in e d w ith reasonable accu racy . T he d iam e te r
of e ac h s tra k e of th e t a n k w as m easured a t th e to p , m iddle a n d b o tto m , a n d these
d iam e te rs w ere m easu red a t angles of 45° ro u n d th e ta n k , so t h a t a c tu a lly tw elve
d iam e te rs w ere m easu red fo r each s tra k e a n d th e average d iam e te r w as ta k e n as th e
a cc ep te d d iam e te r of th e stra k e . T he calculations w ere m ade in litre s p e r c en tim etre,
a n d as a m a tte r of ro u tin e , allow ances w ere m ade fo r volum es of riv e t heads, angles,
ladders, e tc ., in th e c alib ra tio n volum es p e r cen tim etre.
T he w o rk w as inclu d ed in th e drawing-office ro u tin e , a n d w hen com pleted th e
calib ratio n ta b le s w ere d istrib u te d from t h a t D e p a rtm e n t.
D r. B lack ler d irec te d a tte n tio n to c alib ra tio n difficulties in those cases w here th e
t a n k b o tto m m oved u n d e r v a ry in g oil-head, m entioning a case in his experience in
w hich th e g ro u n d u n d e r a ta n k w as found to be s a tu ra te d w ith oil w hich h a d leaked
th ro u g h th e t a n k b o tto m as a re su lt of th is m ovem ent.

M r . K e r r said h e q u ite agreed t h a t th e c alib ra tio n of a t a n k b o tto m w as difficult

if th e fo u n d a tio n s w ere n o t sound. M ovem ent d id occur in p a rtic u la r cases, as in
t h a t m e n tio n ed b y D r. B lackler, w here it h a d led to leakage. T h e suggestion t h a t
m o v em en t w as ta k in g place w as, how ever, som etim es m ad e w ith o u t v e ry clear proof,
o fte n as a r a th e r sp eculative e x p la n a tio n of discrepancies in m e a su re m e n t; in these
cases one should e stim a te p ro b ab ilities from th e n a tu re of th e gro u n d a n d th e fo u n d a ­
tio n s. I n d o u b tfu l cases i t w as w ell to m ak e sure, for m ore th a n m easu rem en t w as
in v o lv e d ; as D r. B la d d e r’s re m a rk s im plied, th e ta n k should th e n be w a tch e d for
possible leakage. T o m eet b o th leakage a n d m easu rem en t, he suggested p u ttin g a
te m p o ra ry w a te r b o tto m in th e ta n k , sufficient to cover th e b o tto m com pletely, a n d
de te rm in in g b y dip p in g w h e th er th e level of th e w a te r surface changed w ith th e oil-
h ead .
T his could be done w ith o u t ta k in g th e ta n k o u t of use, a n d w ith o u t m u ch tro u b le ,
since ro u tin e w a te r dips ta k e n from d a y to d a y w ould u su a lly give th e in fo rm atio n
re q u ire d . I f th e ta n k b o tto m h a d a lre a d y b eg u n to leak, th e ex p ec te d re la tio n betw een
th e w a te r dips a n d th e oil-head m ig h t be com p licated b y a c tu a l loss of w a ter, b u t b y
prolonging th e tria ls u n til th e ta n k h a d been filled a n d e m p tied tw ice or th ric e, th e
p o in t w ould be cleared u p . I f m ov em en t w ere confirm ed, th e w a te r b o tto m m ig h t
be left in th e ta n k , w hen g ra d u al d isap p earan ce of th e w a te r w ould show t h a t leakage
h a d b e g u n ; m ea su re m e n t e rrors w ould be red u ced also. I f th e w a te r p u t in w as
sufficient to keep its surface above th e b o tto m p la te s even w hen th e ta n k w as full of
oil, th e n it w ould be possible to calcu la te fro m th e w a te r dips th e volum e a d d ed to
th e ta n k th ro u g h depression of th e b o tto m , a n d so e stim a te th e seriousness of th e
m o v em en t ta k in g p la c e ; th e figures o b tain e d should b e re g ard e d as a m in im um , since
th e p o in t a t w hich th e w ater-finder re ste d on th e t a n k b o tto m m ig h t itself m ove
dow nw ards w ith increasing h e a d of o il; b u t th is m ov em en t could in t u r n be m ea su re d
a n d allow ed fo r b y recording th e v a ry in g h e ig h ts from th e edge of th e dip-hole to
th e p o in t in q uestion.
A s re g ard s D r. B lac k er’s m eth o d of ta n k calib ra tio n , h e agreed t h a t ta n k s might, be
sa tisfac to rily c a lib ra te d in v a rious w ays. C a lib ra tio n of ta n k b o tto m s b y su rv e y
m eth o d s led easily to a figure for th e to ta l c o n te n t of th e ta n k b o tto m to som e chosen
 DISCUSSION ON “ TANK S T R A P P IN G .”
130
depth of liquid • from such d a ta it w as possible, b u t p e rh a p s less easy, to form a tab le
allowing m easurem ent in th e ta n k b o tto m itself of sm all q u a n titie s of w a ter, say those
accidentally delivered w ith a cargo. T he m eth o d s of filling o u tlm e d in his p a p er were
useful when bottom calibration h a d been o m itte d w hen th e t a n k w as first erected,
b u t was later found desirable ; for it w as g enerally possible to p u m p in m easured
quantities of w ater under th e oil, and to m easure th e re su ltin g d e p th s w ith w ater-
finding paper or paste, w ith o u t tak in g th e ta n k o u t of use.
T h at the expansion of tan k s u nder oil-head could alw ays b e neglected was, of course,
the current opinion. H is own view w as t h a t th e need for th is co rrectio n v aried w ith
circum stances; it was only necessary w ith large ta n k s . W h en even a large ta n k
was gauged only when it w as nearly full or n e arly e m p ty , as m ig h t be th e case w ith
tanks used only for cargo shipm ents, th e n th e effect w as o ften sufficiently allowed for
by strapping the ta n k when it w as full, w ith o u t fu rth e r a d ju s tm e n t of th e tables.
W hen small deliveries were m ade o u t of large ta n k s , th e effect w as m ore serious, as
the paper suggested, and as could readily be calcu la te d . H is ow n view w as th a t in
these cases a t least, a correction so readily c alcu la te d a n d so easily in co rp o rated once
for all in th e ta n k tab le should scarcely be o m itted .

Mb . A . P. C a t h e r a l l said he w ould like to a sk Mr. K e rr w h a t his experience was

w ith regard to the com pensation of th e various errors t h a t e n te re d in to th e m easure­
m ent of oil. The calibration of a ta n k w as only a p a r t of th e m easu rem en t of the
oil ; there were irregularities in ta n k dippings, te m p e ra tu re m easu rem en ts, an d so on.
His own experience was th a t th ere w as a n u m b er of such erro rs w hich generally
cancelled them selves out, so th a t, even w ith q u ite casual ta n k stra p p in g , an d even
in taking the m easurem ents from th e blue p rin t, p ro v id ed t h a t th e y were checked
with a t least one strapping, one could o b tain q u ite a c c u ra te re su lts w ith o u t extrem ely
accurate ta n k strapping.

M r . K e r r agreed w ith Mr. C atherall in th in k in g t h a t stra p p in g w as often unnecessary

if the ta n k was well m ade and th e p la te s were un d am ag ed . Official regulations,
however, often required th e tables to be m ade from d irec t m easu rem en ts, so th a t one
was compelled to stra p m ore frequently th a n w as necessary o n p u re ly technical
grounds. Calculations from draw ings were usefully checked b y stra p p in g a single
circumference, as Mr. Catherall h a d suggested ; t h a t th is w as his view w ould be seen
in the paper.
In strapping, the length of ta p e required to encircle th e ta n k w as a m inim um when
the tape followed its proper p a th ; it followed t h a t sm all d e p a rtu re s of th e tap e from its
proper pa th could only have second-order effects on th e ta n k tab les, a n d th is was thought
to be a reason why Mr. C atherall h a d obtain ed good re su lts w ith o u t ex trem e care.
I t also followed th a t if care had been ta k e n w ith th e ta p e ten sio n , th e re w as some­
thing to be said for taking th e sm allest figure o b tain e d for a n y given circumference,
rath er th a n the average of rep eat figures, in calcu latin g th e ta b le ; b u t if tolerances
had been calculated as suggested in th e paper, an d all re p e a ts fell w ith in these, their
average, or indeed any of th e figures, could be ta k e n in to c alcu la tio n w ith o u t affecting
the accuracy desired.
\V hen discrepancies in m easurem ent were troublesom e, it w as som etim es necessary
to find out how m uch of these should be a ttrib u te d to e rrors in th e ta n k tab le s; here
the abbreviated m ethod suggested in th e p a p er u n d e r “ R e ca lib ra tio n ” was often
sufficient.
To discuss the question of com pensation of errors in oil m easurem ent fully would
lead too far from th e subject of th e paper, b u t Mr. C a th e rall’s experience on this
question was also his own, and it was in line w ith th eo ry . H e h a d found th a t errors
in 01 m easurem ent followed th e usual m ath e m a tic al th e o ry of e rrors ; given a sufficient
num ber of cases, it was usually possible to se p arate th e effect of system atic errors
iom a o ortuitous errors. The la tte r were usually d is trib u te d norm ally ; in the
orm al distribution sm all errors were m uch m ore freq u e n t th a n large, in line with
f™™ a ..leia s exPenence. H is view was t h a t sy stem atic erro rs should be elim inated
he tnl°' ,ncjahUremellt as carefully as possible; m uch larg e r fo rtu ito u s errors could
ont » f m i t’- 8mue - I 7 oeeurred only occasionally, a n d since th e y ten d e d to cancel
“ 6d V paper under “ P relim inaries.” E rro rs in ta n k tables tended
to be system atic in th eir effect.
 DISCUSSIO N ON “ TANK S T R A P P IN G .” 131

M r . H . H y a m s said t h a t M r. K e rr in d ic a te d in his p a p e r th e co rrectio n to b e applied

for th e difference b etw een th e c alib ra tio n te m p e ra tu re of th e ta p e a n d th e average
te m p e ra tu re of th e oil t h a t w as going to be sto re d in th e ta n k . H e q u ite agreed
t h a t such a co rre c tio n w as n ecessary a n d sho u ld be in co rp o ra te d in th e t a n k tab le s,
b u t he th o u g h t i t m ig h t b e borne in m ind, in c onnection w ith m ea su re m e n t on a w eight
basis, t h a t h y d ro m e te rs in th e oil in d u s try w ere u su a lly c a lib ra te d a t 60° F . o r 15° C.,
an d th e y w ere fre q u e n tly used in tro p ic a l clim ates o r in c onnection w ith artificially
h e a te d oils w ith o u t a n y co rrectio n a t all being m ad e for th e cubical ex p an sio n of th e
glass. T h e e rro r w hich w ould re su lt from n eglecting t h a t co rre c tio n w as, in th e case
of a n oil whose specific g ra v ity w as d e te rm in e d a t, say, 90° F . a b o u t e q u al to th e
com bined corrections t h a t M r. K e rr said w ere n ecessary u n d e r th e head s of e x p an sio n
of th e ta n k a n d also e x p an sio n of th e ta p e . H e saw no w a y of m ee tin g t h a t con­
tin g e n c y o th e r th a n t h a t th e h y d ro m eter should itself be c a lib ra te d a t a te m p e ra tu re
corresponding to th e oil w ith w hich i t w as to be used, or, if th e sta n d a rd h y d ro m e te r
c a lib ra te d a t 60° F . w as used, i t seem ed to h im th a t , in th o se cases in w hich th e oil
w as a t a te m p e ra tu re su b s ta n tia lly above 60° F ., th e a p p ro p ria te correction for cubical
e x p an sio n of th e glass sho u ld b e m a d e ; otherw ise th e correction w hich Mr. K en-
in d ic a te d w as necessary w ould be nullified.
T h e im p o rta n ce of c o rre c t c alib ra tio n of th e ta n k b o tto m , w here irreg u larities are
know n to ex ist, h a s received du e em phasis in th e p a p er. T he provision of a p e rm a n en t
w a te r b o tto m is a rem edy, b u t th e re a re m a n y co u n tries w here v e ry cold w in te r
conditions m ak e such a w a te r b o tto m un d esirab le o r w here w a te r b o tto m s are, in a n y
case, p ro h ib ite d b y local a u th o ritie s. I n su ch cases th e co rrect m easu rem en t of oil
q u a n titie s in ta n k s w ith deform ed o r w e ak ta n k b o tto m s becom es a real difficulty,
a n d th is difficulty c an be overcom e o n ly b y careful calib ra tio n . T h e shape of th e
b o tto m a n d its cubical c o n te n ts will possibly v a ry w ith th e h e a d of o il; it has been
suggested t h a t w ith c e rta in ty p e s of ta n k s th e b o tto m a c ts as a d iap h rag m , a lth o u g h
conclusive evidence h a s n o t been fo rthcom ing to su p p o rt th is co n te n tio n . B u t in
su c h in stan ces i t w ould be undesirable to c o n stru c t ta b le s fo r th e b o tto m levels from
th e ta n k draw ings. M r. K e rr’s m eth o d of b o tto m c alib ra tio n b y w a te r could be
follow ed w hen th e new ta n k is su b m itte d to its w a te r te s t.
T here w as one fu rth e r q u e stio n t h a t he w ould like to ask. Mr. K e rr said t h a t it
w as desirable to s tra p ta n k s w hen th e te m p e ra tu re qf th e a ir a n d th e te m p e ra tu re of
th e c o n te n ts of th e ta n k w ere a p p ro x im a te ly th e sam e. I t could n o t b e sim ple to
o b ta in a p re d eterm in ed a ir te m p e ra tu re , a n d he w ould like to know how t h a t difficulty
w as overcom e b y M r. K err.

M r . K e r r sa id t h a t Mr. H y a m s h a d raised a n im p o rta n t q u e stio n in his first p o in t,

w h e th er m easu rem en t should be considered as a whole o r sectioned off in to questions
of ta n k c alib ratio n , dipping, ta k in g specific grav ities, a n d so on. H e th o u g h t t h a t
ta n k c alib ra tio n could p e rh ap s be m ore fairly re le g ate d to its ow n d e p a rtm e n t th a n
th e re s t of th e ro u tin e process of gauging. I t w as tru e t h a t one m ig h t offset th e
effect of th e neglect of th e e xpansion of glass co rrectio n for th e h y d ro m e te r a g ain st
ta n k -ta b le corrections, b u t Mr. H y a m s h a d him self suggested a b e tte r m eth o d . If
ta n k s w ere c o rre c tly c alib ra ted , one should n o t re ly on com p en satio n of errors, b u t
sho u ld r a th e r co rre c t th e h y d ro m e te r for its erro rs w hen used a t a high te m p e ra tu re
or, a lte rn a tiv e ly , for high tem p e ra tu re s su p p ly a h y d ro m e te r w hich re q u ire d no cor­
re ctio n . G enerally speaking; h e w as opposed to allow ing e rrors to com pensate each
o th e r, unless one w as q u ite c ertain t h a t co m p en satio n w ould be reaso n ab ly p e rfe c t.
A gain, a lth o u g h in som e c ountries m ea su re m e n t w as b y w eight, in o th ers it w as b y
volum e, w hen th e com pensation proposed w ould fail. I t w as possible to h a v e one
m e th o d of ta n k c alib ra tio n for areas w here m ea su re m e n t w as b y w eight a n d a n o th e r
m e th o d fo r areas w here m easu rem en t w as b y volum e, b u t it w as r a th e r d o u b tfu l
w h e th e r it w as advisable to d u p lic a te m eth o d s in t h a t w ay for th e sake of com pensation
of errors.
T h e la s t p o in t raised b y Mr. H y a m s w as a v e ry difficult one, a n d one on w hich he
w ould a d m it t h a t h e w as n o t him self q u ite satisfied. I t w as v e ry difficult to arra n g e
t h a t th e a ir, oil, a n d ta p e te m p e ra tu re s should all be th e sam e. T he lin ear e xpansion
of ste el w as a b o u t 0 000012 p e r degree C., so t h a t if th e ta p e te m p e ra tu re w as 8° C.
a w ay from th e te m p e ra tu re of c alib ra tio n of th e ta p e — th e te m p e ra tu re a t w hich he
assu m e d th e ta p e w as co rrect,— an erro r w ould be in tro d u c e d of a b o u t 1 p a r t in 10,000
 DISCUSSION ON “ TANK S T R A P P IN G .”
132
in the circumference m easured. An error of t h a t a m o u n t in th e circum ference corre­
sponded to an error of 2 p a rts in 10,000 on th e cross-sectional a re a ; in o rd er to m ain-
tain an accuracy of 1 p a rt in 10,000 in th e ta n k tab le s, one w ould h a v e to be sure
th a t the tap e was w ithin 4° C. of its correct te m p e ra tu re , o r else m easure in som e way
the tem perature a t which th e ta p e w as being used. N e ith e r of th o se w as v e ry easy.
The sim plest course to a d o p t, of course, w as to red u ce th e a c c u rac y of th e tab le s, to
choose such a tolerance as w ould cover th e e rrors t h a t w ere m ad e w ith th e tape.
An alternative m ethod was to su b s titu te a ta p e of low coefficient of e xpansion for the
norm al steel tape used. I t w as tru e t h a t in th e p a p e r h e h a d expressed him self as
being opposed to the use of such special tap e s, b u t in th e case in q u estio n one was
confronted by a special difficulty a n d h a d to choose b etw een tw o undesirable
courses.
The tap e tem perature w as im p o rta n t m th e tro p ics. I here, if m full sunshine a tape
was p u t round a ta n k w hich w as p a in te d or h a d a p itte d surface o r w as ru sty , when
one drew one’s finger along th e ta p e th e sensation w as n o t m erely one of w arm th , but
of shght pain. The tap e s m ig h t reach te m p e ra tu re s of 140° F . o r m ore u n d e r these
conditions, which was q u ite a d e p artu re from th e 68° F . a t w hich th e y w ere norm ally
calibrated. He hoped t h a t w ith fu rth e r w ork som e m e th o d m ig h t be found of cor­
recting for th e m ajor portion of th e error in tro d u c ed b y failu re to c o n tro l th e tem pera­
ture of th e tape. As a n illu stra tio n of w h a t m ig h t be done, one m ig h t be able to
hang a therm om eter of some sta n d a rd ty p e on th e su n n y side of th e ta n k and, by
strapping a few tan k s b o th w ith a n o rdinary steel ta p e a n d w ith a n in v a r tap e, obtain
a satisfactory tab le of corrections, to be applied in fu tu re eases a g ain st th e readings
of a sim ilar therm om eter sim ilarly placed du rin g stra p p in g .
E xcept for tanks h eated artificially, in all clim ates th e re w as alw ays a tim e in the
morning, w ith another in th e evening, a t w hich th e air, oil a n d ta p e tem peratures
would be the sa m e ; b u t it w as extrem ely inconvenient, a n d o fte n im practicable, to
have to lim it strapping to these tim es. H e agreed t h a t th e p o in t w as a difficult one,
not y e t fully solved.
He agreed th a t insertion of p e rm a n en t w a te r b o tto m s w ould be im practicable in
very cold clim ates; in such cases check on th e sta b ility of th e ta n k b o tto m might
still be possible in sum m er. The fa ct th a t m ovem ent of th e b o tto m w as a p t to start
leakage, combined w ith th e im possibility of m ain tain in g all th e y e a r ro u n d a water
bottom against leakage, w ould no d o u b t lead engineers to m ak e v ery sure of tank
foundations under such circum stances. W hile he h a d n o t h a d to h a n d le th e specific
case of inserting a tem porary w ater b o tto m w hen local re g u la tio n s did n o t allow these,
he had seldom found any real difficulty in ob tain in g te m p o ra ry re la x a tio n of official
regulations, of course w ithin reason, a fte r th e need for a n d in te n tio n of th e work
proposed h a d been suitably explained.

M r . W . E . D o u g l a s said one point to w hich M r. K e rr h a d n o t referred in th is paper

was th a t there were lim itations w ith regard to ta n k -c a lib ra tio n tab le s. There were
certain persons who were responsible for those lim ita tio n s. I n th e first place, the
tank-calibration table was lim ited according to th e lim ita tio n s of th e person or persons
m aking the m easurem ents. I t w as u n fo rtu n a te t h a t th e people w ho h a d to calibrate
tanks had not alw ays th e fine, scientific, a cc u rate m in d of M r. K e rr, an d it was very
difficult to get them to realize th e im p ortance of som e of th e finer p o in ts. One might
possibly produce more accurate resu lts b y n o t aim ing a t such a h ig h degree of accuracy.
B ut the lim itation which still m ore affected th e tab le s w as th e lim ita tio n of th e people
using them . If th e tables were too com plicated o r re q u ire d too m uch judgem ent on the
p a rt of the people using them , it w ould invariably be found t h a t th e tab les were wrongly
applied. One of th e greatest difficulties in a tta in in g a high degree of accuracy was
t e fact th a t the m ental calibre of some of th e people using th e m was n o t sufficiently
good, and th a t, of course, was p a rticu la rly th e case in places fa r overseas. H e there-
. ore t oug t it was advisable n o t to aim a t too high a degree of accuracy if th at
involved m aking the tables them selves to o com plicated.

M r. K e r r said th a t if one h a d n o t a t one’s disposal sta ff w ho were com petent to

+a an ProPerly > th e n th e resu lts w ould be unreliab le. T o send o u t a special
riI, , • ° remo e districts m ight be o u t of th e questio n , on a cc o u n t of th e cost. In
one mig i ia i e to a d m it t h a t in such cases one could n o t reach satisfactory
 DISCUSSIO N ON “ TANK S T R A P P IN G .” 133

accuracies b y stra p p in g . I n th ese cases c alcu la tio n from th e draw ings w ould alm o st
certain ly be m ore sa tisfa c to ry th a n stra p p in g .
H e w as e n tire ly in agreem ent w ith M r. D ouglas as re g ard s t a n k ta b le s. T hese
s ta te a g ain st th e dips th e c alcu la te d volum e of oil in th e t a n k ; in his opinion, th e
volum e figures given sho u ld a lre a d y c o n ta in all corrections considered desirable.
F o r th e ty p e of ta n k considered in th e p a p er, a n y desired co rrectio n could be in co r­
p o ra te d in c alcu la tio n in to th e volum es given, th is leaving one co m p letely free to se t
o u t th e ta b le in a n y desired fo rm ; he agreed w ith M r. D ouglas t h a t th e u se r should
be given as sim ple a ta b le as possible.

M r . J . L e w i s sa id t h a t Mr. K e rr s ta te d in his p a p e r t h a t th e stra p p in g ta p e should

n o t com e w ith in four inches of a seam . H e w ould like to a sk Mr. K e rr how he arra n g e d
for t h a t , because in h is ow n experience of stra p p in g it h a d b e en difficult enough to
keep th e ta p e on to p of th e p la te in its co rrect position.

M r . K e r r said t h a t a lth o u g h h e h a d n o t m e t th e tro u b le , it m ig h t be difficult to

m a in ta in a ta p e in co rrect p o sitio n on a ta n k , b u t if th e circum ference w as to be of
value, it h a d to be done. T h e ta p e w as p u t ro u n d th e ta n k in ten sio n , a n d it w as
m o v ed in to p lace b y m eans of a so ft m e ta l rin g w hich passed ro u n d th e ta p e . A
strin g w as led from th e soft m eta l rin g to th e to p of th e ta n k a n d a n o th e r strin g w as
le d to th e g round. T w o m en a t th e ends of th e strin g w ere able to place th e ta p e in
a sa tisfa c to ry positio n . T e n p o u n d s ten sio n on th e ta p e w as generally enough to
ho ld i t in positio n , b u t if th is difficulty w as experienced w ith a n y p a rtic u la r ta p e , he
w ould increase th e ten sio n u n til he g o t th e ta p e to keep in place. A correction for
th e a d d itio n al ten sio n m ig h t th e n h a v e to be applied, b u t since th e sam e ta p e w ould
p ro b a b ly h a v e to b e u se d on o th e r ta n k s , th is w ould be c alcu la te d as a p ercentage
co rrectio n once for all.
U sing a ta p e \ in. w ide he h a d n o t m e t serious difficulty in keeping i t to th e p ro p e r
p a th , even w hen th e tw o m en assisting him w ere n a tiv e s new to th e w ork. T h e w ider
th e ta p e th e m ore easily i t w ould keep to its p a th , once i t h a d been p laced in t h i s ;
th e so lu tio n m ig h t be found in using a w ider ta p e , b u t on th is see th e section on
“ S tra p p in g T apes ” in th e p a p er.

M r . J . L e w i s said his experience w as t h a t as soon as one increased th e tension,

th e m a n a t th e o th e r e n d of th e ta p e in v ariab ly le t i t go. H e a tte m p te d to keep th e
ta p e som e d istan ce above th e h o rizo n tal seam , b u t h e fo u n d t h a t i t cam e dow n on
th e h o rizo n tal seam , an d he h a d to go ro u n d th e ta n k s him self to see t h a t th e ta p e
w as a c tu a lly in position. H e gave u p a ll hope of ever f i n d i n g th e ta p e 4 in. above
th e seam .

M r . K e r r said t h a t in th e m e th o d w hich h e pre fe rre d th e ta p e w as long enough

to encircle th e ta n k com pletely. One end of th e ta p e w as h e ld th ro u g h a spring
balan ce a t th e desired tension, a n d th e o th e r e n d w as ju s t h e ld in th e h a n d . T he
frictio n necessary to pu ll th e ta p e o u t of p o sitio n w as a b o u t 18 lb ., on a ta n k of fair
size, so t h a t a t 10 lb. one still h a d a m arg in betw een th e a m o u n t necessary to p u ll
th e ta p e o u t of po sitio n a n d t h a t w hich gave th e re q u ire d ten sio n . H e h a d n o t found
th e difficulty in a c tu a l stra p p in g , b u t it no d o u b t depended to a considerable e x te n t
o n th e q u a lity of th e assistance t h a t one h a d .
A stra p p in g crew m u st, of course, include a t le a st one m a n w ho u n d e rsto o d
th o ro u g h ly w h a t w as to be d o n e ; i t w as useful if th e second m a n also u n d ersto o d ,
since th is sa v e d t im e ; b u t he h a d freq u e n tly h a d to tra in as second h a n d a reaso n ab ly
b u t n o t u n u su a lly intellig en t n a tiv e lead in g -h an d or forem an new to th e w ork, th is
a d d in g p e rh a p s h a lf a n h o u r to th e tim e ta k e n . T h e th ir d m a n need h a v e v e ry few
qualifications b ey o n d being w illing to do as he is t o l d ; b u t th is is essential.
T h e use of a long ta p e p u ts b o th ends of th is in th e h a n d s of one m an , w ho sh o u ld be
th e b e st qualified of th e th ree . T he ta p e is k e p t a t th e re q u ire d ten sio n b y th e lead er
w hile i t is being finally p laced b y th e tw o o th ers. I f i t is desirable t h a t th e lead er
sho u ld in sp e ct th e placing of th e ta p e , a n d if th e th ir d h a n d is n o t to b e tr u s te d to
keep it a t p ro p e r tension, th e follow ing p ro c ed u re h a s b e en found useful. T h e ends
of th e ta p e a lre a d y o v e rla p ; still u n d e r th e p ro p e r tension, th e ov erlap is ex te n d ed ,
so t h a t a fa ir le n g th of th e one e n d lies closely ab o v e th e o th e r o n th e ta n k surface.
 DISCUSSION ON “ TANK S T R A P P IN G .”
134
T h e th ird m a n is n o t allo w ed to t a k e t h e ta p e in h is h a n d s , b u t h o ld s i t in p o sitio n
b v Dressing his h a n d s fla t a g a in s t th e t a n k o v e r t h e tw o e n d s . M a rk s h a v e a lr e a d y
b een m ad e ag a in st g ra d u a tio n s on b o th e n d s o f t h e ta p e , a n d i t is p o in te d o u t t o him
t h a t th e ta p e m u s t s till be a t th e s e m a r k s w h e n t h e le a d e r co m es b a c k . T h e p o sitio n
of th e ta p e is th e n in sp e c te d b y th e le a d e r, a n y f a u lts b e in g p o in te d o u t t o th e second
m an T h e lead er ag ain ta k e s o v e r t h e t a p e fro m t h e t h i r d m a n ; b e fo re t h e th ird
m an rem oves h is h a n d s , th e p ro p e r te n s io n is r e s to r e d o n th e fre e e n d th r o u g h th e
sp rin g b alan ce. T h e t a p e is th e n r e a d ju s te d if n e c e s s a ry b y t h e se c o n d a n d th ird
h an d s, an d its p la c in g a g a in v e rifie d ; if t h e p ro c e ss is in s is te d o n c a re fu lly a t th e
beginning, it is seld om n e c e s sa ry to c a r r y i t o u t o n a ll c o u rse s . I f t h e to le ra n c e s
w ith in w h ich th e m e a s u re d circ u m fe re n c e s m u s t lie in o rd e r t o a g re e s a tis fa c to rily
w ith th e d raw in g s h a v e b e e n c a lc u la te d in a d v a n c e , t h e n a s t h e le a d e r co m es to each
new circum ference he k now s a t on ce w h e th e r f u r t h e r in s p e c tio n o f t h e ta p e p a th is
desirable.

M r. A. P . C a t h e r a i a sa id h e h a d s tr a p p e d a c o n s id e ra b le n u m b e r of ta n k s w ith
500-ft. ta p e , I in . w ide, a n d u sin g co lo u re d la b o u r, h e h a d h a d n o d iffic u lty a t all in
keeping th e ta p e o n th e t a n k a t th e re q u ire d te n s io n b y t h e m e th o d su g g e ste d by
Mr. K err.

M r . I v e r r sa id h is difficu lty g e n e ra lly h a s b e e n t o p r e v e n t t h e m e n p u llin g too

h eav ily on th e en d s of th e ta p e . H e h a d se en t h e m p u llin g a t t h e e n d s of th e ta p e
as th o u g h th e y w ere en g ag ed in a tu g -o f-w a r, a n d t h a t h a d , of c o u rse , t o b e sto p p e d .
As he h a d said, a g re a t d e a l d e p e n d e d o n th e q u a lity o f t h e a s s is ta n c e a v a ila b le .
H e th o u g h t i t m ig h t be u se fu l to e x p la in m o re fu lly t h e tr o u b le s w h ic h aro se from
acce p tin g to o low a s ta n d a rd of a c c u ra c y in t a n k ta b le s . A n y f a u lts in ta b le s which
te n d e d to sh o rt-d eliv ery to c u sto m e rs w o u ld n o t b e to le ra b le to a n y r e p u ta b le C om pany.
F a u lts in stra p p in g d eliv ery ta n k s co u ld b e d iv id e d o n th is b a s is ; sla c k n e ss in th e
ta p e , n eg lect of se am o v erlap c o rre c tio n s, a n d t h e lik e , te n d e d to sh o rt-d e liv e ry ;
excess ten sio n in th e ta p e , if n o t c o rre c te d fo r, te n d e d in t h e o th e r d ir e c tio n ; while
th e re w ere o th e r fa u lts w hose effect v a r ie d a c c o rd in g t o c irc u m s ta n c e s . A nother
co n sid eratio n w as th is, t h a t it c e r ta in ly p a id to c o n tro l w o rk in g lo sses closely, a t any
r a te w h en th e q u a n titie s in v o lv e d w ere la rg e . I f a to le r a n c e of s a y p lu s o r m inus
0-1 p e r c e n t, w ere a c c e p te d , w h en a li t tle m o re c a re w o u ld g iv e h ig h e r a c c u ra c y , th e
resu ltin g confusion in w o rk in g losses w a s o f te n se rio u s. T w o ta n k s a t th e sam e
in sta lla tio n m ig h t th e n differ b y 0-2 p e r c e n t, in t h e e x tr e m e c ase ; if th e s e tan k s
receiv ed oil fro m ta n k e rs , th e n th e a p p a r e n t tr a n s i t lo sses t o t h e in s ta lla tio n could
v a ry b y 0-2 p e r c e n t., e v e n if th e re a l losses w ere c o n s ta n t in p e rc e n ta g e . T h e p e r­
fo rm an ce of th e ta n k e rs w ould com e u n d e r su sp ic io n , a n d o n e m ig h t easily w aste
tim e in lo o king in to th is , w h en th e f a u lt re a lly la y elsew h ere.
D raw in g oil fro m one t a n k in s te a d of th e o th e r , t h e in s ta lla tio n w o u ld show 0-2 per
c e n t, difference in w o rk in g loss. L o cal s ta ff w o u ld b e c o m e a c c u s to m e d to a p p a re n tly
in ex p licab le v a ria tio n s ; if th e y d id n o t a p p r e c ia te t h e p a r t t h e ir t a n k ta b le s were
p lay in g , th e ir effo rts to p ro d u c e c o m p re h e n sib le lo ss fig u re s w o u ld be ineffective,
w hen in te re s t in th e q u e s tio n te n d e d to b e lo s t. T h e e x tr e m e ra n g e s in w orking
losses o ften re p o rte d fro m tw o in s ta lla tio n s w o rk in g u n d e r clo se ly t h e sa m e con­
d itio n s w o u ld b e fam iliar to h is a u d ie n c e ; p o o r t a n k ta b le s w e re o f te n a fa c to r in this.
A lth o u g h h e him self re g a rd e d th e a c tu a l p ro c e ss o f s t r a p p in g a s on e re q u irin g care
a n d little else, h e p o in te d o u t t h a t it se em ed to b e w o r th w h ile o v e rc o m in g w h atev er
difficulties m ig h t be m e t w ith , c o n sid e rin g t h a t t h e r e s u ltin g ta b le s m ig h t b e in use
for m an y y ears. T a n k s se ld o m la y id le ; ta k e n o v e r a few y e a r s , t h e r e w ere few cases
m w hich th e oil v o lu m es d e a lt w ith b y a ta b le w ere n o t la rg e . H e w o u ld n o t a tte m p t
to ay dow n w h a t s ta n d a rd s of a c c u ra c y sh o u ld b e a d o p t e d ; a c c u r a c y fo r i ts ow n sake
w as a m ista k e , b u t in s tr a p p in g ta n k s i t se em ed to h im t h a t i t p ro m is e d definite
econom ies.

M r. 13. C F e r g u s o n ask ed w h e th e r M r. K e r r h a d a n y e x p e rie n c e of th e correlation

w een ca i ra tio n b y in te rn a l d ia m e te rs a n d b y e x te r n a l c irc u m fe re n c e s .

M r . K e r r said t h a t th e m e th o d of s tr a p p in g m e t h is o w n n e e d s so m u c h more
osety th a n th e m e th o d of m e a s u rin g in te r n a l d ia m e te r s t h a t h e h a d n o t h a d m uch
 DISCUSSION ON “ TANK S T R A P P IN G .” 135
experience of th e l a tte r m eth o d . H e saw no reason, how ever, w hy th e m easu rem en t
of in te rn al d iam e te rs should n o t give one a n excellen t ta n k -ta b le . I t w as clear t h a t
if a ta n k w as m easu red e m p ty th e d iam eters o b tain e d d id n o t co n ta in th e correction
for ta n k exp an sio n w hich he p referred should be ad d ed in th e case of large ta n k s , b u t
t h a t could be c alcu la te d a n d allow ed for. H e believed t h a t v e ry close agreem ent
would be o b tain e d betw een th e tw o m ethods.

M r . M a l c o l m B r o w n e said th e re w as one q u e stio n he w o u l d like to a sk w ith regard

to b u ried ta n k s . T an k s above gro u n d w ere u su a lly circular, v e rtic a l or horizo n tal,
b u t in th e case of b u ried storage o th e r shapes w ere used. H a d M r. K e rr h a d a n y
experience of c alib ra tin g ta n k s t h a t w ere sq u are o r re ctan g u la r, for in stan c e, a n d , if
so, w h a t difficulties m ight be ex p ec te d in connection w ith th e m ?

M r . K e r r , in a w ritte n re p ly to th e above q u estio n , said t h a t he h a d h a d only

a little experience w ith re ctan g u la r ta n k s . C alib ratio n m eth o d s th a t suggested th e m ­
selves were calculations from th e draw ings, m easu rem en t of in te rn a l dim ensions, o r
d irec t filling w ith m easured q u a n titie s of liquid, since re ctan g u la r ta n k s w ere usu ally
sm all. H e th o u g h t t h a t d irec t filling w as likely to be th e m o st a c c u ra te m e th o d ;
especially if th e ir dim ensions w ere large, fla t ends a n d sides te n d to d isto rt ra th e r
n o ta b ly o u tw a rd s u n d e r th e oil h ead , unless th e y a re v ery well su p p o rte d b y th e e a rth
o utside th e ta n k , o r otherw ise stre n g th e n ed . H e believed he h a d seen in th e lite ra tu re
a discussion of th e a m o u n t of th is d isto rtio n , b u t a t th e m o m en t of w ritin g he w as
a b ro ad , so t h a t h e could n o t give a m ore definite re fe re n c e ; he h a d m ade n o tria ls to
com pare th e re su lts of th e v a rious m eth o d s of c alib ra tio n on th is ty p e of ta n k .
I f th e ta n k w ere laid w ith a t il t for drainage, or if it developed a t il t th ro u g h w eakness
in th e fo u ndations, th is m ig h t le a d to inaccuracies unless allow ed fo r; w ith sm all
ta n k s , e rrors of a few gallons w ere h ig h in th e ir p ercen tag e effects. F o r th is reason,
deadw ood h a d to b e tr e a te d c arefully if good p erce n ta g e accuracies w ere to be o b tain e d
from m easu rem en t m eth o d s in these cases. Once th e ta n k h a d se ttle d on its fo u n d a ­
tio n s, c alib ra tio n b y filling w ould allow a u to m a tic a lly for t il t effects.
I n m easuring in te rn ally , th e en d loop of th e ta p e m ig h t be h e ld a g ain st one side
of th e ta n k , a n d a g ra d u a te d steel ru le in th e re q u ire d po sitio n a g ain st th e o th e r s id e ;
th e ta p e w ould th e n be re a d off o pposite som e convenient g ra d u a tio n on th e rule, th e
ta p e a n d ru le len g th s being a d d e d to o b ta in th e t o ta l len g th . T he ta p e m ig h t be
u sed sim ilarly b etw een tw o rules. I t sho u ld n o t sag b etw een th e ta n k e n d s ; it m ight
b e su p p o rte d on a wood b a tte n . Sm all v a ria tio n s from th e correct ta p e ten sio n w ould
n o t be im p o rta n t for sh o rt le n g th s ; b u t w hen large d iam e te rs w ere m easured, special
a rra n g e m e n ts w ould h av e to be used to secure th e p ro p e r ten sio n a n d to p e rm it
c orrection for sag, if good accuracies w ere req u ired .

M r . A . C. H a r t l e y ask ed w h e th er M r. K e rr h a d h a d a n y experience w ith w elded

ta n k s , a n d w h e th er th e re w as a n y difference in th e b e h av io u r of w elded ta n k s an d
riv e te d ta n k s in re g ard to e xpansion u n d e r a h e a d of oil.

M r . K e r r said he h a d h a d v e ry little experience w ith w elded ta n k s , h u t h e w as

cred ib ly inform ed t h a t th e w elded ta n k w as o ften less re g u la r in sh ap e th a n th e
riv e te d ta n k . T he only cause of difference in ex p an sio n u n d e r oil-head, he th o u g h t,
w as t h a t a t th e h o rizo n tal seam s of a riv e te d ta n k th e p la te s o v erlap p ed a n d a t t h a t
level th e re w as a g re a te r resistance to e x p an sio n th a n in th e open p la te . I n th e case
of w elded ta n k s th e re w ere n o such overlaps, so t h a t he w ould e x p ec t th e exp an sio n
of a w elded ta n k to follow th e boiler e x p an sio n fo rm u la m ore closely th a n w ould a
riv e te d ta n k , unless it h a d stiffening rings. H e h a d y e t to calcu la te o u t th e effect
of th e o verlap of h o rizo n tal seam s on th e e x p a n s io n ; th e th e o ry un d erly in g th e c alcu la ­
tio n w as r a th e r com plex, a n d he h a d n o t y e t h a d tim e to go in to th e q u e stio n p ro p erly .
H e h a d checked u p th e effect p ra c tic a lly ; his re su lts suggested t h a t a t fo u r to six
inches ab o v e th e seam th e e xpansion form ula given in th e p a p e r could be ap p lied
sa tisfa c to rily . A t th e seam itself th e r e s tra in in g effect of th e o verlap could be
d e te c te d , b u t i t w as m u ch sm aller th a n w ould be e x p e c te d if th e overlap e x te n d e d
o v er a n y g re a t d e p th . I t w as for th a t reaso n t h a t he suggested s tra p p in g 4 to 6 inches
ab o v e th e b o tto m of th e course.
 DISCUSSION ON TANK STR A PPIN G .
136
D k F H G a b n e r said th a t in connection w ith co rrectio n for oil te m p e ra tu re Mr.
K err sta te d 'th a t th e volum es calculated from th e stra p p in g s w ere la te r corrected for
the cubical coefficient of expansion of steel. S u itab le corrections could q u ite well be
incorporated in th e sta n d ard volum e correction ta b le s ; a d o p tio n of th is procedure
would considerably sim plify a ccu rate calcu latio n of volum es fro m ta n k m easurem ents.

M r K erb, said th a t D r. G arner h a d referred to a n o th e r side of a q u estio n already

raised in the discussion—i.e., as to how fa r oil m ea su re m e n t sho u ld be considered as a
whole and how far it should be sep a ra ted o u t in to its c o n stitu e n t p a rts . I t w as quite
possible to allow for expansion b y a d ju stin g th e coefficient u sed for th e oil; it was
largely a m a tte r of opinion, b u t, on th e w hole, he w ould like h is ta n k tab le s to show
tru e volumes directly. H e w as q u ite w illing to agree, how ever, t h a t th e final results
would be the same.
Dr. G am er’s suggestion assum ed t h a t oil volum es w ould b e red u ce d in routine by
suitable tables to 60° F ., or a t lea st to som e s ta n d a rd te m p e ra tu re . W hile th is was
standard practice in th e U n ited S ta te s sy stem , m ea su re m e n t b y w eight, without
reduction of either volum es or g ravities to sta n d a rd te m p e ra tu re , w as common in
both th e B ritish and m etric system s. H ere th e observed specific g ra v ity of the oil
was corrected to th e tem p e ra tu re of th e oil in th e ta n k , a n d th e oil volum e, measured
a t the same tem perature, w as m u ltiplied b y th e figure so o b ta in e d to g et th e weight.
The process had th e a d v an tag e t h a t th e effect of possible erro rs in th e coefficients
used to reduce th e gravities were g re atly m inim ised. A llow ance fo r th e rm a l expansion
of the ta n k in the m anner suggested b y D r. G arner w as inap p licab le w hen th is method
was used.
A part from this, th e m ethod of correction suggested b y D r. G arner would be
advantageous, since in stead of a d ju stin g th e ta n k ta b le s to a n average tem perature
of use the correct allowance w ould be m ade a t each gauge for th e t a n k ’s a c tu a l tem pera­
ture. He apologized for h a ving suggested a t th e m ee tin g t h a t th e tw o methods
were e q u iv a len t; th e y w ould average o u t equally, b u t D r. G a rn e r’s m eth o d undoubt­
edly had the advantage in th e in dividual cases.

T h e P r e s i d e n t , in proposing a h e a rty v o te of th a n k s to M r. K e rr, said he was sure

everyone present w ould agree w ith him t h a t th e discussion t h a t evening had been
m ost enlightening and interesting. H e th o u g h t th e m eth o d w hich Mr. K err had
adopted of answering each question as i t was asked w as a useful one, an d m ight be
adopted in m any other cases; it h a d c ertain ly b ro u g h t o u t a v ery large num ber of
points which m ight n o t otherw ise have been raised. H e w ould rem in d th e members
th a t rem arks in w riting would also be w elcom ed, a n d he w as sure t h a t Mr. Kerr
would be pleased to answ er in w riting a n y q uestions w hich w ere asked in th a t way.
He thought the In stitu te was to be c o n g ra tu la te d o n being able to give the lead
to which Mr. Kewley had referred b y h a ving a p a p e r on th e su b je c t of tank-strapping
in its Journal. The subject w as n o t a n aspect of p e tro leu m technology to which he
himself had devoted m uch a tte n tio n ; he h a d alw ays been c o n te n t to leave it in other
people s hands, and he h a d been surprised t h a t evening to le a rn th e accuracy with
which m easurem ent of oil in ta n k s could be carried o u t.
He wished to express th e th a n k s of th e In s titu te to th e A siatic P etro leu m Company
for perm itting the publication of Mr. K e rr’s w ork, a n d th u s h elping th e In stitu te to
give a lead on the subject of in te rn atio n al sta n d a rd iz a tio n of such w ork. He felt
th a t the prestige of th e I n s titu te w ould be g re a tly en h an c ed b y th e publication of
Mr. K err s paper and th e tab le s w hich should a ccom pany it. I f an y arrangem ent
could be m ade for coining to some agreem ent w ith th e A m erican P etro leu m Institute
on the question of the sta n d ard iza tio n of m easurem ent, i t w ould be one of the finest
ways of creating reciprocal u n d erstan d in g betw een th e p e tro leu m technologists of
the world. The In s titu te w as m uch ind eb ted to Mr. K e rr a n d his Com pany for the
presentation of the paper t h a t evening.

The vote of thanks was accorded w ith acclam ation, a n d th e m eeting th e n term inated.
 E N G IN E K N O C K A N D IT S E F F E C T ON F U E L
D E V E L O P M E N T .*
B y Professor D. M. N e w i t t , M.C., D.Sc., D .I.C., A.R.C.S.

I t is m y purpose this evening to give some account of the com bustion of

hydrocarbons and, m ore particularly, of th a t aspect of th eir com bustion
which is peculiar to th e internal com bustion engine, an d which, in certain
circumstances, gives rise to th e phenom enon of knock or pinking. The
subject is one of considerable technical im portance, for th e incidence of
knock in petrol fuels is a dom inating factor in th e design of engines and
has exerted a profound influence on th e tre n d of developm ent in the
petroleum industry.
The origin and cause of knock has long puzzled b oth chemists and
engineers, and atte m p ts to find an explanation which will account for all
th e facts have h ith erto n o t been entirely satisfactory. All th e evidence,
however, points to it being a chemical phenom enon resulting in a sudden
acceleration of th e ra te of com bustion in th e engine and the initiation of
intense compression waves in th e charge. A knowledge of th e chemical
changes occurring during a working cycle is therefore an essential p re­
lim inary to an understanding of th e problem , and I propose to give a brief
account of some recent researches which have a direct hearing upon th e
m atter.
I t is well know n 1 th a t a quiescent com bustible g as-air or oxygen m ixture
of suitable composition will, under certain conditions {e.g., when ignited in
a horizontal tu b e closed a t one end), propagate flame a t a uniform slow
rate of th e order of 5 to 10 m etres per second. Provided the tu b e is suffi­
ciently long th e uniform propagation m ay be d isturbed by vibrations which
cause compression waves to traverse th e m edium , and i t m ay eventually
develop into detonation, th e flame th e n travelling a t th e enorm ously en­
hanced speed of some 3000 m etres p er second. These are w hat m ay be
term ed th e norm al types of flame propagation, and th ey m ay conveniently
be studied by photographing th e flame on a film moving a t rig h t angles to
th e axis of th e tube.
There is no need to enlarge upon these types of com bustion, which have
frequently been described and are probably fam iliar to you all, b u t I should
like to draw a tten tio n to three photographs tak en by m y colleague, Mr. R. P.
Fraser, which illustrate certain points of interest in connection w ith them .2
P late I (a) is a photograph of flame traversing a carbonic oxide-oxygen
m edium in a horizontal tu b e closed a t b o th ends. I t shows very clearly
th e w ay in which a series of compression waves m ay be set up and traverse
th e gases.
P late I (b) illustrates th e setting up of d etonation a t tw o points each a
little ahead of th e flame front in a sim ilar m ixture burning in a horizontal
* P a p e r p re se n te d to a J o in t M eeting o f th e S o u th W ales B ra n c h o f th e In s titu te
o f P e tro le u m a n d th e local section o f th e I n s titu te o f C hem istry, h e ld a t Sw ansea
o n D ecem ber 9 th , 1938.
 NEW ITT : EN G IN E KNOCK AND
138
tube I t is interesting to note th a t from the point of detonation two
flames travel forwards, the one a t a com paratively slow speed of 360
metres per second and the other a t about 3000 m etres per second.
Plate II (a) shows a detonation wave traversing a carbonic oxide-oxygen
medium a t a uniform speed of 1760 m etres per second. The regularly
distributed striations in the photograph indicate th a t the detonation head
is moving in a spiral path, and m easurem ent shows th a t it is rotating a t a
speed of 44,000 revolutions per second.
Now the type of combustion producing knock, although associated with
compression waves and a high rate of reaction, cannot be identified with
either uniform slow propagation or w ith tru e detonation. This is shown
by Plate II (6), which is a photograph of the flame traversing an engine
cylinder in which knock is taking place.3 I t will be seen th a t towards the
end of the stroke, when only a relatively sm all proportion of th e charge
remains unburnt, there is a sudden increase in velocity accom panied by a
violent vibratory movem ent of the gases. This vib rato ry movement,
together with resonance effects in th e cylinder walls, gives rise to the
familiar sound of knock.
Let us consider for a m om ent the condition of th e u n b u rn t charge near
the end of the stroke. I t is in contact w ith th e h o t walls of the combustion
chamber and with the faces of th e exhaust valve, it is subjected to adiabatic
compression, and it is irradiated from the flame and bom barded by highly
energized radicals and molecules projected ahead of th e flame front. These
are the environmental conditions th a t m ust be borne in mind. I t is clear
th a t they are such as would be expected to cause p artia l oxidation with the
formation of interm ediate oxygenated products, atom s an d radicals, and
it is the presence of one or more such bodies in critical concentrations
which sensitizes the m ixture and doubtless renders it prone to knock.
A certain am ount of information, both direct and indirect, is available
about the kinetics of these initial processes. There is no question, for
example, but th a t pressure, tem perature and tim e are im portant factors;
and experiment has shown th a t the ra te of sensitization m ay be accelerated
or slowed down by the introduction of sm all quantities of promoters and
inhibitors, respectively. These facts suggest th a t the high rate of com­
bustion producing knock is due to a reaction of th e branched chain type the
chain-carriers being in all probability radicals derived from the thermal
decomposition of some interm ediate product form ed in adequate concen­
tration during the sensitizing period.4
A large number of inhibitors or anti-knocks is known, although only one,
namely lead tetrethyl, has come into general use. Usually, though not
invariably, they tu rn out to be volatile organo-m etallic compounds which
decompose to give metallic atom s and radicals, and, as Egerton has pointed
out, the m etal is always one th a t is capable of forming both a lower and a
higher oxide. They have very little efiect upon th e speed of flame propa­
gation or upon the setting up of tru e detonation, b u t they appear to act
either by retarding the initial slow reaction or by lim iting the number of
reaction centres from which chains are set up.
From the point of view of the production of high-duty fuels (i.e., fuels
of high knock-rating), considerable interest attaches to th e precise mechan­
ism of the chain reactions which are responsible for knock, and a large
 P la te I (a).

G R A P H IC A L P I C T U R E O F F L A M E IN ' A M IX T U R E O F 2 C 0 + 0 2 I X A CL JS E D
T U B E 1 - 6 m . L O N G I G N IT E D C E N T R A L L Y .

[T o face p 138.
 P la te I (6 ).
D E TO N A TIO N IN A CARBON IC O X ID E -O X Y G E N M E D IU M .

P la te I I (a).
TH E SP IN N IN G D E T O N A T IO N W AV E I N A M IX T U R E OF 2 C O -j- O a I N A T U B E 1*3 Cm .
D IA M E T E R . ROTA TIO NAL SP E E D 44,000/sec. D E T O N A T IO N S P E E D 1760 I t I . / s e C .

P la te I I 'b).
FLAM E T R A V ER SIN G AN
 IT S E FF E C T ON F U E L D E V ELO PM EN T. 139

amount of work has been done in recent years in attem pts to identify them.
The problem is by no means an easy one. The slow combustion of any of
the higher hydrocarbons leads to the formation of a very complex mixture
containing aldehydes, alcohols, peroxidic bodies and acids in varying pro­
portions, and the chain-carrier may be present amongst them in quantities
so small as to defy detection by ordinary analytical methods. I t is possible,
however, to narrow the field. The dependence of knock on pressure,
temperature and time suggests th a t the substance we are looking for must
be relatively unstable under the working conditions and m ust be capable
of breaking down to give active radicals which can act as chain-carriers.
The fact th at very small quantities of inhibitors (e.g., 1 vol. of lead tetraethyl
in 1300 vols. of fuel), are effective, indicates th a t it need be present
only in low concentrations, and it is also reasonable to suppose th a t it
would belong to the class of promoters and, when added to a fuel, would
act as a powerful knock-inducer.
The substances which might be formed during slow oxidation and which
conform to the above specification are alkyl-, alkyl hydrogen- and alcoxy-
peroxides, aldehyde peroxides and peroxides of oxygenated ring compounds
(e.g., vinyl ether peroxide). Oxides of nitrogen which are also present are
not pro-knocks. The presence of one or more organic peroxides in the
exhaust gases of an engine has been demonstrated by Dumanois, Mondain-
Monval and Quanquin,5 and they have also been detected by Egerton,
Smith and Ubbelohde 4 in the gases extracted from an engine just prior to
knock.
On examining the “ promoting ” characteristics of typical members of
each of the above classes of peroxide it is found th at whilst define peroxides
have only a slight effect, acetyl-, ethyl hydrogen- and diethyl-peroxides
are powerful pro-knocks. The results as a whole suggest th a t only those
peroxides are effective which decompose to give -O R and -O H radicals,
the former most probably acting as chain-carriers. In this connection
mention may be made of a recent detailed study of the decomposition of
diethyl peroxide by Harris and Egerton.6 They find th a t whilst the slow
decomposition takes place according to a unimolecular law there is a certain
critical pressure above which it becomes explosive; the stabilized products
in the former case are acetaldehyde and ethyl alcohol and in the latter
formaldehyde and ethane.
Having inferred something about the type of reaction which is or may be
responsible for knock we may now attem pt to find a correlation between the
tendency to knock and the chemical reactivity of the fuel. I t is knowm
th a t all straight-chain paraffins, with the possible exception of methane,
knock readily, whilst branched chain paraffins, defines, diolefines and the
simple aromatic hydrocarbons have comparatively high knock ratings.
Generally speaking, the more compact the structure of the molecule the less
likely is it to knock. Now, a convenient measure of the chemical reactivity
of a fuel is its spontaneous ignition tem perature, and the latter should,
therefore, be closely related to the knock rating.
M. Prettre ' has measured the ignition tem peratures of a wide range of
hydrocarbons a t atmospheric and reduced pressures, and D. T. Townend 8
has investigated the relation between the spontaneous ignition temperatures
and pressure up to pressures of about 15 atmospheres. We may refer to
]^ 0 N EW ITT : E N G IN E KNOCK AND

the latter investigation, which is of particular significance in connection

with the knock problem.
The spontaneous ignition temperatures over a wide range of pressures
are conveniently measured by adm itting the previously mixed fuel-gas
medium into a heated vessel. Provided the tem perature is sufficiently
high there is usually a short delay period or “ lag ” during which no
appreciable change of pressure occurs, followed by an abrupt increase in
pressure, and ignition. The time-lags can be measured by means of a
stop-watch and the ignition indicated by a suitable pressure gauge.
If we consider first some non-knocking fuels, such as methane, ethylene
and benzene, we find th at the ignition tem perature falls progressively and

F i g . l.
(1) 1 3 % Methane.
(2) 1-3 6 % Benzene.
(3) 1 0 % Ethylene.

slowly with increase in pressure, as shown by the smooth curves in Fig. 1.

The small figures adjacent to the curves indicate the time-lags before
ignition. This is the type of relation th at m ight be expected on the basis
of the thermal definition of ignition and of a comparatively simple oxidation
process, and needs no further comment. On comparing the results with
the corresponding curves for some typical knocking fuels, namely «-octane
and «-heptane, which have a low knock-rating, and iso-octane which has
a high one (Fig. 2), we are at once struck by a marked difference in the
character of the pressure effect.
In the case of the two normal paraffins the first effect of increase of
pressure is to cause a very rapid fall in the ignition temperature and a
corresponding decrease^ in the time-lags preceding ignition. Below about
 IT S E FF E C T ON F E E L D E V ELO PM EN T. 14 1

400° C. there is a low-temperature system in which may be noted two

pressure minima of ignition, and above 3 atmospheres ignition occurs at
about 250° C., with progressively increasing time-lags. The shaded area
to the left of the ignition curve marks the region in which “ cool ” flames
are formed. The curve for iso-octane is somewhat similar, but there is
only one pressure minimum in the low-temperature system occurring
a t a pressure of about 3 to 4 atmospheres higher than in the case of the
normal paraffins. The minimum ignition temperature is also some 40°
higher and the cool-flame region is more extensive.

F i g . 2.
C O R R E SP O N D IN G M IX T U R E S W IT H A IR O F ( 1 ) n -O C T A N E ; ( 2 ) « -H E P T A N E ;
(3) ISO -O C T A N E .
(Figures along curves denote tim e-lags (seconds)).

The conditions of temperature and pressure in an internal combustion

engine are such as to suggest th at knock is related to the reactivity in the
low-temperature ignition system as determined by the curves in Fig. 2;
and if we compare, as in Table I, the pressure minima read off from a series
of such curves with the critical compression ratio of the fuels in question,
as measured by a variable compression engine, we find th a t the fuels may
be arranged in the same order.
In comparing these results it m ust be borne in mind th a t the minimum
pressures relate to time-lags of the order of 1 sec. or more, whereas under
engine conditions the time-lags would have to be of the order of a few thou­
sandths of a second.
 N EW ITT : EN G IN E KNOCK AND
142
T able I.

A Comparison of the M inim um Ignition Pressures and the Critical Compression

Ratios of a Number of Paraffin Fuels.

Minimum pressure, Critical compres­

Fuel. atms. sion ratio.

Methane . 14 0
Propane . 6-8 120
Butane . 3-2 6-4
Pentane . 2-2 3-8
Heptane . 1-58 2-8
Octane . 1-3 2-8
isoOctane 4-85 7-6

I t now becomes a m atter of interest to discover something about the

chemical changes which are taking place in the low-temperature ignition

F ig . 3.
SPO N T A N EO U S IG N IT IO N T E M P E R A T U R E S O F A C 3H g + 0 2 M IX T U R E .

system. Newitt and Thornes 9 have examined propane in detail and have
made careful analyses of the products from combustion in the cool-flame
region and in the slow-combustion zone immediately above it. The
ignition temperature-pressure curve (Fig. 3) for an equimolecular propane-
oxygen mixture resembles th at for iso-octane, inasmuch as there is only
one pressure minimum situated a t about 0-5 atm . The c o o l- f l a m e region
is also veil defined, and there are zones within it in which two o r more
separate cool flames traverse the medium a t intervals o f s o m e 7 0 seconds,
 IT S E FF E C T ON F U E L D EV ELO PM EN T. 143

each one being accompanied by a small pressure pulse. By carrying out

the reaction in a quartz vessel it is possible to remove the vessel from the
furnace in which it is being heated, and plunge it immediately into a freez­
ing mixture, so as to arrest the reaction at any desired intermediate stage.
In this way Newitt and Thornes have succeeded in following the course
of the cool-flame- and slow-reactions in some detail.

Time, mins.
F i g . 4.
P R O D U C T S PR O M T H E R E A C T IO N O P A C3H 8’ + 0 2 M E D IU M A T 400 MM. AND 294°.

Attention may he drawn to two series of experiments carried out by them

along the isobaric line ED (Fig. 3) in the cool-flame region and in the slow-
combustion region immediately above it, respectively. The results are
shown graphically in Figs. 4 and 5 and are summarized in Tables II and III.
Considering first the slow-combustion experiments, it will be seen th at
there is an induction or lag period of 10-15 secs, followed by a reaction
period of 2-5 mins. during which intense luminescence is visible in the
reaction vessel. In the gaseous products upwards of 30 per cent, of the
carbon of the propane burnt appears as propylene at all stages of the re­
action ; both acetylene and methane are also present throughout, diminish­
ing in quantity as the reaction approaches completion. Amongst the
 N E W ITT : E N G IN E KNOCK AND
144

jjquid products peroxidic bodies and aldehydes appear in comparatively

lame quantities, the peroxides reaching a maximum when the reaction is
proceeding with maximum velocity and representing no less than 19-9 per
cent, of the carbon of the propane burnt. The higher aldehydes reach a
maximum somewhat earlier, whilst formaldehyde, present a t the com­
mencement of the reaction to the extent of 4-6 per cent., gradually
diminishes as reaction proceeds.

F i g . 5.
PRODUCTS FROM TH E CO M BU STIO N OF A C 3H S - f 0 2 M E D IU M AT 3 6 0 MM. AND 4 0 0 °.

Attempts to identify and isolate the"peroxidic substances have not yet

been successful. It seems probable th at they are responsible for the ethyl
alcohol which constitutes the greater part of the higher alcohols found in
the cool-flame experiments. They are also decomposed by concentrated
potassium hydroxide solution liberating a gas consisting of 80 parts of
hydrogen to 20 parts of oxygen. These and other facts point to the
presence of a mixture of peroxides containing an alkyl peroxide, a per-acid
and/or hydrogen peroxide.
Turning now to the series of experiments in the cool-flame region, data
are presented up to and including the passage of the second cool flame.
The induction period for the reaction is 8 mins., the first cool flame is
o ser\ ed after 8-75 mins., the second after 9-4 mins., and reaction is complete
IT S E F F E C T ON F U E L D EV ELO PM EN T. 145

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 IT S E F F E C T ON F U E L D E V ELO PM EN T. 147

after 11 mins. The chemical changes occurring during this reaction are
rather complex, b u t it is possible to correlate them to some extent with the
cool-flame phenomena. Thus the analytical figures show th a t higher
aldehydes, acids, propylene and carbon monoxide are present in detectable
quantities a t the outset of the reaction, but no peroxides, or formaldehyde,
and only a trace of carbon dioxide. The higher aldehydes rise to a maxi­
mum 45 secs, after reaction starts, and a t this point the first cool flame is
observed. During its passage through the reacting medium the percentage
of higher aldehydes diminishes whilst peroxides and formaldehyde make
their appearance; the rate of oxidation of the propane also increases.
Shortly after the extinction of the cool flame, the peroxides reach a maxi­
mum and the higher aldehydes a minimum. A little later the aldehydes
again increase rapidly to a second maximum, higher than the first, whilst
the peroxides simultaneously decrease; the second cool-flame ignition then
takes place and is accompanied by changes in the products similar to those
noted with the first flame. The rate of formation of propylene appears to
follow th a t of the higher aldehydes a t all stages, whilst carbon monoxide
increases fairly uniformly throughout.
On the basis of the above experiments it may be concluded th a t a neces­
sary condition for cool-flame inflammation and for ignition in the lower
region is a critical high concentration of higher aldehydes. During the
passage of the flame the aldehydes are further oxidized to give aldehyde
peroxides and/or per-acids and ultim ately formaldehyde. The reactions
by which propylene and the higher aldehydes are formed also appear to be
related.
Now although the conditions in these experiments differ in some material
respects from those in an engine, particularly as regards the time factor,
there is reason to suppose th a t the mechanism of the combustion is essen­
tially the same in the two cases. I t may, indeed, be assumed th a t the
sensitized mixture in which knock originates is one having a composition
not very different from th at of a m ixture in which cool-flame inflammation
is about to take place. And if such a mixture were ignited by an external
source there is little doubt but th a t a rapid combustion closely resembling
th a t associated with knock would occur.
The products of the combustion of all the higher hydrocarbon fuels
including branched-chain paraffins and defines are similar to those of
propane in the sense th a t aldehydes, alcohols, peroxidic bodies and acids
are always formed. The proportions in which they survive a t any par­
ticular stage of the combustion, however, varies from fuel to fuel and
depends upon temperature and pressure; and it is this circumstance
perhaps more than any other which constitutes the difference between a
low and high knock rating fuel. I t will be recalled, for example, th a t
although a striking similarity exists between the ignition tem perature-
pressure curves for w-octane and iso-octane a higher pressure is always
required to affect the ignition of the latter at any given tem perature in the
ignition range. This may be interpreted as indicating th a t a higher pres­
sure is required to stabilize the initial products so th a t concentrations
adequate to initiate cool flames may be built up.
The same considerations apply to the knock ratings of some of the more
recently tested high-duty fuels such as acetone and diisopropyl ether ;8 in
148 EN GIN E KNOCK AND ITS E FFE C T ON F U E L DEVELOPM ENT.

both cases the pressures required to promote ignition in the low-tempera-

ture range are comparatively high. In the case of mixed fuels, as for
example the petrols obtained by the hydrogenation of coal, the combustion
characteristics depend largely upon their straight chain- and branched-
paraffin, naphthene and volatile aromatic hydrocarbon content; and methods
of controlling the relative proportions of these constituents by vapour phase
hydrogenation in the presence of selective catalysts have recently been
discovered and put into operation for the production of high-duty fuel.
It would be incorrect to assume th a t anything like finality had been
reached in the development of high-duty fuels and of anti-knocks. During
the past ten years there has been a steady improvement in the knock ratings
of commercial fuels, and a number of new fuels have been introduced to
meet the increasingly stringent demands of engine designers. In this
connection some of the researches I have described or referred to are
proving of considerable utility, particularly in indicating directions in which
further advances may profitably be made. Finally, I think it will be ad­
mitted that, although the precise reactions responsible for knock and the
inhibiting effect of anti-knocks have not yet been identified, the general
character of the mechanisms involved are well established.

References.
1 Bone and Townend, “ Flame and Combustion,” Longmans, 1927.
2 Fraser, “ Science of Petroleum Bone and Fraser, P hil. T rans., 1935, 235, 29.
3 Withrow and Rassweiler, Auto. Eng., 1934, 24. 281, 385.
4 Egerton, Smith and Ubbelohde, P hil. Trans., 1935. 234, 433.
5 Dumanois, Mondain-Monval and Quanquin, Ann. Chim. P h ys., 1931, 15, 309.
6 Harris and Egerton, Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 1938, 168, 1.
7 Prettre, Ann. Comb, liq., 1931, 6, 7, 269, 533 et seq.
8 Townend, “ Science of Petroleum,” Proc. Roy. Soc.., A , 1936, 154, 95: J . Chem.
Soc., 1938, 238.
9 Newitt and Thornes, J . Chem. Soc., 1937, 1656.
 T H E C O M P O S IT IO N O F SOM E R O U M A N IA N
S T R A IG H T -R U N G A S O L IN E S .*
By C. D. N e n it z e s c u and A. C o n s t a n t in e s c u .

S y n o p s is .

In the present paper the composition of some Roumanian straight-run

gasolines is studied, not so much from the point of view of the identification
or estimation of certain individual hydrocarbons occurring in these gasolines,
but chiefly to obtain a general idea of the m ain classes of hydrocarbons
occurring therein. The basis of modem research work dealing with the
composition of gasoline is a distillation process, using high-efficieney
apparatus, which has lately been greatly improved.12 This method has
been employed. The gasolines were distilled in a sim ilar apparatus, and the
narrow fractions obtained were then analysed by the most convenient
methods, with a view to establishing the percentage of aromatic, naphthenic,
normal paraffin and branched paraffin hydrocarbons occurring therein.

F r a c t io n a t in g Colum n.

For the construction of this apparatus we utilized the information given

by M. It. Fenske and co-workers.3 The height of the packed section was
6 m., whilst the to tal height of the distilling apparatus was 7 m. The
column consisted of a brass cylinder which was packed with single-turn
rings of 4 mm. diameter made of 0-5 mm. brass wire.
The still employed in our experiments (See Plate 1) was a vertical
cylinder, 220 mm. diameter, 330 mm. high, in which 8-5-9 litres of liquid
could be distilled. In order to test the efficiency of the apparatus, a
smaller still of 1-5 litres capacity was used.
At the top of the column was fitted a total reflux condenser which could
be connected by means of a small stopcock with the product line. The
distilled product was collected in a graduated burette of 100-ml. capacity
provided with two glass condensers.
In order to obtain a distillation under adiabatic conditions, the column
was insulated with a mixture composed of asbestos and magnesium oxide
over a layer of 10 cm. About the middle of this layer—i.e., a t a distance
of 35 mm. from the column—a chrome-nickel resistance belt 0-1 mm. thick
and 5 mm. wide was fitted. The column was wound in three separate
sections, 2 m. long, each being controlled by a variable resistance and an
amperimeter. By this method the column could be maintained, as desired,
a t a tem perature equal to, or slightly below, th a t of the vapour phase.
The same insulating and heating system was used for the still.
In each of the three heated sections, as well as on the top of the column,
a H artm ann and Braun resistance therm om eter was fitted, with which
temperatures within 50-150° C. can be measured with a precision of 0-1° C.
The boiling points of the fractions were measured with a thermometer
fitted on the top of the column.

* Paper received September 27th, 1938.

150 NENITZESCU AND CONSTANTINESCTT : TH E COM POSITION OE

T e m p e ra tu re s a re re a d a n d c o n tro lle d fro m a c o n tr o l- p a n e l c o n ta in in g

a ls o t h e c o lle c tin g b u r e t t e f o r t h e p r o d u c t s . _
The actual volume of the packing m aterial is 390 ml. The free space
amounts, therefore, to 79-3 per cent. The total surface of the packing is
approximately 3 sq. m., and the hold-up, which was determined as usual
with kerosine, amounts to 78 ml.
During distillation a superpressure of 30-40 mm. Hg was observed, which
was measured with a manometer fitted on the above-mentioned control-
panel.
The column was tested under total reflux with a binary m ixture consisting
of «-heptane and methylcyc/ohexane,4 the former being derived from
Jeffreys pine and having the following constants : D — 0-6839 and
n = 1-3878, whereas the boiling point determined with our column (at a
pressure of 750 mm.) was 98-0° C. The methylcyc/ohexane used was
purified by us in the usual manner. With our column we found a boiling
point of 103-3° C. and a refractive index n = 1-1232.
The efficiency test was carried out by distilling under total reflux a
mixture of 2-73 mols. of each of the above-mentioned hydrocarbons. When
equilibrium was reached, which took about 1 hour, two samples, a few
millilitres each, were withdrawn from the top of the column as well as from
the still. At this moment the tem perature at the top of the column was
98° C.
The refractive index of the samples was determined a t the temperature
of 20 4- 0-05° C. by means of a Pulfrich refractometer provided with a
Hópler ultra-thermostat, which was also used for the other experiments
in the present study.
For the sample taken on the top of the column we found a refractive
index of n = 1-38887, which, according to the tables published by E. C.
Bromiley and D. Quiggle,5 corresponds to 96-5 ml. per cent, «-heptane;
for the sample taken from the still we found a refractive index of n =
1-40999, corresponding to 33-7 mols. per cent, «.-heptane.
We applied the formula of M. R. Fenske, C. O. Tonberg and D. Quiggle6
XnA , „ X 1A
= ( a ” - 1 ! _____
XnB >X I B
, X IA . . „
wnere ^ ^ — molar ratio of «-heptane (A ) to methylcyclohexane (B) on
. X nA
any plate, = molar ratio of A to B on any plate removed from the
first; and n = number of perfect plates required for separation, a =
the relative volatility, was taken from B eatty and G. Calingaert’s paper7as
equal to 1-07. o n e
By means of the above formula we found th a t n = 60, corresponding
to the theoretical number of plates of our column. Next, according to the
following equation, we have :

H .E .P .T . = = 10-2 cm.
60-1
After taking the two samples under total reflux, the product line was
opened and the liquid distilled a t the rate of approximately 0-8 ml. per
 SOME ROUM ANIAN STR A IG H T-RU N GASOLINES. 1 51

minute. So as not to complicate the apparatus, we discontinued determin-

ing the reflux ratio which, however, was later estimated at approximately
1 : 20-30. Twenty-six fractions, 20 ml. each, were collected, and the

6*

C 60

■ ft 5 6

10 50 90 150 170 110 2 5 0 2 9 0 3 30 570 910 950 990 530570 610

Total Vol. clist. in ml.
F i g . 1.

distillation process was then interrupted when the boiling point of the
fractions attained 100-3° C. The residue amounted to 102 ml. The com­
position of each fraction was then determined by the above-mentioned
method.
152 NENITZESCIJ AND CONSTANTINESCTJ : T H E COMPOSITION OF

An a ly sed G a s o l in e s .

In the present study three gasolines were examined—namely, one gasoline

from a Bucsani paraffinic crude (Concordia Company), a gasoline from
Merisor asphaltic crude (I.R.D.P. Company) and a high-octane-number
gasoline selected from a Dacian crude of Gura Ocnitei oilfield (Concordia
Company). The first two gasolines were prepared from crude oil in our
laboratory, whilst the last one was placed a t our disposal by the Concordia
Company.' All the gasolines were shaken with a sodium hydroxide solution
to remove any acid which they might contain, and were then dried over
metallic sodium.
The Merisor and Bucsani gasolines were first distilled in the column
as such. As we found, however, th at the aromatic hydrocarbons distilled
over a too wide range, and thus the other hydrocarbons could be drawn
together, we first removed the aromatic hydrocarbons from the Bucsani
gasoline and then distilled it in our column, obtaining in this way sharper
maxima. The Gura Ocnitei gasoline was distilled only after the aromatic
hydrocarbons were removed.
The removal of aromatic hydrocarbons from gasoline was carried out
by repeated shaking with concentrated and fuming sulphuric acid, until
the presence of aromatic hydrocarbons could no longer be detected by the
usual analytical methods.
All gasolines, as well as the fractions and residues, were completely
saturated towards bromine water.
The characteristics of the gasolines thus obtained are shown in
Table I below.
T a b l e I.

Ar,
Gasoline of : ^15- O.N. Engler Distillation.
% vol.
Meritor . . . . 0-7362 6-5 63-0 I.B .P . 60° C .; 40-5% at
100° C .; F.B .P. 173° C.
Bucsani . . . . 0-7365 10-8 51-5 I.B .P . 68° C .; 29 % at
100° C .; F.B .P. 182° C.
Gura-Ocnifei 0-7435 7-5 76-0 I.B .P . 53° C .; 5 3% at
100° C .; F.B .P . 136° C.
Bucsani (aromatic-free) 0-7262 0 48-0 I.B .P . 68° C .; 26-5% at
100° C .; F.B .P. 185° C.
Gura-Ocnitei (aromatic-free) 0-7350 0 75-0 I.B .P . 53° C .; 50% at
100° C. ; F.B .P. 140° C.

The gasolines were then distilled in the column a t the rate of 0-7-0-8 ml.
per minute. Eight to nine litres were distilled, and a complete distillation
lasted 8-10 days. The distillation was interrupted for only a very short
time, sometimes being kept working continuously for 50 hours. During
the interruptions the heat of the column was kept constant, whilst the
heating of the still was interrupted. At each new start the column was
worked under total reflux until a perfect equilibrium was established.
n order to avoid auto-oxidation, a small quantity of diphenylamine
was added to the gasoline.
r.„PpI'^nS ^ le distillation process we collected first a top fraction up to
G, then 100 fractions, each distilling a t intervals of 1° C., with the only
 SOME ROUM ANIAN STR A IG H T-RU N GASOLINES. 153

2 .-MERISOR GASOLINE
teensny ow

7uxaput dAtpeJ/a//
g rretgnr tgg rererrea wo we total wsn/ '/are
Percentage D
154 NENITZESCÜ AND CONSTANTINESCTJ : TH E COM POSITION OP

exception of the “ Gura Ocnitei ” gasoline, where the distillation was

interrupted at 123-5° C. ; we thus obtained only 74 fractions.
In order to obtain comparative figures, the measured volumes of the
respective fractions were converted into weights, and these were then
referred to the bulk of the distilled fractions. The gross results of the
distillation process are shown in Table II. The great losses observed are
due to the uncondensable gases of the gasolines.
T a b l e II.

Fractions Sum of
D istil­ Residue, Losses,
Gasoline of : Ml. below
50° C. late, % . %• %•

Merisor . 9200 3-5 63-8 24-5 8-2

Bucsani . . . . 8000 2-6 56-5 300 10-9
Bucsani (aromatic-free) . 8000 2-6 55-5 30-7 11-2
Gura-Ocmtei (aromatic-free) . 8000 5-1 69-9 12-3 12-7

As will be seen from Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5, the various fractions have very
unequal weights, whilst the distillation curve has very sharp maxima and
minima.
I n v e s t ig a t io n o f t h e F r a c t io n s O b t a i n e d .

For each fraction obtained we first determined the density and the
refractive index. The former was measured with a picnometer at
20 + 0-05° C., and was then reduced to water a t 4° C. The refractive
index was measured with a Pulfrich refractometer as explained above.
In the case of gasolines still containing aromatics, we then proceeded to
estimate and remove these hydrocarbons. In the aromatic-free fractions
obtained we then estimated the naphthenes and paraffins.
Before showing the results of these estimations, we must state briefly
the reasons which guided us to select the various methods adopted.

T h e E s t im a t io n o f A r o m a t ic H y d r o c a r b o n s .

One of the three classes of hydrocarbons occurring in gasoline—i.e.

the aromatic hydrocarbons—are characterized by a far greater reactivity
and by physical constants much more specific than the other two. How­
ever, as we shall see below, no method exists up to the present for the
estimation of these hydrocarbons with the precision required by the usual
analytical methods.
The methods described in literature for the estimation of aromatic hydro­
carbons occurring in gasoline may be divided into three groups : chemical
methods, physical methods and mixed methods. The chemical methods
use as reagents the sulphuric-nitric acid mixture, concentrated or fuming
s u i;h"ric ac^ or formaldehyde in the presence of sulphuric acid.
I his last method is not precise enough to be considered.
i umerous methods utilize the sulphuric-nitric acid mixture.8 The
methods of Hess and of Egloff and Morrell are sufficiently known, but from
the studies of Riesenfeld and B andte9 and those of Faragher, Morrell and
evine it follows that these methods, in spite of the fact th at they give
 SOME ROUM ANIAN STRAIG HT-RUN GASOLINES. 155

satisfactory results, present no advantage whatever as compared with

those which use 98 per cent. acid. The use of fuming sulphuric
acid in various concentrations is to be found in the older literature; 11
this reagent, however, readily attacks the hydrocarbons of the other classes
occurring in gasoline. Zelinsky,12 for the first time, uses acids of lower
concentration than 100 per cent, for the estimation of aromatic and ethylenic
hydrocarbons. An acid of approximately 98 per cent, was then suggested
by Thole,13 by Tizzard and Marshall,14 by Dänäilä and his co-workers,15
by Morgan and Soule,16 by Sachanen and W irabianz17 and others.
Finally, we m ust mention the suggestions of Manning and Shepherd,20
and also those of Katwinkel,21 who add silver sulphate and phosphorous
pentoxide, respectively, to the sulphuric acid.
Dänäilä and his co-workers use a sulphurimeter similar to th at used by
Kramer and Boettcher, which enables a direct reading of the volume of
gasoline not absorbed by the sulphuric acid. In this manner the above
method becomes very rapid and convenient. The estimation is carried
out with 10-ml. gasoline, and the tube of the sulphurimeter is graduated
in 0-1 ml., so th a t one division corresponds to 1 per cent, aromatics. Later
on the authors have suggested sulphurimeters graduated in 0-05 ml.,
which are filled and read in special therm ostats. We shall see below th at
these improvements were not of much use, because of the lack of precision
of the method.
The main criticism brought against this method of directly estimating
the volume of aromatic hydrocarbons by absorption in sulphuric acid is
th at the saturated hydrocarbons are also absorbed by the sulphuric acid :
thus we have known for a long time th a t octane is absorbed by 97 per cent,
sulphuric acid, under certain mild conditions, in a proportion of 2 per cent.
The same conclusion was reached by Cazimir,19 working on aromatic-free
gasoline with an acid of 98-3 per cent. The values found for the aromatic
hydrocarbons are, therefore, greater than the real ones. Similar remarks
are made by Ormandy and Craven.23
Taking these conclusions into consideration, it would seem th a t the best
way to estimate aromatic hydrocarbons in gasoline would be a combined
method : the determination of the density and refractive index of the
respective fraction, the removal of aromatics from the fraction with sul­
phuric acid under mild conditions and a final determination of the density
and refractive index. The percentage of aromatics is then calculated
by means of Thole’s 13 formula, using the density, or with H oyte’s 22 formula,
which uses the refractive index. This m ethod is connected with another
source of error which escapes control—namely, when aromatics are mixed
with saturated hydrocarbons a contraction of volume takes place, depending
on the nature of the saturated hydrocarbons present, so th a t the additivity
rule on which the above calculation is based is no longer valid.24
W ith regard to the physical methods applied or suggested for the estima­
tion of aromatics in gasoline, the only one worth mentioning is the well-
known “ aniline-point ” method. This method, which may be of service
when it is only a question of estimating aromatics in large fractions of gaso­
line, was not sufficiently precise for our purpose, because, as Tilitschejew
and Dumskaja 24 have shown, the coefficients vary with the concentration
of the aromatic hydrocarbons as well as with the nature and chemical
156 NENITZESCU AND CONSTANTINESCU : TH E COM POSITION OP

composition of the noil-aromatic portion of the sample. The coefficients

mentioned in literature which serve to determine the percentage of aromatics
(1-15 for a fraction boiling at 60-95° C .; 1'20 for a fraction of boiling point
25—122° C ) were determined for wide gasoline fractions containing a large
number of compounds. The application of these coefficients to narrow
fractions such as ours would have introduced an element of inaccuracy
which we do not believe to be less than th a t encountered in the 98 per cent,
sulphuric absorption method. I t is true th a t this difficulty might be over­
come in a large measure by determining some of the aniline points for each
of our aromatic-free fractions, by adding the pure aromatic hydrocarbon
and by determining the aniline point afterwards. This procedure would,
however, have greatly complicated the method, and would have lessened
much of its practical value. Therefore, we chose for the estimation of
aromatic hydrocarbons in our narrow distilling fractions the method of
Dänäilä and his co-workers, which is, likewise, very expedient.
With regard to the errors which may be made by the application of
Dänäilä’s method, we have observed the following : if aromatic-free gasoline
fractions are treated exactly according to this method with a 98 per cent,
acid, we observed an absorption of approximately 1-0-1-2 per cent. In
the case of the Bucsani gasoline, the 92-93° C. fraction had, before and after
treatment with sulphuric acid according to Dänäilä’s method, the same
density and refractive index as before. Consequently this fraction does
not contain any aromatic hydrocarbons. I t still shows, however, an
absorption of 1-2 per cent, in sulphuric acid when treated by Dänäilä’s
method, even when avoiding with care any heating during the first minutes
of the shaking. This applies also to fractions 93-91, 94-95, 118-119 and
119-120. It follows, therefore, th at all the values for the aromatic hydro­
carbons obtained by us are about 1 per cent, higher than the real figures.
As these remarks were made only at the conclusion of this study, we did
not attempt to make any revision in this sense.

E s t im a t io n o f N a p h t h e n i c H y d r o c a r b o n s w h e n M i x e d iv it h
P a r a f f in s .

After estimating the aromatic hydrocarbons by Dänäilä’s method, the

sulphurimeter is emptied in a separating funnel, the acid removed and the
fractions are washed and dried over metallic sodium. A series of fractions
were obtained in this way containing only paraffins and naphthenes. The
fractions obtained by previously distilling the aromatic-free benzines showed
the same composition. The specific gravity and refractive index were then
determined for these fractions by the methods outlined above.
For the estimation of the amount of naphthenes contained in these
fractions, we had two methods at our disposal: th a t of the aniline point
and that of specific refraction.
The first-mentioned method is too inaccurate to be considered for narrow
fractions. Data published in various papers on the subject 14,17,28,25 show
that some paraffins have very similar boiling points, yet widely differing
aniline points.
On the other hand, the classic method of specific refraction is very useful
m this case, as the substances concerned may be mixed together without
 SOME ROU M ANIAN STR A IG H T-RU N GASOLINES. 157

contraction of volume, so th a t the additivity rule becomes applicable in

its entirety. The specific refraction of the fraction may be calculated on
the basis of the specific gravity and the refractive index by the well-
known Lorentz-Lorenz formula, and is a constant quantity independent
of tem perature. The specific gravity and the refractive index may be
determined with great accuracy, and specific refraction is, therefore, in
a large measure free from experimental error.
33 .
The specific refraction of the mixture and th a t of the paraffins and
naphthenes contained in this mixture being known, the percentage naph-
thenes by weight may be obtained from the formula :

Naph. * = lO o g g

in which R f, R p and Rn are the specific refractions of the analysed fraction,

and of the paraffins and naphthenes contained in the respective fraction.
The specific refractions of the pure substances m ay be calculated from the
molecular refraction by dividing same by the molecular weight of the
respective substance. Likewise, molecular refraction may be calculated
from the atomic increments,27 which, being determined for a very large
number of substances, offer an incomparable degree of accuracy compared
with other constants, such as, for example, critical solution tem perature
in aniline.
Gasolines with a boiling point up to 200° C. contain only monocyclic
naphthenes with a general formula CnH 2„. These have a constant specific
refraction equal to 0-3296, independent of molecular weight.
Thus, two out of the three factors of the above formula m ay be deter­
mined with great accuracy. Unfortunately, the specific refraction of
paraffins contained in a wide fraction of gasoline cannot be given with
the same precision, as in the case of paraffins specific refraction varies with
molecular weight. This is, doubtless, the reason why this m ethod is not
more widespread to-day.*
How-ever, in the case of narrow and well-separated fractions, such as
those with which we have worked, the specific refraction of the paraffins
may be indicated with sufficient accuracy. Thus, if we examine the
distillation curve of the Merisor gasoline, we see th a t it is composed of a
series of maxima separated by a series of well-defined minima. Minima
are thus encountered a t 75° C., a t 103° C., and again at 128° C. Taking
the boiling points of various paraffins into consideration, we may infer
th at in the interval between 50° and 75° C. only isomeric hexanes are
encountered, between 75° and 103° C. only isomeric heptanes and from the
latter tem perature to 150° C. only isomeric nonanes.
In the case of the other distilled gasolines, we encounter minima a t the
same temperatures, so th a t the intervals adm itted above for the distillation

* Marder,26 in a comprehensive study concerning the analysis of gasoline by physical

methods, attempts to avoid this disadvantage by measuring the average molecular
weight of gasolines and determining by a graphic method the mean specific refraction
corresponding to the mean molecular weight. T h is method naturally loses all
accuracy with fractions boiling over somewhat wider lim its. In calculating the
percentage of naphthenes, Marder uses a formula sim ilar to that shown above, the
percentage of naphthenes being, however, expressed in volumes.
M
NENITZESCTT AND CONSTANTINESCTT : TH E COM POSITION OF

3 -BUCSANI GASOLINE

l i i i i i f i l i i i i i i i i i
 SOME ROUM ANIAN STR A IG H T-RU N GASOLINES. 159

of hexanes, heptanes, octanes and nonanes are the same for all gasolines,
if the distillation column has sufficient separating power.
Consequently the above-mentioned formula may be applied by making
use of the specific refractions of paraffins calculated from Eisenlohr’s
increments, as shown in Table III.

T a b l e III.
Specific Refractions of Paraffins (R p ) Contained, in Various Gasoline Fractions.

Fractions. + 2* R p.

50-75 CrH u 0-3463

75-10 3 c 7h 16 0-3450
10 3 -128 Cs-ELs 0-3431
128 -150 O9H 20 0-3416

On examining the distillation curves of the gasolines, and by taking into

consideration the boiling points of pure paraffins,28 it is apparent th a t it
is not possible to find appreciable quantities of hexanes in the maxima above
75° C. and of heptanes below th a t tem perature. Similarly, heptanes cannot
be found in the maxima above 103° C. nor octanes within the maxima
below th a t tem perature. U ncertainty exists only with regard to the
nature of the paraffins in the fractions corresponding to the minima of the
curve—for example, fractions 74-76, 102-104, etc. The paraffins in
these fractions m ay be hexanes mixed with heptanes, heptanes with
octanes, etc. As these fractions, however, represent only a small quanti­
tative percentage of the total gasoline, the error resulting from the uncer­
tainty regarding the composition of these fractions, and from arbitrary
choice of the limits shown in Table III, becomes negligible.

E xam ples of C a l c u l a t io n .

As shown above, the percentage of hydrocarbons may be determined

by the method of specific refractions by weight, and we were thus forced
to compute all our results obtained in terms of weight. For this reason
we consider as specific gravity of aroma tics distilling up to 86° C. (benzene) =
0-8736, of those distilling up to 120° (toluene) = 0-8660, and of those dis­
tilling up to 143° (ethyl benzene, o-, m-, and p-xylenes) = 0-8680 whilst
those distilling between 133° and 150° C. (in which o-xylene predominates)=
0-8790.
Likewise, the to tal weight and mean specific gravity of the sum total of
distilled fractions were calculated on the basis of the volume and specific
gravity of each fraction.

Total Total d T,
Gasoline of : Volume, ml. Weight, gms. average.
Meritor 5871 4357 0-7421
Bucsani 4519 3318 0-7343
Buesani (aromatic-free) 4438 3206 0-7224
Jura-Ocnfiei (aromatic-free) . 5589 4135 0-7398
160 NENITZESCU AND CONSTANTINESCU : T H E COM POSITION OF

We give below as an example the calculation for the fraction 97-98' C.

of Bucsani gasoline. I t had the following constants: == 0*/033;
h20 = 1-39673 and Ar per cent. vol. = 1-3 per cent. After removal of
aromatics D f = 0-7027 and «5 = 1-39624. The specific refraction of
the aromatic-free fraction is therefore 0-3421.
The percentage volume of aromatics were transformed into weight
as follows :
aromatics % vol. X density of aromatics _
^ — specific gravity of original fraction
1-3 X 0-8660
- W i i m — = 1-6 per cent.

The percentage, by weight, of naphthenes in the aromatic-free fraction

is, according to the above reasoning :

The percentage, by weight, of paraffins in the same fraction amounts to :

= 100 - 18-8 = 81-2.
Referring these figures to the original fraction we have :
(100 — A) X IVj (100 - 1-6) x 18-8
” 100 100
p _ (100 - A) X P x _ (100 - 1-6) X 81-2 = ?g g
100 100
This type of calculation was used throughout for each separate fraction.
The calculation is, naturally, simplified in the case of fractions obtained
from aromatic-free gasoline.
In order to have comparative figures, the results were referred to the total
fractions distilling between 50° and 150° C. as shown above, in the follow­
ing manner :
Fraction 97-98 of Bucsani gasoline had a vol. = 227 ml. and D =
0-7033. The weight of the fraction is 227 X 0-7033 = 159-6 gm. Referred
to the total distillate, this fraction represents :

Q = 100 = 4-812 per cent.

If we represent the contents in aromatic,paraffinic and naphthenic

hydrocarbons referred to the total distillate as QA, QP and Q^, we obtain:
n 159- 6x1- 6
_ ---- 3318----- = '' Per cent-
n _ 159-6 x 79-9 0
vp ------ = 3-845 per cent.
n 159-6 x 18-5 „ „
w — 33l8-------~ Per cenf-
Q= 0-077 + 3-875 -f 0-890 = 4-812,
n
SOME ROUMANIAN STR A IG H T-RU N GASOLINES. 161
iM
4. - BUCSANI GASOLINE, DE-AROMATIZED
’’i ■
i i JU

* *!S

ïTfïïïTTïn
Refractive index n„’°
ParaffinieHydroa/im
ü t Piphtmicdi/droaríxxn
■z£ l .Density
Pefrediveindex

't :

' I
162 NENITZESCU AND CONSTANTINESCU : TH E COM POSITION OF

From the above it follows th at for each fraction a table has been drawn
up containing the following data, for the fraction 97-98 of Bucsani gasoline :
T a b l e IV .

Original.
Fraction.
ml. Gm. Q- D 4f . "d - A r, % vol.

97-98 227 159-6 4-812 0-7033 1-39673 1-3

Composition of the Percentage of the

Aromatic-free : Fraction, % by
weight. Total Distillate.

D f. rfi°. Rj. N x. P i- A. N. P. Qa - Qn - Qp-

D
0-7027 1-39624 0-3421 18-8 81-2 1-6 18-5 79-9 0-077 0-890 3-845

In order to avoid making our present paper too long, and in view of the
fact th at figures for all fractions have been published in extenso in Mr.
Constantinescu’s thesis, we shall not reproduce here the tables.

D is c u s s io n of the R esu ets.

An examination of the distillation curves will show th a t each fraction

is composed of hydrocarbons belonging to two or three classes, respectively.
Aromatic hydrocarbons are distributed over wide ranges of temperature,
with the result th at large concentrations of aromatics are not obtained in
any fraction. On the other hand, paraffinic and naphthenic hydrocarbons
distil at much closer intervals.
A maximum concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons is usually found
in fractions boiling a few degrees below the pure aromatic hydrocarbons.
The fact th at aromatic hydrocarbons are distributed over a wide range
of temperature results, likewise, in a disturbing effect on distillation of
the saturated hydrocarbons which are partly carried away by fractions
having nearly the same boiling point. This fact clearly follows from the
distillation curves, which in the case of gasolines containing aromatics
show less pronounced minima than in the case of aromatic-free gasolines.
For this reason we abandoned the distillation of gasolines containing
aromatics, with a view to distilling in future only aromatic-free gasolines,
as it is much more precise.
The proportion of heptane and methylcyc/ohexane in the Bucsani gaso­
line is very typical, as illustrating the reciprocal influence exerted by
paraffins and naphthenes with close boiling points. Both hydrocarbons
which occur in almost equal quantities distil mostly a t an interval of 3° C.,
from 97 to 100 C. The distillation curve shows two maxima : one at
97-98 corresponding to a fraction rich in n-heptane, and another at
99-100 C. rich in methylcycZohexane, and containing, likewise, n-heptane.
This example will suffice to show, therefore, the separation limit of our
 SOME ROUM ANIAN STR A IG H T-RU N GASOLINES. 163

column. Effective separation can be achieved only by redist illing the

fractions, which would necessitate, however, much larger quantities of
gasoline. Since, however, our object is to obtain as uniform fractions as
possible, and not the separation of individual compounds, in order to enable
the application of the analytical methods used, the efficiency of our column
is quite sufficient.
In order to estimate the percentage of paraffinic and naphthenic hydro­
carbons, we have adopted as basis the intervals shown in Table V, established
on the basis of the maxima and minima of the distillation curve and the
boiling points of the pure hydrocarbons. I t is to be noted th at in the case
of all distilled gasolines the maxima and minima of the curves meet a t the
same points : i 1° C. I t is thus possible to determine the intervals for
the various hydrocarbons as in Table V, since each interval comprises a
maximum accompanied by clearly discernible minima.

T a b l e V .

Boiling
Intervals. Nature of Hydrocarbon.

Paraffins
50-65 isoHexanes(2- and 3-methylpentane).
65—75 n-Hexane.
75-95 isoHeptanes(2- and 3-methylhexanes).
9.5-103 n-Heptane.
103-120 ¿soOetanes (a dimethylhexane in fract. 10 3 -110 ° C. and 2- or 3-m ethyl-
heptane in fract. 1 1 7 -1 2 0 ° C . ).
120 -128 n-Octane.
128-145 isoNonanes.
145-150 n-Nonanes.
Naphthene
50-57 cycZoPentane.
65-75 Methy IcycZopentane.
75-85 cycZoHexane.
85-95 DimethylcycZopentanes.
95-104 Methylcyctohexane.
10 4 -113 Naphthene non-identified (ethylcycZopentane, trimethylcycZopentanes).
113 -12 6 DimethylcycZohexanes.
126-133 EthylcycZohexane and a nononaphthene with a 5-carbon cycle.
133-145 Nononaphthene in which trimethylcycZohexanes predominate.

Table V was established on the basis of the above considerations, and

gives the composition of the respective gasolines. The figures in brackets
corresponding to the original benzines represent the percentage of hydro­
carbons of the respective class calculated in relation to the bulk of saturated
hydrocarbons contained in the gasoline. These figures are, therefore,
comparable with those found in fractions derived from aromatic-free
gasolines.*

* It will be seen that in the case of the Bucsani gasoline, which was distilled, both
in the aromatic-free state as well as with the aromatics, it contained the figures
obtained for paraffins, isoparaffins and naphthenes show differences ranging from 1
to 2 per cent. Most of these differences are doubtless due to systematic errors during
the estimation of aromatics.
NENITZESCU AND CONSTANTINESCU : TH E COMPOSITION OF

5 - C U R A O C N I T E I G A S O L I N E , D E - A R O A 1 .A T I Z E D

/.jęto ;
11900 "g

<s/ooQ:
Arrío
/.i/OO

P a r a f fin ic H y d ro c a rb o n s

N a p h t h e n ic H y d r o c a r b o n s

D e n s i t y ( 0/ aromatk-fn*frwctknt)
R e f r a c tiv o In d e x
 SOME ROUM ANIAN STR A IG H T-RU N GASOLINES. 165

T a b l e V I.
Composition of Fractions 50 -150 ° C. of Gasoline Derived from :

Aromatic- Aromatic-
Merisor, Bucsani, free free *
O.N. = 63. O.N. = 51-5. Bucsani, Gura-
O.N. ’= 48. Ocnitei,
O.N. = 75.
n-Paraffins :
n-Hexane 5-4 5-3 6-5 30
n-Heptane 4-8 8-3 8-8 31
n-Octane 3-2 3-2 8-1 _
n-Nonane ( —150°) . 1-2 1-2 6-0 —
Total 14-6 (15-8) 23-9 (31-2) 29-4 61
¿soParaffins .-
isoHexanes 5-4 5-1 5-7 9-4
¿soHeptanes 6-9 7-7 8-6 10-9
isoOctanes 6-4 9-1 10-3 9-6
iaoNonanes 5-2 8-4 9-2 —
Total 23-9 (*25-9) 30-3 (34-4) 33-8 29-9
Naphthenes :
cycZoPentane 0-4 0-1 0-1 0-2
MethylcycZopentane . 3-7 2-0 2-4 7-1
cycZoHexane 35 2-7 3-6 9-1
DimethylcycZopentane 60 2-7 3-4 10-8
Methylcycfohexane 9-3 7-3 9-2 20-4
Naphthene tract. 10 4 -113 ° C. 3-6 1-2 1-5 4-9
DimethylcycZohexane 110 5-7 7-0 11-6
Naphthene tract. 126 -15 0 ° C. 16 1 8-4 9-6 —-
Total 53-6 (58-2) 30 1 (34-3) 36-8 64-1
Aromatics :
Benzene . . . . 1- 7 2- 0 — _
Toluene . . . . 2- 1 3- 6 _ _
Ethylbenzene. Xylene 4-1 6-5 — —
Total 7-9 12-1 — —

* 7 -5 % aromatic hydrocarbons— Gura-Ocnitei gasoline.

We see, therefore, th a t the percentage of isoparafnns shows a variation

of ± 5 per cent, and amounts to approximately 30 per cent. The per­
centage of naphthenes shows large variations. Whilst the proportion
of naphthenes is about 60 per cent, for the two asphaltic gasolines, it is
only 37 per cent, in the case of the gasoline of paraffinic origin.
The disturbing influence of normal paraffins on the octane number is
clearly ev id en t: whereas gasolines with a high O.X. contain only 6 per
cent, of «-paraffins, paraffinous gasolines (with O.X. = 48) contain 30 per
cent, of «-paraffins. The wide difference of the O.X. for the Merisor and
Gura Ocnitei gasolines is solely due to a comparatively small difference
(8 per cent.) in the contents of «-paraffins. The proportion of iso- and
normal paraffins in Bucsani gasoline is roughly equal to 1 (33-8 : 29-4);
in the Meritor gasoline it is 1-6 (25-9 : 15-8) and in the high-octane Gura
Ocnitei gasoline it is 5 (29-9 : 6-1).
 NENITZESCU AND CONSTANTINESCIT : T H E COM POSITION OF

With regard to the nature of ¿soparaffins, examination of the distillation

curves will show th at in gasoline the predominating derivatives are those
with a single side chain (methyl) and, namely, 2- or 3-methylhexane, or a
mixture of both 2 : 3 - or 4-methylheptanes, or a mixture of them, etc.
The percentage of isoheptane together w'ith dimethylcycZopentane in all
fractions from 89 to 91 is considerable in all gasolines. The proportion
of isoparaffins with several side-chains is smaller. Such compounds are
found in fractions which boil at approximately 80° C. (an isoheptane),
107° C. (iso-octane) and 135° C. (isononane). No hypothesis is put forward
here as to their structure.
Naphthenes are found throughout the 50-150° C. interval, w i t h t h e
exception of the range from 55° to 66° C., which is free f r o m n a p h t h e n e s
in all the gasolines investigated. A small proportion o f c y c Z o p e n t a n e is
found in all gasolines. Methylcyc/opentane, cycZohexane, methylcyclo-
hexane and dimethylcycZohexane are also surely found, as s h o w n i n t h e
diagrams. The last two naphthenes are, quantitatively s p e a k i n g , t h e
most important hydrocarbons in gasoline. MethylcycZohexane c o n s t i t u t e s
20 per cent, of Gura Ocnitei gasoline (fraction 50-123-5) a n d a b o u t 10 p e r
cent, of the other gasolines.
In conclusion, it may be said th a t the three gasolines i n v e s t i g a t e d i n o u r
laboratories possess very similar distillation curves. The m a x i m a a n d
minima of the curves are found at the same points. The g a s o l i n e s d if f e r
only in the percentage of the various components contained in the m i x t u r e .
In the paraffin series normal hydrocarbons predominate, o r t h o s e w i t h a
single side-chain; in most cases the side-chain i s p r o b a b l y c o m p o s e d o f
methyl groups. Paraffins with several side-chains o r w d t h c o m p l i c a t e d
ramifications exist only in unim portant concentrations. In t h e n a p h t h e n i c
series up to the mononaphthenes, all possible homologues a n d i s o m e r s a r e
represented. Among these, derivatives of cycZohexane a r e c o n t a i n e d in
larger proportions than those of cycZopentane.

Laboratory of Organic Chemistry,

Polytechnic “ King Carol I I , ”
Bucharest.

Literature Cited.
1 F. D. Rossini, Refiner, 1935, 14, 255.
2 M. R. Fenske, D. Quiggle and C. O. Tonberg, In d. Enq. Chem., 1932, 24, 542, 814;
19 36 ,28,20 1,6 44; 19 37,29 ,70 .
3 M. R . Fenske and co-workers, ibid., 1932, 24, 4 12 ; 1934, 26. 116 9 ; 1936, 28, 645.
4 S. T. Sehicktanz and J. H . Bruun, E at. Bur. Stand. J . Res., 1931, 7, 851 ; See also
Ref. 6.
«™ Bromiley and D. Quiggle, Ind. Eng. Chem., 1933, 25. 1136.
M. R . Fenske, C. O. Tonberg and D. Quiggle, ibid., 1934, 26, 1169.
H . A. Beatty and G. Calingaert, ibid., 1934, 26, 504
9 Mareusson, Chem. Ztg., 1909, 33, 987; Halphen, M atières Grasses, 19 11, 3, 1987;
R . Zaloziecki and Haussman, Z. angew. Chem., 1906, 20, 1761 ; D. Florentin and
Vanderberge, Bull. Soc. chim., 1920, 27, 204; M. Heyn and Z. Dunkel, Brennstofi-
Chem., 1926, 7, 245; G. Egloff and J. C. Morrell, In d. Eng. Chem., 1926, 18. 354;
inoon,m J ' lnsL PetroL Techn., 1928, 14, 695; A . B . Manning, J . Chem.
ooc., ly#29. 1014.
10 w Blesenfeld ancl G - Bandte, Erdôl und Teer, 1926, 2. 491.
2 18 ara er’ G' Morrell and J. M. Levine, In d. Eng. Chem. Anal. Ed., 1930,
 SOME ROUM ANIAN STR A IG H T-RU N GASOLINES. 167

11 ß . Krämer and W . Böttcher, Ber., 1887, 20, 595; W . Markownikoff, Annalen,

1886, 234, 86; L . Edeleanu and G. Gane, Öster. Chem.-Techn. Ztg., 1889, 830,
850; Engler-Höfer, D as Erdöl, 1913, 1, 353.
22 N. D. Zelinsky, Ber., 1912, 45, 3679.
13 F. B. Thole, J . Soc. Chem. In d., 1919, 38, 3 9 t .
11 H . T . Tizzard and A. G. Marshall, ibid., 1921, 40, 2 0 t .
15 N. D ä n ä ili, A. V . Andrei and E . Melinescu, Bul. chim.Soc. romdnä deStiin te,
1923, 26, No. 4—6; 1924, 24, No. 4 -6 ; N. Dänäilä and V . Stoenescu, ibid., 1926,
29, No. 1 -3 ; N. D ä n iilä , Th. Ionescu and R . Verona, ibid., 1932, 35, No. 1 -6 ;
R . Verona, ibid., 1934, 35, No. 1-6 .
16 G. Morgan and R . P. Soule, In d. Eng. Chem., 1923, 15, 587.
17 A. N. Sachanen and R . W irabianz, Petroleum, 1929, 25, 867.
18 S. Senkte, Engler-Höfer, D as Erdöl, 1913, 1 , 231.
19 E . Cazimir, C. Creanga and M. D um itriu, Petroleum, 1930, 26, 617.
20 A. B. Manning, J . Chem. Soc., 1929, 10 14; A. B. Manning and M. Shepherd,
Brit. Chem. Abstr., B, 19 31, 284.
21 R. Katwinkel, Chem. Ztg., 1935, 49, 57; Brennstoff-Chem., 1927, 8, 353.
22 W. N. Hoyte, J . In st. Petr. Techn., 1925, 1 1 , 76.
23 W. Ormandy and E . C. Craven, ibid., 1929, 13, 76, 3 11, 846.
24 M. D. Tilitschejew and A. T . Dum skaja, ibid., 1929, 15, 465.
25 G. Chavanne and L . Simon, Compt. rend., 1919, 168, 1 1 1 1 ; Bull. Soc. chim. Belg.,
1922, 31, 331.
26 M. Marder, Kohle, Erdöl und Teer, 1935, 18, No. 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 19
27 F . Eisenlohr, Z . physikal. Chem., 1910, 75, 585.
 T H E R A P ID D E T E R M IN A T IO N O F S O L U B L E
B IT U M E N IN R O A D C A R P E T S .
By L. J. C h a l k , M.Sc., A.I.C. (Member).

S u m m a r y .

A detailed account is given of two rapid but reliable methods employed

by the author for the determination of soluble bitumen in road carpets.
The first consists of a hot extraction process in which a tall metal beaker
replaces the usual Soxhlet form of apparatus. The sample is placed in a
wire gauze basket suspended inside the beaker and loss of solvent is pre­
vented by closing the top of the beaker with a condenser made from lead
compo’ tubing. The bitumen is determined by difference.
In the other method, a known volume of solvent is added to the sample
and the mixture agitated until the bitumen has completely dissolved. An
aliquot portion of the solution is then evaporated to dryness and the bitumen
determined by direct weighing.
The necessary precautions and manipulative technique are described in
detail in each case. Both methods are extremely simple in character but
give results in good agreement with the B ritish Standard method.
A method of determining by wet sieve analysis the proportion of material
passing 200 British Standard mesh in the recovered mineral aggregate is
also described.

F e w chemists engaged in the asphalt industry have not experienced t h e

need for a simple rapid and reliable method for determining soluble bitumen
in road carpets, and particularly is this the case with those employed in t h e
laboratory supervision of road constructional works. The procedure
recommended by D. M. Wilson,1 and adopted by the British Standards
Institution,2 is often unsuitable where results are urgently required, owing
to the length of time necessary for the filtration. Asphalt cements con­
taining large amounts of Trinidad Lake Asphalt and carpets incorporating
these cements are notable in this respect. The difficulty is further accen­
tuated where the size of the coarse aggregate necessitates the use of a large
sample. For certain routine purposes, it may be possible to dispense with
the determination of the percentage and sieve sizes of the coarse aggregate,
and save time by taking comparatively small samples, but the procedure is
obviously inapplicable where the sieve analysis of the recovered mineral
aggregate is required.
It is not surprising, therefore, th at many rapid methods of determining
the soluble bitumen have been developed. In some, no attem pt has been
made to secure a very high degree of accuracy and the object has been
simply to detect the major discrepancies from specification and enable
appropriate remedial methods to be applied without loss of time. Never­
theless, a number of rapid methods is available, which can be relied upon
to give results in close agreement with the standard m ethod; these fall
into two main classes :

(i) Hot extraction methods utilizing solvents such as trichlor-

ethylene, perchlorethylene and benzene, in which the bitumen
is usually found by difference.
 SOLU BLE BITU M EN LN ROAD CARPETS. 169

(ii) Cold extraction methods with similar solvents, but employing a

direct bitumen determination.

(i) H ot E x t r a c t io n Metho d s.

Apparatus and Method for H ot Extaction of Bituminous Aggregates is

described by H ubbard in Laboratory Manual for Bituminous Aggregates,
1916. This method, using the New York Testing Laboratory Extractor,
has been widely used and consists of a cylindrical brass vessel for bolding
the solvent, inside which is suspended a cylindrical wire basket of 80 mesh
wire cloth; an inverted conical condenser is fitted in the top so as to ensure
that the vapours are condensed and percolate through the bituminous
aggregate contained in the wire basket.
A well-known m ethod belonging to this group is th a t described by
D. M. Wilson,3 which embodies a filtration under reduced pressure through
a Kieselguhr filter cylinder of the Berkefeld type. The analysis may be
completed comfortably in a working day and is suitable for the simultaneous
extraction of a number of samples of road carpet. I t does not appear to
have been extensively adopted, probably because many works laboratories
do not possess the requisite compressed air and vacuum lines.
A number of other forms of hot extraction apparatus are based on the
principle of the Soxblet extractor. The filter thimble is frequently re­
placed by a wire-mesh basket to avoid difficulties in adjusting the rate of
refluxing to suit filtration. W ith the type of road carpets laid in this
country, it has been found th a t if the filter paper is close enough to retain
the fine mineral m atter, the rate of filtration is usually slower than the
rate of refluxing, with the consequence th a t fine mineral m atter is liable to
be washed over the top of the paper. W hatever type of apparatus is used,
it is desirable th a t the dim e n sio n s of the extractor should be large enough
to take samples weighing 1 to 2 kgms. A Soxhlet extractor of this size is
necessarily an expensive item of equipment and is unlikely to find favour in
laboratories where numerous soluble bitumen determinations are carried out.
The extractor developed a t these laboratories (Fig. 1) described below
does not suffer from this objection. I t may be easily and cheaply con­
structed and is suitable for all grades of stone-filled asphalt. For mastic
asphalt, a slightly modified form, described in a later section, is
recommended.

Extractor for Stone-filled Asphalt.

The extractor for stone-filled asphalt consists of an aluminium or stainless
steel beaker, 6 ins. diameter and 12 ins. high, inside which is suspended a
cylindrical gauze basket, 5 | ins. diameter and 6 ins. high. Loss of solvent
during extraction is prevented by placing on the top of the beaker a con­
denser made from a spiral of lead compo’ tubing.
The basket m ay be easily constructed from a cylindrical tin 5 | ms.
diameter with a press-on f id as follows :—three circular holes 11 ins. diameter
are cut in both fid and base and 85 B.S. wire gauze soldered over the holes.
The major part of the cylindrical portion of the tin is then cut away leaving
only a ¿-in. rim attached to top and bottom. These two pieces are joined
together with four brass strips \ in. w id e and 6 in s . long and the basket
 CHALK : THE RA PID D ETERM IN A TIO N OF
170

completed by soldering 85 B.S. wire gauze around the outside of the frame-
work If desired, the top portions of two tins may be employed and a
reversible basket made with a lid at the top and bottom. The basket is
suspended by a wire passing around the rim of the beaker and attached to
two hooks on the top of the basket.

The condenser is made from lead compo’ tubing J in. external diameter
wound in the form of a spiral and wired to a disc of perforated zinc. The
spiral is made to fit inside the beaker and is provided with a few extra coils
on the outside rim to give it the shape of a shallow trough.
Method for Stone-filled Asphalt.
A representative sample weighing a t least 1 kgm. is obtained by the usual
quartering procedure and dried in an oven a t 105° C. The sample is then
 SOLUBLE B ITU M EN IN BOAD CABPETS. 1 71

introduced into the weighed basket. Approximately 500 ml. of trichlor-

ethylene are transferred to the beaker and the basket suspended by wire
about 1 in. above the surface of the liquid. The condenser is placed in
position and the solvent maintained in a state of steady ebullition for 4 to
5 hours, after which time the apparatus is allowed to cool and the contents
of the basket tipped out on to a shallow tray and placed in a warm position
until the odour of solvent has disappeared. The basket and mineral
aggregate are then dried in an oven at 105° C. for 1 hour and weighed.
The solvent contained in the beaker is carefully decanted into a 1 litre
graduated flask and the mineral residue washed several times with tri-
chlorethylene allowing 5 to 10 minutes before decanting each portion of
wash liquid into the litre flask. The beaker containing the residual mineral
m atter is then dried and weighed; alternatively, the mineral m atter may
be transferred with solvent to a smaller receptacle.
The bitumen solution is diluted with solvent to exactly 1 litre and well
shaken. An aliquot portion of 100 ml. is immediately measured into a
graduated flask and transferred together with rinsings to a weighed silica
dish. The solvent is evaporated as far as possible on a water bath, after
which the dish is placed over a low bunsen flame and the tem perature gradu­
ally raised until all carbonaceous m atter has been removed. Precautions
are taken during this process to prevent the bitumen from catching fire.
Finally, the residue is recarbonated and the weight of ash multiplied by
the appropriate factor. The quantity of ash recovered by this process does
not exceed 1 per cent, of the sample and for the purpose of computing the
sieve analysis of the mineral aggregate it may be assumed to consist entirely
of material passing the 200 mesh B.S. sieve.
The weight of bitumen in the sample is obtained by subtracting the total
recovered aggregate from the weight originally taken for analysis.
A centrifuge m ay be employed if desired to separate the mineral m atter
from an aliquot portion of the bitum en solution. Such separations are,
however, rarely complete, and the precaution of determining the ash con­
tent of the centrifuged aliquot should not be neglected. The centrifuge
method is recommended when the sample contains organic m atter insoluble
in the usual solvents for bitumen, as is the case when certain native
asphalts are present or mineral fillers which undergo considerable change
in weight on ignition and recarbonation. The error arising from these
causes is, how7ever, comparatively small, and the soluble bitumen figure is
unlikely to be more than 0-3 per cent, in error, even when the centrifuge
process is not employed.
Extractor for Mastic Asphalt.
A basket made from 200 B.S. wire gauze is employed for mastic asphalt.
It is constructed in a similar manner to the basket used for rolled asphalt,
except th at the interior of the basket is divided into four compartments by
means of gauze discs supported on a central brass rod. The discs may be
constructed from tin lids by cutting out 3 or 4 circles or sectors and covering
the holes with wire gauze. The central brass rod is made in 4 tapped and
screwed sections, each 1 | ins. long. A somewhat similar form of basket
has been employed a t the Road Research Station, Harmondsworth, Middle­
sex with very successful results.
 CHALK : THE RA PID DETERM IN A TIO N OF
17 2

The sample is warmed and pulled apart into pieces as small as possible
and introduced into the basket as follows :—the first section is screwed to
the bottom of the basket and approximately quarter of the sample added.
The first disc and second section of rod are fitted into position and another
portion of sample transferred to the basket. The process is repeated with
the second and third discs and subsequent procedure is the same as that
described for rolled asphalt, except th a t a longer period of extraction is
usually necessary. If circumstances permit, the extraction may be allowed
to proceed overnight.
The foregoing methods give results in good agreement with those for the
standard procedure described in B.S.S. 598.4
Some typical figures obtained with samples of steam-rolled and mastic
asphalts are shown in Table I.
T a b l e I.

Soluble bitumen.
Sample. A .C.
H ot extrac­ B.S.S. 598,
tion, per cent. per cent.

Steam-rolled asphalt Fluxed epure 8-8 8-5

Asphaltic bitumen 7-4 7-2
,, 7-7 7-5
Mastic asphalt ii if 12-7 12-7
Fluxed epure 12 0 11-8
a a Asphaltic bitumen 9-4 9-4
12-7 12-7
a a ii ii 110 11-2

(ii) C o l d E x t r a c t i o n M e t h o d s .
A feature of the majority of these methods is th a t a known volume or
weight of solvent is added to the weighed sample and after taking suitable
precautions to secure complete solution of the bitumen and the removal of
the bulk of the mineral m atter, an aliquot portion of the solution is evapo­
rated to dryness. The automatic burette m ethod described by D. C.
Broome,5 and designed for use with mastic and rock asphalts follows these
lines, as does th at put forward by I. Hvidberg.6 The m ethod described
below is based on similar principles, but incorporates certain modifications
which give improved accuracy and renders the m ethod of more general
utility. The method is suitable for all types of bituminous road carpets
and can be recommended for routine control purposes. I t is extremely
simple, requires no elaborate apparatus and can be completed in approxi­
mately 3 hours.

Method. (Applicable to B.S.S. Nos. 347, 348, 594, 595, 596 & 597.)
The sample is warmed in an oven until soft and, if present, precoated
chippings are removed and discarded. The sample is then pulled apart
into pieces as small as possible and quartered to the approximate weight
git en in Table II. A sampling procedure is employed and no attem pt is
made to adjust the weight of the sample to the exact figure shown in the
table.
 SO LU BLE BITU M EN IN ROAD CARPETS. 173

T a b l e II.
M inim um Weight of Sam ple.
Mastic asphalt, ungritted . . . . . . . 100 gms.
Mastic asphalt containing aggregate passing 1 in. . . . 100 ,,
Mastic asphalt containing aggregate J—f in. . . . 250
Sand carpet . . . . . . . . . . 100
Rolled asphalt containing less than 25 per cent. } in. stone . 500
Rolled asphalt containing more than 25 per cent. \ in. stone . 1000
Rolled asphalt, binder course . . . . . . . 1000
Compressed rock asphalt . . . . . . . 100 ,,

The sample is dried in an oven a t 105° C. and weighed. I t is then placed

in a glass bottle or metal drum and a measured quantity of solvent (Table
III) added from a graduated flask, allowing 30 seconds for the flask to drain.
The solvent may be carbon disulphide, chloroform, perchlorethylene or
trichlorethylene.
T a b l e III.

Sample weight. Volume of solvent.

100 gms. 1000 ml.
250 „ 2000 „
500 „ 3000 „
1000 „ 5000 „

The temperature of the solution is read, after which the container is

vigorously shaken for 30 seconds and then set aside and re-shaken four more
times at quarter-hourly intervals; finally the solution is allowed to remain
undisturbed for a further quarter of an hour.
Approximately 50 ml. of bitumen solution are removed and centrifuged
for 2 minutes a t 2000 to 4000 r.p.m., the average radius of the path of the
liquid in the centrifuge tube being 4 |". The centrifuge tubes are provided
with tin-foil caps to minimize loss of solvent by evaporation. A portion of
the centrifuged liquid is decanted into a beaker and the temperature quickly
adjusted to its former value. 10 ml. of solvent are then transferred with a
pipette (calibrated for use with the particular solvent) into a weighed dish.
The solvent is evaporated on a water bath and the residue dried a t 160—
170° C. for half an hour, or a t 105° C. for one hour and weighed. The
residue is ignited and the ash recarbonated. In calculating the soluble
bitumen content, an allowance is made for the fact th a t the volume of
bitumen solution is always slightly greater than the volume of solvent.
If A = weight of bitumen in aliquot,
B = weight of sample,
C= volume of aliquot,
D= total volume of solvent,
E = weight of ash in aliquot,
then the volume of bitumen solution = D ^ l +

a j. 100 A D ( . .
ana percentage soluble bitumen = — — (1 + q)

100 ED
The percentage ash given by — — should not exceed 1 per cent.
EL/
N
174 chalk : the r a p id d e t e r m in a t io n of

If a centrifuge is not available, the container after shaking in the manner

described above may be allowed to stand overnight and 10 ml. of the
solution withdrawn without disturbing the mineral m atter a t the bottom
of the container. Should the ash exceed 1 per cent., another 10 ml. aliquot
is diluted to 150-200 ml. and filtered through a No. 5 W hatman, 11-cm.
filter paper. The filtrate and washings are then transferred to a weighed
dish and evaporated to dryness and ashed. The extra time involved in
this procedure amounts to approximately 2 hours. The same method may
be used in conjunction with a centrifuge process if so desired.

T a b l e IV .

Soluble bitumen.

Sample. A.C. Cold extrac­ B .S.S. 598,

tion, per cent. per cent.

Mastic asphalt Asphaltic bitumen 10-0 9-9

9-4 9-2
99 99 9-3 91
99 99 9-4 9-4
Steam-rolled asphalt 99 99 9-4 9-2
Mastic asphalt 99 99 15-7 15-6
14-0 13-9
15-4 15-5
,, Fluxed epure 15-2 15 0
99 99 99 99 16-0 15-7

The results given in Table IV were obtained using trichlorethylene as a

solvent. The figures quoted are in close agreement with those obtained
by the standard method.
When a sieve analysis of the mineral aggregate is required, the bitumen
solution remaining after the determination of soluble bitumen is agitated
and passed through an 8- and a 200-mesh B.S. sieve, fitted together over an
8-in. funnel. The residual mineral m atter is washed several times with
trichlorethylene and finally transferred to the 8-mesh B.S. sieve. Fine
particles of filler adhering to the coarse aggregate are removed with a jet
of trichlorethylene from a wash-bottle fitted with a blow-ball. The aggre­
gate retained on the 8-mesh B.S. sieve is then dried, weighed and sieved in
the usual manner. I t is not assumed to consist entirely of plus 8 material,
but is re-sieved on the 8-mesh B.S. sieve.
The fine material on the 200-mesh B.S. sieve is washed three or four
times with trichlorethylene, then once with alcohol (95 per cent. I.M.S.)
and finally with a stream of tap water until the —200 material has been
removed. This point is ascertained by examining the water passing through
the sieve. I t is an advantage to employ a metal spiral in which a number
of small holes have been bored to distribute the water over the entire surface
of the sieve, as by this means sieving m ay be carried out with practically
no attention or effort on the part of the operator. When the washing
process has been completed, the residue is rinsed with alcohol, dried and
weighed. The proportion of material passing 200 mesh is obtained by
subtracting the weight of aggregate retained on the 8- and 200-mesh sieves
 SOLUBLE B ITU M EN IN KO AD CAKPETS. 175

from the total weight of mineral aggregate. The aggregate retained on

the 200-mesh sieve is dry-sieved in the usual manner.
W et sieving possesses pronounced advantages over the more usual dry
sieving and gives more accurate and consistent results. I t is to be hoped
th a t in course of time it will entirely replace the older method. The pro­
portion of —200 material found by dry sieving (B.S.S. 598) is invariably low,
as filler adheres to the coarse aggregate and is lost when the latter is sepa­
rated on the 8-mesh sieve. The error so introduced depends both on the
quantity and nature of the coarse aggregate and is frequently very marked.
For many years now, it has been the custom to dry sieve mineral aggre­
gates and fillers, but the process has little to recommend it. The separation
of the —200 fraction by wet sieving not only ensures correct and consistent
results, b u t eliminates an extremely tedious and dusty operation and re­
duces the wear and tear on the 200-mesh sieve. I t can be employed in the
presence of a Portland cement filler and is particularly useful for soft lime­
stone aggregates which are difficult to deal with by the normal method.
In the course of investigating the cold extraction method, attention was
directed to certain possible sources of error and a number of experiments
were carried out with a view to checking the accuracy of the method and
improving the general manipulative technique. These experiments may
be grouped under the following headings :—
(а) Correction for solution volume of bitumen.
(б) Correction for volatilisation of solvent during the centrifuge process.
(c) Calibration of measuring vessels.
(d) Procedure for drying residue.
(e) Ashing procedure.
(/) Check determinations.

(a) Correction for Solution Volume of Bitumen.

Weighed amounts of bitumen were added to measured volumes of solvent
and the increase in volume noted. I t was apparent from the results th a t
for the purpose of calculating the correction it would be sufficiently accurate
to regard the increase in volume as equal to the volume of bitumen and to
take the density of the bitumen as unity. Thus, employing the nomen­
clature given above, it could be assumed th a t the volume of bitumen
AD
solution would be greater than the volume of solvent by —7 r .
c
(b) Correction for Volatilisation of Solvent during the Centrifuge Process.
A centrifuge tube approximately 2 cms. diameter and 35 ml. capacity
with a hemispherical end was employed in these experiments and was
weighed before and after centrifuging. The percentage loss of solvent
when the tubes were filled to capacity was found to be somewhat greater
th an when the tubes were partly filled, but by placing tin-foil caps over the
open ends of the tubes, the loss in all cases could be reduced to insignificant
proportions. The caps were made by placing a circle of tin-foil about 2
cms. diam eter over the top of the tube and smoothing the projecting portion
into contact with the outside of the tube. The efficacy of this device is
clearly indicated by the figures given in Table V.
176 CHALK : T H E R A PID D ETERM IN A TIO N OF

T a b l e V.

Loss after centrifuging 2 mins.

Room
Solvent. W ith. cap. W ithout cap, temp., ° C.
per cent. per cent.

Carbon disulphide 0-06 0-60 28-8

Trichlorethylene . 002 0-27 »»
Chloroform . . . . 003 0-33 ,,

Carbon tetrachloride 0-02 0-28 ,,

Perchlorethylene . 0003 0 11 Jt

(c) Calibration of Measuring Vessels.

Pipettes. I t is usual to calibrate pipettes with distilled water. For the
present work, however, it was considered preferable to calibrate with the
particular liquid to be employed and ascertain by direct weighing the ratio
of the weight of solvent delivered by the pipette to the weight delivered by
the measuring flask.
Measuring Flask. A 1-litre measuring flask filled to the mark with
trichlorethylene was found to deliver 999-0 ml. when a drainage time of
30 seconds was allowed. The error in measuring the requisite volume of
solvent could, therefore, be assumed to be negligible.

(d) Procedure for Drying Residue.

The following experiments were carried out with a view to ascertaining
whether loss of volatile hydrocarbons occasioned by drying at 160-170° C.
introduced an error into the analysis. 0-1 gm. of several grades of bitumen
and flux oil were transferred to porcelain dishes, dissolved in 10 ml. trichlor­
ethylene and the solutions evaporated to dryness on a water bath. The
residues were dried either a t 105° C. or a t 160-170° C. and reweighed. The
results shown in Table VI suggest th a t in the absence of volatile flux oils or
soft bitumens a drying time of half-an-hour a t 160-170° C. will give satis­
factory results. In case of doubt a drying time of one hour at 105° C. is
recommended.
T a b l e V I.

D rying period.
Change in
Bitumen. 105° C., 16 0 -170 ° C., weight,
hrs. hrs. mgms.

Mexphalte 65 2 __ + 1-0
,, . . . — 1 N il
— 4 - 20
Mexphalte 80/90 . — h - 0-4
Texaco E flux oil . _ I - 1-6
Shell flux oil . . . 2 — 2-9
,, »» »» — h - 15-8
1 6 % Shell flux oil, 8 4 % epure 1 Nil
,, ,, ,, ,, ,, 2 — - 0-6
,, ,, ,, ,, ,, — - 1-3
’* »» >> M »» 4 — - 1-3
” — è - 5-2
 SOLU BLE BITU M EN IN ROAD CARPETS. 177

(e) Ashing Procedure.

A porcelain dish may lose in weight on strong ignition and for this reason
it is advisable not to heat the residue more than is necessary to effect
removal of carbonaceous m atter. The recarbonation process is carried out
as follows :—
The ash is allowed to cool and moistened with a few drops of ammonium
carbonate solution. The excess is evaporated on a steam bath and the dish
then gently warmed until the smell of ammonia is no longer perceptible.
The dish is then re-weighed.

(f) Check Determinations.

10 gms. of Mexphalte 30/40 were placed in a flask and 1000 ml. solvent
and 100 gms. limestone powder added. After shaking and adjusting the
tem perature of the solution as prescribed in the method, a 10 ml. aliquot
was evaporated to dryness, dried half-an-hour a t 160-170° C., weighed,
ashed and the residue recarhonated. Similar experiments were carried out
adding pulverized silica and Portland cement. In all cases the weight of
bitumen obtained was slightly less than the theoretical amount, presumably
on account of absorption of bitumen by the mineral aggregate. The actual
figures are shown in Table V II.
T a b l e V II.

Solvent. Aggregate. W t. of bitumen

in aliquot.
Carbon disulphide Limestone 00996
Chloroform 00994
Carbon tetrachloride 0-0981
Perchlorethylene 99 0 0985
Triehlorethylene 99 00986
*» Pulverized silica 0-0988
>f 99 99 0-0985
99 Portland cement 0-0978

In conclusion, the author wishes to express his thanks to the Director of

these laboratories, Mr. H. B. Milner, M.A., for permission to publish and to
record his appreciation of the efficient manner in which Mr. A. H. Clarke
performed most of the analytical work.
Geochemical L aboratories,
London, $ . JT.l.

References.
1 D . M. W ilson, J .S .C .I ., 1931, 50, (28), 599-600.
2 B ritish Standards Institution, B .S.S. 598, 1936, “ Methods for the Sampling and
Exam ination of Bituminous Road Mixtures.”
3 D . M. W ilson, J .S .C .I ., 1933, 52, (28), 597-81.
4 B ritish Standards Institution, B .S.S. 598, 1936, “ Methods for the Sampling and
Exam ination of Bituminous Road Mixtures.”
5 D . C. Broome, “ The Testing of Bituminous Road Mixtures,” Arnold, London
(1934).
6 I. Hvidberg, B it., 1936, 6, (8), 169.
 178

T H E IN S T IT U T E O F P E T R O L E U M .

SPECIAL GENERAL MEETING.

A Special General Meeting of the Institute was held a t the Royal Society
of Arts, John Street, London, W.C.2, on Tuesday, 10th January, 1939, at
5.30 p.m., for the purpose of considering and, if thought fit, passing with or
without amendment certain Temporary Regulations relating to the Transfer
of Members, Associate Members and Associates.
T h e P r e s i d e n t , L i e u t .-C o l S. J . M. A u l d , O.B.E., M.C., D.Sc., occupied
the Chair.
T h e S e c r e t a r y (M r . S . J . A s t b u r y ) read the proposed Temporary
Regulations, as under :

T E M P O R A R Y R E G U L A T IO N S R E L A T IN G TO T H E T R A N S F E R OF
M E M B E R S , A S S O C IA T E M E M B E R S , A N D A S S O C IA T E S .

(In force up to 30th June, 1939.)

(а) A ll Members, Associate Members, and Associates of the Institute of Petro­

leum, whose names were on the register as such on the 31st December, 1938, shall
be entitled to apply for transfer to one of the classes of Fellows, Members, or
Associate Members in accordance with the Regulations given hereunder.
(б) A s soon as possible after the Special General Meeting at which these Tem­
porary Regulations are approved by the members, and in any case before 30th
June, 1939, any Member, Associate Member, or Associate desirous of being
transferred to another class of membership should indicate to the Council on a
Form prescribed for the purpose the class of membership to which he applies to
be transferred.
(c) No transfer shall become effective before the 1st January, 1939, and no
transfer shall be deemed valid until the appropriate Transfer Fee, if any, shall
have been paid.
M e m b e r s .

(d) A Member of the Institute of Petroleum whose name was on the register as
such on the 31st December, 1938, is entitled to apply for transfer to the class of
Fellow, and the decision of the Council on his application shall be final. No
Transfer Fee shall be required.

A s s o c ia t e M e m b e r s .

(e ) A n Associate Member of the Institute of Petroleum is entitled to apply for

Transfer to the class of Fellow or Member, and his application for transfer shall be
submitted to and decided upon by the Council, whose decision shall be final;
or he may continue an Associate Member of the Institute.
A Transfer Fee of £1 Is. shall become payable on transference of an Associate
Member to the class of Fellow or Member.

A s s o c ia t e s .

(/) An Associate of the Institute of Petroleum is entitled to apply for transfer

to one of the classes of Fellow, Member, or Associate Member, and his application
for transfer shall be submitted to and decided upon by the Council, whose decision
shall be final.
No “ Associate ” may continue as such after the 30th June, 1939.
 SPECIAL GENERAL M EETIN G . 17 9

On transference to the class of Fellow or Member an Associate shall pay a

Transfer Fee of £1 Is. On transference to the class of Associate Member no
Transfer Fee w ill be required.

P u b l ic a t io n or T ra n sfers.

(g) Notification of applications for transfer w ill not be pubbshed in the Journal,
but all transfers w ill be announced in the Journal as and when they become
effective.

The P r e s i d e n t , in proposing the adoption of the Regulations, said they

had been prepared by the Council and were the result of a considerable
amount of deliberation. He did not think they required any explanation
from him, as they were quite clear.
M r . J a c k s o n s e c o n d e d t h e m o tio n .
M r . B u t t e r f i e l d said th at, as a member of long standing, he would like
to ask for a little explanation of the grounds of transfer of Members to the
grade of Fellows. Up to the end of last year Members were in the highest
category of membership of the Institute, but he gathered th a t in future the
highest category would be th a t of Fellow. Would those who were Members
at the end of last year be automatically transferred, on application, to the
grade of Fellow, or was it intended th a t some discretion should be exercised
in the m atter ? The question was raised, he thought, by the words in
Regulation {d) : “ the decision of the Council on his application shall be
final.” The Council knew all those who were at present Members, and
m ust be in a position to make up their minds whether, on application, those
Members should be transferred en bloc to the grade of Fellow. If the
Council did not intend to do th at, but to exercise some discrimination, the
grounds on which the applications would be considered should, he thought,
be indicated to the Members. If it was not intended to exercise such
discrimination, the words “ the decision of the Council on his application
shall be final ” might well be omitted.
T h e P r e s i d e n t said he would answer Mr. Butterfield’s question in the
same way as th a t in which he had answered it previously, by saying th at
the m atter would be dealt with most generously by the Council, but the
Council wished to have the power to discriminate if and when necessary.
He did not like using the word “ discriminate,” because it implied some­
thing rather different from what the Council had in mind. He thought the
fact th a t in the definition of Fellows it was stated th a t a Fellow m ust have
“ advanced the science and technology of petroleum ” implied th a t there
might be cases in which, if the standard of a Fellow was to be maintained,
it would not be suitable to transfer a Member to the grade of Fellow without
consideration. He thought also th a t the fact th a t the m atter was given
consideration should be welcomed by the Fellows. They would feel th a t
they had not been elected by a stroke of the pen, but th a t it had been done
carefully; there being first a definite, deliberate instruction from the
Election Committee to the Council and then a reconsideration of the m atter
by the Council.
D r . J . A. L. H e n d e r s o n asked whether the twenty-four Founders would
continue to be life members of the Institute when transferred to the grade
of Fellow.
T h e P r e s i d e n t said th a t th a t would undoubtedly be the case.
180 SPECIAL G EN ER A L M E ETIN G .

If there were no other questions, he would put the resolution th a t the

Temporary Regulations read by the Secretary be adopted.

The resolution was carried.

T h e P r e s i d e n t said there was no other business and declared the meeting

closed.

ERRA TU M .
Physical and Chemical Constants of N orm al Paraffins by D . J. W . K re u le n .

Journal, Vol. 24, No. 180, October 1938, p. 557. Table I I last column. Values
for W p should be 0-95, 0-85, 0-77, 0-61, 0-30, 0-18, 0-13, 0 04 for molecular weights
from 481 to 206.
 73 a

ABSTRACTS.
PA G E PA G E

Geology ............................ 74 a Chemistry and Physics of Petrol­

Geophysics 80 a eum 98 a
Drilling 85 a Analysis and Testing 104 a
Production 8 8 a Motor Fuels 104 a
Transport and Storage ... 91 A Gas, Diesel and Fu e l Oils 105 a
Crude Petroleum ... 92 a Lubricants and Lubrication 106 a
Gas 93 a Special Products ... 110 A

Cracking ... 93 a Detonation and Engines... 111 A

Hydrogenation ... 94 a Coal and Shale 111 A

Polymerization ... 95 a Economics and Statistics 111 A

Refining and Refinery Plant 95 a Book Reviews 112 A

Book Received 116 a

A U T H O R IN D E X .
The numbers refer to the Abstract Number.
Adams, E., 314 Cox, W. F., 267 Harrington, P. J., 335 Lippincott, S. B., 317
Agde, G., 339 Cozzens, F. R., 245 Hartigan, A. W., 335 Livingston, H. K., 260
Albright, J. C., 258, 263 Crickmer, C. C., 267 Hass, H. B., 317 Lloyd, A. H., 332
Altman, B., 256 Crider, A. F., 216 Hawley, P. F., 233 Loomis, A. G., 254
Anderson, A., 267 Henderson, L. M., 285 Love, F. H., 259
Anderson, C. A., 289 Danforth, R. S., 290 Hendry, W. B., 335 Lyon, N. X., 251
Anderson, C. T., 267 Damielle, R. B., 269 Henne, A. L., 297
André, E., 328 Davidson, J. R., 267 Hewitt, J. C., Jr., 267 McCluer, W. B., 335
Archer, S., 312, 313, 314 Deambrosis, R., 288 Hiestand, T. C., 219 McDonald, A. T., 326
Auld, S. J. M., 330 Decker, E. L., 253 Hildorf, W. G., 287 McFarland, E. G., 335
Dehn, F. B., 335 Hjerpe, E. B., 335 Mair, B. J., 294, 295
Baker, C. L., 248 Denison, I. A., 269 Hodge, E. B., 291 Marker, R. E., 306
Baker, J. G., 292 Deussen, A., 229 Hoover, C. O., 321 Martin, E. J., 335
Ballard, N., 214 Diggs, S. H., 335 Hotine, L., 341 Martin, M., 261
Barnes, C., 276 Diwoky, F. F., 335 Houdry, E. J., 278 Marvel, C. S., 307
Barton, C. H., 325 Donnell, J. W., 284 Humphrey, G. T., 267 Mason, H. J., 333
Bass, E. L., 325 Dorn, N. L., 253 Hunter, T. G., 303 Merrill, D. R., 327
Bataafsche Petroleum Downey, V. I., 335 Hutchins, G. H., 335 Meyer, H., 336
Mij., N.Y. de, 321, 335 Dreyfus, H., 321 Migaux, L., 243
Ba Thi, M., 303 Du Pont de Nemours, I.G. Farbenindustrie, Miller, J. F., 331
Beckman, E. J., 250 E. I. & Co., 336 A.-G., 335 Mitera, Z. A., 231
Beeny, H. H., 332 Imperial Chemical Monroe, W. H., 220
Bignell, L. G. E., 268 Edeleanu Gesellschaft Industries, Ltd., 282, Montgomery, P., 252
Bishop, J. J., 254 m.b.H., 335 335 Moore, 0. C., Jr., 327
Boelhouwer, J. W. M., Egloff, G., 271 Ipatieff, V. N., 298, 309 Moos, J., 335
320 Elkins, T. A., 237 Morrell, J. C., 271
Boulter, G. M., 254 Evans, E. B., 316 Jenkins, R. D., 276 Murphy, W., 270
Bouman, C. A., 322 Johnson, 0. H., 234 Murray, G. H., 261
Boyd, W. B., 215 Fawcett, E. W., 282 Johnson, G. W., 281, 321, Muskat, M., 230
Bray, U. B., 327 Fenske, M. R., 335 336
Breth, F. W., 335 Fischer, F., 280, 338 Johnstone, R. G., 272 Nash, A. W., 262, 303
Bridges, C. H., 293 Flagg, R., 254 Jones, S. O., 299 Nay, B., 267
Brimsdown Chemical Foster, A. L., 277 Nissan, A. H., 262
Works, 336 Frenzel, W. G., 254 Katz, D. L., 318
Brooks, D. B., 301 Friedman, B. S., 298, 309 Kelly, S. F., 241 Oakwood, T. S., 306
Brown, A. B., 335 Fussteig, R., 319 Kendall, J. M., 254 Orem, H. P., 305
Brown, E. K., 335 King, H. H., 257 Otto, C.& Co., 274
Brownsdon, H. W., 335 Garrison, A. D., 248 Kinney, C. R., 315
Buchler, C. C., 335 Germe, A. E. J. L., 321 Kinsel, A., 335 Palmer, R., 272
Burch, E. A., 283, 284 Gillingham, W. J., 261 Kistiakowsky, G. B., 310 Park, T. S., 267
Burn, W. S., 341 Ginsberg, B., 335 Klaus, H., 232 Paton, J. G., 282
Byers, A. M., Jr., 296 Glavis, F. J., 307 Knox, G. S., 267 Pease, R. N., 296
Godlewicz, M., 335 Kreulen, D. J. W., 302 Penick, A. J., 267
Cerf, C. S., 273 Green, C., 341 Küster, V. E., 267
Chave, C. T., 335 Penick, K. T., 267
Green, C. H., 235 Pennington, H., 254
Clark, C. C., 213 Gruse, W. A., 335 Ladd, E. C., 297
Clark, C. L., 287 Perrin, M. W., 282
Gunness, R. C., 292 Launspach, E. H., 300 Pichler, H., 280
Clark, L. V. W., 262 Lawlor, R., 240
Conn, J. B., 310 Pilat, S., 335
Hammer, S., 237 Lee, J. W., 259 Pines, H., 298, 309
Cook, L. W., 335 Hanes, D., 267 Liberthson, L., 335
Cowles, L. G., 238 Hanson, V. F., 336 Pippin, J. W., 254
Liddle, J. C., 336 Plummer, W. B., 282
F
 ABSTRACTS.

Roulston, W . R ., 247 S tan d a rd Oil D evelop­ V an W ijk, W . R., 320

Pohl, H ., 338 m e n t Co., 321, 336 Vogel, H. E . R., 336
P o tt, A., 340 Rude, R. L., 276
R uhrchem ie, A.-G., 321 Standlee, H . R ., 254
Powell, R. 0., 290 S tchepinsky, V., 227 W allis, J . S., 335
Précoul, M., 337 Russell, W. L., 221
Stead, H . V., 341 W eber, G., 265
Prévost, E., 323 Stephenson, L. W ., 217, W est, S. S., 236
Saegebarth, E ., 335
Saltm an, W., 318 220 W h ite, A. E., 287
Ramser, H ., 335 Stone, B. H ., 267 W hite, F . L ., 335
Raym ond, É. P ., 254 Sawdon, W. A., 249
Schuerenberg, H ., 339 Stone, F ., 267 W hitm ore, F . C., 304,
Reed, P ., 266 Story, Le R . G., 335 305
Reeside, J . B., J r., 217 Sclater, K. C., 246
Setzler, H . B., 335 Sw ift, H . W ., 334 W illiam , E . G., 282
Reich, H ., 244 W illingham , C. B ., 294,
Reid, E. Em m ett, 299 Shaw, S. F ., 255
Sherrill, M. L., 300 295
Rhodes, F. H ., 293 W illson, C. O., 222, 223,
Ridgway, C. M., 285 Simons, J . H ., 312, 313, Taylor, O. 0 ., 254
314 T erres, E ., 335 224, 225, 226
Riffkin, J ., 324 W ilson, R. R., 335
Roche, J ., 328 Skinner, W . H ., 341 T haheld, F . A ., 267
Sm ith, E. A., 310 Thiele, E. W ., 335 W olf, O., 290
Rock, S. M., 239 W ood, O. E ., 262
Roper, E. E., 308 Southgate, H . A., 304 T hom as, G. D ., 212
Rosaire, E. E ., 242 Sparrow , S. W ., 329 Thorne, H . M., 270
Staatsm ijnen, De D irec­ T illotson, A. W., 218 Ziegenhain, W. T ., 275
Rosenblum, 0., 311 Z im m erm an, G. B ., 271
Ross, W. B., 285 tion Van de, 274 T urner, R . H ., 286

Geology.
212. Carterville-Sarepta and Shongaloo Fields, Bossier and Webster Parishes,
Louisiana. G. D . Thomas. B ull. Am er. A ss. Petrol. Oeol., 1938, 22, 1473—1503.—The
sub-surface rocks of these fields consist of Tertiary sediments (Claiborne & Wilcox,
1150 ft., and Midway 500 ft.), and the Cretaceous and Comanche formations.
The Annona chalk is the most easily recognized chalk member of the Cretaceous,
having a thickness of 120 f t .; its base has been used as a datum plane on the structure
maps included in this paper. In the Comanche, no well at Shongaloo or Carterville
has yet penetrated below the Glen Rose anhydrite, which is approximately 500 ft.
thick at Shongaloo.
The Shongaloo field, discovered in March 1921, is an east-west elongate dome,
separated from the Carterville-Sarepta field on the west by a saddle and from the
Cotton Valley structure on the south also by a saddle. The only producing sand at
Shongaloo is the Buckrange of basal Ozan age. I t is found at an average depth of
2600-2650 ft. and is very variable in character and thickness. I t is thought that the
amount and extent of production is governed as much by the variable sand conditions
(porosity and thickness) as by structure.
The Carterville-Sarepta field appears to be a north-west to south-east extending
anticline on which six small local closures exist. The dip on the south side of the
anticline is apparently steeper than that on the north. A description of the six local
closures is given. Three producing sands occur, the Buckrange (oil), the topmost
sand member of the Tokio (gas) and the second sand member of the Tokio— 60 ft.
below the gas sand-—produces oil in the Carterville area.
The origin of the structures in both fields is uncertain, although it is generally
agreed that they are the result of a small amount of flowage of salt beds of Comanche
or pre-Comanche age which are thought to underlie most of North Louisiana and part
of Arkansas. G. S. S.

213. Sugar Creek Field, Claiborne Parish, Louisiana. C. C. Clark. B u ll. Am er. Ass.
Petrol. Oeol., 1938, 22, 1504-1518.—Th is field was discovered in March 1930 and has
a producing area of about 4000 acres. A generalized section is given of the formations
occurring in the field; these are : the Eocene (Claiborne), Upper Cretaceous (Gulf
Series) and the Lower Cretaceous (Trinity).
Structurally, the field is an anticline about five miles long by three miles wide.
At the surface it occurs as an imperfect inlier of the Cook Mountain formation sur­
rounded by the overlying Cockfield. Two structure contour maps are furnished.
Gas is obtained from two reservoirs in the T rin ity series-—the K ilp a trick and
Darrett zones. O il is found only in economic quantities in the Darrett, where both
gas and oil occur in porous beds distributed throughout a thickness of 175—275 ft.
The total accumulated oil production on 1st January, 1938, was 86,000 brls., all from
the Darrett zone. g_
 ABSTKACTS. 75 a

214. Stratigraphy and Structural History o! East-Central United States. N . Ballard.

B ull. Am er. A ss. Petrol. Geol., 1938, 22, 15 19 -15 5 9 .— Th is paper summarizes some
facts concerning the stratigraphy of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illin o is, K entucky
and Tennessee.
A series of cross-sections are given in order to show as m any stratigraphical details
as possible, and samples from approximately 525 wells have been examined to assist
in this work. A tentative correlation table and seven logs are also included in the
paper.
Two major periods of folding occurred in the area, the first at the beginning of
Onondago time. Th is folding probably reached its maximum towards the end of
Hamilton deposition, for on the flanks of the Ozarks there was much post-Ham ilton
faulting.
The second period of major faulting occurred at the end of M ississippian time.
When the Pennsylvanian sea encroached over the old land surface, hundreds of feet
of beds had been removed as the Pennsylvanian overlaps St. Peter sand in northern
Illinois.
The last uplift to affect the area arose after the deposition of the Pennsylvanian and
before the Cretaceous was laid down, as faults in K entucky displace the Pennsylvanian
but do not cut the Cretaceous. G . S. S.

215. Jesse Pool, Pontotoc and Coal Counties, Oklahoma. W . B . Boyd. B u ll. A m er.
Ass. Petrol. Geol., 1938, 22, 1560-1578.—The Jesse Pool and the F itts Pool (one m ile
distant) are closely related both stratigraphically and structurally. The Jesse Pool
itself is about four miles long and one m ile wide.
The oldest formation drilled in the Jesse is the Arbuckle limestone, penetrating
it 87 ft. This is followed by rocks of the Simpson Group, Siluro-Devonian (Hunton
Limestone), Mississippian and Pennsylvanian (Morrow Group and Des Moines Group).
The Jesse Pool lies on a large anticline which is faulted on the south side. The
faulting has a maximum throw of 1300 ft. and occurs in a series of step faults, a ll of
which are normal.
Production may be generally divided into four zones and areas : “ W ilco x ,”
Bromide, Hunton and Pennsylvanian. The best production is found in the “ W ilcox,”
which is confined to a small area on the crest of the anticline. The average in itia l
potential gauge was approximately 4000 brls. a day, the estimated ultimate production
being 6,650,000 brls.
From the Bromide sand, the average in itial production was 1800 b r ls .; the estimated
ultimate yield is 1,680,000 brls. Production from the Hunton is erratic, the in itia l
yield ranging from 63 to 3480 brls., and an estimated ultimate production of 4,000,000
brls. from the present developed area.
From the Pennsylvanian, production is confined to the W apanucka and Atoka
formations. Three gas wells have been completed in the W apanucka sand, but no
showings of oil have been observed, and five wells have been completed in the
“ Gilcrease ” sand (Atoka) with an average production of 72 brls. a day.
On 1st January, 1938, the Jesse Pool had produced 1,704,164 brls. G. S. S.

216. Geology of Bellevue Oilfield, Bossier Parish, Louisiana. A . F . Crider. B ull.

Amer. A ss. P etrol. Geol., 1938, 22, 1658-1681.—The Bellevue Oilfield is located in
T.19 N., R . l l W ., Bossier Parish, and is surrounded by the producing oilfields of
north-western Louisiana.
The formations occurring in the area are of Upper Cretaceous and T e rtiary age.
The oldest sediments reached to date are black marine shales and limestones of the
Cotton V alley formation which have been penetrated at 1429 ft. The remaining
formations of the Upper Cretaceous follow, the close of the System being marked by
a chalky shale of Arkadelphia age, which on the crest of the structure is about 40 ft
thick. Overlying this bed is the Midway clay (Tertiary). T h is consists of shale
which immediately underlies Pleistocene and Recent deposits. It s uniform thickness
is about 400-600 ft., though on the crest of the dome the thickness has been p artly
reduced by truncation, leaving only 100 ft.
Structurally, Bellevue is a deep-seated dome, probably of salt origin, w ith overlying
sands across the crest in which oil has accumulated. From the top of the dome to
the base of the syncline separating Bellevue and Cotton V alle y, the amount of u p lift
 ABSTRACTS.

as shown on Upper Cretaceous data, is about 1800 ft. and 2500 ft. on Lower Cretaceous

daO il is obtained from the Nacatoch sand at a depth of 300-400 ft., and gas and oil
from the junction of the Upper and Lower Cretaceous at 1800 ft.
Since its discovery in 1921 to 1st January, 1938, the field has yielded 9,860,430
brls., the peak production being reached in 1923 (2,250,057 brls.). The field was
closed during 1932-1933 owing to depression conditions. The producing area of the
field is 900 acres and the yield per acre to 1st January, 1938, is 10,996 brls.

217 Comparison of Upper Cretaceous Deposits of Gulf Region and W estern Interior
Region. L. W . Stephenson and J . B. Reeside, Jr. B u ll. A m er. A ss. Petrol. Geol.,
1938, 22, 1629-1638.—In the Gulf region the Upper Cretaceous sediments are chiefly
of marine origin. The most complete section is the classic example in east central
Texas, and this may be taken as a standard. The series includes the Woodbine
Sand, Eagle Ford shale, Austin Chalk, Taylor marl and the Navarro group, having
an aggregate thickness of about 3000 ft. Traced both south-west and north-east
from east central Texas, however, the sequence changes markedly.
In the Western Interior region the Upper Cretaceous deposits m ay be classified
into three types : (i) an eastern belt of marine fine sediments (Great Plains sequence);
(ii) a middle belt of mixed continental and marine sediments (Rocky Mountain
sequence); (iii) a western belt of sandstones and conglomerates m ainly non-marine,
an incomplete sequence.
In both regions fossils are abundant. Although numerous species are restricted
to either one region or the other, many of them are indentical or analogous to allow
of correlation. The ranges of some of these fossils are shown in a table.
G. S. S.

218. Olympic Pool, Hughes and Okfuskee Counties, Oklahoma. A . W . Tillotson.

Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol., 1938, 22, 1579-1587.—The Olym pic pool is in the east
central part of Oklahoma, just off the north-east edge of the Seminole uplift.
The main producing horizon is from the Senora formation, a lenticular sand
member— “ Olympic Sand.” Minor production is also obtained from the Pennsyl­
vanian formation (Calvin Sand and Cromwell Sand) and the Hunton limestone of
Siluro-Devonian age.
To date 326 oil wells have been completed and all but four of these derive their
oil from the Olympic Sand. I t is estimated that the pool w ill eventually recover
16-24 m illion barrels from this horizon. G . S. S.

219. Studies of Insoluble Residues from “ Mississippi Lime ” of Central K ansas. T . C.

Hiestand. Bull. Amer. A ss. Petrol. Geol., 1938, 22, 1588-1599.—From a study of
the stratigraphy aided by the use of insoluble residues, it is shown that the Mississippi
lime in Central Kansas can be subdivided into zones or formations. These zones are
proved to be very sim ilar to the members of the Boone limestone of Missouri.
Oil is obtained from one or both of two of the zones in certain pools. Accumulation
in many places is apparently due to stratigraphic traps rather than to merely structural
closures. Accompanying the paper are two cross-sections arranged w ith the top of
the Missouri series as the datum plane to show the subdivisions of the Mississippi
lime.
The author concludes that the subdivision of this formation in all parts of Kansas
and adjacent areas should furnish data to make more complete interpretations of the
history of the Central Kansas buried uplift and other important structural features.
G. S. S.

220. Stratigraphy of Upper Cretaceous Series in Mississippi and Alabama. L . W.

Stephenson and W . H . Monroe. B ull. Am er. A ss. Petrol. Geol., 1938, 22, 1639-
1657. The Lpper Cretaceous sediments of the Eastern G ulf region outcrop in a great
crescentic band which wraps around the south-west end of the plunging Appalachian
Highlands. This band is 500 miles long and centrally is 75 miles wide, the sediments
having a maximum thickness of about 2300 ft.
The Upper Cretaceous in west central Alabama and in east central Mississippi is
 ABSTRACTS. 77 a

readily divisible from below upward into four formational u n it s ; the Tuscaloosa,
Eutaw, Selma chalk and Prairie Bluff chalk.
Deposition of the Upper Cretaceous was not continuous, sedimentation having been
interrupted from time to time. These breaks are recorded in at least four uncon­
formities. The first of these is between the Tuscaloosa and the overlying Eutaw ,
and has been traced throughout the eastern G ulf region.
The next unconformity is that separating the Tombigbee sand member of the Eutaw
from the overlying Selma c h a lk ; the break is believed to be widespread in the area.
The third break is about 300 ft. above the base of the Selma chalk and a few feet
above the Areola limestone. The position of this break is marked by a thin band of
phosphatic fossil moulds.
The fourth break, separating the Selma chalk from the overlying Prairie Bluff
chalk, is an important one. I t has been traced for more than 300 miles in Mississippi,
Alabama and Georgia; in places it marks a northern transgression of the Prairie
Bluff chalk over a great thickness of older Cretaceous sediments.
The following fossil zones have been recorded through M ississippi and Alabam a :
the Exogyra ponderosa zone which includes the Tombigbee sand and the lower two-
thirds of the Selma chalk. A narrow and persistent zone in the Selma chalk about
180 ft. above the Areola limestone is characterized by D iploschiza cretacea and by
Terebratulina filosa. Th is zone has been traced from Montgomery County to Tupelo
(Mississippi), a distance of 220 miles. Including the upper third of the Selma chalk
and the Prairie Bluff chalk, the E xogyra costata zone can be traced, and the E.
cancellata zone can be followed throughout the area in the lower 200 ft. or less of the
E. costata zone. G. S. S.

221. Relation o! Rough Creek Fault of Kentucky to Ouachita Deform ation. W . L.

Russell. B ull. Am er. A ss. Petrol. Oeol., 1938, 22, 1682-1686.—A belt of thrust faults
and folds extends from the Mexican border to Arkansas, forming one of the major
structural features of the continent.
The Ouachita structures exhibit no sign of dim inishing where they disappear below
the Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments of the M ississippi Em baym ent. The Rough
Creek fault system of Kentucky and its associated faults are sim ilar to the Ouachita
structures on the west.
The author therefore discusses the evidence as to whether the Rough Creek fault
is an eastern extension of the Ouachita deformation. Of various suggestions made,
one is quoted from evidence obtained from wells drilled in the Mississippi Em baym ent
in north-west Tennessee between the Ouachita and Rough Creek structures. Here
wells have penetrated Palaeozoic rocks which are definitely disturbed and altered.
G. S. S.

222. Oil Bringing a New Epoch in Eastern Venezuela. C. O. W illson. O il Gas J .,

3.11.38, 37 (25), 14.—The Eastern Venezuelan oil production constitutes about 1 6 %
of the 530,000 brls. d aily output of Venezuela. In the Maracaibo region the older
fields are now declining in output, but exploratory work is still going on.
The area of search in Eastern Venezuela is about 450 miles long and 350 miles
broad. In it Quirequire with a daily production of 70,000 brls., provides most of the
oil. Th is field has 247 wells, of which 209 are flowing. 12,700 acres have been proved,
and oil is obtained from Pliocene sand lenses under shore-line conditions at depths
of 1800-3250 ft. The very thick oil zone is subdivided by a water sand. The Peder-
nales field gives oil from the Middle Miocene at depths of 5000-6200 ft. on a north­
east to south-west trending anticline. H ig h pressures and steep dips render the
work rather difficult.
Production from the 40 wells at Temblador is derived from the Middle Miocene on
the up-thrown side of a normal fault at depths of about 3900 ft.
Prolonged seismic work preceded drilling at Oficina, where five producing wells,
which have proved an area of 3 sq. m l., are shut in. The average depth of the pro­
ducing sand is 5700 ft., but deeper and shallower oil-sands have been reported. A t
Santa Ana there is gas-distillate production from a depth of 7500 ft., and low -gravity
oil production has been found at E l Tigre.
The geological knowledge of this area is largely the result of geophysical work,
for the area is cloaked by a thick cover of Pliocene deposits. G. D . H
 ABSTRACTS.

223 Exploratory Work in Venezuela. C. O. W illson. Oil G a s J ., 10.11.38, 37 (26),

U 17 —Most of the exploratory work is taking place in eastern and central Venezuela,
but some is going on in the west, extending to the Colombian border. A t present
twelve geological crews, four magnetometer crews, nine gravity crews and fourteen
seismic crews are at work. There is also one E ltra n party.
A geosyncline appeared in Cretaceous times, and in the Oligocene the well-defined
Maracaibo basin was separated off. Th is covers about 63,000 sq. km ., whereas the
less well-defined Maturin basin in the east covers 68,000 sq. km. About two-fifths
of the total area is under concession.
There are about 2700 producing wells, of which 300 are in eastern Venezuela. About
half of them are being pumped. Western Venezuela and the Maracaibo area give
about 440,000 brls. of oil per day. The bulk of the production comes from depths
of 2000-3750 ft. The deepest well is the E l Roble wildcat near Oficina, which is
drilling at over 9000 ft.
A geological map shows the positions of the fields and of the wildcats.

224. Western Venezuela Drilling Operations Show Efficiency Against Hazards. C. O.

Willson. Oil Gas J ., 1.12.38, 37 (29), 26-28.—Western Venezuela is essentially a
supplier of heavy oils. Oilfields now run almost continuously for nearly fifty miles
along the northern half of the eastern side of Lake Maracaibo. Many wells have been
drilled in the lake. I t is possible that the decline in production of the old fields may
be offset by newer ones. Bachaquero is the most southerly and Tarra the most
westerly field.
The Lake fields have about 2000 producing wells, of which 33 % flow, 62 % are pumped
and the rest are on air or gas lift. Ambrosia, L a Rosa and Benitez have about 775
wells, T ia Juana 300, and the rest are at Lagunillas. The Am brosia-La Rosa wells
are about 2300 ft. deep ; those of Lagunillas about 5000 ft.
The Maracaibo pools yield oil from Cretaceous-Mid-Miocene beds ; (a) on anticlines
and domes of considerable variety ; (6) on gentle monoclines w ith sands or sandstones
which lense out up dip ; (c) on combinations of (a) and (6). Shore line conditions
are responsible for most of the oil accumulations now exploited in the Maracaibo
basin. These are not near the margin of the basin, but close to the central part of
the present topographic depression. G. D . H .

225. Colombia to Witness Active Drilling Campaign in 1939. C. O. W illson. Oil

G asJ., 22.12.38, 37 (32), 14 -16 .—Most of the concessions granted lie in the Magdalena
valley, in the main east of the river. The area extends along the river for about
200 miles from Bodega Central in the north to Laclorada in the south. A 335-mile
pipe-line connects the fields of the De Mares concession (Infantes and L a Cira) with
Cartegena on the Caribbean. The daily oil output is 60,000 brls.
The wildcat Socony-Narina No. 1 is drilling at 5000 ft. on the N arina uplift. Three
wells have been drilled on the Las Monas anticline, one of which is a sm all producer.
A well is being drilled at San Fernando, and drilling is expected to begin shortly on
the Cantemplora and Carare concessions. Elsewhere geological surveys are in
progress. G. D . H .

226. Remarkable Developments in Barco Concession. C. O. W illson. O il Gas J .,

15.12.38, 37 (31), 18.—When the 260-mile pipe-line from Petrolea to Covenas on the
Caribbean is completed, rapid developments are expected to take place in the Barco
concession. This concession, near the Colombian—Venezuelan border, is about 75
miles long and 25 miles broad, and is the site of numerous oil and gas seeps. These
were exploited prim itively, and in 1919 a shallow test in the R io de Oro district in the
north showed heavy oil. In later work in 1933 Petrolea No. 1 blew in at about 500
ft. and caught fire. Thereafter several wells were drilled at Petrolea and a further
two at Rio de Oro. Geological work and wildcatting have been going on in other
parts of the concession.
At Petrolea, production is from a much-faulted anticline. Most of the oil comes
from siltstones and limestones in the Cogollo formation at 450-650 ft. The initial
 ABSTRACTS. 79 A

output per well ranges from a few hundred to 3000 brls. per day of 45° A .P .I. oil, giving
5 0 % gasoline on atmospheric distillation.
The four R io de Oro wells yield 37-40° A .P .I. oil from a sandstone in the Catatumbo
formation at depths of 1200-1500 ft. (j, D . j j .

227. Petroliferous Beds of Egypt. V . Stchepinsky. A nn. Off. Corrib, liq., Sept.-
Oct., 1938, 13 (5), 823—874 (1 map).—The dj. Zeit seep has long been known, and the
search for oil began in 1868. Evidences of oil have been observed in the G ulf of Suez
zone, on the Red Sea coast and in north Sinai. The first producing field was opened
up at Djemsah in 1909, but from 1914 onwards Hurghada has been the main producer.
In late years the production has fallen off. New legislation was recently introduced
which has led to the taking up of m any permits, in regions from Sinai to Ras Benas
on the Red Sea, and west of the N ile between Alexandria and Cairo.
There are two main features in the stratigraphy of the Red Sea basin : (i) A big gap
between the Crystalline and the Miocene in the prim itive anticlinal zones, pointing
to intense erosion in Cretaceous, Eocene and Oligocene times, (ii) Lateral variation
of facies. There is also a lack of correlation between some areas, and altogether the
establishment of a general stratigraphic column is rather difficult.
The various stratigraphical horizons are briefly described. The term “ Nubian
sandstones ” has only a lithological and not a stratigraphical significance, for it has
been used for beds ranging from Carboniferous to Senonian in age. The Oligocene
is missing and the Jurassic is best known at d j. Moghara.
The principal earth movements took place at the end of the Eocene, and there were
accessory movements in Pliocene times. The oil-bearing beds are grouped as occurring
on (a) fundamental anticlines and (6) on superficial anticlines. The former have
crystalline cores and the latter lie in the synclinal areas between the former. In the
Cretaceous there was a transgression from north-west to south-east. A new trans­
gression came from the same direction in the Miocene, which period ended in a long
lagoonal phase. The fundamental anticlines are suitable for testing Eocene and
Cretaceous beds, where present, but not so the superficial anticlines where the Miocene
is thick.
The beds and structure of the various areas with evidences of oil are described :
North Sinai, Habachi, B ir Abou K itifa , dj. Kochera, Oued Gharandel, dj. Tanka,
Oued Matulla, dj. Mezzazat, Abou Durba, R as Mohammed, Ras Gharib, Ras D ib,
Zeitia, Ranim Island, R as el Bahar, Ras Djemsah, islands east of Djemsah, Abou-
Chaar, Hurghada, Abou-Mingarh, Jiftoun K eb ir Island, and Dichet el Daarba. Many
beds show traces of oil, but few are important. Many seeps are associated with
faults and some with dykes. The Nubian sandstone is generally water-bearing. The
productive horizons are : (i) granitic sands of uncertain age between the granite and
the Campanian (Hurghada); (ii) Campanian (?) (Hurghada); (iii) base of Miocene
(Hurghada) and below the Lagoonal formation (Djem sah); (iv) Lagoonal formation
(Hurghada and Djemsah). A ll the present producing structures have a granite core.
The history of the oil exploitation is summarized. In 1931 a maximum output of
285,000 metric tons per annum was attained.
Several mother rocks m ay exist, amongst which the Cretaceous is prominent. As
yet the exploration has only been shallow. G. D . H .

228. Recent Exploration in the Carpathian Foreland. Anon. Bohrtech. Z ., 1938,

56 (11), 164—166.—In the last two years some 20,000 sq. km. of the foreland have been
mapped and seismic surveys made over 9000 sq. km. The sub-Carpathian Salifere
has the most favourable oil prospects, although the locating of test wells is extremely
difficult. Surface shows and shows in shallow borings are abundant, but, from the
point of view of deep drilling, the region is almost unknown. The presence of the
Boryslaw tectonic unit hew been proved in the north-west, near Sambor. In the south­
east the geology of the area around Niebylow has been elucidated by means of hand-
borings and pits, and it is shown that it compares with Bitkow rather than Boryslaw.
Little progress has been made in the anticlinal zone of the Stebnika Beds. The
area is free of a ll surface shows and none were obtained in the test boring— 1504 m.—-
at Gaje-Nizne.
In the Tortonian area it has been shown that the natural gas zones at Konigsau,
Daszawa, Balicze, Opary and Kosow are associated w ith the overthrust contact
 ABSTRACTS.

between Stebnika Beds and the Tortonian. The gas-hearmg beds at Kosow are in
the form of gentle domes of a size and type not hitherto known in Poland. The
investigation of the Tortonian is in its infancy, but it m ay be said that the Carpathian
foreland is very sim ilar to the oil series of the outer Alpine arc, and the Tortonian
has all the characteristics of an oil facies. Although the gas at Daszawa is pure
methane, in other places it contains as much as 2 0 -3 0 % of ethane and higher homo-
logues Two problems now to be considered are the search for oil in the Tortonian
and the exploration of the older, underlying beds. A further problem is the explanation
of the oil shows in the Miocene in the Western Foreland. S. E . C.

229 Discoveries. A. Deussen. Oeophys., 1938, 3 (3), 17 7 -19 7 .—Estim ates of the oil
reserves of the U .S.A. have always proved to be too low' and the discovery rate higher
than anticipated. Since 1925 no estimates of undiscovered oil have been made because
previous figures were so inaccurate, and yet this is the most important aspect of
reserves. The Texas-Louisiana G ulf Coast may be taken as a type region for a con­
sideration of this problem. The total number of known structures and fields plotted
against time shows that there is as yet no tendency for the curve to flatten and, hence,
on statistical grounds, the end of discovery in the G ulf Coast is far off. A s another
method of approach, a typical oil-producing county in the G ulf Coast, H arris County,
is chosen and the production and discovery rates examined. The discovery rate
curve for this county is sim ilar to that for the G ulf Coast as a whole and thus, whilst
the structures appear to be crowded, it seems that the lim it has not yet been reached.
In Harris County the area of oil land, assuming a ll the structures to carry oil, is
4 0 76%, and so a final figure of 5 - 6 % might be attained. Assuming an average of
1 % for the whole of the Gulf Coast and south-west Texas, 461 fields (average 500
acres per field) remain to be discovered. In terms of undiscovered oil this is ap­
proximately 9725 million brls. S. E . C.

See also Abstract No. 262.

Geophysics.
230. Reflection of Longitudinal Wave Pulses from Plane Parallel Plates. M. Muskat.
Oeophys., 1938, 3 (3), 198-218.—A mathematical analysis is made of the reflection
of elastic wave pulses from plane parallel plates, the problem being restricted to the
case where the incident waves are longitudinal, and the discussion to the reflected
wave pulses. The treatment given resolves the reflected wave system into the various
individual reflection and refraction processes, and gives the resultant reflection co­
efficients for the different types in a single step. Further, it shows that the reflected
pulses are of the same form as the incident pulse, but are characterized by varying
amplitudes and phase shifts. Numerical values are given for the expressions deter­
mining the reflection coefficients obtained in the above analysis. These calculations
are restricted to the three strongest longitudinal reflected pulses, and the values are
represented in graphical form as well as being tabulated. The resultant wave
amplitudes, given by the combination of the individual reflected waves, are illustrated
graphically for cases where the ratio of the thickness of the reflecting plate to the length
of the incident pulse is 2, 1 and S. E . C.

231. Present Status and Future Aspects of Geophysical Exploration in Poland. Z. A.

Mitera. Oeophys., 1938, 3 (3), 225-233.—The early geophysical work, commenced
in 1923, is outlined. Large scale activity commenced in 1934 when the Pioneer Co.
formed its own geophysical department. Seismic reflection methods proved to be
of very limited application within the Carpathian mountain system, due m ainly to
the very complex structures, their relatively small size and the definite lack of uniform
beds. Conditions are much more favourable in the foreland. Persistent reflections
have been followed throughout several thousand square miles and contour maps
were made of the reflecting surface. Extensive gravimeter surveys have also been
carried out and Schlumberger logging is now standard practice.
It is planned to extend surveys in West Poland for the discovery of salt-domes
 ABSTRACTS. 81 A

sim ilar to the North German type. In the province of W ilno, data is now believed
to be sufficient to indicate new oil reserves in Palaeozoic and younger sediments
associated with the structural uplifts. The structural features may be better outlined
by geophysical methods. S. E . C.

232. Second Derivative Contour Method of Interpreting Torsion Balance Data. H .

Klaus. Geophys., 1938, 3 (3), 234-246.— Recently the tendency has been to use the
torsion balance to measure total gravity, whereas actually it is an instrument for
measuring gravity gradients and curvature. I t is advocated that these second
derivatives should be used in conjunction w ith a contouring system. In the conven­
tional method they are computed w ith reference to astronomic north, but in the
contour method one of the axes, preferably the y-axis, is taken parallel to the geological
strike. Stations should be well spread out over an area, instead of being concentrated
along profile lines, and separate contour maps produced of each of the four derivatives.
Where very accurate work is being done the contour intervals m ay be 2 -3 E . for the
gradient components and 4—5 E . for the curvature components. In other cases,
intervals m ay be 5 E . and 10 E . respectively. The method of interpreting these maps
is outlined. I t is not advocated that this method be used for quantitative work.
Its application lies m ainly in the recognition of the types of structure present and their
relations to one another. Quantitative work m ay then be carried out by seismic
methods. S. E . C.

233. Transients in Electrical Prospecting. P. F . Hawley. Geophys., 1938, 3 (3),

247-257.—A constant P .D . is applied between two electrodes fixed in the ground
some distance apart and the resultant surge of current is recorded. The potential
surge between two other electrodes is also recorded. The occurrence of “ nicks
in the curves so obtained is said to indicate the presence of different strata below the
electrodes. The depth to an horizon is proportional to the time taken for a “ n ick ”
to develop and to the resistivity above that horizon. A high-speed, revolving drum
camera was used in conjunction with a cathode-ray oscillograph and a special switch
gear incorporating a thyratvon. The apparatus was mounted in a truck and sufficient
cable supplied to enable each current electrode to be spaced 6000 ft. from the truck.
The Wenner electrode pattern was used in a ll voltage transient tests. Fie ld tests
were made in the San Joaquin V alle y, and details of the results are given. I t was
found that none of the records shows a “ nick ” in the wave-front, and that the b u ild ­
up of the current and potential transients was far too rapid to permit of correlation
between the results and the known subsurface conditions. Further tests w ill be
made with modifications of technique. S. E . C.

234. Locating and Detailing Fault Formations by means of the Geo-Sonograph. C. H .

Johnson. Geophys., 1938, 3 (3), 273-29 1.— The normal type of seismograph is handi­
capped in some regions on account of the confused seismograms which are obtained.
This is frequently the case in the v icin ity of faults. The cause of the confused records
is a m ultiplicity of waves arriving at the detectors from the neighbourhood of the fault.
The method of m ultiple recording assists to some extent in clarifying the records
when confusion is caused by criss-cross waves from depth. I f combined detector
outputs obtained in this method are plotted as rad ii vectors, then the envelope of
these vectors w ill be a polar curve which represents the effective sensitivity of the
detector group to waves of the reflected wave frequency. The Rieber Geo-Sonograph
enables one to rotate this polar sensitivity curve to any desired direction so that one
feature may be examined whilst the others are eliminated. T h is is done by obtaining
records of the output of each detector and then combining them, not only in their
original phase relationship, but also in any other as desired.
The application of this method of detailing faults is illustrated by three examples.
S. E . C.

C. H . Green. Geophys.,
235. Velocity Determinations by means of Reflection Profiles.
1938, 3 (4), 295-305.—I t can be shown sim ply that to measure the velocity down to
any particular horizon, it is only necessary to measure the reflection time for any
two different spreads. However, since the relation between V 2 (X = spread) and
 ABSTRACTS.
82 a
5p2 i p = time) is linear, it is recommended that several corresponding values be
obtained and the best straight line drawn through the plotted data to average out
errors Although the method is indirect in dealing with second order quantities,
it is believed that good reflection data w ill give results w ithin 3% accuracy.
To obtain such accuracy several conditions must be fulfilled : (a) at least one,
and preferably several reflections must be known to be continuous over the coverage
of the proposed profile ; (6) weathering must be closely uniform for a ll the recorder
set-ups; (c) topographic changes must be a m inim um over the several recorder
positions; (d ) all depth shots should be in the same material and at the same ap­
proximate depth, so as to minimize the effect of variable shot hole conditions upon
reflection reception times, as well as on character and frequency ; (e) reflecting horizons
should be “ flat,” or at least it is desirable to be able to shoot along the strike. In
order to gain the necessary information which w ill permit the choice of an area com­
plying with the above conditions, prelim inary work is necessary which involves the
assumption of a depth-velocity relation. B y symmetrical disposition of shot and
recorder positions, the importance of a “ flat ” subsurface can be minimized.
Two examples are given with details of the m anipulation of the d a ta ; and the
results are compared with the velocities obtained from shots at the nearest wells.
The agreement is good, but it is admitted that the values are inferior to data obtained
from wells. G. D. H .

236. Electrical Prospecting with Non-Sinusoidal Alternating Currents. S. S. West.

Geophys., 1938, 3 (4), 306-314.—A ny non-sinusoidal alternating current, of which
the waveform has a sufficiently simple representation in terms of Fourier series, can
be used for electrical-resistivity measurements, and should have a ll the advantages
of the transient while being free from many of the practical disadvantages. Such a
method bears some resemblance to the transient method, and can make use of its
experimental arrangement. The best type of electrode system has four electrodes
in a straight line with the detecting electrodes outside the current electrodes. How­
ever, this arrangement is not so sensitive as the Wenner system to resistivity con­
trasts between horizontal strata. A scheme was adopted w ith the electrodes in a
line at 1000 ft. intervals. The detecting and current circuits were therefore 1000 ft.
apart. This separation can be altered to meet special circumstances. A 50-cycle
alternating current of square form was used. B y using a circuit of suitable design
one or more cycles of the modified detected wave could be kept stationary on the
screen of an oscilloscope connected to the output of the amplifier. The current
source was a thyratron relaxation oscillator, controlled by a 50-cycle tuning fork.
The average current was 1 -2 amp. I f the linear electrode system w ith equal spacings
is moved by only a fraction of 1000 ft., the change in the transient can often be easily
seen on the oscilloscope screen or its photograph. The same is true for the modified
rectangular waveform. A special circuit was designed to measure the changes in the
waveform, but it is not entirely suitable for absolute determinations of the waveform.
The theory of the method is briefly outlined. Although the rectangular A .C. does
not usually permit the E.M .F. in the detecting circuit to reach the transient steady
state, the effect upon each half-cycle is much the same as the effect on the transient,
with regard to change of shape. Inasmuch as there exists no mathematical analysis
yielding a solution which can predict the shape of the transient or of the modified
rectangular wave for any useful cases, it is not very important what quantity is chosen
as characteristic of the waveform. I t is only essential that this quantity be deter­
mined uniquely by the structure of the subsurface, and be sensitive to changes in
it. Hence for each prospect fixed values were chosen for a ll but one of the parameters
of the balancing network, and by means of the last the E .M .F . was balanced out
from approximately 60° to nearly 180° after the beginning of the half-cycle. The
values of this parameter required for balancing the longest possible part of the cycle
can then be plotted and contoured. An electrically anomalous closed structure has
thus been determined on prospects, some of which have oil. The anomalies may
indicate structures in which oil can collect. G. D . H .

237. Resolution of Combined Effects, with Applications to Gravitational and Magnetic

JJata. T. A. Elkin s and S. Hammer. Geophys., 1938, 3 (4), 3 15 -3 3 1.— A simple
ut rigorous and quite general mathematical method is given for finding the minimum
 ABSTRACTS. 83 A

separation of two nearby bodies, at which their observed combined effect indicates
the presence of two separate bodies. Geophysical applications of the method are
illustrated by investigating the resolution of gravity and torsion balance data for
the two lim iting cases of spheres and infinite horizontal cylinders, the resolution of
the vertical magnetic intensity for infinite rectangular plugs and the direct inter­
pretation of the infinite horizontal rectangular block. The horizontal gradient
profile does not satisfy the restrictions imposed by the derivations, and consequently
cannot be discussed by this general method. Indeed, the gradient is of little use as a
resolution criterion.
If the probable depth of the anomalies in an area to be surveyed is known, the
existence of a resolution lim it w ill yield a value of station spacing below which there
is no point in going, at least from the viewpoint of detecting individual anomalies.
The actual field data w ill never attain the theoretical resolving power, and allowance
must be made for the precision of practical data in applying the above analysis.
G. D . H .

238. The Adjustment of Misclosures. L . G . Cowles. Qeophys., 1938, 3 (4), 3 3 2 -

339.—The adjustment of misclosures by the method of least squares is accomplished
by solving a system of simultaneous equations which m ay be written down by in ­
spection of the traverse diagram. The solution of these equations can be effected by
measuring currents in an analogous electrical resistance network. The resistances
of this network are determined b y the geometry of the survey, and the voltages
introduced in the loops are proportional to the misclosures. The substitution of
the electrical analogy and some simple measurements eliminates the necessity of the
laborious calculations required by the method of least squares. The latter otherwise
becomes prohibitive in extensive networks. G. D . H .

239. Three-Dimensional Reflection Control. S. M. Rock. Geophys., 1938, 3 (4),

340—348.—A pattern is presented in which A T ’s are obtained from intersecting lines
of detectors. Assuming (a) plane wave fronts at the detectors, and (6) rectilinear
wave propagation, formula; are presented for : (i) i/r, the angle of arrival of the reflected
wave in the wave travel plane : i.e., the plane through the line of exploration and
perpendicular to the reflecting plane ; (ii) 9, the angle between the wave travel plane
and a vertical plane through the line of exploration ; (iii) a, the dip component in
the wave travel plane; (iv) 8, the total dip ; and (v) y , the angle between direction
of total dip and the line of exploration.
Application of the method to field work is described and illustrative examples are
depicted. G. D . H .

240. NomogTam for Dip Computations. R . Lawlor. Geophys., 1938, 3 (4), 349-
357.—I t can be shown that the position, strike and dip of a reflecting bed are com­
pletely determined by a, 8, T and V where : a = component of dip in wave travel
plane; 9 = angle between wave travel plane and vertical plane containing line of
exploration ; T = travel tim e ; V = average velocity of the seismic waves. The
chart is applicable to all problems in which geophones are arranged in two m utually
perpendicular bisecting lines, an in-line arm with geophones in the line of exploration
and a cross-line arm with geophones in a line perpendicular to the line of exploration.
I f no cross-line arm is used, a is the only dip component determinable. If both
lines are used, the chart m ay be employed to compute a and 9 from the A T ' b for any
spread, any geophone spread, any travel time and any velocity function provided
only that the following assumptions are sufficiently accurate for interpretation of
the data : (a) The average velocity is a known function of wave-travel time only,
and (6) the seismic waves travel in straight lines.
The principles underlying the construction of the chart are given. B y a simple
change of scales it can be adapted to all shot distances, geophone spreads and all
wave velocities which are functions of wave travel time only. G. D . H .

241. Geophysical Exploration. S. F . K e lly . M in . and M etall., January, 1939, 20, 6 1 -

65.—A review of geophysical progress and activities in various parts of the world during
1938. In the United States the present trend of gravimetric work seems to be toward
 ABSTRACTS.

the gravimeter, the number of torsion balance parties showing a considerable decline.
The pronounced decrease in seismic crews suggests that the peak in seismic prospect­
ing has been passed in the U .S.A. On the other hand the number of magnetic crews
for reconnaissance on oilfield structures shows a slight increase. Brief reference is
made to improvements in seismic instruments and to the new mobile electrode for
continuous electrical profiling of deep structures. Photographs of some of the latest
instruments are shown, including the electrical Echo-Meter which utilizes the principle
of sound-wave reflection for ascertaining fluid levels in oil wells. D. W.

242. Stratigraphie vs. Structural Prospecting. E . E . Rosaire. O il Gas J ., 22.12.38,

37 (32), 43. Each exploratory method was considered the most effective of all,
whilst it was operating effectively ; but each in turn has experienced the inevitable
increase in costs and rapidly diminishing returns enforcing its relegation to oblivion
or to a secondary position. A change in exploration technique is only justified inso­
far as reward is not proportional to effort.
The Gulf Coast salt dome province is examined to illustrate the ideas. The three
periods 1901-1924, 1924-1932 and 1932 to date are associated w ith three major
exploration campaigns, each based on the use of one or more distinct exploration
techniques : (a ) Wells were drilled on surface anomalies such as topographic highs and
lows, gas seeps and parafifin dirt beds. A t first the costs per discovery were low, but
they rose. (6) Torsion balance and refraction methods followed, and were abandoned
when the costs rose excessively, (c) The last phase corresponds with the use of the
reflection seismograph. Here discovery apparently lags two years behind application.
The “ difficulty of discovery ” and the reasons for rises in costs are analyzed.
During the period 1930-1936 the cost per discovery has increased almost fourfold.
Surface geological exploration went through sim ilar phases and was replaced by
subsurface geological methods which w ill, however, persist u n til a ll the geological
provinces have been exhaustively wildcatted by drilling. I t is not so spectacular as
the other methods.
Each period of discoveries had more successes than that preceding, but the dis­
coveries were of progressively lower relief.
Structural prospecting methods depend on vertical changes in the sediments ;
stratigraphical methods depend on lateral changes. The former have tended to be
stressed.
The reflection seismograph approaches the d rill in penetrating power, but it does
not provide such complete information. I t is, however, cheaper. The general
assumption at the present time is that each new deeper discovery justifies re-shooting
the whole Gulf Coast at or a little below that depth. The reflection seismograph is
not used to the best advantage in reconnaissance. The same is true of the drill.
The reflection seismograph should be developed to yield structural detail in advance
of the drill.
There are lateral or stratigraphie changes which result from the underlying structure
—induration, mineralization of shallow ground waters, locally increased seismic
velocities in shallow sediments, local variations in electrical properties and haloes
of leaking hydrocarbons. These evidences are independent of the depth and relief
of the underlying structure. Hence the easiest way of discovering structure is to
locate such a feature and later to examine it with the reflection seismograph and
the drill. Numerous structures of low or zero (true stratigraphie traps) relief have
been overlooked by the reflection seismograph. The proper use of stratigraphical
methods w ill serve to locate practically a ll favourable structures of high and low
relief.
The reflection seismograph w ill continue as a useful tool only to the extent that the
observational errors now present remain, or can be made, appreciably less than the
relief characteristic of the remaining undiscovered structures. G. D . H .

243. Electrical and Thermal Exploration of Boreholes. L . Migaux. B u ll. Ass.

franç. Tech. Pétrol., 1938, (45), 4-28.—Electrical coring consists essentially in making
continuous records of resistivity and spontaneous polarization. The resistivity
recorded as the electrodes pass down the hole is not the true resistivity of the forma­
tions traversed, but an apparent resistivity which includes factors due to the presence
 ABSTRACTS. 85 A

of the drillin g mud, etc. Fo r ordinary correlation purposes this apparent resistivity
is sufficient. Spontaneous polarization is due principally to electro-filtration and
electro-osmose phenomena. In order to separate resistivity measurements from
spontaneous polarization measurements, an A .C. supply is connected to the current
electrode. Two P .D .’s are thus superimposed and picked up by the measuring
electrodes, one, alternating, which measures the resistivity, and one, continuous,
which measures the spontaneous polarization. These are separated and recorded
independently. The magnitude of the spontaneous polarization gives a measure of
the permeability of the strata. A n oil-sand gives high spontaneous polarization
and resistivity, whilst a water-sand gives high spontaneous polarization and low
resistivity. Strata such as dense limestones give low spontaneous polarizations and
high resistivities.
I t has been found that the conductivity of strata is always greatest in the direction
parallel to the bedding and the equipotential surfaces are ellipsoids. B y using two
sets of measuring electrodes at right angles to each other, and sym m etrically placed
with respect to the centre of the borehole, the shape of this ellipsoid m ay be deter­
mined, and hence the direction of dip of the strata. The electrodes are orientated by
means of the magnetic compass, and a teleclinometer is also run with the instrument,
so that corrections may be made for deviation of the borehole from the vertical. A
set of measurements is made at intervals of 10 -20 cms. in order to reduce the effect
of small local anomalies.
Continuous temperature measurements in a borehole are made with an electrical
resistance thermometer. The temperatures obtained when the borehole fluid is in
thermal equilibrium w ith the strata, give useful data to the engineer and also show
the junction between strata of widely differing thermal conductivities. Measurements
made before thermal equilibrium is complete indicate the points of entry into the well
of water and of oil and gas. Electrical coring is impossible in cased wells and tem­
perature surveys are the only means of getting information. The temperature
diagram is comparable with the resistivity-porosity diagram, although the details
are far less well defined. The thickness and position of cement are clearly shown if
a temperature survey is made several hours after completion of the cementing
operation. S. E . C.

244. Work of the State Geophysical Survey in German Petroleum Areas. H . Reich.
Oel u. Kohle, 1939, 15, 23-26.—An outline is given of the progress of the State Geo­
physical Survey (which is stated to have already yielded very valuable results) under
four headings : gravimetric measurements, torsion balance measurements, seismic
measurements and magnetic measurements. Fo r technical reasons, the work done in
Austria is not included, though it is stated that a considerable amount has been carried
out.
Maps are given showing the areas already covered under the four headings in the
old Reich, the gravimetric and magnetic surveys being most advanced. Examples
are quoted showing that each method is liable to give apparently conflicting data,
and insistence is placed on the difficulty in correctly interpreting the results. For
this purpose a knowledge of geology as well as geophysics is necessary, and the author
stresses how essential it is that all geophysicists should also be geologists, and vice
versa. T. T D

Drilling.
245. Control of Heaving Shale by Blasting. F . R . Cozzens. Petrol. Engr, December,
1938, 10 (3), 46.—W axy shales that behave much like quicksands are encountered
at about 600 ft. in the Ohio, West V irg in ia and Kentucky fields. The moment an
opening is made the walls slip and crumble. The thickness of the shale ranees from
30 to 70 ft.
Explosives are being used in some oil-producing districts to control the grainless
shales. It is found that instead of crumbling the walls the force of the blast stiffens
them, permitting drilling to proceed without interruption.
A torpedo was made from an 8-ft. section of metal rain pipe, closed at the bottom
and provided with a bail in the top. Twelve cartridges of ammonia dynamite, 4 0 %
86 a ABSTRACTS.

in strength, were loaded into the shell. Into the top cartridge was inserted a No. 6
electric blasting cap, which was connected by an insulated copper wire sufficiently
long to reach to the firing battery.
The charge was fired and the débris was removed b y a suction bailer. D rilling
was continued for a further 15 ft. and a second torpedo containing ten cartridges was
then exploded. The walls stood up u ntil the casing was set.
The principle is to stem the charge in such a manner that sufficient force is exerted
against the side walls to make them firm and sear them for a short time.
L . V . W . C.

246. W orld’s Longest String of 9 |- in . Casing Set. K . C. Sclater. Petrol. Engr, January,
19 39 , 10 (4), 21.-—The longest string of 9 f-in . casing ever to be run in a well has recently
been set in the G ulf Coast. T h is string weighed approximately 253 tons at a depth
of 11,631 ft.
The well is situated in the shallow water on the Louisiana Coast and is being drilled
from the Texas Company’s specially constructed submersible barge, on which is
mounted the derrick and the d rilling rig, steam being used as a source of power.
Extrem e care was exercised in conditioning the mud and before pulling the drill
pipe the weight of the mud was 1 1 T lb. per gal. viscosity 5 1° A .P .I., sand content
2 % , salt 3150 parts per m il., temperature at flow line 123° F ., and solids 3 7 % by
weight.
The casing was set in less than 24 hrs., and with no serious trouble.
L . V . W . C.

247. Under-reaming Reduces Cost of Drilling and Deepening W ells in California. W. R.

Roulston. Petrol. Engr, January, 1939, 10 (4), 27.— The Montebello field in California
is underlain by an unknown number of possibly productive deep zones. Deepening
is an advantage in some wells producing from upper formations. When production
from upper formations is disappointing under-reaming has been used successfully and
has saved a considerable amount of money in the cost of d rilling and completing
the well.
A hole that is under-reamed to provide clearance for the largest liner that w ill pass
through the casing w ill permit the use of smaller water strings and surface pipe and,
therefore, smaller bits from the surface to the total depth of well. L . V . W . C.

248. Chemical Control of Heaving Shale. C. L . B aker and A. D . Garrison. Petrol.

Engr, January, 1939, 10 (4), 50.—Heaving or caving of the hole has prevented deep
drilling in certain areas. Th is phenomenon m ay result from the establishment of
a serious pressure differential in the hole or from hydrous disintegration of “ heaving
shale.” Th is heaving can be avoided by using a d rilling mud rich in silicate of soda
and sodium chloride. The requirements in such a mud, its formulation and use in
the field are discussed with a brief description of the equipment required and special
problems that must be met. Heaving due to hydrous alteration of shale has been
prevented when drilling has been carried out using this new method. L . V . W . C.

249. Im provements in Methods of Gravel Packing Oil W ells. W . A . Sawdon. Petrol.

Engr, January, 1939, 10 (4), 95.—The general method of gravel packing in use in
California is the reversed circulation method. Most of the gravel packing has been
done in new wells, although in the Bakersfield area gravel has been used to repair
a few wells.
In the two general practices now being followed, using the reverse circulation
method, the gravel is carried in a mud fluid down the annular space between the casing
and the tubing on which the liner is run and supported during the operation. When
the fluid and gravel reach the liner they continue downward outside the liner. The
gravel builds up around the liner and the carrying fluid enters the liner at the bottom
returning to the surface through the tubing.
Centralizing guides aid m aterially in distributing the pack uniform ly around the
liner.
An adjustable nipple and gravel-m ixing trucks are recent developments.
L . Y . W . C.
 ABSTRACTS. 87 a

250. Drilling with Reverse Oil Circulation in Wider Use. E . J . Beckman. O il W kly,
5.12.38, 91 (13), 19.—Considerable work has been done during the last two years in
developing the reverse circulation method of drilling. W ith this method it is possible
to (i) d rill new wells, (ii) d rill, plug and wash well, (iii) d rill out cement plugs, (iv)
underream while drilling, (v) underream and d rill new holes in salt water disposal
wells, (vi) clean out wells quickly and (vii) perform special jobs such as rolling out
collapsed casing, side tracking, etc. Many advantages are gained by its use.
The method is sim ply rotary d rilling using a pack-off head at the top of the casing
in order to circulate the drilling fluid in the reverse direction of conventional methods.
Accurate logging can be accomplished, and the velocity of the fluid up the d rill
pipe is greater than is possible with the normal method, and a sample of the cuttings
for observation is available in much less time. L . V . W . C.

251. Rotary Conquers M ichigan’s Traverse Lime. N . X . Lyon. Oil W kly, 12.12.38,
92 (1), 17.—The first deep well in Michigan to be drilled by rotary has recently been
completed and has shown a marked saving in d rilling time over cable tools. No
special drilling muds were used, and a density of 9-7 of 0-3 viscosity was carried on
this test. L . V . W . C.

252. Survey of Cementing Jobs to Shut off Salt Water in East Texas. P. Montgomery.
Oil W kly, 12.12.38, 92 (1), 34.—T h is article is an account of the various types of
cementing jobs used to shut off salt water in the east Texas oilfield.
These jobs are classified into four groups with a total of twelve different types or
methods and each is dealt with in some detail.
As a result of this investigation it may be stated that :
1. The method best adapted to the conditions should be used. There is no
one kind of job that can be recommended for any and all wells.
2. In wells making a high percentage of salt water, retainer squeeze and short-
string squeeze jobs are recommended.
3. The retainer squeeze job w ill be most used owing to the light-weight casing
used.
4. The braden head squeeze job has been successful where the cement job is
done shortly after the well has started to make salt water.
5. High-pressure squeeze jobs w ill be much more permanent.
6. Slow setting gel-forming cements have assisted considerably in improving
the method of shutting off salt water. L . V . W . C.

253. Care and Maintenance of Instruments Used on Drilling Rigs. E . L . Decker and
N . L . Dorn. Oil W kly, 19.12.38, 92 (2), 42.— D rillin g crews are unprepared to
handle the instruments necessary to progress w ith the advances made in rotary
drilling technique.
This article brings out the need for care and maintenance routines, and reports
are quoted to show the benefits to be gained from such programmes. Fixed re­
sponsibility, instruction of crews and steps to m inim ize the occurrence and effects
of abuse are recommended. L . V . W . C.

254. Drilling Patents. A . G. Loomis. U .S.P . 2,143,990, 17.1.39. Appl. 27.11.34.

A method of differentially shutting off water in oil wells penetrating both oil and water
without permanently hindering the flow of oil into the well, consisting of the use of
two aqueous solutions, the first containing an acid and the second a reagent, which
on admixture with the acid, reacts to form a water-insoluble, oil-soluble plastic. The
plastic is caused to form in the interior of the water formation.
A. G. Loomis. U .S.P. 2,143,991, 17.1.39. Appl. 27.11.34. A method of shutting
off water in brine-bearing formations which comprises injecting into the formations
in liquid form a water-soluble soap of the polycyclic naphthenate type, the calcium
and magnesium derivatives of which are soluble in oil. The soap is caused to mingle
with the brine in the brine-bearing formations to form insoluble sealing deposits.
J. J. Bishop. U .S.P. 2,144,100, 17.1.39. A ppl. 11.2.36. R otary jar.
 ABSTRACTS.

C C Taylor. U.S.P. 2,144,669, 24.1.39. Appl. 16.3.35. B ailer having means

for opening the valve controlling the discharge port.
J W Pippin U .S.P. 2,144,687, 24.1.39. Appl. 4.1.37. D rillin g apparatus
comnrising a tubular drill stem, an assembly adapted to be lowered through the stem
a n d including a drilling cutter pivoting about a transverse axis. Means provided
for actuating the cutter into transverse position to engage the lower end of the stem
upon upward movement of the assembly.
J.M . Kendall. U . S . P . 2 ,1 4 4 ,7 6 2 , 2 4 .1 .3 9 . Appl. 2 9 . 9 .3 7 . Recording thermometer
for use in boreholes comprising a casing, a plug closing one end of the casing, a heat-
insulating tube, a bulb attached to the free end of the tube, a coil of Bourdon tubing,
having one end closed and the other fixed to the plug, and means for recording the
movement of its free end and a supply of volatile liquid in the bulb.
E. F . Raymond. U.S.P. 2,144,810, 24.1.39. Appl. 27.4.35. Adjusting device
for drilling jars.
G. M. Boulter. U .S.P. 2,144,869, 24.1.39. Appl. 20.3.36. R otary jar.
H . R . Standlee. U .S.P. 2,144,944, 24.1.39. Appl. 18.1.37. W ell swab.
R . Flagg. U .S.P. 2,145,168, 24.1.39. Appl. 21.10.35. Method of treating
threaded pipe connections to obtain a leak-proof lock connection.
W . G. Frenzel. U .S.P. 2,145,170, 24.1.39, 30.1.36. Core barrel.
H . Pennington. U .S.P. 2,145,191, 24.1.39. Appl. 16.7.29. Core barrel which
can be retrieved by means of circulating fluid.
H. Pennington. U .S.P. 2,145,192, 24.1.39. Appl. 12.1.37. Tubing catcher sub
for use with retrievable core barrel. L . V . W . C.

Production.
255. Use of Gas Lift in Handling Small Allowables. S. F. Shaw. O il W kly, 19.12.38,
92 (2), 38.—Gas lift has now become a popular method of handling small allowables
in many fields and entails a low capital expenditure per well for installation of equip­
ment, and reduces the lifting cost to a low point.
In new fields the method is favourable for the following reasons: (1) where high
flowing pressures are available, high fluid levels are found; (2) gas oil ratios obtain
that are at least as high as those originally associated with the oil before the reservoir
was tapped; (3) small allowables require low cost equipment; (4) centralized
machinery may be installed; and (5) infrequency of pulling and other well jobs.
L . V . W . C.

256. Measurements of Rates of Gas Delivery Under Conditions of Non-Critical Flow

and Critical Flow. B. Altman. Oil W kly, 26.12.38, 92 (3), 24.—The instruments
most commonly used in calculating open flow of gas-wells are : pitot tube, choke
nipple, critical flow provers, the back pressure method, funnel meter, orifice well
tester and orifice meters. The first quoted four methods are suitable for critical
flow measurements, whilst the remainder are suitable for non-critical flow. The
funnel meter is better adapted to use on small wells, since the maximum rate of flow
that can be measured with it is 8,000,000 cu. ft. per day.
The uses of each of these instruments is explained in detail, and diagrams are given
of a number of them. L . V . W . C.

257. East Texas Experiment Shows Feasibility of Returning Salt W ater to Producing
Formation. H . H . King. Oil W kly, 28.11.38, 91 (12), 23.— Inp ut wells situated
on the water drive flank of the east Texas field may be used to take the huge volume
of salt water that must be handled in draining this field.
Steps are being taken to instal input wells in order to be prepared when the produc­
 ABSTRACTS. 89 A

tion of brackish water can no longer be accommodated in the surface pits. Facilities
for treating the water to cleanse it of foreign compounds that would clog the exposed
sand have enabled 3000 brls. of water d aily to be returned to the input well already
in existence. The brine flows by gravity from a gun barrel through a baffle tower
and thence to a receiving tank. The water is delivered to a filter box above the tubing
head on the well.
Experiments are now under way to coagulate the fine particles of foreign matter
carried by the brine to accomplish greater precipitation and at a faster rate. Tests
are to be made w ith slaked lim e and, also, chlorine. L . V . W . C.

258. Salt Water Disposal System in the Fitts Pool. J . C. Albright. Petrol. Engr,
December, 1938, 10 (3), 66.—A mutual co-operative association has been formed in
the Fitts Pool to deal with the quantity of salt water being produced in the field.
The first salt water produced was collected in large reservoirs and pools and per­
mitted to soak into the soil and to evaporate into the atmosphere. Fear of polluting
the streams impelled the operators to develop the disposal system.
Core analysis of all the formations indicated that water could be pumped into the
Wilcox and O il Creek sands in large quantity, if filtered.
A gravity drainage system to transport the brine to a central reservoir was next
designed.
About 11,000 brls. of brine per day are pumped at a pressure of about 250 lb. No
pressure build-up has been noticed showing that filtration has clarified the water
sufficiently that the sand face is not plugged to any noticeable extent.
l. y. w. c.
259. Gas Lift Project in East Texas Utilizes Gas from Distillate Well. J . W . Lee and
F . H . Love. Petrol. Engr, December, 1938, 10 (3), 74.—The gas from a wildcat high-
pressure well has been piped to a nearby field for gas-lift purposes. Th is gas, which
would otherwise be v irtu ally useless, is made to produce oil economically.
The gas is separated from the distillate and metered before entering the line. The
well pressure, which is 1000 lb., is reduced to 350 lb. at the injection well by means
of high-pressure regulators. The gas is injected into the annular space between the
tubing and the casing.
Flow valves are an important feature, and from five to eight valves are installed in
the tubing string at intervals ranging from 200 to 350 ft.,the top valve at about the
static fluid level. L . V . W . C.

260. Effects of Surface Phenom ena on the Production of Oil. H . K . Livingston.

Petrol. Engr, January, 1939, 10 (4), 84.—T h is article describes an investigation of
surface phenomena of liquids and solids, and shows that interfacial tensions appreciably
affect the rate of movement of fluids in the reservoir. L . V . W . C.

261. Determination of the Potential Productivity of Oil-bearing Formations by Re­

sistivity Measurements. M. M artin, G. H . Murray and W . J . Gillingham. Geophys.,
1938, 3 (3), 258-272.—The resistivity of an oil-sand depends on the amount of saline
water in the sand. I t has been observed that this m ay be as high as 3 0 % , even in
the case of a sand producing pure oil. R esistivity measurements were made in the
laboratory on sands in which there were varying proportions of salt water and oil.
It was found that the curve relating electrical resistance to oil content did not rise
steeply until the percentage of oil was approximately 8 0 % . Thus, rich oil-sands
may have a comparatively low resistance and, furthermore, large variations in re­
sistance are associated with only small changes in oil saturation. This relationship
enables one to obtain a measure of the oil saturation of a sand, provided its true
resistivity can be measured. In electrical logging apparent resistivity is obtained
and this is not sufficiently accurate for the present purpose. B y making measure­
ments opposite the same bed with successively increased electrode spacing, apparent
resistivity m ay be plotted against electrode spacing. From the curve so obtained
the true resistivity of the bed m ay be obtained. Experience has shown that only
a few of these curves need to be drawn for a given district in order to determine the
G
 ABSTRACTS.
90 a
best electrode spacing. A ll other determinations of true resistivity in the district
are then single m e a s u r e m e n t s at that spacing. The method can be used only for beds
of greater thickness than 10 -15 ft. c-

262 Application of Physico-chemical Principles to the Investigation of the Properties

nf ¿neks Part III Comparison of Methods and Conclusions. A. H . Nissan, C. E .
Wood L V W Clark and A. W . Nash. J . In stn Petrol. Tech., 1938, 24, 585-597—
The two methods for determining porosity described in Parts I and I I are compared
and the overall accuracy of each method is calculated and demonstrated experimentally.
D . L . S.

263 Gas Lock Protective Devices and Mobile Rotary Pumps Used on K-M -A Gathering
Systems J. C. Albright. Oil W kly, 2.1.39, 92 (4), 21.—The design of the gathering
system of the Texas Pipe Line Co. in the K -M -A field of north Texas and the use of
mobile rotary type pipe line pumps has enabled the Company to move a much greater
amount of oil than is ordinarily possible.
A ll pipe line companies at K -M -A have built gravity systems as far as practicable,
but because of the gassy characteristic of the oil, oil firms are faced with gas locking
in their systems. In addition air in the feeder lines from the tank batteries is as
troublesome as the gas.
The conventional method of handling oil is to allow gravity to move the oil as far
as practicable. A t the station side of the lines pumps are frequently used that pull
a high vacuum on the oil in an attempt to accelerate the movement of oil. K -M -A
crude makes this almost impossible, for when this is attempted the oil invariably
breaks into gas pockets. Automatic air release and vacuum valves have been installed.
By slowing down the permanently installed pump and by having a slight head on the
intake the oil would move faster from the batteries than if a good vacuum was pulled.
Mobile rotary pump units have been developed. The pump is mounted on a light
maintenance truck, power being taken from the transmission take-off of the truck.
L . V . W . C.

264. High Pressure Gas From Another Field Flows East Texas W ells. Anon. Oil
Wkly, 2.1.39, 92 (4), 26.—High pressure gas is being transported a distance of about
ten miles in the east Texas field for the purpose of gas-lifting production. A six-
mile branch is run to other properties where four different makes of gas lift valves or
intermitters were tried in a number of wells.
The gas from the gas well had an in itial pressure of 2770 lb. at the well and is carried
to the other properties at 750 lb. after it has been passed through a separator.
A recent survey shows that over 100 wells are now operating on gas lift from this
source. L . V . W . C.

265. Fluid Level Indicator is Useful in East Texas Field Operations. G. Weber. Oil
Oas J ., 15.12.38, 37 (31), 44.—A number of new methods for testing and equipping
wells in which natural flow has ceased have been introduced in the east Texas field
due to the increased use of artificial lift. Knowledge of fluid levels, bottom hole
pressure, build-up and other characteristics are needed in fitting the well for best
results in secondary production.
The new procedure employs the use of sound wave reflections to determine the depth
of the fluid level in the well tested.
Equipment for conducting tests of this type comprises a heavy duty well-head
connection incorporating a gun and a sensitive microphone, an amplifier equipped
with tuning and filtering provisions and a pen recorder.
Since speed of sound varies in different wells, depending upon the density and
characteristics of the gas medium in the column, depth determinations are greatly
simplified by rising the tubing collar reflections for depth calibrations. The average
tubing length is derived from well records, and by direct measurement on the ribbon,
o a length including a certain number of tubing collar reflections, the basis for the
calculations is established. y \ y (j

266. Magnolia Water Project Represents Advance in Disposal Technique. P. Reed.

i (is , 22.12.38, 37 (32), 30.—Several unique features are included in Magnolia
 ABSTRACTS. 91 A

P e tro le u m C o .’s s a l t w a t e r d is p o s a l p r o je c t in t h e F i t t s P o r t , O k lo h o m a . A m o n g
th e m o re i m p o r t a n t a r e : (i) a m p le p ro v is io n s fo r s e p a r a tin g o il fro m b rin e b efo re i t
reach es t h e t r e a t i n g p l a n t ; (ii) p r o v is io n s fo r c le a n in g lin e s b y p u m p in g sc ra p e rs
th ro u g h t h e lin e s w h ile o p e r a tin g u n d e r p re s s u re o r b y g r a v ity flo w ; (iii) g a th e rin g
lin es w ith p r o v is io n s fo r in c r e a s in g d e liv e r y c a p a c i t y ; (iv) t h e p ip e in th e g a th e rin g
lin es is o f m a te r ia l t h a t w ill n o t b e c o rro d e d b y e ith e r s a lt w a te r o r t h e s o i l ; (v) th e
lin e is m a in ta in e d a t a d e fin ite g r a d ie n t th r o u g h o u t ; (vi) a d d itio n a l c o n n e c tio n s m a y
be m a d e a t a n y tim e ; (v ii) r e s e r v o ir s to r a g e is m u c h sm a lle r th a n u s u a l ; (v iii) t r e a t ­
in g p l a n t is f l e x i b le ; (ix ) th e d is p o s a l w ell w ill t a k e la rg e q u a n titie s of w a te r u n d e r
low p re ssu re s a n d s h o u ld c o n tin u e t o d o so f o r a lo n g p e r i o d ; a n d (x) th e e q u ip m e n t
is su c h t h a t a h ig h p e r c e n ta g e c a n b e s a lv a g e d w h e n n e c e s sa ry . L . V . W . C.

267. P roduction P a ten ts. C. T. A n d e rs o n . U .S .P . 2,143,836, 17.1.39. A p p l.

30.8.37. G as a n c h o r .

G. T . H u m p h rey . U .S .P . 2,1 4 3 ,9 4 5 , 17.1.39. A p p l. 2.11.36. C ra n k fo r w ell p u m p .

B . H . S to n e . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 3,962, 17.1.39. A p p l. 14.12.36. S u b te r ra n e a n flu id

flow m e a s u rin g d e v ic e , in w h ic h p a c k in g m e a n s a r e a v a ila b le t o p ro d u c e non -flo w a n d
o p en -to -flo w a r e a s . P l u r a l i t y o f m e te r s w ith in th e d e v ic e t o m e a s u re t h e flow of
flu id in to t h e w ell fro m e a c h o p e n -to -flo w a r e a .

T . S. P a rk . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 4 ,0 2 6 , 17.1.39. A p p l. 6.2.36. W e ll p a c k e r.

W . F . C ox. U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 4,045, 17.1.39. A p p l. 16.10.36. W e ll p u m p .

J . C. H e w i t t , J r . , a n d V . E . K u s te r . U .S .P . 2,144,061, 17.1.39. A p p l. 15.2.35.

A w e ll-su rv e y in g a p p a r a t u s c o m p ris in g a c a tc h e r p la c e d in a fix ed p o s itio n w ith a
w h ip sto c k fix ed in k n o w n o r ie n ta tio n w ith t h e p ip e . A w e ll-su rv e y in g in s tr u m e n t is
low ered in to t h e d i i l l p ip e to a fix ed p o s itio n o f r e s t w ith th e c a tc h e r . M ean s p ro v id e d
fo r in d ic a tin g t h e o r ie n te d p o s itio n o f t h e in s tr u m e n t w ith in th e casin g .

C. C. C ric k m e r. U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 4 ,1 4 4 , 17.1.39. A p p l. 5.10.35. M ean s fo r r a is in g

liq u id fro m w ells.

A. J . P e n ic k a n d K . T . P e n ic k . U .S .P . 2 ,1 44,227, 17.1.39. A p p l. 14.2.36. C om ­

b in a tio n w e ll-h e a d a n d h a n g e r .

A. J . P e n ic k a n d K . T . P e n ic k . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 4,228, 17.1.39. A p p l. 16.7.36. C o n tro l

v alv e m e c h a n is m fo r w e ll-h e a d s.

J . R . D a v id s o n . U .S .P . 2,144,403, 17.1.39. A p p l. 28.10.38. O il sa v e r.

F. A . T h a h e ld . U .S .P . 2,1 4 4 ,4 2 0 , 17.1.39. A p p l. 21.3.36. W e ll p a c k e r.

A. A n d erso n . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 4 ,4 2 2 , 17.1.39. A p p l. 7.8.35. S u rv e y a p p a r a t u s fo r

ta k in g p h o to g ra p h s o f th e h o le a t a n y d e s ire d p o in t.

F. S to n e a n d G . S. K n o x . U .S .P . 2,144,818, 24.1.39. A p p l. 23.5.36. W eU -pipe p lu g .

C .C C rick m er. U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 4 ,8 3 3 ,2 4 .1 .3 9 . A p p l. 2.11.36. W e ll flow ing a p p a r a tu s .

D. H a n e s . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 4,842, 2 4 .1 .2 9 . A p p l. 27.4.37. A p a c k e r a d a p te d t o b e
used in a b o re h o le a n d m e a n s fo r s e t ti n g a n d r e le a s in g i t in a w ell.

B . N a y . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 5 ,1 9 0 , 2 4 .1 .3 9 . A p p l. 24.5.38. S w iv el jo in t b a r d o il re m o v e r
fo r t u b in g s tr in g s . 1-. V . W . C.

Transport and Storage.

268. Oil M eters. L . G . E . B ig n e ll. O il Gas J ., 5.1.39, 37 (34), 39.— O il m e te r s fo r
m e te rin g c ru d e o il a n d i t s p r o d u c ts h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d w ith in th e p a s t few y e a rs.
T h ese c a n b e g r o u p e d i n t o tw o g e n e ra l ty p e s a n d classified a s q u a n t i t y m e te r s o r r a te -
of-flow m e te r s a n d r a t e m e te r s .
I n t h e q u a n t i t y - m e te r cla ss t h e r e a r e tw o ty p e s — p o s itiv e m e te rs a n d in fe re n tia l
 abstra cts.

m eters I n th e firs t t h e flow is d iv id e d a u to m a ti c a l ly in to s e p a r a te is o la te d p a r t s

e q u a l b y w eig h t o r b y v o lu m e . I n t h e in f e r e n tia l m e t e r t h e flow is “ in f e rr e d ” fro m
th e a c tio n of th e s tr e a m o n th e p r im a r y e le m e n t o f t h e m e te r .
C u rre n t m e te rs m a y also be d iv id e d in to tw o k in d s , t h e fre e im p e lle r t y p e a n d th e
confined im p eller ty p e . I n th e firs t class t h e im p e lle r is p la c e d in t h e c e n tr e o f th e
cro ss-sectio n al a r e a of th e c o n d u it, w h ils t in t h e se c o n d t h e c a s in g is so a r r a n g e d t h a t
a ll th e liq u id , a f te r p a ssin g th r o u g h s tr a ig h te n in g v a n e s , is fo rc e d th r o u g h t h e im p e lle r.
T h ere is also a w eig h in g t y p e o f m e te r . V o lu m e -ty p e m e te r s m a y b e classified
in to m u ta tin g -d is c , o sc illa tin g -p is to n r o t a r y a n d p is to n m e te r s . L . V . W . C.

269. Correlation of an E lectrolytic Corrosion T est w ith th e A ctu al Corrosiveness of

Soils. I- A . D en iso n a n d R . B . D a m ie lle . Bur. Stand. J . Res., W ash., 1938, 21 (6 ),
819-830. T h e e le c tro ly tic t e s t fo r m e a s u rin g t h e c o rro s iv e n e s s o f s o ils c o n s is ts in
d e te rm in in g t h e p o la r iz a tio n v o lta g e a t v a r io u s c u r r e n t d e n s itie s o f a sp e c ia lly d e ­
sig n ed cell in w h ich t h e e le c tro d e s a re s te e l a n d t h e e le c tr o ly te is t h e so il u n d e r te s t.
T h e co rro siv en ess o f so ils a lo n g a 128-m ile s e c tio n o f a p ip e - lin e s y s te m w a s e s tim a te d
fro m d a t a o n th e o ccu rren ce of le a k s a n d le n g th o f lin e r e c o n d itio n e d a n d fro m th e
r e su lts of th e e le c tro ly tic c o rro s io n t e s t.
I t a p p e a rs t h a t th is co rro siv e n e ss d e c re a s e s a s d r a in a g e im p ro v e s a n d increases
as th e soils b eco m e h e a v ie r in t e x t u r e .
I t w as fo u n d t h a t a r o u g h lin e a r c o r re la tio n e x is te d b e tw e e n t h e a c tu a l c o rro siv e­
n ess of th e so ils a n d t h e r e s u lts of th e la b o r a to r y e le c tr o ly tic t e s t . D . L . S.

Crude Petroleum.
270. Chem ical and R efining Study of som e W yom in g B lack Oils. H . M . T h o m e a n d
W . M u rp h y . V .S. Bur. M ines. Rep. Invest. No. 3423. N o v e m b e r , 1938.— I n general
th e se cru d e o ils a re c h a ra c te riz e d b y t h e i r h ig h s u lp h u r , h ig h a s p h a l t a n d lo w gasoline
c o n te n t, a n d a re c a lle d b la c k o ils b e c a u s e o f th e s e p r o p e r tie s a n d t h e i r c o lo u r. C rudes
fro m O reg o n B a sin , D a lla s -D e rb y a n d G a r la n d F ie ld s h a v e th e fo llo w in g p ro p e rtie s :
sp . g r. 0-924—0-940, s u lp h u r c o n te n t 2 -8 9 -3 -2 5 % , v is c o s ity S .U . a t 100° F . 260-530
secs., p o u r p t . b elo w — 5° F ., c a rb o n re s id u e 8 -0 -1 0 -2 % . T h e d e m a n d fo r t h e crudes
is a t p re s e n t la rg e ly c o n tro lle d b y t h e r e q u ire m e n ts o f a s p h a l t a n d r o a d o il p ro d u c ts
in th e m a r k e t te r r ito r y . W it h a v ie w t o in c re a s in g p o ss ib le o u t le t s f o r th e crudes,
c ra c k in g s tu d ie s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c te d a t t h e L a ra m ie s t a ti o n o n t o p p e d c ru d e s u n d e r
d iffe re n t c o n d itio n s of p re ss u re a n d te m p e r a tu r e , a n d t h e re fin in g o f lig h t d istilla te s
t o m a r k e t s ta n d a r d s e x a m in e d . T h e s tr a ig h t- r u n n a p h th a s p r o d u c e d b y to p p in g
(1 0 -1 8 % y ield ) a re d e fic ie n t in lig h t f ra c tio n s , h ig h in s u lp h u r c o n te n t a n d low in
o c ta n e r a t i n g (3 1 -3 4 ). T h e y th e r e fo r e r e q u ire b le n d in g w i t h s u ita b le n a p h th a s or
to b e “ re fo rm e d ” o r c ra c k e d a n d s u b s e q u e n tly t r e a t e d . C ra c k in g o f t h e to p p e d
c ru d e in a sp e cial la b o r a to r y b a t c h e q u ip m e n t y ie ld e d n a p h t h a s h a v in g o c ta n e ra tin g s
of 4 8 -6 1 , a c c o rd in g to th e te m p e r a tu r e a n d p r e s s u re u tiliz e d , o f g o o d v o la tility b u t
c o n ta in in g a b o u t 1 % o f s u lp h u r in a ll cases. O p tim u m y ie ld o f c ra c k e d n a p h th a
b a s e d o n c ru d e is a b o u t 4 5 % . R e fin in g b y a c id t o s u lp h u r c o n te n t o f 0 -1 % req u ires
e x cessiv e q u a n titie s o f a c id a n d lo w ers t h e o c ta n e n u m b e r o f t h e c r a c k e d gasolines
a p p re c ia b ly . A m o re c o m p le te in v e s tig a tio n o f t h e re fin in g p r o b le m is p la n n e d .
A p p ro x im a te ly o n e t h i r d of th e s u lp h u r in t h e c r u d e w a s c o n v e r te d to H 2S, w hich
m a y b e re m o v e d a n d c o n v e r te d t o a c id . C o n s id e ra b le q u a n ti t ie s o f n o n -co n d en sib le
g ases w ere p ro d u c e d , a n d t h e y ie ld of co k e w a s u s u a lly a b o u t 25—3 0 % . T h e su lp h u r
c o n te n t of th e co k e w as u s u a lly a b o u t 5 % o r m o re , w h ic h w ill c a u s e l i t t l e d ifficu lty
fo r fu el p u rp o se s , b u t m a y b e d e tr im e n ta l fo r c e r ta in m e ta llu r g ic a l p u rp o s e s . A s a
r e s u lt o f th e w o rk so f a r c o n d u c te d i t is p r o p o s e d t o i n v e s tig a te t h e a l t e r n a ti v e m e th o d
o f p ro d u c in g sp e cificatio n a s p h a lts fro m t h e c r u d e s a n d c r a c k in g t h e in te rm e d ia te
d istilla te s . T h e c ru d e s a r e p a r t ic u la r l y w ell s u ite d t o t h e m a n u f a c tu r e o f road-
b in d in g m a te ria ls a n d o th e r a s p h a ltic p r o d u c ts o n a c c o u n t o f t h e i r h ig h a s p h a lt
c o n te n t. p

271. Refining Value of Foreign Crudes. G . E g lo ff, J . C. M o re ll a n d G . B . Z im m e rm a n .

J 1 29.12.38, 37 (33), 74.— A n a ly s e s a n d y ie ld s fro m l a b o r a to r y d is tilla tio n of
th e fo llow ing cru d e s a re g iv e n :
 ABSTRACTS. 93 A
(1) P o z a R ic a , M ex ico.
(2) C o lo m b ia (h ig h c o ld t e s t a n d lo w c o ld te s t) .
(3) T u r n e r V a lle y (44-0° a n d 49-2° A .P .I .) a n d W a in w r ig h t, A lb e r ta .
(4) O il f ro m A lb e r ta T a r S a n d s .
(5) C o m o d o ro , A r g e n tin a .
(6 ) G b ely (E g b e ll), C z e c h o slo v a k ia .
(7) L is p e i a n d a 5 0 /5 0 b le n d o f L is p e i a n d B u k k s z e k i, H u n g a r y .
(8 ) D h u lia n , B r i t . I n d i a . C. L G

272. Laboratory M ethod for E v a lu a tin g Crude Oil, w ith Special R eference to Trinidad
Crude. R . G . J o h n s t o n e a n d R . P a lm e r . J . In stn Petrol. Tech., 1938, 24, 6 0 5 -
620.— A l a b o r a to r y p r o c e d u r e is d e s c rib e d fo r e v a lu a tin g c ru d e o il in te r m s of th r e e
fra c tio n s — g a s o lin e , g a s o il a n d fu e l o il. D , l . S.

273. P aten t on Crude Oil. C. S . C erf. U .S .P . 2,140,574, 20 .1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 16.8.37.

P ro c e ss o f d e s a ltin g c r u d e o il. \ y g p; q .

Gas.
274. P aten t on Gas. D e D ir e c tie n V a n d e S ta a ts m ijn e n a n d C. O tto & Co. E .P .
497,330, 14.12.38. A p p l. 14.6.37. R e m o v a l o f H 2S fro m g ases b y m e a n s of a n
am m o n ia c a l s o lu tio n c o n ta in in g F e c o m p o u n d s , w h ic h is r e g e n e r a te d b y m e a n s of
0 2 a f t e r w a s h in g . W . S. E . C.

Cracking.
275. 85% of G asoline of 81 O ctane (num ber) from Gas Oil. W . T . Z ie g e n h a in . Oil
Gas ./., 8.12.38, 37 (30), 23.— A s e m i-c o m m e rc ia l sc ale c a ta ly tic c ra c k in g u n i t in
o p e ra tio n a t t h e r e s e a rc h p l a n t o f t h e U n iv e r s a l O il P r o d u c ts Co. c a n p r o d u c e 8 5 %
of g aso lin e o f 81 o c ta n e n u m b e r fro m M id -C o n tin e n t g a s o il o f A .P .I . g r a v ity 36-7°,
I.B .P . 407° F ., F .B .P . 750° F ., V ise . S .U . a t 100° F . 40 secs. T h e g aso lin e p ro d u c e d
is sta b le in r e s p e c t o f c o lo u r a n d o c ta n e r a ti n g a n d h a s a v a p o u r p re s s u re o f 10 lb.
T h e y ie ld o f g a s o lin e is b a s e d u p o n a re c y c le o p e r a tio n , a n d in c lu d e s t h a t o b ta in e d
fro m c a ta ly tic p o ly m e r iz a tio n o f t h e c ra c k e d gases. T h e p l a n t c o n s ists e s se n tia lly
of a h e a te r , tw o b a n k s o f c a t a l y s t r e a c to r s , a n d a u to m a tic c o n tro ls fo r a lte r n a tin g
th e flow o f h e a t e d o il firs t th r o u g h o n e h a lf o f t h e r e a c to r s a n d t h e n t h r o u g h th e o th e r
h a lf w h ils t t h e c a t a ly s t in t h e f irs t is b e in g r e a c tiv a te d . R e a c tiv a tio n is a c c o m p lish e d
b y p u rg in g t h e r e a c to r s o f o il v a p o u r s , a n d b u r n in g o ff t h e c a rb o n w h ic h co lle c ts on
th e c a ta ly s t b y p a s s in g a p r e d e te r m in e d a m o u n t o f a ir th r o u g h t h e tu b e m a in ta in in g
a m o d e ra te te m p e r a t u r e o f c o m b u s tio n . T w e n ty ty p e s o f c h a rg in g s to c k s , ra n g in g
fro m re sid u e s t o g a s o ils, h a v e b e e n in v e s tig a te d i n se le c tin g th e m o s t p ra c tic a b le
c a ta ly s t w h ic h sh o w e d p r a c tic a lly c o m p le te re c o v e ry o n r e a c tiv a tio n o v e r lo n g p e rio d s
of tim e in la b o r a to r y te s ts . H ig h ly p a ra ffin ic o v e r h e a d d is tilla te s a r e t h e m o s t
su ita b le feed s to c k s . R . A. E.

276. D eterm in ation of Y ield per P ass, Tim e of Treatm ent and “ In Situ ” D en sity and
Instrum entality for their Control in Com m ercial Cracking U n its. R . L . R u d e , R . D .
J e n k in s a n d C. B a rn e s . Refiner, N o v e m b e r, 1 9 3 8 ,17 (11), 583.— I t is n o w re c o g n iz e d
t h a t th e tim e - te m p e r a tu r e r e la tio n s h ip is th e m o s t im p o r ta n t o f t h e c o n d itio n s g o v e rn in g
th e y ie ld o f a c r a c k in g u n i t a n d t h a t t h e p r o p e r tie s o f th e m a te r ia l in a n y se c tio n of
th e u n it m u s t b e k n o w n w i th a m in im u m o f d e la y . A c h a n g e in p ro p e rtie s n e c e s s ita te s
a c h an g e in p l a n t c o n d itio n s if t h e p r o p e r tie s o f t h e fin al p r o d u c t a re to re m a in u n ­
ch an g ed . I t h a s b e e n e s ta b lis h e d t h a t t h e d e n s ity o f th e m a te r ia l c a n b e u s e d a s a n
a c c u ra te g u id e o f i t s r e le v a n t p r o p e r tie s , a n d in s tr u m e n ts h a v e b e e n d e v is e d f o r th e
d e te r m in a tio n o f d e n s itie s “ in s i t u , ” t h a t is c o n tin u o u s ly a n d w ith o u t re c o u rse to
th e w ith d r a w a l o f s a m p le s. T h e re is t h u s n o ti m e la g in th e p r o d u c tio n o f in f o rm a tio n .
T h e d e n s ity m e a s u rin g d e v ic e is d e s c rib e d in g r e a t d e ta il. I t c o n s is ts o f a n orifice
g4 A ABSTRACTS.

co n n ected to a d iffe re n tia l h e a d m e te r . T h e w e ig h t r a t e of flow o f a flu id p a s s in g

th ro u g h a p ip e a n d orifice of k n o w n d e s ig n c a n b e e x p r e s s e d t h u s :
Qjyi __
IF = 0 0997 v f — = V dh„

w here IF = r a t e of flow in lb . p e r se c., C = co effic ie n t o f d is c h a rg e , D = d ia m . of

orifice in in ., 1 - = a p p r o a c h f a c to r, hu = d if fe r e n tia l h e a d in in . w a te r , d =
’ Vi —jS1
d e n s ity of th e flow ing flu id , in l b ./ f t .3. T h e tim e o f d e te n ti o n o f a flu id in a zo n e of
k n o w n d im en sio n s c a n be c a lc u la te d th u s
md . V
t = c
IF
w h ere t = tim e of d e te n tio n , md = m e a n d e n s ity o f t h e flu id , V = v o l. o f t h e zone,
IF = w eig h t r a t e o f flow a n d c = c o n s ta n t. H . G.

277. Cracking P ennsylvanian Gas Oil for 90 O.N. B len d in g V alu e G asoline. A . L.
F o ste r. N at. Petrol. News, 14.12.38, 30 (50), R . 5 9 4 .— I n t h e c r a c k in g o f P e n n s y l­
v a n ia n g as oil b y t h e T ru e V a p o u r P h a s e P ro c e ss c o n s id e ra b le im p ro v e m e n ts in yield
a n d o c ta n e n u m b e r h a v e b e e n a c h ie v e d b y r e c y c lin g t h e g a s d is c h a rg e d b y th e co m ­
p re sso r-c o o le r s y s te m a n d m a d e u p o f g a s fro m t h e g a s o lin e a c c u m u la to r a n d sta b iliz e r
to p . P a r t of th is g a s is p a s s e d in to t h e c y cle g a s h e a t e r a n d p a r t is s e n t th r o u g h a
“ flash g as ” h e a te r co il in to th e flash d r u m to a id in t h e v a p o r iz a tio n o f t h e charge.
T h ere is in d ire c t ev id e n c e t h a t a n a p p re c ia b le p r o p o r tio n o f t h i s g a s is p o ly m eriz ed .
T h e to t a l y ie ld is 6 7 % o n t h e g a s o il, w h ic h b r in g s t h e t o t a l y ie ld f ro m t h e c ru d e to
8 2 % . T h e fin al re fo rm e d p r o d u c t h a s a n o c ta n e n u m b e r o f 75 a n d a b le n d in g o ctan e
v a lu e of 90. T h e ra w g aso lin e is s w e e te n e d in a c o n tin u o u s d o c to r t r e a t e r , w ashed
w ith w a te r, so d iu m b is u lp h ite s o lu tio n , w a te r a g a in , f ilte r e d th r o u g h a s a n d b e d an d
fin ally tr e a t e d w ith in h ib ito r. T h e p l a n t p ro d u c e s s o m e 820,000 c u . f t . d a ily of
p o ly m eriz ab le h y d r o c a rb o n s , w h ich , so f a r, a r e n o t u tiliz e d e x c e p t, in p a r t , a s fuel.
H . G.

278. P atent on Cracking. E . J . H o u d r y . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 1 ,1 8 5 , 27.12.38. A ppl.

27.4.35. P ro c e ss of re fo rm in g n a p h t h a in o rd e r to in c re a s e t h e a n ti- k n o c k q u a lity .
W . S. E . C.

Hydrogenation.
279. H ydrogenation as a Step Towards Italian Oil A u tarch y. A n o n . W orld Petrol.,
1939, 10 (1), 56.— A h y d r o g e n a tio n p l a n t h a s b e e n p u t in to o p e r a tio n a t L ivorno,
I t a l y , a se co n d is u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n a t B a ri a n d a t h i r d m a y b e a d d e d l a t e r to h an d le
A lb a n ia n c ru d e oil. I t is p ro p o s e d e v e n tu a lly t o s u b s t i t u t e t o a la rg e e x t e n t im p o rte d
I r a q oil b y th is c ru d e a n d o ils fro m I t a l i a n a s p h a lts , sh a le s a n d lig n ite ta r s . The
L iv o rn o re fin e ry also c o n ta in s d is tilla tio n u n i t s , a c ra c k in g u n it a n d a s o lv e n t tre a tin g
p la n t. T h e h y d r o g e n a tio n u n i t o p e r a te s u n d e r t h e B e rg iu s p a t e n t s g iv in g a y ield of
8 0% of g aso lin e fro m th e A lb a n ia c ru d e , w h ic h is h ig h ly s u lp h u r o u s a n d y ie ld s only
12% of s tr a ig h t- ru n g aso lin e . I t w ill also b e u s e d t o p r o d u c e 60,0 0 0 to n s o f high
q u a lity lu b r ic a n ts a n d in a d d itio n is o -o c ta n e . T h e tw o p l a n t s w ill p ro d u c e 240,000
to n s of a u to m o b ile a n d a v ia tio n g aso lin e— h a lf t h e n a t io n a l c o n s u m p tio n — b u t this
m a y e v e n tu a lly b e in c re a se d to 400,000 to n s .
S to ra g e fa c ilitie s a t L iv o rn o a re e q u ip p e d w ith a n itr o g e n c ir c u la tio n s y s te m for
fire p ro te c tio n , w h ile th e e le c tric p o w e r p l a n t u tiliz e s t h e e n e rg y p r o d u c e d th r o u g h the
bo racic soffioni of L a rd e re llo . T h e c o m p le tio n of t h e V e n ice a n d T rie s te refineries
a n d th e c u rta ilin g of d o m e s tic c o n s u m p tio n o f g a s o lin e t o 340 ,0 0 0 to n s p e r ann u m
en ab les c o n sid e ra b le q u a n titie s to b e e x p o r te d . T h e p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c tio n of the
A lb a n ia w ells is g iv en a s 120,000 to n s a n d t h a t f ro m d o m e s tic l ig n ite a s 170,000 tons,
a n d t h a t fro m ca lc a re o u s a s p h a lts , b itu m e n s a n d s c h is ts a s 100,000 to n s . Ita lia n
cru d es y ield 5000 to n s o f g a so lin e , w h ile a q u a n t i t y e q u iv a le n t t o 12,000 to n s is
o b ta in a b le b y th e u se of n a tu r a l g as, a n d a q u a n t i t y e q u iv a le n t t o 85,000 to n s by
 ABSTBACTS. 95 A

the u se o f so lid fu e ls. P r o d u c tio n of a lc o h o l fo r c o m p u lso ry a d m ix tu r e w ith g aso lin e

h as b een su sp en d ed o w in g to a n i n a d e q u a te s u g a r- b e e t c ro p a n d its" lo w su g a r
co n ten t. B e n z o l p r o d u c tio n h a s b e e n in c re a s e d fro m 17,000 to n s in 1937 to 22,000
to n s in 1938. I t a l i a n im p o r ts o f re fin e d p r o d u c ts w ere re d u c e d b y 4 0 -6 % d u r in g 1938,
th e I t a l i a n re fin e rie s b e in g n o w c a p a b le o f m e e tin g t h e e n tir e g aso lin e d e m a n d , 6 5 %
of th e a g r ic u ltu r a l a n d illu m in a tio n o il, 7 5 % o f t h e lu b r ic a tin g o il a n d 1 0 0 % o f th e
w h ite s p ir it, t r a n s f o r m e r o il a n d a s p h a l t d e m a n d . C. L . G.

280. M ean Pressure Syn th esis of Paraffins from CO and H w ith a Co Catalyst. F .
F isc h e r a n d H . P ic h le r . Brennst.-Chemie, 1.2.39, 20 (3), 4 1 -4 8 .— H y d r o g e n a tio n
te s ts h a v e b e e n c a r r ie d o u t a t te m p e r a tu r e s a n d p re s s u re s in te r m e d ia te b e tw e e n
th o se o f t h e n o r m a l p r e s s u re g a s o lin e s y n th e s is a n d th o s e of t h e h ig h -p re s su re m e th a n o l
sy n th e sis. T h is “ m e a n p r e s s u re s y n th e s is ” d iffers b a s ic a lly fro m h i th e r to k n o w n
p ro cesses. S im ila r t o t h e g a s o lin e s y n th e s is CO a n d H a r e c o n s u m e d a t a r a t i o o f
a p p r o x im a te ly 1 : 2. U s in g a Co c a ta ly s t o p tim u m c o n d itio n s a re 160—200° C., a n d
4 -2 0 a tm . M a x im u m y ie ld is o b ta in e d n e a r t h e lo w e r te m p e r a tu r e lim it W it h t h e
sa m e Co c a t a ly s t a s u s e d in t h e g a s o lin e s y n th e s is o p tim u m te m p e r a tu re s of th e m e a n
p re ss u re s y n th e s is a r e lo w e r. A t t h e p re s s u re s p r e v a ilin g in t h e m e a n p re s s u re
sy n th e s is a n d u s in g Co c a ta ly s ts , m a x im u m y ie ld o f so lid p a ra ffin , w h ic h is t h e m a in
p ro d u c t o f th e r e a c tio n , a n d a lso m a x im u m t o t a l y ie ld , is o b ta in e d . A t th e sa m e tim e
c a ta ly s t life w a s lo n g e s t. E x c e e d in g t h e p re s s u re r e g io n o f th e m e a n p re s s u re s y n th e s is
r e s u lte d in n o a d v a n ta g e . O p e r a tin g i n o n e s ta g e w ith th e sa m e c a ta ly s t a n d w ith o u t
c a ta ly s t r e a c t i v a t i o n a s o lid p a r a f fin y ie ld 6 -7 tim e s t h a t o f t h e g a so lin e s y n th e s is
w as o b ta in e d , p a ra ffin s b o ilin g o v e r 450° C. w e re u p t o tw e n ty -fiv e tim e s m o re , w h e re a s
t o t a l y ie ld o f liq u id a n d so lid h y d r o c a r b o n s w a s 2 5 - 3 0 % h ig h e r. T h e life o f th e
c a ta ly s t w a s s ix tim e s lo n g e r t h a n in th e n o r m a l p re s s u re s y n th e s is .
I t is c o n c lu d e d t h a t , c o n t r a r y t o p re v io u s o p in io n , h ig h m o le c u la r h y d ro c a rb o n s
d o n o t p o ssess a g r e a te r te n d e n c y to re d u c e th e a c ti v it y o f Co c a ta ly s ts . T h e m o re
ra p id d e c lin e o f c a t a l y s t a c t i v i t y in t h e n o rm a l p re ss u re s y n th e s is is e x p la in e d b y th e
fo rm a tio n o f m in u te q u a n ti ti e s o f c o m p o u n d s o f a d v e rs e effect o n th e c a ta ly s t, w h e re a s
su c h c o m p o u n d s a r e m a d e h a r m le s s in t h e m e a n p re s s u re sy n th e s is b y th e m o re
effectiv e h y d r o g e n a tio n . L. R.

281. P atent on H yd rogen ation . G . W . J o h n s o n . E .P . 497,607, 22.12.38. A p p l.

21.7.37. M e c h a n ic a l s e p a r a tio n o f so lid s u b s ta n c e s fro m o il re sid u e s fo rm e d b y th e
d e s tru c tiv e h y d r o g e n a tio n o r c r a c k in g o f c a rb o n a c e o u s s u b s ta n c e s in th e p re se n c e of
d ilu e n ts b o ilin g b e tw e e n 160° a n d 250° C., a n d e ffe c tin g m e c h a n ic a l s e p a ra tio n b y
filterin g o r c e n trifu g in g . W . S. E . C.

Polymerization.
282. P atents on P olym erization . M . W . P e r rin , E . W . F a w c e tt, J . G. P a to n , E . G.
W illia m , a n d I . C . I . L td . E .P . 497,643, 22.1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 22.4.37. I n te rp o ly m e r iz a tio n
of e th y le n e w i t h o rg a n ic c o m p o u n d s , e.g., p ro p y le n e , iso b u ty le n e , p e n te n e o r iso-
p e n te n e , a t 100—400° C. u n d e r 1500 a t m . p r e s s u re in th e p re se n c e o f free o x y g e n o r
b en zo y l p e ro x id e , t o p r o d u c e h ig h m o l. w t. c o m p o u n d s .

W . B . P lu m m e r. U .S .P . R e is s u e 20,950, 13.12.38. A p p l. 7.2.36 (o rig in a l U .S .P .

1,991,353, 15.2.35). P o ly m e r iz a tio n o f u n s a t u r a t e d g ases to in c re a se th e d e f in e
c o n te n t a n d s u b je c tin g t o re c y c lin g a n d p o ly m e riz in g tr e a t m e n t . V i. S. E . C.

Refining and Refinery Plant.

283. Control of W ax D istillate Q uality. E . A . B u rc h . N at. Petrol. N ew s , 30.11.38,
30 (48), R . 582.— T h e a n a ly tic a l m e th o d s a p p lie d t o th e q u a n t i ta t iv e s e p a ra tio n of
w a x from o il—w a x m ix tu r e s in t h e c o n tr o l o f so lv e n t e x tr a c tio n p ro cesses fo r lu b r ic a tin g
o il refining a r e p r e s e n te d . W a x is d e fin e d a s t h a t m a te r ia l w h ic h , w h e n s e p a r a te d
from th e oil—w a x m ix tu r e , le a v e s a n o il o f t h e d e s ire d p o u r p o in t (u su a lly 0° F .). T h e
classical m eth o d s fo r th e s e p a r a tio n o f w a x a r e n o t s a tis f a c to ry a n d th e ch o ice of th e
 abstra cts.

so lv e n t m u s t alw a y s d e p e n d o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e o il- w a x m i x tu r e T h e d e s id e ra ta
of th is choice a re : (i) H ig h s o lv e n t a c tio n fo r b o t h o il a n d w a x a t r e la tiv e ly h ig h tern-
a tu re s (ii) H ig h so lv e n t a c tio n fo r oil a n d lo w s o lv e n t a c tio n f o r w a x a t low
te m n e ra tu re s (iii) L ow b o ilin g p o in t t o f a c ilita te re c o v e ry , (iv) C h e m ica l s ta b ility ,
low to x ic ity a n d low p rice. M e th y le n e ch lo rid e , w ith o r w i th o u t a d d itio n s o f e th y le n e
d ich lo rid e b en zo l o r ace to n e , h a s b e e n f o u n d t o b e m o s t s u ita b le . T h e a c tu a l c o n ­
d itio n s of n a tu r e of s o lv e n t, s o lv e n t-o il-w a x m ix tu r e r a t io a n d d e w a x in g te m p e r a tu re s
are d e te rm in e d e x p e rim e n ta lly , t h e p re c ise r o u tin e o f t h e a n a ly tic a l p ro c e d u re being
a m a tte r for th e choice of th e o p e r a to r. M in u s 14° F . is re c o m m e n d e d a s a s ta n d a rd
d ew ax in g te m p e r a tu re w h en 0° F . p o u r t e s t o il is d e s ire d . S u ffic ie n t o il a n d w a x are
s e p a ra te d fo r th e d e te r m in a tio n o f th e v is c o s ity in d e x o f t h e f o rm e r a n d th e m e ltin g
p o in t of th e la tte r . T h e sc ale-w ax c o n te n t o f t h e s e p a r a te d w a x is t h e n d e te rm in e d
b y filterin g a 2-5% w t. s o lu tio n o f t h e w a x in a m i x t u r e o f 7 5 % a c e to n e a n d 2 5%
m e th y le n e ch lo rid e a t 0° C. T h u s o p tim u m c o n d itio n s m a y b e d e te r m in e d fo r m a x i­
m u m y ield s o f o il of a d e sire d p o u r p o in t a n d v is c o s ity in d e x to g e th e r w it h d a ta
co n cern in g th e y ie ld a n d m e ltin g p o in t o f t h e w a x . H . G.

284. Control of W ax D istillate Q uality. J . W . D o n n e l a n d E . A . B u r c h . N at. Petrol.

News 14.12.38, 30 (50), R . 602.— T h e d e s id e ra ta o f th e e x p e r im e n ta l c o n tr o l of slack-
w ax sw eatin g is d isc u sse d a n d a p ilo t p l a n t fo r th i s p u r p o s e d e s c rib e d . T w o ty p e s
of slack -w ax a re co n sid e re d , (a) h o t sla c k , s e p a r a te d a t 3 5 -4 0 ° F ., a n d (6 ) c o ld slack,
se p a ra te d a t m in u s 5 -0° F . T h e p o in ts c o n s id e re d a r e : ti m e cy c le o f s w e a tin g in
re la tio n to y ield , th e re cy clin g of in te r m e d ia te w a x e s , o r ig in o f c r u d e a n d n a tu r e of
w ax d is tilla te c u t, b le n d in g o f d iffe re n t s la c k s, s w e a te r c a k e th ic k n e s s , effect of
atm o sp h e ric c o n d itio n s, e tc . C o n d itio n s m u s t b e f u r th e r c o n s id e re d in r e la tio n to
(i) th e c o n c e n tra tio n of w a x in th e sla c k , (ii) t h e d i s ti ll a t io n r a n g e o f t h e w a x o r of
th e o rig in a l w a x y d is tilla te , (iii) th e m e ltin g -p o in t r a n g e o f t h e w a x in t h e slack.
I n g en eral sla ck s c o n ta in in g m o re t h a n 5 0 % o il c a n n o t b e s w e a te d . S la c k s should
b e cooled a t a m in im u m r a t e t o in d u c e t h e c o a rse c r y s ta llin e s t r u c tu r e w h ic h is
n ecessa ry fo r efficien t sw e a tin g . O th e r f a c to rs b e in g e q u a l t h e y ie ld o f sc ale varies
as th e sw e a tin g tim e , eco n o m ic c o n s id e ra tio n s b e in g t h e lim itin g f a c to r. H . G.

285. Tetraethyl-lead Susceptibilities of G asoline. L . M . H e n d e r s o n , W . B . R o s s an d

C. M. R id g w a y . In dm tr. Engng Chem., 1939, 31 (1), 2 7 -3 0 .— T h is in v e s tig a tio n
w as u n d e r ta k e n w ith th e o b je c t of c o m p a rin g t h e te t r a e th y l - le a d su s c e p tib ilitie s of
cau stic -w a sh e d g aso lin e s w ith th o s e t r e a t e d w i t h s o d iu m p l u m b ite a n d su lp h u r.
T h e e x p e rim e n ta l e v id en ce in d ic a te d t h a t , w h e n g a so lin e s a r e t r e a t e d w ith so d iu m
p lu m b ite a n d su lp h u r, th e y re q u ire m o re te t r a e th y l - le a d t o p r o d u c e a g iv e n octane
n u m b e r t h a n d o th o s e tr e a t e d w ith so d iu m h y d r o x id e a lo n e , a n d s im ila r ly , m o re th a n
do th o se w h ic h a re th o ro u g h ly s c ru b b e d w ith c a u s tic a n d t h e n s u b s e q u e n tly tr e a te d
w ith so d iu m p lu m b ite a n d su lp h u r. T h e d ifferen ces in a m o u n t o f te tra e th y l-le a d
are q u a n tita tiv e ly re la te d to th e a m o u n t of m e r c a p ta n s u lp h u r re m o v e d b y th e
c a u stic w ash in g .
T h e d ecreased re q u ire m e n ts o f te t r a e th y l- le a d a c c o m p lis h e d b y efficien t cau stic
sc ru b b in g w o u ld re s u lt in la rg e eco n o m ic sa v in g s i n t h e p e tr o le u m in d u s tr y .
H . E . T.

286. Sample Com putations of Natural G asoline Absorber D a ta . R . H . T u rn e r . Petrol.

Engr, D ecem b er, 1 9 3 8 ,10 (3), 54.— T h e p rin c ip le s in v o lv e d in t h e c a lc u la tio n o f a b so rb e r
to w er c a p a c ity , a n a ly se s o f p r o d u c ts a n d o th e r f a c to rs a r e d is c u s s e d m a th e m a tic a lly
a n d ty p ic a l c a lc u la tio n s m a d e . B u b b le to w e r c a p a c ity d e p e n d s o n se v e ra l facto rs
in clu d in g (i) d is ta n c e b e tw e e n tr a y s a n d p la te s , (ii) m o l. w t. o f t h e g a s o r v a p o u rs,
(iii) th e a b s o lu te o p e ra tin g p re ss u re , (iv) th e q u a n t i t y o f liq u id p a s s in g d o w n w ard s
a n d (v) th e d e p th of liq u id o n th e p la te s . E x p e rie n c e h a s s h o w n t h a t 18 in . is t h e m o st
econom ical d ista n c e b etw e e n p la te s fo r g aso lin e p l a n t s . I n b u b b le to w e rs th e allow -
3 fl6 ■ ! , " V e lo c ity ' s ^ P e r se c - a t a tm o s p h e ric p re s s u re a n d 18 in . t r a y sp a c in g for
a u id of m ol. w t. 125, th is v e lo c ity v a r y in g a s th e r a t i o o f t h e s q u a re r o o ts o f the
m o ecu a r w eig h t a n d also a s th e r a t io o f t h e s q u a re r o o t o f t h e a b s o lu te o p e ra tin g
p ressu re.
T y p ic al c a lc u la tio n s a re g iv e n o f th e a llo w a b le c a p v e lo c ity a n d t h e c a p a c ity of an
 ABSTRACTS. 97 A

a b s o rb e r u n d e r sp e c ifie d c o n d itio n s . A ta b le is g iv e n sh o w in g th e c a p a c ity o f b u b b le

to w e rs p e r 1000 c u . f t . o f g a s p e r c a p p e r 24 h r . f ro m w h ic h th e o p tim u m size o f to w e r
can b e c a lc u la te d . O th e r c a lc u la tio n s a r e w o rk e d o u t fo r th e o il r a t e fo r a n y g iv e n
se t of c o n d itio n s , t h e f a t o il s a tu r a ti o n , t h e q u a n ti ty o f th e o il p r e s e n t, f ra c tio n s
c o n d e n sin g a n d w e a th e r in g . L . G.

287. H eat C haracteristics of 5 S ilicon -C h rom iu m -M olyb d en u m Steels. A . E . W h ite ,

C. L . C la rk a n d W . G . H ild o r f. Oil Oas J . P a r t I , 1.12.38, 37 (29), 43. P a r t 2,
8.12.38, 37 (30), 43.— I n t h e d e s ig n o f h ig h te m p e r a tu r e e q u ip m e n t, p e rm iss ib le stre s se s
a re a t p r e s e n t u s u a lly b a s e d u p o n t h e c re e p c h a r a c te r is tic s o f t h e p ro p o s e d ste e ls a t
th e g iv e n o p e r a tin g te m p e r a tu r e s . T h e u s u a l creep te s ts , h o w e v e r, g iv e l it tle i n ­
fo rm a tio n w ith r e s p e c t t o in flu e n c e o f la c k o f s u rfa c e o r s t r u c t u r a l s t a b il i t y o n th e
lo a d -c a rry in g a b i l i t y o r o n t h e d u c ti li t y c h a r a c te r is tic s . S tre s s - r u p tu re te s ts a re
b e lie v e d to g iv e t h e a d d itio n a l in f o r m a tio n a n d to p ro v id e a m o re sim p le m e a n s fo r
d e te rm in in g d e s ig n s tre s s e s fo r c e r ta in ty p e s o f h ig h te m p e r a tu r e e q u ip m e n t. I n ­
c reased r e s is ta n c e to o x id a tio n a n d s u lp h id e c o rro s io n c a n b e o b ta in e d th r o u g h p ro p e r
c o m b in a tio n o f s ilic a a n d c h ro m iu m .
F iv e s te e ls , k n o w n a s S ic ro m o 1, 2, 2 \, 3 a n d 5, w ere e x a m in e d . T h e y c o n ta in
e s se n tia lly t h e s a m e a m o u n ts o f M n , S, P a n d M o, a n d w ith on e e x c e p tio n th e Si
c o n te n t is 1-32 t o 1 -5 7 % . T h e C r c o n te n ts , h o w e v e r, ra n g e fro m 1-30 t o 4-8 3 % a n d
th e C c o n te n t fro m 0 09 t o 0 -1 5 % . E a c h ste e l, p r io r t o m a c h in in g , w a s a n n e a le d a t
1550° F . T h e fo llo w in g p r o p e r tie s w e re d e te r m in e d o n th e s e a n d c e r ta in o th e r ste els,
a n d r e s u lts a r e re c o rd e d : C h e m ic a l c o m p o s itio n , g r a in size, B rin e ll h a rd n e s s , te n s ile
p ro p e rtie s a n d C h a rp y im p a c t re s is ta n c e s a t te m p e r a tu re s ra n g in g fro m 80° F . to
1500° F ., c re e p c h a r a c te r is tic s a t te m p e r a tu r e s o f 800° F . t o 1300° F . a n d stre ss-
r u p tu r e c h a r a c te r is tic s a t te m p e r a tu r e s o f 900° F . t o 1500° F . O x id a tio n re sis ta n c e
c h a ra c te ris tic s , t h e e ffe c t o f t e m p e r a tu r e a n d tim e o n im p a c t re sis ta n c e , te n s ile p r o ­
p e rtie s, im p a c t r e s is ta n c e s a n d m e ta llo g ra p h ic s tr u c tu r e s o f c o m p le te d creep sp e cim en s,
a n d m e ta llo g ra p h ic s tr u c tu r e s o f s tr e s s - r u p tu r e sp e cim en s w ere a lso d e te rm in e d , a n d
v a rio u s ta b le s a n d ill u s t r a ti o n s s u m m a riz e t h e re s u lts o b ta in e d .
T h e m a in c o n c lu s io n s r e a c h e d a r e t h a t a c c e p ta b le ste e ls fo r h ig h te m p e r a tu re
serv ice u p t o 1300° F . c a n b e o b ta in e d th r o u g h th e a d d itio n o f Si in a m o u n ts u p to
1-50% t o ste e ls c o n ta in in g v a r y in g a m o u n ts o f C r a n d 0-5 0 % o f M o. T h e r e s u ltin g
ste els p o ssess a v e r y s u ita b le c o m b in a tio n o f s tr e n g th , d u c tility a n d im p a c t re sis ta n c e
a t ro o m t e m p e r a tu r e . O n t h e b a s is o f 1 0 0 0 -h o u r c re e p t e s ts u n d e r s lig h tly o x id iz in g
c o n d itio n s, t h e a d d i t i o n o f S i in t h i s a m o u n t lo w e rs c re e p s tr e n g th a t c e r ta in of th e
e le v a te d t e m p e r a tu r e s , b u t o n a c c o u n t o f t h e in c re a s e d su rfa c e a n d s tr u c tu r a l s tr e n g th
im p a r te d i t d o e s in c re a s e lo a d - c a r ry in g a b il i ty a t th e s e te m p e r a tu re s a s in d ic a te d b y
th e s tr e s s - ru p tu r e r e s u lts . I n c r e a s e d Si c o n te n t th u s in c re a se s a c tu a l se rv ice life,
th o u g h i t d e c re a s e s c re e p s t r e n g t h . T h e S icro m o ste e ls p o ssess a la rg e d eg ree o f h ig h
te m p e r a tu re s t a b il i t y , r e ta in in g t h e i r o rig in a l p ro p e rtie s u n d e r th e c o m b in e d in flu en ces
o f tim e a n d s tr e s s a t e a c h te m p e r a tu r e c o n sid e re d . H o t d u c ti l it y c h a ra c te ris tic s a re
also g o o d u n d e r t h e in flu e n c e o f tim e , te m p e r a tu r e a n d stre s s , th u s a s su rin g t h a t
b r ittle t y p e f ra c tu r e s w ill n o t b e o b ta in e d i n se rv ic e . B- A. E.

288. U ruguayan G overnm ent R efinery U ses Crudes from South A m erica. R . D eam -
b ro sis. Oil Gas J ., 2 9 .1 2 .3 8 , 37 (33), 134.— T h e A N C A P refin ery a t L a T e j a n e a r M o n te ­
v id eo , U r u g u a y , b e g a n o p e r a tio n s in J a n u a r y 1937 a n d n o w su p p lie s p r a c tic a lly a ll th e
c o u n tr y ’s fu el re q u ire m e n ts . T h e re fin e ry c o n s is ts o f a to p p in g p la n t o f c a p a c ity
800 cu. m e tre s p e r d a y , a c r a c k in g u n i t of c a p a c ity 300 cu. m e tr e s p e r d a y , re fin e ry
e q u ip m e n t fo r c a u s tic so d a , d o c to r a n d a c id tr e a tm e n t a n d th e u s u a l a u x ilia r y p la n t.
E c u a d o ria n a n d P e r u v ia n c r u d e is d is tille d , t h e t o t a l y e a r ly th r o u g h p u t of 265,000
cu. m e tre s y ie ld in g 80,000 c u . m e tr e s g a so lin e , 58,000 cu . m e tre s k ero sin e , 23,500 cu .
m e tre s g a so il a n d 100,000 c u . m e tr e s o f to p p e d c ru d e . T h e c r a c k in g u n i t p ro d u c e s
fro m t h is s to c k 5 0 ,0 0 0 c u . m e tr e s g a s o lin e , 39,000 cu . m e tr e s of fuel oil a n d 10,000,000
cu . m e tre s o f g a s ( b u r n t in t h e re fin e ry ). P r o p e r tie s o f t h e tw o c ru d e s, a n d o f th e
p r o d u c ts fro m t h e t o p p in g o f t h e m ix e d c ru d e s a n d f ro m t h e c ra c k in g o f t h e m ix e d
re d u c e d c ru d e s a r e g iv e n . L. L . G.

289. M ethods of T esting th e A dequacy of E lectrical Grounds. C. A. A n d e rso n . Petrol.

Engr, D e c e m b e r, 1 9 3 8 ,10 (3), 51.— A d e s c rip tio n is g iv e n o f a n A .C . te s ti n g a p p a r a tu s
 ABSTRACTS.

for th e ad e q u a c y of serv ice g ro u n d s u se d fo r lig h tn in g a n d h ig h p o t e n t ia l h a z a r d s or for

th e re tu rn p a th for e le c tric a l e q u ip m e n t c ir c u its , e tc . T h e a p p a r a t u s c o n s ists of a n
in d u c tio n b rid g e c irc u it in w h ic h re s is ta n c e m o n e a r m c a n b e v a r ie d t o e q u a l t h e non-
in d u c tiv e re sista n c e of th e o th e r a rm . T h e n e u t r a l p o in t is o b ta in e d a u d ib ly usrng
an electrical w av e fro m a m a g n e to t e s t s e t. E x a m p le s a r e g iv e n of a p p lic a tio n s of th is
a p p a ra tu s , sh o w in g i t s v a lu e in lo c a tin g in efficien t g ro u n d in g , th i s m e th o d being
p refe rred to D .C. te s tin g .

290. Patent on Refining. R - S. D a n f o rth . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 0,450, 13.12.38. A ppl.

26.4.34. Im p ro v e d m e th o d of d is tilla tio n o f h y d r o c a r b o n o ils.

O. W olf a n d R . C. P ow ell. U .S .P . 2,141,633, 27.12.38. A p p l. 6.7.35. N ew ty p e

of fu rn ace a n d h e a te r fo r h e a tin g h y d r o c a r b o n o ils t o t e m p e r a tu r e s a b o v e 800° F .
W fi P . f!

Chemistry and Physics of Petroleum.

291. Limits of F lam m ability of M ixtures of P ropane, A ir, an d N itrogen Oxide. E. B.
H od g e. Industr. Engng Chem., 1938, 30 (12), 1390.— T h e u p p e r a n d lo w er lim its
for th is m ix tu re w ere d e te r m in e d fo r u p w a r d p r o p a g a tio n o v e r th e c o m p le te range.
T h e re su lts are g iv e n in a ta b le a n d p l o t t e d o n tr ia n g u la r c o -o rd in a te s . P . D.

292. Perform ance of Com mercial P erforated-P late D istillation Colum n. R . C. G unness
a n d J . G. B a k e r. Industr. Engng Chem., 1938, 30 (12), 1394.— P e r fo r a te d p la te
co lu m n s a re c o m m o n ly u se d in in d u s tr y w h e n d is tillin g s to c k w h ic h d e p o s its solid
m a te ria l t h a t w o u ld clog a n d r e n d e r b u b b le -c a p c o lu m n s in e ffic ie n t. T w o te s ts
w ere m a d e o n a s ix te e n -p la te c o lu m n u s e d fo r t h e d is tilla tio n o f a lc o h o l fro m m ash.
T h e co lu m n w as 5 J ft. in d ia m e te r , w it h a p l a te s p a c in g o f 18 in . T h e size of th e
p e rfo ra tio n s w as J in. a n d th e r e w ere a b o u t 2500 p e r p la te . T h e tw o te s ts gave
re a so n a b ly c o n c o rd a n t r e s u lts , a n d t h e in d iv id u a l p l a te efficiencies (b a se d o n th e
M u rp h ree d e fin itio n o f efficiency) r a n g e d f ro m 2 0 % a t t h e b o t t o m t o 5 0 % a t th e top,
w ith a n a v e ra g e of 4 0 % . T h e firs t t e s t w a s m a d e 34 d a y s a f t e r c le a n in g a n d t h e second
a f te r 72 d a y s. T h e re w as n o in d ic a tio n o f a d r o p in efficien cy in th e seco n d te st,
sh o w in g t h a t fo u lin g w as n o t su fficien t t o im p a ir o p e r a tio n . P . D.

293. H eat Transfer to B oiling Liquids. F . H . R h o d e s a n d C. H . B rid g e s . Industr.

Engng Chem., 1938, 30 (12), 1401.— A s t h e h e a t tr a n s f e r r a t e f ro m a tu b e w all to a
b o ilin g liq u id is p ro g ressiv ely in c re a se d a c h a n g e in t h e c h a r a c te r o f b o ilin g is o b tain ed .
A t low r a te s (sm all te m p e r a tu re d ifferen ce b e tw e e n t u b e a n d liq u id ) v a p o riz a tio n is
n u clear, a n d th e h e a t tr a n s f e r coefficient is h ig h . A t h ig h r a t e s (larg e te m p e ra tu re
difference) th e v a p o u r is p ro d u c e d in a film , s p r e a d o v e r t h e w a ll s u rfa c e , w h ic h gives
a co n sid erab le th e r m a l re sis ta n c e a n d c o n s e q u e n tly lo w co effic ie n t. T h e change
ta k e s p lace a t a c ritic a l te m p e r a tu r e d ifferen ce b e tw e e n w a ll a n d liq u id . T h is te m ­
p e ra tu re d ifferen ce w as d e te r m in e d fo r w a te r b o ilin g in a s te e l t u b e 0 1 9 2 in . in tern al
d ia m e te r a t p re ssu re s fro m a tm o s p h e ric d o w n t o 2 in . o f m e r c u ry . W i t h a c lean tu b e
a c ritic a l te m p e r a tu re d ifferen ce of 50 t o 60° C. w a s o b ta in e d a t p re s s u re s of 5 a n d 10
in . of m e rc u ry , b u t t h e e v a p o r a tio n r e m a in e d n u c le a r a t p re s s u re s o f 1 a tm ., 20 in.
a n d 2 in . u p to th is te m p e r a tu r e d ifferen ce. T h e p re se n c e o f oleic a c id o r m in eral
oil as a film o n th e ste e l c o n s id e ra b ly re d u c e s t h e c r itic a l te m p e r a t u r e difference,
w h ile th e p resen ce of s o d iu m c a r b o n a te o r c h lo rid e in a n o ily t u b e re m o v e s th e oil
la y e r a n d fav o u rs n u c le a r b o ilin g .
E x p e rim e n ts w ere also m a d e in a c h r o m iu m - p la te d t u b e , a n d t h e c r itic a l te m p e ra tu re
differen ce w as fo u n d t o b e lo w e r t h a n w it h c le a n ste e l. P . D.

294. Exhaustive Fractionation of the “ E xtract ” P ortion of th e L ubricant Fraction

from a M id-Continent P etroleum . B . J . M a ir a n d C. B . W illin g h a m . Bur. Stand.
J . Res., Wash,, 1938, 21 (5), 5 3 5 -5 6 3 .— L u b r ic a tin g s to c k f ro m a m id -c o n tin e n t
cru d e, d istille d in a c o m m ercial v a c u u m s till, w a s g iv e n t h e fo llo w in g t r e a t m e n t :
 ABSTRACTS. 99 A

(i) s e p a r a tio n o f a n e x t r a c t p o r t io n b y e x t r a c t io n w it h liq u id S 0 2 a t ro o m t e m ­

p e r a tu re , (ii) s e p a r a tio n o f a w a x p o r t io n b y c r y s ta lliz a tio n fro m e th y le n e c h lo rid e
a t — 18° C., (iii) s e p a r a tio n o f r e m a in d e r b y f iltr a tio n th r o u g h s ilic a gel in to (a) a
w a te r w h ite f iltr a te , (6 ) p o r tio n r e c o v e re d fro m s ilic a gel a n d c a lle d s ilic a gel h o ld -u p .
I n t h i s p a p e r t h e i n v e s tig a tio n o f f ra c tio n s 1 a n d 3(6) is d e s c rib e d . F r a c tio n 1
w as e x t r a c t e d w i t h liq u id S 0 2 a n d p e tr o le u m e th e r a t — 55° C., t h e p e tr o le u m e th e r
so lu b le p o r tio n c o m b in e d w it h f r a c tio n 3(6) a n d t h e w h o le s u b m itte d to a s y s te m a tic
f ra c tio n a l d i s t illa tio n in h ig h v a c u o u n t i l s u b s ta n tia lly c o n s ta n t b o ilin g f ra c tio n s
w ere o b ta in e d .
F iv e c h a rg e s o f th e s e f r a c tio n s o f fro m 5 0 0 -7 0 0 g m . e a c h w ere s e p a r a te d i n t o 30
o r 40 f ra c tio n s b y e x t r a c t io n w i t h m e th y l c y a n id e o r m e th y l c y a n id e a n d a c e to n e .
K in e m a tic v is c o s itie s a t 100° F . a n d 210° F ., r e fr a c tiv e in d ic e s a t 25° C., d e n s itie s ,
re fra c tiv e d is p e rs io n s , sp ecific o p tic a l r o t a tio n s a n d a n ilin e p o in ts w ere d e te rm in e d
fo r m o s t o f t h e f r a c tio n s f ro m t h e e x t r a c ti o n p ro c e ss . I n a d d i ti o n C, H r a tio s ,
m o le c u la r w e ig h ts a n d b o ilin g p o in ts w e re d e te r m in e d o n 41 k e y fra c tio n s a n d fo r
som e o f t h e m a lso % S a n d % N 2.
A n u m b e r o f i n te r e s tin g f a c ts i n c o n n e c tio n w it h t h e p r o p e rtie s o f th e s e p e tro le u m
fra c tio n s em e rg e f ro m t h i s w o rk . D . L . S.

295. H ydrogenation of th e “ E xtract ” P ortion of the Lubricant F raction from a M id-

Continent P etroleu m . B . J . M a ir, C. B . W illin g h a m a n d A . J . S tre iff. Bur. Stand.
J . Res., Wash., 1938, 21 (5), 565—580.— T o in v e s tig a te t h e c o m p o s itio n o f t h e e x t r a c t
p o r tio n o f t h e l u b r ic a n t f r a c ti o n fro m a m id -c o n tin e n t p e tro le u m , 15 p o r tio n s p r e ­
p a re d b y e x te n s iv e d is tilla tio n fo llo w e d b y e x h a u s tiv e e x tr a c tio n , w ere c o m p le te ly
h y d ro g e n a te d .
H y d r o g e n a tio n w a s c a r r ie d o u t i n a b o m b u s in g a n ic k e l c a ta ly s t, a n d w a s c o n ­
tin u e d u n til t h e sp ecific d is p e rs io n d e c re a s e d t o a b o u t 100 , a v a lu e c h a r a c te r is tic of
n a p h th e n e s . T a b le s a r e in c lu d e d c o m p a rin g t h e p h y s ic a l c o n s ta n ts o f th e f ra c tio n s
b efore a n d a f t e r h y d r o g e n a tio n . E v id e n c e is g iv e n w h ic h in d ic a te s t h a t u n d e r th e
c o n d itio n s o f th e s e e x p e r im e n ts — te m p . 230 -2 5 0 ° C. a n d p re ss u re s of H 2 170-210
a tm o sp h e re s , t h e f ra c tio n s w e re c o m p le te ly h y d r o g e n a te d a n d t h a t no b re a k d o w n of
th e m o lecu les o c c u rre d . D . L . S.

296. The E th an e E q u ilib riu m . R . N . P e a s e a n d A . M. B y e rs , J r . J . Amer. chem.

Soc., 1938, 6 0, 2 4 8 9 -2 4 9 1 .— I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s te d t h a t th e e x p e rim e n ta l d a t a o n th e
p o sitio n o f e q u ilib riu m in t h e r e a c tio n C 2H 4 + H 2 ^ C 2H 6 a re in e r ro r b e c a u se of th e
o ccu rren ce o f s id e -r e a c tio n s in g e n e ra l, a n d p a r tic u la r ly , b e c a u se th e alleg ed p resen c e
of p ro p y le n e h a s in te r f e r e d w i th th e a n a ly tic a l d e te r m in a tio n o f e th y le n e . A d d itio n a l
e x p e rim e n ts c o n firm t h e e a r lie r c o n c lu s io n s o f T ra v e r s a n d H o c k in .
A c o m p a riso n o f a ll e x p e r im e n ta l v a lu e s w i t h v a lu e s b a s e d o n th e N e m s t H e a t
T h eo rem (a n d th e T h ir d L a w ) e m p h a s iz e s t h e in te r n a l c o n s is te n c y of th e d a ta .
I t is c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e r e is n o g o o d g ro u n d fo r ig n o rin g th e e x p e r im e n ta l d a t a
o n th e e th a n e e q u ilib riu m in d e a lin g w ith t h e q u e s tio n of free r o ta tio n in th e e th a n e
m olecule. T . C. G. T .

297. Fluorinated D eriv a tives of Propane. H . A . L . H e n n e a n d E . C. L a d d . J .

Amer. chem. Soc., 1938, 6 0 , 2 4 9 1 -2 4 9 5 .— T h re e c h lo r in a te d p ro p a n e s C 3C18,
CHC12CC12CC13, CC13CHC1CC13 h a v e b e e n s y n th e s iz e d , a n d t h e n f lu o rin a te d to g iv e
e ig h t flu o rin e d e r iv a tiv e s . T h e s tr u c t u r e s a n d p ro p e rtie s of th o s e d e r iv a tiv e s , to g e th e r
w ith th re e o th e r s , a r e p r e s e n te d . T . C.G. T .

298. R eaction of ¿soB utene an d d i-iso B u ten e w ith P h en ol, w ith and w ithou t Scission
of C C L inkages. V . N . I p a tie f f , H . P in e s a n d B . S. F rie d m a n . J . Am er. chem.
Soc., 1938, 60 , 2 4 9 5 -2 4 9 7 .— P h e n o l is a lk y l a t e d w it h d i-is o b u te n e , a t te m p e r a tu re s
u p to 150°, in t h e p re se n c e o f p h o s p h o r ic a c id o r w ith a la rg e excess o f s u lp h u ric a c id ,
to y ield 4 -f-b u ty lp h e n o l a n d 2 : 4 -d i-f-b u ty lp h e n o l.
P h en o l is a lk y l a t e d b y is o b u te n e in t h e p re se n c e of p h o sp h o ric a c id a t 100 ° to
give g o o d y ie ld s o f p - f - b u ty lp h e n o l a n d 2 : 4 -d i-f-b u ty lp b e n o l.
W h en p - ( a a ,y y - te tr a m e th o b u ty l) p h e n o l w a s h e a t e d u n d e r p re s s u re w ith p h o sp h o ric
acid , th e sid e -c h a in w a s c le a v e d t o p r o d u c e p h e n o l, o c te n e s , p - i-b u ty lp h e n o l, a n d
2 : 4 -d i-i-b u ty Ip h e n o l. T . C.G . T .
 ABSTRACTS.
100 A
299. Addition of Sulphur, H ydrogen Sulphide and M ercaptans to U nsaturated H ydro­
carbons. S. O. Jo n e s a n d E . E m m e tt R e id . J . Am er. chem. Soc., 1938, 60 , 2452—
2 4 5 5 S u lp h u r s tr ip s H 2 fro m u n s a tu r a te d s to fo rm H 2S a p a r t o f w h ic h a d d s to th e
do u b le b o n d to p ro d u c e a m e r c a p ta n , w h ic h a d d s to m o re o f th e u n s a t u r a te to g iv e a
su lp h id e. T h e a d d itio n of H 2S ta k e s p la c e r e a d ily a n d is c a ta ly z e d b y S. T he
a d d itio n of m e rc a p ta n s , as also t h a t o f H 2S, t o d o u b le b o n d s , follow s M a rk o w n ik o ff’s
ru le in th e ab sen ce of p e ro x id e s. A s th e r e a re u s u a lly su ffic ie n t p e ro x id e s , fo r c a ta ly tic
p u rp o ses, in th e h y d ro c a rb o n , th e a b n o r m a l a d d i t io n is d iffic u lt t o su p p re s s.
T . C. G. T.

300. Physical Constants of c i s P en ten e-2. M. L . S h e rrill a n d E . H . L au n sp a c h .

J. Amer. chem. Soc., 1938, 60, 2 5 6 2 -2 5 6 3 .— T h e c fs-p e n te n e -2 w a s p r e p a r e d b y th e
se m i-red u ctio n of p e n te n e -2 a n d w as fo u n d to p o sse ss t h e fo llo w in g c o n s ta n ts , b .-p t.,
3 7 .O» -j- 0-05°, n™D 1-3822, d |° 0-6562. T . C. G. T .

301. Properties of Purified Norm al H eptane and isoO ctane ( 2 : 2 : 4 - Trim ethyl Pentane).
D. B. B ro o k s. Bur. Stand. J . Res., Wash., 1938, 21 ( 6 ), 8 4 7 -8 5 2 .— W o rk is in h a n d
to d evelop sp e cificatio n s fo r n - h e p ta n e a n d is o o c ta n e w h ic h a r e u s e d a s p rim a ry
s ta n d a rd referen ce fuels fo r th e k n o c k r a t i n g o f a u to m o tiv e e n g in e fu els. I n th is
co nnection i t w as n ec e ssa ry to o b ta in d a t a o n t h e p h y s ic a l p r o p e r tie s o f sam p les of
th e h ig h e st p o ssib le p u r ity .
T o th is e n d th e p u r e s t a v a ila b le m a te r ia ls w e re f u r th e r p u rifie d a n d t h e boiling-
p o in ts, free zin g -p o in ts, r e fra c tiv e in d ic e s, d e n s itie s a n d c e r ta in o f t h e i r differential
coefficients a c c u ra te ly m e a s u re d o n th e r e s u ltin g m a te r ia ls . I n e a c h c ase t h e freezing
p o in t of th e b e s t m a te r ia l o b ta in e d w as h ig h e r t h a n c u r r e n tly a c c e p te d v alu es.
D . L . S.

302. Physical and Chem ical Constants of N orm al P araffins. D . J . W . K re u le n . J.

Instn Petrol. Tech., 1938, 24, 55 4 -5 6 1 .— T h e d e n s ity , r e f r a c tiv e in d e x , a n ilin e p o in t,
v isc o sity a n d su rfa c e te n s io n o f a se ries of f ra c tio n s c o n s is tin g e n tir e ly of norm al
paraffin s h a v e b een d e te r m in e d a n d t h e ir r e la tio n s h ip s d e m o n s tr a te d b y a n u m b er
of g rap h s. D . L . S.

303. Principles of Solvent D ew axin g. Part IV . The P recip itation of W ax from

Solution in Oil by O il-m iscible Liquids. M . B a T h i, T . G. H u n t e r a n d A . W . N ash.
J . Instn Petrol. Tech., 1938, 24, 5 6 2 -5 7 6 .— T h e f a c to rs in v o lv e d in p r e c ip ita tin g w ax
fro m so lu tio n in oil a re d isc u sse d . I t is p o in te d o u t t h a t th e s u i ta b i li t y of a liquid
for d ew ax in g o p e ra tio n s is d e p e n d e n t p r im a r ily o n t h e s o lu b ility o f w a x in th e oil,
in c o n ju n c tio n w ith t h e s o lu b ility o f w a x in su c h a d e w a x in g liq u id . D . L . S.

304. The Nonanes. F . C. W h itm o re a n d H . A . S o u th g a te . J . Am er. chem. Soc.,

1938, 60, 2571-2 5 7 2 .— T h e p a p e r d e sc rib e s t h e s y n th e s is o f t h r e e n e w N onanes,
n am ely , 3 -e th y lh e p ta n e , 2 : 3 - d im e th y lh e p ta n e a n d 2 : 2 : 4 : 4 -te tra m e th y lp e n ta n e .
As th e d a t a o n 2 -m e th y lo c ta n e w ere m e a g re , t h is c o m p o u n d w a s a lso p re p a re d .
T h e 2 : 2 : 4 : 4 -te tra m e th y lp e n ta n e w a s o b ta in e d fro m 2 : 2 : 4 -trim e th y l-4 -b ro m o -
p e n ta n e , u sin g d im e th y l zin c. T h e th r e e o th e r n o n a n e s w e re o b ta in e d b y d e h y d ra tio n
of th e te r tia r y alco h o ls. T h e p h y s ic a l p r o p e rtie s o f th e h y d r o c a r b o n s o b ta in e d are
show n below :

B .-p . V iscosity.
N o n an e. F .- p „ 2)20 1.
(760 m .) n™°D. 37-8 100
°C.
°C. °C. °C.
P o ises X 10.
2 -M eth y lo c ta n e - 80-1 142-80 1-40285 0-7107 5-25 2-79
2 : 3 -D im e th y lh e p ta n e (-1 1 6 -7 ) 140-65 1-40850 0-7235 5-21 3-30
glass in itia l
3 -E th y lh e p ta n e (-1 1 4 -9 ) 143-10 1-40900 0-7260 4-90 2-61
glass
2 : 2 : 4 : 4 - T e tr a m e th y lp e n ta n e . - 66-9 122-30 1-40695 0-7185 6-80 3-39
to - 6 7 - 1

W . E . J . B.
 ABSTRACTS. 101 A

305. N ew S yn th esis of Tertiary H ydrocarbons. F . C. W h itm o re a n d H . P . O rem .

J . A m et . chem. Soc ., 1938, 60 , 2573~ 2o74.— F iv e t e r t i a r y a lip h a t ic h y d r o c a r b o n s h a v e
b e e n p r e p a r e d f ro m t h e c o rre s p o n d in g t e r t i a r y a lc o h o ls b y a m o d ifie d L e v e n e m e th o d .
T h e a lc o h o ls a r e t r e a t e d w it h d r y h y d r o g e n io d id e u n t i l \ \ tim e s th e th e o r e tic a l
q u a n tity h a s b e e n a d d e d . Z in c d u s t is t h e n a d d e d in s m a ll q u a n titie s u n t i l r e a c tio n
ceases. D r y h y d r o g e n c h lo rid e is t h e n p a s s e d in w i th t h e a d d itio n o f m o re zin c u n til
4 tim e s t h e th e o r e tic a l q u a n t i t y is a d d e d . T h e r e a c tio n te m p e r a tu r e is ra is e d t o
70-80° C. w i t h s tir r in g , a n d t h e a d d i ti o n o f h y d r o g e n c h lo rid e c o n tin u e d .
T h e h y d r o c a r b o n is o b ta in e d b y w a te r d ilu tio n fo llo w ed b y s te a m d is tilla tio n .
A fte r p u r ific a tio n , t h e p h y s ic a l c o n s ta n ts d e te r m in e d a re sh o w n b elo w :

B .-p ., n 20. F .- p ., Y ie ld .
H y d ro carb o n s. M n. <■
°C. °C. 0/o-
/

2 -M e th y lh e x a n e 90-3 760 0-6794 1-3851 -1 2 0 -3 23-7

2 -M e th y lo c ta n e 142-8 760 0-7132 1-4030 -1 2 0 -3 48-8
3 - E th y lh e p ta n e 1431 760 0-7272 1-4090 -1 2 0 -3 38-3
3 -M e th y ln o n a n e 167-6 760 0-7319 1-4123 -9 0 -0 30-1
4 -M eth y ld ecan e 188-1 760 0-7422 1-4177 -9 2 -9 27-8

W . E . J . B.

306. H exam eth yleth an e and T etra-alk ylm eth an es. R . E . M a rk e r a n d T . S. O ak w o o d .

J. Amer. chem. Soc., 1938, 6 0 , 2598.— A p r a c tic a l m e th o d is g iv e n fo r th e p r e p a r a tio n
of h e x a m e th y le th a n e a n d o th e r h y d r o c a r b o n s c o n ta in in g a t e r t ia r y g ro u p b y c o n ­
d e n s a tio n o f a n a l k y l G r ig n a rd r e a g e n t w i t h a t e r t ia r y h a lid e b y m e a n s o f c u p ro u s
io d id e.
T h e h y d r o c a r b o n s n o t e d b e lo w , w e re o b ta in e d :

B .-p .,
(760 m m .)
°C. v,20 d20.
4

2 : 2 - D im e th y lb u ta n e 49-6 1-3709 0-6491

2 : 2 - D im e th y lp e n ta n e . 79-0 1-3825 0-6739
2 : 2 - D im e th y lh e x a n e 105-2 1-3942 0-6934
2 : 2 -D im e th y lh e p ta n e 130-4 1-4035 0-7105
3 : 3 - D im e th y lp e n ta n e 86-0 1-3911 0-6937
3 : 3 - D im e th y lh e x a n e 112-0 1-4008 0-7107
3 : 3 -D im e th y lh e p ta n e 137-2 1-4087 0-7254
3 : 3 -D im e th y lo e ta n e 161-2 1-4165 0-7390

W . E . J . B.

307. Vinyl H alid e P olysu lp h on es. P eracetic A cid as a Catalyst for the R eaction
between Sulphur D ioxid e and Olefins. C. S. M a rv e l a n d F . J . G la v is . J . Am er. chem.
Soc., 1938, 60, 2 6 2 2 -2 6 2 6 .— T h e c a t a ly t ic a c t i v i t y w h ic h c e r ta in sa m p le s o f a g e d
p a ra ld e h y d e h a v e sh o w n in p r o m o tin g t h e r e a c tio n b e tw e e n olefins a n d s u lp h u r
d io x id e c a n b e o b ta in e d b y u s e o f p e ra c e tic a c id so lu tio n s .
V in y l c h lo rid e a n d v in y l b ro m id e c o m b in e w i th s u lp h u r d io x id e in t h e p re se n c e of
a c tiv e p a r a ld e h y d e o r p e r a c e tic a c id t o g iv e a p o ly m e r o f th e c o m p o s itio n
((C H -p C H X ^ S O j),,, r a t h e r t h a n t h e u s u a l o n e to o n e t y p e o f p o ly m e r. A p r e lim in a r y
s tu d y of th e r e a c tio n o f t h e v in y l h a lid e p o ly m e r h a s n o t in d ic a te d i ts s tr u c t u r a l u n it ,
N o e v id en ce fo r c o m p o u n d f o r m a tio n w a s o b ta in e d fro m t h e e x a m in a tio n o f fre e z ­
in g -p o in t c o m p o s itio n c u rv e s fo r s o lu tio n s o f s ty r e n e , 1 -p e n te n e a n d 10 -h en d ecen o ic
acid in liq u id s u lp h u r d io x id e . W . E . J . B.

308. Instability of Liquid isoB u ten e. E . E . R o p e r. J . Amer. chem. Soc., 1938, 60,
2 699 -2 7 0 1 .— I t h a s b e e n sh o w n t h a t is o b u te n e (2 - m e th y lp ro p e n e ) in th e liq u id p h a s e
fo rm s a h ig h -b o ilin g liq u id u p o n s ta n d in g , w h ic h p ro b a b ly is a p o ly m e r, w it h c e r ta in
ev id en ce p o in tin g to d im e r iz a tio n a s t h e f irs t s te p .
 abstra cts.
102 a

At 0° C th is r e a c tio n cau ses a lo w e rin g of t h e p r e s s u re o f th e sa tu r a te d vap ou r of

p u re w o b u ten e to th e e x te n t of a b o u t 0 -6 % . T h e o th e r th ree b u ten es do n o t exh ib it
such b eh av io u r. W- E ’ J ‘ B'

qnq Reaction of AUphatic Olefins w ith T hiophenol. V . N . Ip a tie ff, H . P in es and

B S F rie d m a n . J . Amer. chem. Soc., 1938, 6 0 , 2 7 3 1 - 2 /3 4 . T h e a d d itio n o f th io ­
p h en o l to a lip h a tic olefins p ro c e e d s c o n tr a r y t o M a rk o w n ik o fif’s rule. Propene,
b u te n e -1 u o b u te n e , p e n te n e - 1 , fso p ro p y l, e th y le n e , a n d tn m e th y le th v le n e react
w ith th io p h e n o l in th e a b sen ce o f a c id c a ta l y s t s t o y ie ld n - p ro p y l, n -b u ty l, t-butyl,
n-am v l i-am v l a n d s-iso a m y l p h e n y l su lp h id e s , r e s p e c tiv e ly . T h e p resence of 90%
p h o sp h o ric ac id sc arc ely a ffe c te d t h e co u rse o f t h e r e a ctio n , sin ce th e olefins react
m ore read ily w ith th io p h e n o l t h a n w i th th e a c id .
I n th e p resen ce o f s u lp h u ric a c id ( d ilu te d w i th w a t e r o r a c e tic acid ) th e reaction
p ro ceed s in a c c o rd an ce w ith M a rk o w n ik o ff’s r u le : ¡so b u te n e a n d trim eth y leth y len e
y ield i-b u ty l a n d i-a m y l p h e n y l su lp h id e s , re s p e c tiv e ly .
Iso m e riz a tio n occu rs d u rin g t h e r e a c tio n o f ia o p ro p y le th y le n e w ith th iop h en ol in
th e p resen ce of su lp h u ric a c id . T h e p r o d u c t is i-a m y l p h e n y l su lp h id e an d n o t the
e x p ected s-iso am y l p h e n y l su lp h id e .
T he p h y sic al p ro p e rtie s o f a n u m b e r o f a lk y l p h e n y l s u lp h id e s a r e d e s c rib e d . Several
o f th ese w ere c h a ra c te riz e d b y p r e p a r a tio n of so lid d e r iv a tiv e s . W . E . J . B.

310. H eats of Organic R eactions. VII. Addition of H alogen s to O lefins. J . B . Conn,

G. B. K istia k o w sk y a n d E . A . S m ith . J . Am er. chem. Soc., 1938, 60, 2764-2771.—
T h e a u th o rs h a v e d e te rm in e d th e h e a ts o f r e a c tio n in v o lv e d in certa in brom inations
a n d c h lo rin a tio n s o f v a rio u s u n s a tu r a te d h y d r o c a r b o n s . T h e p ap er sh ou ld be con­
s u lte d fo r th e a c tu a l d a ta o b ta in e d , b u t o n e c o n c lu s io n t o b e d raw n from th e work
is t h a t s u b s titu tio n o n th e e th y le n ic g ro u p r e s u lts i n a n in c r e a s e d b e a t ev o lu tio n on
a d d itio n o f b ro m in e , w h e re a s p re v io u s w o rk h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t a s f a r a s hyd rogen ation
w as co n cern ed , th e h e a t of r e a c tio n w a s d im in is h e d b y s u c h s u b s ti tu tio n .
T h e o b se rv ed tr e n d s affo rd a th e r m o -d y n a m ic b a s is f o r t h e so -c a lle d M arkownikoff
ru le, a n d fo r t h e te n d e n c y of b r o m in e t o r e p la c e h y d r o g e n o n t h e m o st su b stitu ted
c a rb o n a to m o f a s a tu r a te d h y d ro c a rb o n .
A m e th o d of c a lc u la tio n is g iv e n w h ic h e n a b le s t h e p r e d ic tio n o f t h e h e a ts o f addition
of h y d ro g e n h a lid e s a n d o f b ro m in e s u b s t it u tio n , t o be m ad e. W . E . J . B.

311. Interaction between M ethylene R adicals and H yd rogen . C. R osen b lu m . J.

Amer. chem. Soc., 1938, 60, 2819-2820.— T h e p h o to ly s is o f k e te n e in th e presence of
h y d ro g en in d ic a te s a r e a c tio n b e tw e e n m e th y le n e r a d ic a ls a n d h y d r o g e n . A t 200° C.—
e.g., re a c tio n p ro d u c ts c o n siste d of m e th a n e , a g a se o u s f r a c tio n w it h a m ea n com position
C 2.68H 7.36 a n d a re sid u e w ith a n a v e ra g e c o m p o s itio n C 4H 10.
A su g g e sted r e a c tio n is C H 2 + H 2 = C H 3 + H .
A se co n d ary so u rce o f m e th y l r a d ic a ls m ig h t be a r ea ctio n b etw een m eth ylen e
ra d ic a ls a n d m e th a n e a lre a d y fo rm ed .
T h e so u rce o f m e th a n e is p r o b a b ly a n in te r a c tio n o f m e t h y l rad icals w ith hydrogen
o r h y d ro c a rb o n s, w h ils t th e r e c o m b in a tio n o f m e th y l r a d ic a ls t o form eth a n e would
a c co u n t fo r th e m e a n c o m p o s itio n of th e g a se o u s p h a s e . W . E . J . B.

312. Hydrogen Fluoride as a Condensing A gen t. H . The A lk ylation of B en zen e by

Olefins. J . H . S im o n s a n d S. A rc h e r. J . Am er. chem. Soc., 1938, 60, 2952—2953.—
H y d ro g e n flu o rid e h a s b e e n fo u n d t o b e a v e r y u s e fu l a g e n t for t h e a lk y la t ion of
b en zen e b y olefins. P ro p y le n e , ¡'.sobutene, p e n te n e -2 , tr im e th y le th y le n e , and cyclo-
h ex en e w ere u sed . V ery g o o d y ie ld s w ere o b ta in e d .
U n d e r th e c o n d itio n s e m p lo y e d , n o e v id e n c e w a s f o u n d f o r a n y rea ctio n except
a lk y la tio n . T h e a lk y l ben zen e s fo rm e d w ere id e n tifie d b y m e a n s o f p h y sica l constants
a n d b y co n v ersio n to th e m o n o a c e ta m in o d e r iv a tiv e s . ' W . E . J . B.

313 Hydrogen Fluoride as a Condensing A gen t. H I. A lk ylation of A rom atics with

Aliphatic Halides. J . H . S im o n s a n d S. A rc h e r. J . Am er. chem. Soc., 1938, 60,
- o - .9 5 4 . H y d ro g e n flu o rid e h a s b e e n fo u n d t o b e a n e ffe c tiv e a g e n t t o prom ote
 ABSTRACTS. 103 A

th e r e a c tio n b e tw e e n a lk y l h a lid e s a n d a r o m a tic c o m p o u n d s . T h e h a lid e s u se d w ere

n - p ro p y l b ro m id e , is o p ro p y l c h lo rid e , f -b u ty l c h lo rid e a n d f-a m y l ch lo rid e , a n d th e
a ro m a tic c o m p o u n d s w e re b e n z e n e , to lu e n e a n d n a p h th a le n e . W . E . J . B.

314. H ydrogen F luoride as a Condensing A gen t. IV. R eaction of a/cioPropane w ith

Benzene. J . H . S im o n s, S. A r c h e r a n d E . A d a m s. J . Amer. chem. Soc., 1938, 60,
2 9 5 5 -2 9 5 6 .— c y d o P r o p a n e h a s b e e n f o u n d to r e a c t w ith b e n z e n e c a ta ly z e d b y h y d ro g e n
flu o rid e t o g iv e n o r m a l p ro p y lb e n z e n e s in g o o d y ie ld . A p o ssib le m e c h a n is m fo r th e
r e a c tio n is p o s t u l a t e d w h ic h in v o lv e s a n io n ic m e c h a n is m . T h e cyclopropane m o lecu le
is a s su m e d t o a d d a p r o to n t o fo rm a h y p o th e tic a l a n d tr a n s i to r y p ro p y l ion.
W . E . J . B.
it)
315. System Correlating M olecular Structure of O rganic Com pounds w ith their B oilin g-
Points. I. A lip h atic B o ilin g -P o in t N um bers. C. R . K in n e y . J . Amer. chem. Soc.,
1938, 60, 3 0 3 2 -3 0 3 9 .— T h e a u t h o r h a s d e v e lo p e d a s y s te m fo r c o rre la tin g th e s tr u c tu r e
o f o rg an ic c o m p o u n d s w i t h t h e i r b o ilin g -p o in ts . T h e c o n c e p t o f b o ilin g -p o in t n u m b e r
(B .P .N .) h a s b e e n in tr o d u c e d a n d v a lu e s o f 0-8 a n d 1 0 u n it s h a v e re s p e c tiv e ly b e e n
a s c rib e d to c a r b o n a n d h y d r o g e n a s th e a to m ic B .P .N ’s.
I n c o n s id e rin g a n y m o le c u le t h e B .P .N . is c o n s id e re d t o b e c o m p o sed of tw o p a r ts ,
t h a t d u e to t h e h y d r o g e n a to m o r t h e h y d r o c a r b o n re sid u e , a n d t h a t d u e to t h e c h a r a c ­
te r is tic a to m o r g ro u p . I n g e n e ra l, th e c a lc u la te d v a lu e s a re in g o o d a g re e m e n t
w ith th o s e o b se rv e d , a n d i t is a n ti c i p a t e d t h a t th e n e w m e th o d w ill b eco m e a u se fu l
h elp in e ith e r c a lc u la tin g t h e b o ilin g -p o in t of a c o m p o u n d fro m i t s s tr u c tu r e , o r i t s
s tr u c tu r e fro m t h e b o ilin g -p o in t. W . E . J . B.
or)
316. V iscosities of H ydrocarbons. P arts V n and V IH . E . B . E v a n s . J . Instn Petrol.
Tech., 1938, 2 4 , 5 3 7 -5 5 3 .— T h is p a p e r c o n ta in s d a t a o n t h e v isc o sitie s of n in e te e n
m o n o cy clic a r o m a tic h y d r o c a r b o n s w i th fro m s ix t o s ix t y c a rb o n a to m s a n d of s ix ty -
tw o p o ly c y c lic h y d r o c a r b o n s c o m p ris in g c o m p o u n d s w ith tw o o r m o re rin g s tr u c tu r e s .
T h e l a t t e r c o n ta in f ro m n in e to t h i r t y - e ig h t c a r b o n a to m s a n d m a n y o f th e m m a y be
of in te r e s t i n c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e c o m p o s itio n a n d p r o p e rtie s of lu b r ic a tin g oil fra c tio n s .
D . L . S.
dm
317. A ction of M ineral A cids on P rim ary Nitroparaffins. S. B . L ip p in c o tt a n d H . B .
H a ss. Industr. Engng Chem., 1939, 31 (1), 1 1 8 -1 2 0 .— A c e tic , p ro p io n ic , b u ty r ic
a n d is o b u ty ric a c id s h a v e b e e n p r e p a r e d b y re flu x in g th e c o rre sp o n d in g p r im a ry
n itro p a ra ffin s w ith 8 5 % s u lp h u ric a c id . H y d r o x y la m in e a c id s u lp h a te is a b y - p ro d u c t
it: in th e re a c tio n . P ro p io n o h y d r o x a m ic a c id w a s p r e p a r e d fro m 1 -n itro p ro p a n e a n d
c o n c e n tra te d s u lp h u r ic a c id . H. E. T.

318. Surface T ension of H ydrocarbons. D . L . K a tz a n d W . S a ltm a n . Industr.

Engng Chem., 1939, 31 (1), 91.— T h e su rfa c e te n s io n s of e th a n e , p r o p a n e a n d n -
b u ta n e w ere d e te r m in e d u n d e r e q u ilib riu m v a p o u r p re ss u re s o v e r t h e te m p e r a tu r e
ran g e 0° t o 45° C. T h is d a t a a n d t h a t fo r o th e r p a ra ffin h y d ro c a rb o n s a n d h y d r o -
c arb o n m ix tu re s g iv e n in t h e li te r a tu r e a re c o r re la te d b y p lo ttin g su rfa c e te n s io n
a g a in s t re d u c e d p re s s u re . F r o m t h i s g r a p h a c h a r t c o n n e c tin g su rfa c e te n s io n ,
te m p e r a tu re a n d m o le c u la r w e ig h t is d r a w n . T h e s u rfa c e te n s io n s o f n o n -p a ra ffin
.g h y d ro c a rb o n s a re p l o t t e d a g a in s t te m p e r a tu r e o n a t h i r d g r a p h . T h e re d u c e d t e m ­
p e r a tu re p lo t c a n b e u s e d t o e s tim a te c r itic a l te m p e r a tu r e s of m ix tu re s w hose su rfa c e
te n s io n is k n o w n . P- D.

ttP'
319. Catalytic A gen t as Im p ortan t F actor in th e P yrolysis Process. R . F u s s te ig .
Petrol. Engr, D e c e m b e r, 1 9 3 8 ,10 (3), 33.— T h e b e h a v io u r o f c a ta ly s ts is e x p la in e d o n t h e
b asis of m o d e m th e o r ie s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a to m s , a n d th e r e s u lts of e x p e r im e n ta l
w o rk o n th e p r e p a r a tio n a n d s e le c tio n o f c a ta ly s ts fo r u se in p y ro ly s is r e a c tio n s d is ­
cu ssed . T h e s u rfa c e o f t h e c a t a l y s t is c o n s id e re d to c o n s ist o f u n s a tu r a te d m a t t e r
w h ich a d s o rb s a m o le c u le of, e.g., h y d r o g e n s p littin g a to m s in to e le c tro n s a n d n u clei,
th e fo rm er p e n e tr a tin g t h e lig h t m o v a b le e le c tro n s of th e c a ta l y s t a n d th e l a t t e r a d h e r-
in g to th e su rfa c e o f t h e c a t a ly s t w h e re t h e y a r e a b le t o r e a c t w ith s p lit h y d r o c a r b o n
BtttP
 ABSTBACTS.
104 a

nuclei T h e a d s o rb e d m o lecu les a r e s u b m itte d t o a d e f o r m a tio n w h ic h fo rm s a new

field of force o p p o site th e n e ig h b o u rin g g a s sp a c e , i.e., b e c o m in g m o re a c tiv e . T he
q u a n tity a n d q u a lity of th e s e lig h t m o v a b le e le c tro n s in th e c a ta l y s t c o n tro l i t s a c tiv ity
a n d d ep en d on th e n a tu r e a n d m e th o d o f a c tiv a tio n o f th e c a ta l y s t. C a ta ly s ts form ed
b y p re c ip ita tio n o n e a r th a re v e ry v o lu m in o u s, a n d re q u ire a h ig h g a s v e lo c ity w hich
red u ces y ield s, a n d h a v e p o o r h e a t c o n d u c tiv itie s . T h e sk e le to n ty p e in w h ich Ni
is m e lted w ith A1 o r Si a n d t h e l a t t e r re m o v e d w ith N a 2C 0 3 o r N a O H is b e t te r in
th is re sp e c t. . .
T h e p a rtic le size of t h e c a ta ly s t is o f e x tr e m e im p o r ta n c e a s a m e d iu m -s iz e d g ram
co n ta in s a g re a te r n u m b e r of e le c tro n s o n i t s s u rfa c e t h a n t h e fin e-sized g ra in . T he
tra c e s of N i( N 0 3)2 in p r e c ip ita te d c a ta ly s ts re d u c e s t h e i r life o w in g to th e ir d istu rb a n c e
of th e electric field a t m a n y p o in ts o n t h e su rfa c e . T h e e le c tr o n s a n d n u c le i o f nickel
sk eleto n c a ta ly s ts a re c o n sid e re d m o re a c tiv e i n in d u c in g t h e f o r m a tio n o f olefine
h y d ro c a rb o n s t h a n th o se of p r e c ip ita te d n ic k e l.
I n a s tu d y of c a ta ly s ts p r e p a r e d fro m d iffe re n t p r o p o r tio n s o f A1 a n d N i i t was
fo u n d t h a t a 6 0 -4 0 A1 N i a llo y g a v e t h e b e s t r e s u lts a n d t h a t t h e a d d itio n o f F e and
Co im p ro v e d th e a c tiv ity , w h ile M n a n d Cu r e d u c e d i t , in s p i te o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e iron
sk e leto n is q u ite in a c tiv e , a n d th e M n sk e le to n v e r y a c tiv e . I t is c o n s id e re d t h a t the
c o n ta c t of c e rta in m e ta l s k e le to n s cau ses a n in c re a se o f t h e s p l it t in g in to electrons
a n d n u clei, a n d t h a t , a s th e e le c tric a l p o w e r o f a to m s o f p r e c ip ita te d m e ta l differ
fro m th o se o f th e sa m e m e ta l a s a s k e le to n , o p tim u m r e s u lts a r e o b ta in e d b y com bining
th e tw o ty p e s in th e p ro p e r r a tio .
G aso lin e-fo rm in g c a ta ly s ts m a y b e o f th r e e t y p e s (i) th o s e u n a b le t o k eep labile
th e a c tiv e n :C H 2 ra d ic a ls lo n g e n o u g h , r e s u ltin g i n h y d r o g e n a tio n t o paraffinic
h y d ro c a rb o n s o r p o ly m e riz a tio n , (ii) th o s e a b le t o k e e p t h e ~ C H 2 ra d ic a ls lab ile long
e n o u g h to allo w olefine h y d ro c a rb o n s to b e fo rm e d , (iii) th o s e h a v in g in a d d itio n
sufficiently a c tiv e n u clei a n d e le c tro n s to t r a n s f o r m th e d e f in e s in to cyclic h y d ro ­
c arb o n s.
O th e r c a ta ly s ts te s te d in c lu d e C o -A l sk e le to n (low a c ti v it y — v e r y s h o r t life), and
a Co sk e leto n im p re g n a te d w ith p r e c ip ita te d Co (h ig h e r a c t i v i t y t h a n e ith e r elem ent).
T h e a d d itio n of 1 0 % of p re c ip ita te d T h o riu m o r M n p lu s p r e c ip ita te d Co t o th e Co
sk e leto n in crease d th e y ie ld v e r y c o n s id e ra b ly . A N i- S i s k e le to n a ls o g a v e v e ry low
y ield s th o u g h a li t t le im p ro v e d b y th e a d d itio n o f p r e c i p i ta t e d N i a n d T h o riu m . On
th e o th e r h a n d , th e C o -S i allo y g a v e b e tt e r r e s u lts t h a n t h e A l-C o a llo y . T h e highest
y ield s w ere o b ta in e d w ith a c o b a lt sk e le to n fro m a C o -S i a llo y m ix e d w ith p re c ip ita te d
Co a n d im p re g n a te d w ith a M o s a lt a n d r e d u c e d .
I t is em p h asized t h a t th e p r o p e r u se o f c a t a ly s ts in v o lv e s t h e s e le c tio n of m ix tu res
o f c a ta ly s ts of t h e c o rre c t ty p e fo r th e r e q u ire d r e a c tio n s . C. L . G.

Analysis and Testing.

320. D eterm ination of the A niline P oin t of Dark P etroleu m P roducts. W . R . Van
W ijk a n d J . W . M. B o e lh o u w er. J . Instn Petrol. Tech., 1938, 2 4 , 5 9 8 -6 0 4 .— The
an ilin e p o in t of d a r k oils is d e te r m in e d b y m e a s u rin g t h e i r tr a n s p a r e n c y t o infra-red
ray s. A n a p p a r a tu s fo r te s tin g s ix sa m p le s s im u lta n e o u s ly is d e s c rib e d .
D . L. S.

Motor Fuels.
321. Patents on Motor Spirit. H . D re y fu s . E . P . 4 96.292, 29.1 1 .3 8 . A p p l. 29.5.37.
S y n th esis of h y d ro c a rb o n s fro m CO a n d H 2 a t 150 -3 5 0 ° C. a n d u n d e r a n ab so lu te
p ressu re of 0 T —0-25 a tm . a t th e m o s t, in t h e p re se n c e o f a h y d r o g e n a tin g c a ta ly s t,
e.g., a m e ta l of G ro u p 8 a n d a m e ta l o x id e . S te a m , CO», o r h y d r o c a r b o n g ases o r vap o u rs
a re a d d e d as d ilu e n t. 6

A. E . J . L . G erm e. E .P . 496,607, 2.12.38. A p p l. 9.6 .3 7 . T r e a tm e n t of n a tu ra l

an com m ercial m ix tu re s of h y d r o c a rb o n s c o n ta in in g a r o m a tic s to e n r ic h th e aro m atic
con en , j a o w ing n a s c e n t 0 2 (fro m t h e a c tio n o f so lid p o ta s s iu m b ic h ro m a te and
 ABSTRACTS. 105 A

c o n c e n tr a te d H .,S (): ), t o a c t o n t h e p o ly e th y le n e d e r iv a tiv e s . T h e t r e a t e d m ix tu r e

is w a sh e d f irs t w i t h w a t e r a n d th e n w it h 1 % s o lu tio n of a n h y d r o u s N a .C O . a t 5 0 -
60° C.

N . V . d e B a ta a fs c h e P e tr o le u m M ij. E .P . 496,676, 5.1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 7.6.37.

M a n u fa c tu re o f ¿ so b u te n e d e r iv a tiv e s b y is o m e r iz a tio n a t 325° C. of b u te n e -1 o r
b u te n e -2 o r m ix tu r e s o f th e s e c o m p o u n d s . T h e r e a c tio n is c a r r ie d o u t in t h e p re se n c e
of w a te r v a p o u r a n d a c a t a ly s t o b ta in e d b y m ix in g p h o s p h o ric a c id a n d k ie se lg u h r
a n d h e a tin g t h e m i x t u r e t o 300° C. T h e m ix tu r e o b ta in e d m a y , if d e s ire d , b e
p o ly m e riz e d a t 1 5 0 -2 5 0 ° C. a t r a is e d p re s s u re u s in g p h o s p h o ric a c id a s c a ta ly s t a n d
th e p o ly m e r g a s o lin e h y d r o g e n a te d , if d e s ire d .

R u h rc h e m ie A .-G . E . P . 496,718, 1.12.38. A p p l. 1.6.37. S y n th e s is o f b en z e n e

fro m CO a n d H 2 in t h e p re se n c e o f a so lid c a t a ly s t i n a s u ita b le h e a t-e x c h a n g in g
a p p a r a tu s c o m p ris in g a g a s - tig h t r e a c tio n c h a m b e r t r a v e r s e d b y a s y s te m o f tu b e s
d isp o sed in a n in c lin e d p o s itio n .

G. W . Jo h n so n . E .P . 496,880, 5.12.38. A p p l. 3.6.37. C o n v e rsio n o f CO a n d

H 2 in to h y d r o c a r b o n s c o n ta in in g m o r e t h a n 1 C a to m a n d n o n -g a se o u s o x y g en -
c o n ta in in g d e r iv a tiv e s o f h y d r o c a r b o n s u s in g a s c a ta ly s t re d u c ib le iro n c o m p o u n d s.

S ta n d a r d O il D e v e lo p m e n t Co. E .P . 497,255, 15.12.38. A p p l. 24.12.37. S w e e te n ­

in g p e tro le u m d is tilla te s c o n ta in in g m e r c a p ta n s b y c o n v e rtin g th e m e r c a p ta n s in to
co p p er m e r c a p tid e s w h ic h r e m a in d iss o lv e d in th e d is tilla te , a n d t h e n e x tr a c tin g th e
Cu s a lt w i t h e th a n o la m in e . W . S. E . C.

C. O. H o o v e r. R e is s u e 20,938, 6.12.38. A p p l. 25.5.38 (o rig in al U .S .P . 2,042,050,

26.5.38). S w e e te n in g m e r c a p ta n - c o n ta in in g d is tilla te s b y a d d in g a n o x y g e n -c o n ­
ta in in g g as a n d a c o n tr o lle d a m o u n t o f m o is tu r e a n d c o n ta c tin g t h e r e s u lta n t m ix tu r e
w ith a n a d s o rb e n t m a te r ia l a n d a c o p p e r c o m p o u n d w h ic h fo rm s a m e r c a p tid e — e.g.,
cu p ric ch lo rid e.

See also A b s tr a c t N o . 285.

Gas, Diesel and Fuel Oils.

322. A geing of I.C. E n g in e Oils. C. A . B o u m a n . Ann. Off. Combust, liq., 1938, 13
(2), 3 5 3 -3 6 4 .— A s a r e s u lt o f p r e v io u s o b s e rv a tio n s , s u p p le m e n te d b y p r e s e n t e x ­
p e rim e n ta l r e s u lts , i t is c o n s id e re d t h a t “ s o o t ” is t h e ch ie f so u rce o f c o n ta m in a tio n
of th e su m p o il, t h e a m o u n t b e in g g r e a te r in t h e c ase o f diesel e n g in e s th a n in p e tr o l
engines. T h e s a m e o il w as te s te d in e a c h o f 6 e n g in e s, 3 d ie s e l (sin g le -c y lin d e r) a n d
3 p e tro l. T e c h n iq u e w a s a s fo llo w s : S p e e d 1000 r .p .m ., fo u r h o rn s a t h a lf-lo a d , th e n
a sto p fo llo w ed b y f o u r h o u r s a t fu ll-lo a d . “ S o o t ” (w h ich in c lu d e d fine c a rb o n )
w as alw a y s g r e a te r t h a n “ la c q u e r ” (in so lu b le i n 6 0 -8 0 s p i r it , so lu b le in alco h o l) o r
a s p h a lte n e s (in so lu b le in 6 0 -8 0 s p i r i t a n d a lc o h o l, so lu b le in b en zen e ) o r a s h . S im ila r
re su lts w ere o b ta in e d in a 6 -c y lin d e r d ie s e l e n g in e in se rv ic e . T h e v a r io u s c o n ­
ta m in a n ts d id n o t in c re a s e in d e f in ite ly w i th tim e , b u t te n d e d to re a c h lim itin g v a lu e s
w h en c o rre c tio n is m a d e fo r n e w o il a d d e d . I t is c o n c lu d e d t h a t sin c e t h e m a jo r
p a r t of c o n ta m in a tio n is e x te r n a l a n d in d e p e n d e n t o f o il q u a lity , n o a r tific ia l ag e in g
te s t c an g iv e a p r a c tic a l a n s w e r. J- L. T.

323. Gas Oils and F uel Oils. E . P r é v o s t. Rev. Comb. Liq., O c to b e r, 1938, 16 (158),
271—282.— T h e a u t h o r tr a c e s t h e h is to r y o f g a s o ils a n d fu e l o ils, a n d i t is in te r e s tin g
to n o te t h a t t h e s p e c ific a tio n of t h e U .G .I . ( U n ite d G as I m p r o v e m e n t Co.) w a s t h e
o n ly one in e x is te n c e in 1920 a n d i t s e n tir e p u r p o s e w a s t o sp e c ify o ils s u ita b le fo r
en rich in g co al g a s. T h e f irs t official s p e c ific a tio n s w e re f o r m u la te d o n t h e 3 rd
F e b ru a ry , 1922, u n d e r t h e h e a d in g o f “ U n it e d S ta te s G o v e rn m e n t S ta n d a r d sp e c ific a ­
tio n N o. 2 c,” b u t th e s e d id n o t in c lu d e g a s o ils. F re n c h g o v e rn m e n t sp e c ific a tio n s
as defined b y a g o v e r n m e n t d e c re e in 1919 c a ll f o r a m in im u m v is c o s ity , a m a x im u m
(5% ) ° f m a te r ia l r e m o v a b le b y s u lp h u r ic a c id , a n d th e m a in s tip u la t i o n t h a t
i t m u s t y ield a d i s t i l l a t e o f less t h a n 1 0 % a t 275° C. b y t h e L u y n e s B o r d a 3
H
106 A ABSTRACTS.

m eth o d th e th e rm o m e te r b e in g in t h e liq u id . I t is s t a t e d t h a t fo r a n y g iv e n h y d r o ­
c arb o n t h a t fra c tio n w h ich d is tils b elo w 275° C. b y th e a b o v e m e th o d w ill d is til below
255° C b y th e s ta n d a r d A .S .T .M . m e th o d .
T h e d ecrees w ere m o d ified in J u n e 1921 a n d A p ril 1923 t o p e r m it th e im p o rt of
„„„ oiis d istillin g 20 % a n d 3 0 % r e s p e c tiv e ly b elo w 275° C. b y t h e L u y n e s B o rd as
m e th o d , th is m e th o d b e in g officially r e p la c e d b y t h e A .S .T .M . d is tilla tio n in 1934.
I n 1937 a d ecree w as issu e d d e fin in g a s g a s o ils a ll p r o d u c ts d is tillin g below 30%
a t 255° C. b y th e A .S .T .M . m e th o d a n d a s fu e l o ils a ll p r o d u c ts d is tillin g below 30%
a t 270° C. b y th e sa m e m e th o d a n d s a tis f y in g t h e c o lo rim e tric t e s t. T h e l a tt e r te s t
w as in tro d u c e d in 1936 t o re p la c e t h e s u lp h u r ic t a r t e s t a n d is s t a t e d to g iv e an
in d ic a tio n of th e a s p h a lte n e c o n te n t.
T h e a rtic le g iv es a v e r y d e ta ile d s t u d y o f t h e p o s itio n b o t h in TJ.S.A. a n d F ra n ce
b e tw e e n 1919 a n d t h e e n d of 1937. M . M. L .

324. The Ignition Quality of D iesel F u els. J • R if f k in . Engineering, 1939, C X L V II

(3808), 1. T h e m e a s u re m e n t of t h e d e la y a n g le in a n e n g in e is d isc u sse d in relatio n
to en g in e k n o c k , a n d i t is su g g e ste d t h a t a b e t t e r c o r r e la tio n w o u ld b e o b ta in e d if
co m m en cem en t of c o m b u s tio n w ere t a k e n a s c o m m e n c e m e n t o f r a p id c o m b u s tio n as
m e a su re d b y th e c o m m e n c e m e n t of a r a p id c h a n g e in p re s s u re . S im ila rly , i t is argued
t h a t co m m en cem en t o f fuel in je c tio n sh o u ld b e c o n s id e re d a s c o m m e n c e m e n t of ra p id
fuel in je c tio n .
T h e effect o f th e in je c tio n t im in g o n th e d e la y a n g le is d is c u s s e d w i t h refe ren ce to th e
p ro c e d u re t o b e a d o p te d in d e te r m in in g c e ta n e n u m b e r s , a n d so m e d a t a o b ta in e d from
e x p e rim e n ts m a d e o n a T a n g y e o p e n - c o m b u s tio n - c h a m b e r e n g in e a re u se d in
illu s tr a tio n .
G rap h ical r e la tio n s a re g iv e n b e tw e e n t h e d e la y a n g le o f b le n d s of refe ren ce fuels
a s m e a s u re d in th e T a n g y e en g in e, a n d t h e c o rre s p o n d in g v a lu e s o f th e A n ilin e P o in t,
D iesel I n d e x , V is c o s ity - G ra v ity I n d e x , a n d S p o n ta n e o u s I g n itio n T e m p e ra tu r e .
J . G. W .

Lubricants and Lubrication.

325. A ircraft-E ngine Lubrication. E . L . B a ss a n d C. H . B a r to n . J . Soc. aut. Engrs,
1939, 44 (1), 8 -1 4 .— V a lu a b le d a t a c a n b e o b ta in e d , i t is c o n s id e re d , fro m p relim in ary
t e s ts in t h e la b o r a to ry , u s in g sin g le -c y lin d e r e n g in e s , o n s u c h f a c to r s a s rin g -stic k in g
u n d e r d e to n a tin g (tak e-o ff), a n d w e a k - m ix tu re (c ru isin g ) c o n d itio n s , c a r b o n fo rm atio n ,
b e a rin g co rro sio n a n d slu d g in g . S ince c o r re la tio n is n o t p e r f e c t, fu ll-scale engine
t e s ts on th e b e n c h a n d in flig h t a re fin a lly n e c e s s a ry . E n g in e s u s e d w e re J .A .P . and
N o rto n (m o to r-cy cle) a n d B r is to l (aero.). O p e r a tin g d e ta ils u s in g t h e J .A .P . engine
w ere : fo r rin g -s tic k in g te s ts , 5 h o u rs u n d e r (a) m a x im u m p o w e r w it h d e to n a tio n ,
(b ) 1 0% w eak m ix tu re w ith n o d e to n a tio n . U n d e r (a) c y lin d e r te m p e r a tu r e h a d to be
low ered 10° C. to o b ta in th e sa m e d e g ree o f rin g g u m m in g a s w i th n o d e to n a tio n .
T h e t e s t o n th e B r is to l e n g in e w as lo n g e r a n d v a r ie d f ro m 654—75 h r . fo r different
oils. T h e N o rto n en g in e is b e in g u s e d fo r t e s ts o f lo n g d u r a t io n a n d a lso t o determ in e
th e effect o n rin g -s tic k in g o f c a r b o n f o r m a tio n in t h e g ro o v e s (“ rin g -p a c k in g ” )
b e h in d th e rin g . So f a r th e r e a p p e a r s to b e li t t le c o n n e c tio n . F o r b e a r in g corrosion
te s ts , th e b ig e n d w as ru n -in fo r 4 h r. a t n o r m a l o p e r a tin g te m p e r a tu r e (50—60° C.)
follow ed b y 20 h r . a t te m p e r a tu re s u p to 170° C. A n o il is c o n s id e re d s a tis fa c to ry
fo r m o st p u rp o se s p ro v id e d co rro sio n of le a d -b ro n z e b e a r in g s d o e s n o t d e v e lo p below
145° C. Som e d iffic u lty h a s b e e n e x p e rie n c e d in c o r re la tin g s m a ll-e n g in e te s ts w ith
full-scale en g in e t e s ts in th e case o f c a d m iu m -b a s e b e a r in g s . W ith su c h bearings
th e r e a p p e a rs to b e in c re a se d d a n g e r fro m c o rro s io n b y o il. T h e re a r e n o te s on th e
o th e r fa c to rs m e n tio n e d . A s r e g a r d s c a rb o n f o r m a tio n a n d t h e e ffe c t o n i t o f te m ­
p e ra tu re a n d oil c o n s u m p tio n th e in te r e s tin g r e s u lt is g iv e n t h a t in t h e case of the
J .A .P . eng in e, a lth o u g h c a rb o n o n t h e p is to n c ro w n d id n o t in c re a s e w ith cylinder
h e a d te m p e ra tu re , t h e in c re a se in t h e c a r b o n in t h e t o p rin g -g ro o v e w a s v e r y m ark ed
as te m p e ra tu re in c re a se d . j p. t .

326. Som e D evelopm ents R elative to C rankcase-O il F iltration . A . T . M cD onald,

J . ooc. aut. Engrs , 1939, 44 (1), 2 3 -2 8 .— A n a t t e m p t is m a d e in t h i s a r tic le to clarify
 ABSTRACTS. 107 A

gom e m is c o n c e p tio n s a r is in g o u t o f t h e c la im s m a d e fo r t h e s u p e r io r ity o f t h e a d s o rb e n t

(F u lle rs E a r t h , C h a rc o a l) t y p e o v e r t h e a b s o r b e n t (C o tto n W a s te ) ty p e of filte r.
I n a d d itio n t o t h e r e m o v a l o f n a t u r a l o ilin e ss a g e n ts a n d a d d itiv e s d e s ig n e d t o g iv e
g r e a te r film s t r e n g t h a n d fre e d o m fro m r in g -s tic k in g in diesel e n g in e s, th e fo rm e r ty p e
t e n d t o d is in te g r a te a n d a d d a b r a s iv e m a te r ia l t o t h e o il. F u r t h e r , i t is c o n sid e re d
t h a t fre s h o il te n d s t o w a s h o u t im p u r itie s fro m su c h filte rs w h ic h , a n y w a y , c a n n o t
p o ss ib ly co p e w ith a ll t h e a c id it y in a n o il a n d m o re o v e r h a v e lim ite d life .
A s f a r a s t h e a b s o r b e n t t y p e is c o n c e rn e d , th e s e su ffe r f ro m t h e d e fe c t t h a t t h e y
o n ly t r e a t 10% a s t h e o il a t a n y tim e , t h e r e m a in in g 90% b e in g b y -p a s s e d . T h e y
sh o u ld b e s u p p le m e n te d b y sc re e n filte rs of t h e fu ll-flo w ty p e .
G ra p h s a r e g iv e n sh o w in g th e p r o g re s s iv e d e c re a s e in t h e efficiency of t h e a d s o rb e n t
ty p e f ilte r i n re m o v in g a d d itiv e , sp e c ific a lly m e ta l s o a p , p lo tt i n g r e s u lts b o th fro m a
la b o r a to ry t e s t u s in g p u m p c ir c u la tio n o f o il, a n d a lso a c tu a l o p e ra tio n .
T h e c o n te n tio n s r e g a r d in g t h e d a n g e r s fro m t h e u se o f th e a d s o r b e n t t y p e f ilte r a r e
s u p p o r te d b y fig u re s o n u s e d o ils a n d p h o to g r a p h s o f p is to n s fro m e n g in e s b o t h w ith
a n d w ith o u t t h e a b s o r b e n t t y p e o f filte r.
S o m e u s e fu l fig u re s o n t h e a c c e le ra tin g effe ct o f in c re a s e d te m p e r a tu r e o n c r a c k in g
o f b a b b it m e ta l h e a r in g s a n d o n c o rro s io n o f c a d m iu m -b a s e b e a rin g s a r e also q u o te d .
I n t h i s c o n n e c tio n t h e p h o to g r a p h s o f b a b b i t b e a r in g sh e lls fro m t h e sa m e e n g in e
o p e r a tin g u n d e r t h e s a m e c o n d itio n s sh o w in g t h e im p ro v e d c o n d itio n r e s u ltin g fro m
f re q u e n t c h a n g in g w i t h o u t f ilte r a s c o m p a re d w ith lo n g -tim e o p e r a tio n w ith a b s o rb e n t-
t y p e f ilte r a r e in te r e s tin g .
I n t h e sin g le c o n t r i b u ti o n t o t h e d is c u s s io n o f t h i s p a p e r t h e r e is a tim e ly w a rn in g
o n t h e d a n g e r s o f d r a w in g c o n c lu s io n s f ro m r e s u lts o n o n e p a r t i c u l a r d iesel en g in e .
J. L. T.

327. Im p rovem en ts in D iesel-E n g in e L ubricating Oils. U . B . B r a y , C . C. M oore, J r . ,

a n d D . R . M e rrill. J . Soc. aut. Engrs, 1939, 44 (1), 35-42. — R e q u ir e m e n ts o f a diesel-
e n g in e lu b r ic a n t a r e six -fo ld :
(i) D e te r g e n c y t o k e e p r in g s fre e a n d s o lid s in su s p e n s io n .
(ii) H ig h o ilin e ss t o t a k e c a re o f n o r m a l o p e r a tin g c o n d itio n s .
(iii) H ig h film s t r e n g t h t o p r e v e n t scuffing a n d sc o rin g u n d e r a b n o r m a l c o n d itio n s
o f s tr e s s .
(iv) N o n -s lu d g in g p r o p e r tie s , i.e., h ig h o x id a tio n s ta b ility .
(v) N o n -c o rro s iv e n e ss t o n e w - ty p e a llo y b e a rin g s .
(vi) L o w c a rb o n -fo rm in g te n d e n c ie s .
A s r e g a r d s (i), m e t a l s o a p s a r e c o n s id e re d e ffe c tiv e a d d itiv e s t o m a k e g o o d t h e
d eficien cy o f s t r a i g h t m in e r a l o ils. A s r e g a r d s (ii) th e c a r b o n y l g ro u p in a so a p is
t h o u g h t t o b e a n a c tiv e f a c to r, w h ils t f o r (iii) t h e c h lo rin e in c a lc iu m d ic h lo r o -s te a ra te
is c o n s id e re d re s p o n s ib le fo r su c h im p ro v e m e n t s h o w n b y o ils c o n ta in in g i t . I t is
b e s t a d d e d t o n a p h th e n ie t y p e o ils a lth o u g h p a ra ffin ic t y p e o ils a r e also im p ro v e d .
A s r e g a r d s (v) n o m e t a l s o a p a d d i ti v e is n o n -c o rro s iv e t o le a d -b a se a n d c a d m iu m -
b a s e b e a r in g a llo y s b u t t h e a u th o r s t h i n k i t is o n ly a m a t t e r o f tim e b e fo re t h is p r o b le m
is re so lv e d .
P h o to g ra p h s o f p i s t o n s a n d fig u re s fo r w e a r a n d a n a ly s e s o f u s e d o ils a r e p u t f o rw a rd
t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e c la im s m a d e fo r c a lc iu m d ic h lo r o s te a r a te a s a n im p ro v e r o f diesel-
e n g in e o ils. J. L. T.

328. Rapid A n a lysis of som e M ineral Lubricating Oils. E . A n d ré a n d J . R o c h e .

Ann. Off. Combust, liq., 1938, 13 (2), 339-351. — T h e c o m p o u n d s in a m in e r a l oil
(R o u m a n ia n “ R R O ” ) c o n s id e re d re s p o n s ib le fo r r o t a t in g t h e p la n e of p o la riz e d
lig h t to t h e r i g h t a r e th o u g h t t o b e c o n c e n tr a te d in t h a t f r a c tio n o f th e o il w h ic h is
m o s t so lu b le i n a c e to n e a n d m e t h y l a n d e t h y l alco h o ls. T h e se c o m p o u n d s a re of
re la tiv e ly lo w m o le c u la r w e ig h t a n d c o n ta in c a r b o n , h y d ro g e n , o x y g e n a n d s u lp h u r .
T h e y a re a s s o c ia te d w i t h h y d r o c a r b o n s (C 20- C 22) p o o r in h y d r o g e n a n d o f g r e a te r
d e n s ity t h a n w a te r . I t is n o t k n o w n w h e th e r t h e y a r e p r e s e n t a s a q u a te r n a r y
com pound o r as a m ix tu re of te r n a ry co m p o u n d s. J . L. T.

329. Safe V iscosity for a M otor-Car E n gin e L ubricant. S. W . Sparrow . J . Soc.

aut. Engrs, 1938, 43 (4), 3 9 3 -4 0 ? .— On th e cred it sid e, lo w -v isc o s ity o ils g iv e h igh
 ABSTRACTS.
108 a

c ran k in g sp eed s, r a p id flow a t low te m p e r a tu r e s , in c re a s e i n b r a k e to r q u e a n d b e t te r

fuel econom y. O n t h e d e b it sid e a r e te n d e n c y t o in c re a s e d o il c o n s u m p tio n a n d
b lo w b y d ecreased p r o te c tio n to m a in a n d b ig -e n d b e a rin g s , p is to n s a n d c y lin d e r
w alls A s re g a rd s b e a rin g p r o te c tio n t h e th e o r y is a d v a n c e d t h a t t h i n o ils fa il b ecause
th e oil p u m p is u n a b le to b u ild u p su fficien t p r e s s u re t o o v e rc o m e c e n trifu g a l force
th e re b y m ilita tin g a g a in s t a d e q u a te flow , th e c r ite r io n o f sa fe v is c o s ity fo r co n -ro d
bearings. L a rg e r p u m p s a n d im p ro v e d o il s y s te m s m a y e v e n tu a lly o v e rc o m e th is.
Safe v isc o sity d e p e n d s o n o p e r a tin g t e m p e r a tu r e . F ig u re s q u o te d fo r cra n k c a se
oil te m p e r a tu re ra n g e fro m 89-178° F . a b o v e a tm o s p h e ric t e m p e r a tu r e fo r a dozen
1938 cars a t 70 m .p .h ., a n d 105-195° F . a b o v e a tm o s p h e ric t e m p e r a tu r e a t t o p speed.
S urface finish p la y s a n im p o r ta n t p a r t. D iffe re n t c y lin d e rs in t h e sa m e e n g in e differed
w id ely in th e ir v isc o sity r e q u ire m e n ts .
T h e a u th o r b eliev es t h a t th e v is c o s ity of t h e o il u s e d in a n e w e n g in e s h o u ld be a t
le a st as h ig h as t h a t w h ic h is sp e cified fo r a w ell r u n - in e n g in e , a n d t h a t th e g re a te r
p ro te c tio n a g a in s t sco rin g w h ich is p r o v id e d b y a m o re v isc o u s o il m o re t h a n c o m ­
p e n sa te s for th e e x tr a tim e r e q u ire d t o w e a r a w a y t h e h ig h s p o ts o f th e c y lin d e r w all
surfaces. I n w in te r, o n c a rs f itte d w it h t h e r m o s ta t ic c o n tr o l o f w a te r - ja c k e t te m ­
p e ra tu re g iv in g figures as h ig h as in s u m m e r o p e r a tio n , lo w -v is c o s ity lu b r ic a n ts m ay
be u n sa fe for p is to n s a n d c y lin d e rs. T h is d a n g e r is s o m e w h a t o ffset, i t is a d m itte d ,
b y th e low er d riv in g sp e ed s in w in te r . N e v e rth e le s s , fo r sa fe o p e r a tio n o f p isto n s
a n d cy lin d ers oil v is c o s ity sh o u ld b e a s h ig h in w i n t e r a s i n su m m e r. T h e a u th o r
p u ts h is re su lts m o re in th e fo rm of a s k in g q u e s tio n s t h a n in p r o v id in g t h e answ ers.
T h e g ra p h s a n d p h o to g ra p h s a re e x c e lle n t. T h e ra n g e in v e s tig a te d w a s fro m S .A .E .
10W to S .A .E . 50, b u t v is c o s ity in d ic e s o f th e o ils c o n s id e re d a r e n o t q u o te d .
J . L. T.

330. Specific R efractivity and C arcinogenicity of M ineral L ubricating Oils. S. J . M.

A u ld . J . Instn Petrol. Tech., 1938, 24, 5 7 7 -5 8 3 .— T h e a u t h o r h a s c a r r ie d o u t som e
w o rk o n th e specific g r a v ity a n d specific r e f r a c tiv ity of o ils a n d o f b le n d s o f d ifferen t
ty p e s of oil fro m w h ich h e co n clu d es t h a t th e r e a r e se rio u s in c o n s is te n c ie s in th e
M a n ch ester C o m m itte e ’s sp e c ific a tio n fo r n o n -c a rc in o g e n ic o ils. D . L . S.

331. M anufacture of Cutting Oils. J . F . M iller. J . In stn Petrol. Tech., 1938, 24,
645-649.— V a rio u s ty p e s of c u ttin g o ils a re d is c u s s e d a n d t h e p r o p e rtie s d e m an d ed
of th e s e p r o d u c ts a re d e sc rib e d . D . L . S.

332. Cutting Fluids and the M achine Tool. A . H . L lo y d a n d H . H . B e e n y . J. Instn

Petrol. Tech., 1938, 24, 6 50 -6 5 4 .— T h e e m u ls io n ty p e o f c u t t i n g flu id is d iscu ssed in
c o n ju n c tio n w ith i t s p o ssib le c o rro siv e effect o n t h e c u tt i n g to o l. D . L . S.

333. Selection of Cutting Fluids. H . J . M a so n . J . In stn Petrol. Tech., 1938, 24,

655-661.— T h e a u th o r o u tlin e s so m e p r a c tic a l t e s ts w h ic h h a v e b e e n c a r r ie d o u t over
a p e rio d of se v era l y e a rs to d e te r m in e th e efficiency of c u t ti n g flu id s . D . L . S.

334. F unctions of Cutting Fluids. H . W . S w ift. J . In stn Petrol. Tech., 1938, 24,
662-671.— T h e m e c h a n is m o f m e ta l c u tt in g is d is c u s s e d a n d t h e ro le p la y e d b y th e
c u ttin g flu id in d ic a te d . D . L . S.

335. Patents on Lubricating Oil. H . W . B r o w n s d o n a n d I .C .I . L t d . E .P . 496,717,

30.10.38. A p p l. 31.5.37. P r e p a r a tio n o f E .P . lu b r ic a n ts b y a d d in g t o a m in eral
lu b ric a tin g oil a n a d d itio n p r o d u c t— e.g., 0 1 % o f p y ro g a llo l a n d 0 1 % w a te r , o r 0 0 1 %
of e th y l fo rm a te a n d 0 0 1 % of w a te r, o r 0 -0 0 0 5 % o f s ilv e r c h lo rid e s o lu tio n d issolved
in aq u eo u s am m o n ia , e tc .

N . V. de B a ta a fs c h e P e tro le u m M ij. E .P . 4 96,779, 6 .1 2.38. A p p l. 23.12.37.

rocess of rem o v in g n a p h th e n ic a c id s fro m m in e r a l lu b r ic a tin g o ils o r lu b r ic a tin g oil
ra c tio n s y c o n ta c tin g th e o ils in th e v a p o u r p h a s e a t t e m p e r a t u r e s a b o v e 300° C.
in le p resen ce of a c a ta ly s t o f h ig h p o r o s ity a n d w ith a la rg e c a ta l y ti c su rfa c e selected
ro m e g r o u p ; lith iu m h y d ro x id e , c a r b o n a te o r p h o s p h a te , s o d iu m h y d ro x id e
 ABSTKACTS. 109 A

o r c a rb o n a te , p o ta s s iu m c a r b o n a te , b e r y l l i u m o x id e o r c a r b o n a te , m a g n e s iu m h y d ro x id e
o r c a r b o n a te , o r o x id e s , h y d r o x id e s o r c a r b o n a te s o f c a lc iu m , a lu m in iu m , o r m a n g a n e s e ,
e tc .

E d e le a n u G e s e llsc h a ft m .b .H . E .P . 496,955, 8.12.38. A p p l. 8.6.37. D e w a x in g

o f h y d r o c a r b o n o ils u s in g a n h y d r o u s p y r id in e a n d /o r i t s h o m o lo g u e s u sin g n i t r o ­
b en zen e . a n ilin e o r c h lo ra n ilin e .

E d e le a n u G e s e llsc h a ft m .b .H . E .P . 4 96,956, 8.12.38. A p p l. 8.6.37. S o lv e n t

refin in g o f h y d r o c a r b o n o ils u s in g a s s o lv e n t p y r id in e o r i t s h o m o lo g u e s to g e th e r w ith
n itro b e n z e n e , a n ilin e o r c h lo r o n itr ile .

E d e le a n u G e s e llsc h a ft m .b .H . a n d F . B . D e h n . E .P . 496.991, 8.12.38. A p p l.

8.6.37. P ro c e ss a s d e s c rib e d in E .P . 4 9 6,956, u s in g o n e o f th e fo llo w in g : so d .
c a r b o n a te o r h y d r o s u lp h id e , o r p o t . n it r it e .
I. G. F a r b e n in d u s tr ie A .-G . E .P . 497,541, 21.1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 25.4.38. P r o d u c tio n
o f lu b r ic a tin g o il b y p o ly m e r iz in g p r o p y le n e a n d a - b u ty le n e o r m ix tu r e s o f th e s e .

H. E . R . \ o gel. E .P . 4 97,306, 16.12.38. A p p l. 4.12.37. P ro c e ss a n d a p p a r a tu s

fo r t e s ti n g t h e lu b r ic a tin g v a lu e o f lu b r ic a tin g o ils.

A . B . B ro w n a n d F . F . D iw o k y . U .S .P . 2 ,1 3 8,832, 6.12.38. A p p l. 15.10.32.

S o lv e n t e x t r a c t i o n o f lu b r ic a tin g o il u s in g m ix e d s o lv e n ts — e.g., a n a lip h a tic e th e r
c o n ta in in g m o re t h a n 8 C a to m s a n d ^ -c h lo r in a te d a lip h a tic e th e r c o n ta in in g n o t
m o re t h a n 8 C a to m s .

A . B . B ro w n a n d F . F . D iw o k y . U .S .P . 2,138,833, 6.12.38. A p p l. 2.4.34. S o lv e n t

e x tr a c tio n o f lu b r ic a tin g o ils u s in g a m ix tu r e o f d i( 2 - e h lo re th y l) e th e r a n d p h e n o l.

A . B . B ro w n a n d F . F . D iw o k y . U .S .P . 2,138,834, 6.12.38. A p p l. 18.4.32.

S o lv e n t e x t r a c t i o n o f lu b r ic a tin g o ils u s in g a m ix tu r e o f 2 5 - 5 0 % o f ort/w chloro-
p h e n o l, 70—4 0 % o f p a r a c h lo r o p h e n o l a n d 1 5 -1 0 % o f p h e n o l.

L . L ib e rth s o n . U .S .P . 2 ,1 3 8,868, 6.1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 2.10 .34. P ro c e ss o f lo w e rin g

t h e p o u r p o i n t o f lu b r ic a tin g o ils c o n ta in in g w a x b y s u b je c tin g t h e w a x y o il in t h e
fo rm o f a t h i n film t o t h e a c tio n o f u ltr a - v io le t r a d i a ti o n o f 2800 A n g s tr o m u n its a t
te m p e r a tu re s b elo w t h e b .- p . o f t h e o il a n d b le n d in g w ith a n o n - ir r a d ia te d w a x y oil.

G. H . H u tc h in s a n d A . W . H a r t ig a n . U .S .P . 2,139,161, 6.12.38. A p p l. 6.4.36.

R e fin in g lu b r ic a tin g o ils b y m e a n s o f a d s o r b e n t e a r th s in o rd e r t o p ro d u c e c o m m e rc ia lly
u se fu l a s p h a lt a n d s p e n t a d s o r b e n t.

E . G . M c F a rla n d . U .S .P . 2 ,1 3 9,240, 6.12.38. A p p l. 24.11.36. S o lv e n t refin in g

o f h y d r o c a r b o n o ils u s in g f u rf u ra l.

F . W . B r e th a n d A . K in s e l. U .S .P . 2,139,668, 13.12.38. A p p l. 3.6.36. E x tr a c tio n

of P e n n s y lv a n ia n o ils w i t h a c e to n e .

R . R . W ilso n , E . K . B ro w n a n d F . L . W h ite . U .S .P . 2,139,871, 13.12.38. A p p l.

6.8.37, a n d M . R . F e n s k e a n d W . B . M cC luer. U .S .P . 2,139,943, 13.12.38. A p p l.
13.7.34. S o lv e n t e x t r a c t io n a p p a r a t u s fo r lu b r ic a tin g oils.

E. J . M a rtin . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 0,161, 13.12.38. A p p l. 14.11.34. M a n u fa c tu re of

lu b ric a tin g o ils fro m w a x y p e tr o le u m d is tilla te s b y d e w a x in g a n d t r e a ti n g th e d e w a x e d
oil w ith c o n c e n tr a te d H 2S 0 4 a t — 10° F . a n d s e p a r a tin g th e s lu d g e a lso a t t h i s t e m ­
p e ra tu re .
J . S. W a llis a n d C. T . C h a v e . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 0,342, 13.12.38. A p p l. 23.2.34. V acuum
d is tilla tio n o f lu b r ic a tin g oils.
E. T e rre s , E . S a e g e b a r th , J . M oos a n d H . R a m s e r . U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 0,485, 13.12.38.
A p p l. 22.5.35. R e fin in g a s p h a ltic m in e r a l o il b y d is s o lv in g i t in d ic h lo ro d iflu o ro -
m e th a n e , re m o v in g t h e u n d is s o lv e d a s p h a lt, c h illin g th e m ix tu r e to d e w a x , re m o v in g
t h e w a x , a n d e x t r a c t i n g t h e s o lu tio n w it h a se le c tiv e so lv e n t in w h ic h d ic h lo ro d i-
flu o ro m e th a n e is n o t w h o lly m isc ib le .
 ABSTRACTS.
110 a

E B
H ie rp e a n d W . A. G ru se. U .S .P . 2 ,1 41,085, 20.1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 2.11.34.
rw ro a sin eth e v is c o s ity /g r. c o n s ta n t o f p e tr o le u m lu b r ic a tin g o ils b y e x tr a c tio n a t
0-100° F . w ith a m ix tu re o f e th y le n e d ic b lo rid e a n d liq u id S 0 2.

E. T orres, J . M oos a n d E . S a e g e b a rth . U .S .P . 2,141,143, 20 .1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 25.10.37.

D ew ax in g lu b ric a tin g oil u s in g te tr a b r o m o e th a n e a n d a n a u x ilia r y s o lv e n t su c h as
benzol.
E W . T h iele a n d B . G in sb e rg . U .S .P . 2,141,257, 27.1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 28.5.36. Im ­
p ro v e m e n t of t h e p ro p e rtie s o f s te a m -re fin e d lu b r ic a tin g o ils w h ic h h a v e b e e n d e ­
a s p h a lte d b y m e a n s of p r o p a n e a t 100-115° F . b y a d d in g i~ 2 % o f re d u c e d p re ssu re
ta r.
P . J . H a r rin g to n . U .S .P . 2,141,297, 27.2.38. A p p l. 11.12.34. M e th o d o f r e ­
co v erin g oil fro m p e tro le u m a c id slu d g e .
S. P i l a t a n d M. G odlew icz. U .S .P . 2,141,361, 27.1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 13.4.37. D e­
w ax in g h y d ro c a rb o n o il b y m e a n s o f creso l.
C. C. B u c h le r a n d S. H . D iggs. U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 1,511, 27.1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 17.2.36.
S o lv en t e x tr a c tio n of o il u s in g fjp -d ic h lo rd ie th y l e th e r a n d 2 - 2 0 % of d ie th y le n e
glycol.
W . B . H e n d ry a n d L . W . C ook. U .S .P . 2 ,1 4 1,605, 27.1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 2.4.37.
S o lv en t refin in g of lu b r ic a tin g oils u s in g a s s o lv e n t te t r a h y d r o f u r f u r y l a c e ta te a n d a
h a lo g e n a te d a c e tic acid .
H. B . S etzler. U .S .P . 2,141,622, 27.12.38. A p p l. 8.10.34. S o lv e n t d e w a x in g a n d
sim u lta n e o u s a c id refin in g of lu b r ic a tin g o il c o n ta in in g a n in su ffic ie n t q u a n t it y of
slu d g e-fo rm in g s u b s ta n c e . S till re s id u e is a d d e d t o t h e o il, t h e m i x tu r e is c h illed to
d ew ax , a n d th e n t r e a t e d w h ile s til l c o ld w it h 1 12SO^ in o r d e r t o p r o d u c e a sludge
a d a p te d t o a id th e s e p a ra tio n o f w a x fro m t h e oil.

V . I . D o w n ey . U .S .P . 2,141,623, 27.12.38. A p p l. 2 2 .4 .3 7 . P r o d u c tio n o f lu b r ic a t­

in g oil fro m P e n n s y lv a n ia n c ru d e o il b y f irs t re d u c in g t h e v is c o s ity a n d c re a tin g
u n s a tu ra te s o r re a c tiv e su b s ta n c e s b y s lig h tly c r a c k in g t h e o il. T h e se u n s a tu ra te s
a n d r e a c tiv e s u b s ta n c e s a re re m o v e d to g e th e r w it h t h e w a x b y c h illin g a n d th e oil
is th e n a c id - tre a te d . T h e o il is s e p a r a te d f ro m t h e s lu d g e , a n d b le n d e d w ith o th er
oils to p ro d u c e v a rio u s co m m e rc ia l g ra d e s o f lu b r ic a tin g o ils.

L e R . G. S to ry . U .S .P . 2,141,626, 27.12.38. A p p l. 5.2 .3 7 . S o lv e n t refin in g of

h y d ro c a rb o n o il b y m e a n s o f a n o n -a lc o h o lic s o lv e n t i n w h ic h t h e e m u lsific a tio n
o ccu rrin g d u rin g t h e e x tr a c tio n a n d s e p a r a tio n i n to p h a s e s , is i n h ib ite d b y a d d in g
a m e ta l so a p o f a h ig h e r f a t t y a c id . W . S . E . C.

Special Products.
336. Patents on Special Products. B rim s d o w n C h e m ic a l W o r k s , J . C. L id d le a n d H .
M eyer. E .P . 496,942, 5.12.38. A p p l. 3.6.37. P r o d u c tio n o f a c tiv e c a rb o n by
h e a tin g v e g e ta b le — e.g., w o o d c h a rc o a l a n d n u t- s h e ll c h a r c o a l t o a t le a s t 700° C. a n d
su b je c tin g to th e a c tio n of a m ix tu r e o f s te a m a n d a ir .

S ta n d a r d O il D e v e lo p m e n t Co. E .P . 496,966, 9 .1 2 .3 8 . A p p l. 10.6.37. M a n u ­

f a c tu re of sta b iliz e d h y d r o c a r b o n p o ly m e rs d e r iv e d f ro m is o b u ty le n e , of m o l. w t.
a b o v e 14,000.

E. I . D u P o n t d e N e m o u rs & Co. a n d V . F . H a n s o n . E .P . 4 9 7,234, 14.12.38.

A p p l. 14.6.37. M a n u fa c tu re of c a r b o n b la c k b y e le c tr o th e r m a l d e c o m p o s itio n of
liq u id h y d ro c a rb o n s.

G. W . Jo h n s o n . E .P . 497,427, 16.12.38. A p p l. 16.6.37. C o n v e rs io n o f c o m p o u n d s

c o n ta in in g a c e ty le n e in to d e f in e lin k a g e s b y t r e a t i n g t h e m w i t h a n a q u e o u s su spension
o f zin c w h ich is a c tiv a te d b y C u a n d C d. W . S. E . C.
 ABSTRACTS. Ill A

Detonation and Engines.

337. V ariation of Certain C om bustion F actors in In tern al Com bustion E n gin es. M .
P re co u l. Rev. Comb. L iq., A u g .- S e p t. 1938, 16 (157), 2 3 7 -2 4 0 .— V a rio u s c u rv e s a re
giv en in c o n n e c tio n w i t h flam e p r o p a g a tio n , r e la tio n b e tw e e n p re s s u re a n d v o lu m e
of g ases a n d v o lu m e d is t r i b u ti o n . T h e c u r v e p — f(t) is s t a t e d t o b e o f p a r tic u la r
in te r e s t a s i t g iv e s i n f o r m a tio n o n t h e su rfa c e f r o n t o f t h e fla m e w h ic h in t u r n is p a r tl y
r e la te d t o t h e s p e e d o f c o m b u s tio n . T h e m o s t i m p o r ta n t f a c to r b r o u g h t o u t b y th e s e
cu rv es is p r o p a g a tio n s p e e d o f t h e fla m e w h o se v a r ia t io n a g re e s i n a ll re s p e c ts w i th
th e a r e a o f t h e f r o n t o f t h e fla m e fro m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f e n g in e p e rfo rm a n c e . A ll
e x p e rim e n ta l w o r k b e a r in g o n t h e s h a p e o f t h e c h a m b e r is d ir e c te d to w a r d s o b ta in in g
a m a x im u m fla m e p r o p a g a ti o n s p e e d a f te r t h e fla m e h a s c o v e re d o n e - th ird o f i t s
course fro m t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t o f c o m b u s tio n . A lth o u g h t h e c u rv e s V = f(d) do
n o t a p p e a r t o h a v e a n y d ir e c t b e a r in g o n t h e c o n s tr u c tio n o f e n g in e s t h e y a llo w th e
c a lc u la tio n o f t h e b e s t v o lu m e tric y ie ld o f t h e e x p lo s io n c h a m b e r. T h u s , fro m t h e
ab o v e tw o c u rv e s i t is p o s s ib le to o b ta in c o m p le te in f o rm a tio n a b o u t t h e p e rfo rm a n c e
a n d o u t p u t o f a n e n g in e . M. M. L.

338. Effect of Sp ark ing-p lu g M aterial on O ctane R atin g. F . F is c h e r a n d H . P o h l.

Brennst.-Chemie, 1 5 .1 2 .3 8 , 19 (24), 4 5 8 -4 6 0 .— R e s u lts a r e g iv e n o f t e s ts c a r r ie d o u t
in a n I.G . k n o c k - te s tin g e n g in e o n t h e effe ct o f s p a rk in g - p lu g d e s ig n a n d m a te r ia l
o n k n o c k in g . T e s te d p lu g s h a d t h r e e e le c tro d e s o f a m p le s e c tio n m a c h in e d fro m
th e b o d y p r o p e r th e r e b y e lim in a tin g w e ld e d o r r iv e te d jo i n t s to ta k e fu ll a d v a n ta g e
of th e h ig h h e a t c o n d u c t i v it y o f t h e m e ta ls u s e d . W it h c o p p e r a s a b o d y a n d e le c ­
tr o d e m a te r ia l, t h e o c ta n e n u m b e r o f t h e fu e l in u s e w a s im p ro v e d fro m 54-7 o b s e rv e d
w ith a s t a n d a r d p lu g , t o 58-5. T h is p lu g g a v e s a tis f a c to r y se rv ic e d u r in g t h e tw o
h o u rs o f t e s t. S im ila r r e s u l ts w e re o b ta in e d w ith a m ic a p lu g e q u ip p e d w ith C u
e le c tro d e s, t h e o c ta n e n u m b e r im p ro v e m e n t a m o u n tin g t o 2-6 e m its. W i t h b r a s s
a s e le c tro d e m a te r ia l, t h e e ffe c t w a s less, w h ile a lu m in iu m a n d le a d h a d n o effect
a t a ll. L. R.

S ee also A b s tr a c t N o . 301.

Coal and Shale.

339. P ossib ility of S olven t E xtraction of P henols from Coal Tar. G . A g d e a n d H .
S c h u e re n b e rg . Brennst.-Chemie, 15.12.38, 19 (24), 4 5 7 -4 5 8 .— T h e p o s s ib ility o f
e x tr a c tin g lo w b o ilin g p h e n o ls f ro m co a l t a r b y w a s h in g w i th o rg a n ic se le c tiv e s o lv e n ts
h a s b e e n in v e s tig a te d . T e s ts w e re c a r r ie d o u t w it h a c e to n e -w a te r, fo rm ic a eid -
w a te r, a n d p e tr o le u m e t h e r - m e t h a n o l m ix tu re s , a n d i t w as f o u n d t h a t , c o n tr a r y t o
p re v io u s a s s e rtio n s , i t is im p o ss ib le t o o b ta in o il-free p h e n o ls in o n e sin g le o p e r a tio n .
L. R .

340. P atent on Coal. A . P o t t . U .S .P . 2 ,1 41,615, 27.12.38. A p p l. 30.11.35. E x ­

tr a c tio n o f c a rb o n a c e o u s m a te r ia l w it h liq u id s o lv e n ts — e.g., te tr a l in e a n d p h e n o l.
W . S. E . C.

Economics and Statistics.

3 41. Report on H eavy-O il E n g in e W orking Costs (1 9 3 7 -1 9 3 8 ). H . V . S te a d , W . S.
B u m , L . H o tin e , C. G re e n a n d W . H . S k in n e r. D iesel Eng. Vs. A s s., P u b n N o.
S .149.— A s u m m a r y is g iv e n o f t h e w o rk in g c o s ts of t h e d ie s e l p l a n t r u n b y 75 d iffe re n t
u n d e r ta k in g s , r e p re s e n tin g a t o t a l o f 337 e n g in e s . S u c h f a c to rs a s fu e l a n d lu b r ic a tin g -
o il c o n s u m p tio n , a n d e n g in e re n e w a ls a r e d isc u sse d , w h ile m u c h a d d itio n a l in f o rm a tio n
is g iv e n in t a b u l a r f o rm .
C o m m e n ts s e n t i n b y t h e c o n tr i b u ti n g m e m b e rs a re also in c lu d e d . J . G. W .
 112 A

BOOK REVIEWS.
ADDlied Geophysics in the Search for M inerals. B y A . S . E v e a n d D . A . K e y s .
_3
T h ird
'
E d itio n . 1938. P p . 316. C a m b r i d g e U n iv e r s ity P re s s . P ric e 16s.
T h e d e v e lo p m e n t of g eo p h y sic a l m e th o d s o f p r o s p e c tin g is o f th e g r e a te s t im ­
p o rta n c e to th e m in in g a n d oil in d u s tr ie s , a n d t h e g e o p h y s ic is t t o - d a y is a very
e ssen tial lin k b e tw e e n th e g eo lo g ist a n d t h e e n g in e e r.
T h e d ish a rm o n y b e tw e e n t h e s u rfa c e a n d u n d e r g r o u n d f o rm a tio n s h a s b e e n th e
cau se of m a n y ex p e n siv e fa ilu re s in th e p a s t, b u t to - d a y , t h a n k s t o t h e effo rts of
th e g eo p h y sicist, th e te s t b o re h o le c a n b e lo c a te d in t h e m o s t f a v o u ra b le p o sitio n .
T h e v a s t a llu v ia l p la in s a re b e in g th o r o u g h ly c o m b e d b y t h e g e o p h y s ic ist, an d
m a n y g re a t d isc o v eries h a v e a lr e a d y b e e n m a d e .
T h o se in te r e s te d in th e s u b je c t o f a p p lie d g e o p h y s ic s w ill fin d lu c id acco u n ts
of th e v a rio u s m e th o d s in th e T h ir d E d it i o n o f t h i s b o o k b y E v e a n d K e y s. I t
is one of th e few b o o k s in E n g lis h o n t h i s f a s c in a tin g s u b je c t. T h e a u th o r s clearly
h a v e e x p e rt k n o w led g e of so m e o f t h e m e th o d s , p a r t ic u la r l y of t h e v a r io u s electrical
m e th o d s of p ro sp e c tin g fo r o re. I n d e e d , t h e p a r t o f t h e b o o k d e a lin g w ith these
m e th o d s c o n ta in s v e ry v a lu a b le c o n tr ib u tio n s t o g e o p h y s ic a l lite r a tu r e .
I t is five y e a rs since th e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e p r e v io u s e d itio n , a n d in th is new
v o lu m e som e m in o r m o d ific a tio n s h a v e b e e n m a d e a n d a c h a p te r a d d e d dealing
w ith th e ch ief a d v a n c e s d u rin g th e p a s t y e a r s . A t te n t io n m a y b e d ire c te d to
S ch lu m b erg er’s “ ele c tric a l co rin g ” fo r e x p lo rin g u n c a s e d b o rin g s fo r oil ; th e
ra tio m e te r m e th o d s of e le c tric a l p ro s p e c tin g ; a n d t h e im p ro v e m e n ts in th e m agnetic,
re s is tiv ity a n d seism ic m e th o d s o f e x p lo r a tio n . A lth o u g h t h e c h a p te r s o n the
seism ic a n d g r a v ity m e th o d s a r e p e r h a p s n o t a s a u t h o r i t a t i v e a s t h e o th e rs, th e
s tu d e n t of g eo p h y sics w ill fin d m u c h u se fu l m a te r ia l o n th e s e m e th o d s .
T h e b o o k is v e ry w ell w r itte n , a n d i t w ill a p p e a l t o t h e e x p e r t a n d th e stu d e n t
alik e. J - H . J o n es.

The E xam ination of F ragm ental R ock s. B y F r e d e r ic k G . T ic k e ll. P p . x + 154.

L o n d o n : O x fo rd U n iv e r s ity P re s s . C a lif o r n ia : S ta n f o r d U n iv e r s ity Press.
1939. §4.00.
W h e n P ro fe s so r T ic k e ll’s b o o k w a s firs t p u b lis h e d e ig h t y e a r s a g o i t s p re fa to ry
n o tic e a d d u c e d a s a re a so n fo r i t s a p p e a r a n c e , t h e w id e s p re a d i n te r e s t ta k e n in
i ts s u b je c t-m a tte r b y w o rk ers in m a n y d iffe re n t field s of a p p lie d p h y s ic a l science.
T h is in te r e s t h a s n o t d im in ish e d w it h t h e la p s e of tim e a n d a n e w e d itio n h a s been
lo n g o v erd u e. T h e n e w v o lu m e n o w a p p e a r s a s a r e v is e d v e r s io n , w i t h t h e ch ap ter
o n P o ro s ity a n d P e r m e a b ility e n tir e ly r e w r itte n , t h e b ib lio g ra p h y b r o u g h t u p to
d a te , a n d w ith c e r ta in a lte r a tio n s in t h e o rig in a l t e x t .
T h ese ch an g es h a v e in c re a se d t h e size o f t h e b o o k b y 27 p a g e s w h ile i t s form er
p rice h a s, mirabile dictu /, b e e n re d u c e d b y 20 % .
A s e x p la in e d in th e p re fa c e t o th e firs t e d itio n , t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e b o o k is to
b rin g to g e th e r in on e v o lu m e t h e b e s t o f th o s e in v e s tig a tiv e m e th o d s w h ich have
b een d ev elo p ed in a v a r ie ty o f sp e c ia liz e d field s, so t h a t t h e y c o u ld b e of com m on
in te re s t a n d u t i l i ty t o th e w o rk e rs in a ll o f th e m .
I n th e in tro d u c to r y c h a p te r t h e r e is g iv e n a l i s t o f s e v e n te e n ty p i c a l su b stan ces
w h ich th e a u th o r c o n sid e rs c o u ld b e p r o fita b ly e x a m in e d o r t e s te d b y th e physical
m e th o d s w hich h e describ es.
T h is lis t in clu d es s u c h d iv e rg e n t m a te r ia ls a s s a n d s f o r m o u ld in g a n d glass-
m ak in g , ceram ic ra w m a te r ia ls a n d p r o d u c ts , P o r t l a n d c e m e n t, b u ild in g stones,
oil a n d w a te r sa n d s, c ry s ta llin e c h e m ic a l c o m p o u n d s a n d r o t a r y d rillin g m u d s.
T h e p h y sic a l a t t r ib u t e s o f th o s e m a te r ia ls w ith w h ic h t h e a u t h o r p ro p o ses to
deal a re o n ly se v en in n u m b e r a n d six o f th e s e a r e d e a lt w i t h i n t h e firs t tw o ch a p te rs
a n d in clu d e th e size a n d s h a p e o f g ra in s , c o n s id e re d u n d e r t h e g e n e ra l h e a d in g of
Size A n aly sis, p o ro s ity a n d p e r m e a b ility ( d e a lt w ith in a s e p a r a te c h a p te r ) , d en sity
a n d s ta te of a g g re g a tio n .
T h e la s t s u b je c t is h o w e v e r o n ly c o n s id e re d v e r y b rie fly a t t h e e n d of th e c h a p te r
o n size a n a ly sis, th e tw o p a g e s in v o lv e d b e in g c o n fin e d t o p r a c tic a l m e th o d s for
p re p a rin g sp ecim ens fo r s u b s e q u e n t e x a m in a tio n b y t r a n s m i t t e d o r re fle c te d light.

I
A c tu ally th is a p p e a rs to b e m isp la c e d in th e b o o k , sin c e th e r e is a l a te r ch a piter te r
e n tire ly d e v o te d to th e p r e p a r a tio n o f sp e c im e n s.
 BOOK R E V IE W S . 113 A

T h e s e v e n th a t t r i b u t e , w h ic h t h e a u t h o r re fe rs t o a s “ m in e r a l c o n te n t, c o n ­
s t i t u t e s t h e la r g e r p o r tio n o f t h e w h o le v o lu m e , a n d d e a ls w i th t h e id e n tif ic a tio n
of th e m in e ra ls lik e ly t o b e fo u n d in t h e c o m m o n e r ro c k f ra g m e n ts .
T h e c h a p te r s o n size a n a ly s is , p o r o s ity a n d p e r m e a b ility a r e a d m ir a b ly p u t
to g e th e r a n d p r o v id e a ll t h e e s s e n tia l in f o r m a tio n a n d d e s c rip tiv e d e t a il r e la tiv e
t o c u r re n t m e th o d s w i th o u t u n n e c e s s a ry v e rb ia g e . T h e s e c tio n o n w a t e r c la s sific a ­
t io n m ig h t w ith a d v a n ta g e h a v e b e e n e x te n d e d so a s t o in c lu d e e l u t r ia ti o n m e th o d s
w h ich t h e a u t h o r d ism is se s in f a v o u r o f t h e m e th o d o f u n d is tu r b e d s e ttlin g . T h is
o m issio n is r e m a rk a b le in v ie w o f t h e f a c t t h a t e l u t r ia ti o n h a s co m e t o t h e fo re
w ith in r e c e n t y e a r s fo r larg e -sc a le c la s sific a tio n in m a n y o f t h e in d u s tr ie s sp e c ific a lly
m e n tio n e d b y t h e a u th o r .
T h e A .P .I . t e n t a t i v e m e th o d fo r t h e d e t e r m in a ti o n o f p e r m e a b ility is q u o te d
a n d d isc u sse d a t so m e le n g th (five p a g e s ), t h e a u th o r p o in tin g o u t a t t h e c o n c lu sio n
t h a t t h e n e c e s sa ry a p p a r a tu s is e x p e n s iv e t o c o n s tr u c t b e c a u s e o f t h e n e c e s s ity
fo r a n a ir c o m p re ss o r a n d s u b s id ia r y a p p lia n c e s . H e th e n m e n tio n s t h a t m e th o d s
h a v e b een d e v e lo p e d in m o d e m f o u n d r y p r a c tic e fo r t h e d e te r m in a tio n o f p e r ­
m e a b ility t o a ir o f m o u ld in g sa n d s , a n d re fe rs t o a p o r ta b le a n d in e x p e n s iv e i n s t r u ­
m e n t o f t h i s t y p e d e s ig n e d b y h im se lf. U n f o r tu n a te ly h e d i s a p p o in ts t h e r e a d e r
b y o m ittin g a d e s c rip tio n o f t h is in s tr u m e n t.
T h e th r e e c h a p te r s d e a lin g w it h t h e id e n tific a tio n o f m in e r a ls p r o v id e a n e x c e lle n t
ex a m p le o f in te llig e n t o m iss io n o f n o n -e s s e n tia l d e ta ils . W i th in t h e r a n g e of
n in e ty -o n e p a g e s t h e r e is c o m p re ss e d a s m u c h p r a c tic a l a n d e s s e n tia l in f o r m a tio n
as w o u ld c o m m o n ly b e f o u n d i n a b o o k o f tw ic e i t s size.
T h e s e p a ra tio n o f m in e r a ls b y p a n n in g , h e a v y liq u id c o n c e n tr a tio n a n d b y
m a g n e tic , e le c tr o s ta tic a n d d ie le c tric m e th o d s , o c c u p ie s t h i r t e e n p a g e s a n d is
a c c o m p a n ie d b y u se fu l ta b le s a n d il lu s tr a tio n s , so m e o f w h ic h p r o v id e in f o r m a tio n
w h ich is n o t a v a ila b le in e v e n r e c e n t e d itio n s o f c o n te m p o r a r y te x t- b o o k s o n
p e tro lo g ic a l m e th o d s .
T h e se c tio n s d e v o te d t o o p tic a l p r o p e r tie s a n d t h e p r a c t ic a l u s e o f t h e p e tr o -
g ra p h ie m icro sco p e a re e s s e n tia lly p r a c tic a l a n d su ffic ie n tly c o m p re h e n s iv e fo r
th e p u rp o se s s e t f o r th a s w ith in t h e ra n g e o f t h e b o o k . A s e c tio n o n t h e c o n s tr u c ­
tio n a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of o r ie n ta tio n - c le a v a g e d ia g r a m s is a u s e fu l f e a tu r e w h ic h
is illu s tr a te d b y tw o p a g e s of c le a r illu s tr a tio n s .
R e c e n t im p ro v e m e n ts in s p e c tro g ra p h ic in s tr u m e n ts h a v e e n a b le d a n in c r e a s in g
n u m b e r o f c h e m is ts , m in e r a lo g is ts a n d m e ta llu r g is ts t o u tiliz e t h e s p e c tro s c o p e
a s a n a c c u r a te a n d c o n v e n ie n t in s tr u m e n t fo r a n a ly tic a l p u rp o s e s . T h e in c lu s io n
o f a s h o r t a c c o u n t o f t h e m o d e m m e th o d s o f s p e c tro g ra p h ic e x a m in a tio n i n t h e
b o o k is th e re fo re a p p o s ite a n d t h e i r a p p lic a tio n fo r t h e i d e n tific a tio n o f s u c h m in e r a ls
as b e ry l, c a s s ite r ite o r t ita n if e r o u s m a g n e tite is d e s c rib e d b y t h e a u th o r .
T o s u m u p , t h i s is a b o o k w h ic h c a n b e h ig h ly re c o m m e n d e d a s a c o n c is e a n d
e m in e n tly p r a c tic a l h a n d b o o k w h ic h s h o u ld p r o v e o f g r e a t in te r e s t a n d u t i l i t y t o
p e tro le u m te c h n o lo g is ts in m a n y b ra n c h e s of t h e i r p ro fe s sio n .
T h e p r in tin g , i l l u s t r a ti n g a n d b in d in g o f t h e v o lu m e a r e b e y o n d r e p r o a c h w i th
p e r h a p s t h e s o lita r y e x c e p tio n o f t h e la s t ta b le w h ic h is in s u c h s m a ll p r i n t t h a t i t
is p r a c tic a lly u se less a s a m e d iu m fo r r e a d y re fe re n c e . T h is d r a w b a c k is f u r th e r
in te n sifie d b y t h e u se o f n u m e ro u s a b b r e v ia tio n s , t h e k e y t o w h ic h is in s t i l l s m a lle r
P r ’n t - J . M c C o n n e ll S a n d e rs .

A lcool Motor e M otores a E xplosao. B y E . S a b in o d e O liv e ira . P p . 356. In stitu te

N a c io n a l d e T e c h n o lo g ia , R io d e J a n e iro . 1937.
P u b lis h e d u n d e r t h e a u s p ic e s o f t h e B r a z ilia n M in is try o f L a b o u r, I n d u s t r y an d
C o m m erce, t h i s b o o k s u m m a riz e s t h e r e s u lts o f so m e s ix y e a r s o f s t u d y , carrie d
o u t in t h e la b o r a to rie s o f t h e S a n P a u lo P o ly te c h n ic S ch o o l, a n d t h e N a tio n a l
ie c h n o lo g ic a l I n s t i t u t e a t R io d e J a n e iro .
T h e o b je c t o f th e s e s tu d ie s a n d t h e e v e n ts w h ic h p re c e d e d t h e m a r e e x p la in e d
m a p re fa c e , o c c u p y in g elev en p a g e s, b y D r. F o n s e c a C o sta , M in is te r o f A g ric u ltu re
to t h e S a n P a u lo g o v e rn m e n t, t o w h o se i n i t ia t iv e is la rg e ly d u e t h e in te r e s t
t a k e n b y th e B r a z ilia n G o v e rn m e n t in th e a t t e m p t s t o fin d a s u b s t i tu te fo r gaso lin e
a s a fu e l fo r in t e r n a l c o m b u s tio n e n g in e s.
I t is p o in te d o u t t h a t t h e c o n c lu s io n of t h e G r e a t W a r le f t i n m a n y n a ti o n s a
d eep se n se o f t h e i r d e p e n d e n c e u p o n e x te r io r so u rc e s fo r th e i r v i t a l n e c e ssitie s
 BOOK R E V IEW S.
114 a

in m o to r fuel. F ra n c e is c r e d ite d w i th t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f a s e a rc h fo r a p e tro le u m

s u b s titu te w ith in h e r ow n fro n tie rs , a n d h e r e x a m p le w a s so o n fo llo w ed b y G erm any,
I t a l y , S w eden a n d o th e r c o u n trie s.
I n B razil, w h ere p e tro le u m h a d n o t y e t b e e n d is c o v e re d m c o m m e rc ia l q u a n titie s,
g re a t in te r e s t w as d is p la y e d in th e F re n c h p r o p o s a l t o u tiliz e a lc o h o l, a lth o u g h a
p o w erfu l o p p o sitio n c a m p a ig n w a s b e in g w a g e d , a lle g in g t h a t t h e a c id s resu ltin g
fro m in co m p lete c o m b u s tio n a t t a c k e d a n d c o r ro d e d t h e m o to rs , w h ile i t s low
calorific v a lu e m a d e i t a p o o r s u b s t it u te fo r g a so lin e .
As f a r b a c k as 1923 e x p e r im e n ts t o p r o v e o r d is p r o v e th e s e a lle g a tio n s were
m ad e, a n d in A u g u s t o f t h a t y e a r a B r a z ilia n e n g in e e r, M r. H e r a ld o d e Souza
M a tto s, c a rrie d o u t a p r a c tic a l d e m o n s tr a tio n b e fo re t h e B r a z ilia n A utom obile
C lub, u sin g a F o rd c a r fu elled e x c lu s iv e ly w i th a lc o h o l, w h ic h su c cessfu lly com ­
p le te d a n a llo tte d co u rse o f 230 k ilo m e tre s .
I t w as n o t u n til 1931 t h a t a g o v e r n m e n ta l d e c re e e n a c te d t h a t im p o rta tio n s of
g aso lin e in to th e c o u n tr y sh o u ld h a v e a t le a s t 5 % o f n a t io n a lly p ro d u c e d alcohol
a d d e d p rio r to c o n s u m p tio n , th is d e c re e p e r m i tt e d t h e u s e o f 9 6 % s p ir it, since
a n h y d ro u s alco h o l w as n o t t h e n a v a ila b le .
T h e m a n u fa c tu re of d e h y d r a te d s p ir it, a s w ell a s a c a re fu l s t u d y o f m a n y technical
p ro b lem s in v o lv e d in i t s a p p lic a tio n , c o n s titu te d a s u b je c t fo r in v e s tig a tio n b y th e
I n s t i t u t e of S u g a r a n d A lcohol, c r e a te d in 1933 t o c o - o rd in a te t h e w o rk of th e
C om m ission fo r t h e D efen ce of S u g a r P r o d u c tio n w i t h t h a t o f a C o m m issio n for
th e S tu d y o f A lcohol M o to rs, c r e a te d in 1931.
T h e e x p e rim e n ts m a d e i n 1923 h a d b e e n c a r r ie d o u t in t h e E x p e r im e n ta l S ta tio n
of F u e l a n d M in ing, a n d t h i s e s ta b lis h m e n t w a s i n 1933 re -n a m e d t h e N a tio n al
T ech n o lo g ical I n s t i t u t e a n d , a c tin g u n d e r t h e a u s p ic e s o f t h e I n s t i t u t e of Sugar
a n d A lcohol, p ro c e e d e d t o s tu d y t h e a p p lic a tio n o f a n h y d r o u s a lc o h o l a s a m otor
fuel.
I t w as in th is c o n n e c tio n t h a t t h e a u th o r o f t h e p r e s e n t w o r k c a r r ie d o u t the
in v e s tig a tio n s w h ich fo rm i t s s u b je c t m a t te r .
I n th e in tro d u c tio n t o h is b o o k M r. S a b in o d e O liv e ira p a y s h a n d s o m e trib u te
t o t h e w o rk o f th e B r itis h E m p ir e M o to r F u e ls C o m m itte e , w h o se r e p o rts he
c h a ra c te riz e s a s “ jew els o f c la r ity a n d p r e c is io n ,” e v e n a ffirm in g t h a t previous
t o th e ir p u b lic a tio n a b s o lu te c o n fu sio n m a r k e d t h e s t a t e o f k n o w le d g e re la tiv e to
th e alco h o l m o to r. H e also re fe rs w i th h ig h a p p r e c ia tio n t o t h e m a s te rly w ork of
R ic a rd o in E n g la n d , of D u m a n o is in F ra n c e a n d C a lc a v e c c h ia in C u b a .
T h e w o rk is d iv id e d in to tw o p a r t s ; t h e f irs t, o c c u p y in g 242 p a g e s is purely
te c h n ic a l w h ile th e se co n d is s a id t o b e a f ifty -s ix -p a g e risu m i o f t h e la s t chapters
of th e firs t re n d e re d in la n g u a g e in te llig ib le t o t h e n o n - te c h n ic a l r e a d e r.
T h e first tw o c h a p te r s d e a l so m e w h a t s k e tc h ily w i th th e r m o d y n a m ic principles,
th e g as law s a n d m o le c u la r d is s o c ia tio n . I n t h e t h i r d c h a p te r , w h ic h e x te n d s to
n in e ty p ag es, C a rb u ra tio n a n d C a rb u r e tto rs a r e c o n s id e re d in g r e a t d e ta il a n d in a
so m e w h a t o rig in a l m a n n e r. T h e h u m o ro u s i l lu s tr a t io n s o n p a g e s 58 a n d 59
seem a l i t t le o u t o f p la c e in th is p a r t o f th e b o o k in v ie w o f t h e e x p la n a to r y note
o n p ag e 25.
T h e su c ceed in g c h a p te r o n D e to n a tio n g iv e s a n e x c e lle n t s u m m a r y of th e various
f a c to rs w h ich a ffe ct th is p h e n o m e n o n , a lth o u g h t h e g r e a te r p a r t o f t h e d a t a presented
is of a g en eralized n a tu r e , c u lle d fro m th e p u b lic a tio n s o f w e ll-k n o w n a u th o ritie s,
w ith li t t le refe ren ce to alco h o l.
T h ere is a n in te r e s tin g r e m a rk o n p a g e 168 to t h e effe c t t h a t p r io r t o 1930 a
co m p ressio n r a tio o f 5-1 : 1 w a s c o n s id e re d a m a x im u m fo r g a s o lin e en g in es, and
t h a t th e B ra z ilia n G o v e rn m e n t h a d in c lu d e d in o n e o f t h e i r d e c re e s a clau se which
w as fav o u ra b le to th e u se o f a u to m o b ile s e q u ip p e d w i t h e n g in e s h a v in g a com ­
p ressio n r a tio g r e a te r t h a n 6 : 1 . T h is d e c re e w as b a s e d o n th e id e a t h a t th e owners
of su ch en g in es w o u ld be u n a b le to u tiliz e g a s o lin e a lo n e , a n d w o u ld t h u s b e influenced
to a d o p t b le n d s of th e sa m e w ith alco h o l.
I n C h a p te r A th e p o s s ib ility of c o rro s io n in a lc o h o l m o to r s is d e a lt w ith , as well
as th e alleg ed te n d e n c y o f s u c h fuel to d e n u d e th e c y lin d e r w a lls o f lu b r ic a n t.
T h e a u th o r co n clu d es, b o th o n th e rm o c h e m ic a l g r o u n d s a n d a s a r e s u lt of actual
e x p e rim e n ts, t h a t th e fo rm a tio n o f a c e tic a c id is im p o s s ib le , a lth o u g h h e ad m its
* nn,e° rr0S*Ve 6®®c^s may b e tr a c e a b le t o o t h e r c a u s e s t h a n t h e u se o f alco h o l.
I h e s ix th a n d se v e n th c h a p te r s d isc u ss r e s p e c tiv e ly t h e s o lu b ility of gasoline
 in a lc o h o l and. t h e b e h a v io u r o f in fla m m a b le liq u id s in th e e x p lo s io n t y p e o f m o to r.
T h e fin a l c h a p t e r o f t h i s p a r t of t h e b o o k d e a ls w it h t h e n e c e s s a ry a d ju s tm e n ts
w h ic h s h o u ld b e m a d e t o a n e n g in e in o r d e r t h a t i t m a y fu n c tio n e ffic ie n tly w ith
g aso lin e —a lc o h o l b le n d s . T h is c h a p te r is o f p a r t ic u l a r in te r e s t, sin c e i t g iv es th e
d e ta ils o f a c t u a l e x p e r im e n ts c a r r ie d o u t w i t h v a r io u s ty p e s o f c a r b u r e tto r a n d of
a u to m o b ile e n g in e s, a s w ell a s c o m p a r a tiv e r e s u lts w i th s tr a i g h t g aso lin e a n d b le n d s
o f t h e l a t t e r w ith alco h o l.
T h e se c o n d p a r t o f t h e b o o k sc a rc e ly fulfils t h e s p ir it o f th e n o te w h ic h h e a d s
i t s firs t c h a p te r , i n t h a t o n ly a s m a ll p a r t o f i t is d e v o te d to a rtsu m i o f t h e firs t
p a r t , a n d m o re o v e r i t s p a g e s a r e r e p le te w ith c u rv e s w h ic h m ig h t q u ite e a s ily
p ro v e f o rm id a b le t o t h e la y r e a d e r .
T h e l a t t e r w ill h o w e v e r a p p r e c ia te t h e p r a c tic a l iss u e in v o lv e d in th e fo rm u la tio n
of th r e e t y p e s o f g a s o lin e —a lc o h o l b le n d s , a n d t h e in f o rm a tio n g iv e n in e a c h case
r e la tiv e t o i t s c h a r a c te r is tic effe ct u p o n t h e m o to r a s re g a r d s , p o w e r, c o n s u m p tio n ,
a c c e le ra tio n a n d k n o c k te n d e n c y .
I n c o n c lu s io n i t m a y b e s t a t e d t h a t t h e b o o k c o n s t i t u t e s a w e ll r e a s o n e d a n d
a d e q u a te s e rie s o f a r g u m e n ts i n f a v o u r o f t h e a d o p t i o n o f a lc o h o l a s a n in g r e d ie n t
fo r m o to r fu e ls, a n d a s s u c h s h o u ld b e a c c e p ta b le a n d in s tr u c tiv e to r e a d e rs in it s
c o u n tr y o f o rig in . T h e w o r k is w e ll p r i n t e d a n d t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s , w h ic h a r e n u m e r o u s ,
a r e e x c e lle n t. J . M c C o n tte ll S a h d e k s .

Statistical Y ear-B ook of th e W orld P ow er Conference. Num ber 3. D ata on R esources

and A n n u al S tatistics for 1935 an d 1936. E d it e d , w i t h a n I n tr o d u c t i o n a n d
E x p la n a t o r y T e x t, b y F r e d e ric k B ro w n , B .S c . (E c o n .). P p . 138. T h e C e n tra l
Office, W o r ld P o w e r C o n feren ce, 36, K in g s w a y , L o n d o n , W .C . 2. 1938.
P ric e 20s. n e t.
T h e p r im a r y o b je c t o f t h e b o o k u n d e r re v ie w is t o p u b lis h o n ly c o m p a ra b le
in te r n a tio n a l s t a ti s t i c s o f p o w e r re so u rc e s , d e v e lo p m e n t a n d u t iliz a tio n in c o n fo rm ity
w ith t h e a im a n d d e fin itio n s o f t h e W o r ld P o w e r C o n feren ce.
T h e b o o k is d iv id e d in to five s e c tio n s . T h e f irs t se c tio n g iv es a c le a r s ta te m e n t
o f t h e sc o p e a n d m e a n in g o f t h e s t a ti s t ic s a n d in c lu d e s t h e d e fin itio n s a d o p te d
b y t h e W o r ld P o w e r C o n feren ce. S e c tio n 3c in c lu d e s t h e p e tr o le u m s ta tis tic s ,
a n d s e c tio n 4 /, n a t u r a l g as.
T h e r e s p o n s ib ility f o r e n s u rin g t h a t t h e s t a ti s t i c s p r e s e n te d a r e a c c u r a te , a n d
c o n fo rm t o t h e d e fin itio n s a d o p te d b y t h e W o r ld P o w e r C o n feren ce, r e s ts u p o n
n a t io n a l c o m m itte e s , g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r tm e n ts a n d o th e r o rg a n iz a tio n s w h ich
s u p p lie d th e m . T h e p a r ti c u l a r so u rc e s of in f o rm a tio n a r e m e n tio n e d a t th e e n d of
e a c h ta b le , in c o p io u s n o te s .
T h e b o o k c o n ta in s s t a tis tic s o n so lid , liq u id a n d g a se o u s fu els, w a te r p o w e r a n d
e le c tr ic ity . T h e liq u id fu e ls in c lu d e petroleum, b e n zo les a n d a lc o h o ls ; g aseo u s
fu e ls in c lu d e natural gas a n d m a n u f a c tu re d g as.
T h e re a r e m o re t h a n f ifty ta b le s in t h i s v o lu m e , a ll o f w h ic h a r e s e lf-e x p la n a to ry .
T h e s t a ti s t i c s o f p e tr o le u m re so u rc e s a n d a lso th e a n n u a l re fin e ry s ta tis tic s
p r e s e n te d in T a b le s 9 a n d 10, a re , u n f o r tu n a te ly , in c o m p le te . A c e r ta in a m o u n t
o f a d d itio n a l in f o rm a tio n c o u ld h a v e b e e n in s e r te d in t h e ta b le s , h a d i t n o t b e e n
e x p re s s e d i n u n i t s d iffe re n t f ro m th o s e a d o p t e d b y t h e W o r ld P o w e r C o nference,
fo r e x a m p le , t h e s t a ti s ti c s fo r refin ed p e tro le u m .
T a b le 14 g iv es t h e w o r ld ’s n a t u r a l g a s re so u rc e s a n d p r o d u c tio n in m illio n s of
c u b ic m e tr e s . I t in c lu d e s t h e n u m b e r o f d r y a n d w e t w ells d r ille d a n d th o s e
p ro d u c in g n a t u r a l g a s.
T a b le 15 g iv e s t h e t o t a l p r o d u c tio n o f g a s a c c o u n te d fo r, t h e q u a n t i t y t r e a te d
fo r t h e re c o v e ry o f n a t u r a l g a so lin e , t h e m a n u f a c tu r e o f c a r b o n b la c k a n d fo r
in d u s tr ia l a n d h o u s e h o ld u se s.
I t is i n te r e s tin g t o n o t e t h a t R o u m a n ia b e g a n p ro d u c in g c a rb o n b la c k in 1935
o n a s m a ll sc ale, u s in g o n e m illio n c u b ic m e tr e s o f n a t u r a l g a s fo r th is p u rp o s e ,
w h ic h in c r e a s e d t o 18-2 m illio n c u . m . in 1936. I n n o o th e r c o u n tr y in t h e w o rld is
c a r b o n b la c k r e c o r d e d a s b e in g m a n u f a c tu r e d f ro m n a t u r a l g a s o th e r t h a n U .S .A .
w h e re m o re t h a n 8000 m illio n c u . m . w e re u se d fo r th is p u rp o s e in 1936.
M r. F r e d e r ic k B ro w n o f t h e L o n d o n S ch o o l o f E c o n o m ic s is t o b e c o n g r a tu la te d
fo r t h e c le a r a n d t h o r o u g h ly p r a c tic a l w a y in w h ic h h e h a s p r e s e n te d t h e r e s u lts
o f t h i s s u r v e y o f t h e W o r ld P o w e r R e so u rc e s. I t is th r o u g h n o f a u l t o f h is t h a t
 BOOK R E C E IV ED .
116 A
th e p e tro le u m s ta tis tic s a re so s c ra p p y a n d in c o m p le te . T h e N a tio n a l C o m m ittees
of th e W o rld P o w er C onference a re w h o lly re s p o n s ib le fo r th is . T h e y s h o u ld see
t h a t th e a d d itio n a l in fo rm a tio n r e la tin g to p e tr o le u m is fo rth c o m in g in c o n fo rm ity
w ith th e d e fin itio n s la id d o w n fo r th e s e in te r n a t io n a l s ta ti s t i c s fo r t h e n e x t
S ta tis tic a l Y ear-B o o k . w - C ad m an.

Proceedings of th e R u b b e r T echnology C o n feren ce, 1938. P p . 1137. W . H effer,

C am b rid g e. P ric e £2 2s.
I n view of th e m a g n itu d e a n d w o rld -w id e im p o rta n c e o f t h e r u b b e r in d u s tr y it
is so m e w h at s u rp risin g t h a t n o in te r n a tio n a l c o n fe re n c e o n th i s s u b je c t h a d been
sta g e d u n til la s t y e a r. I n 1938, h o w e v e r, t h e C o u n c il o f t h e I n s t i t u t i o n of th e
R u b b e r I n d u s tr y w ere a b le , a s a r e s u lt of o v e r a y e a r o f a c tiv e p r e p a r a tio n , to
organize in L o n d o n a co n feren ce of th e firs t m a g n itu d e w h ic h m e t w it h a m agnificent
resp o n se a n d w as a n u n q u a lifie d success.
T h e P ro c eed in g s of t h is C o n feren ce h a v e n o w b e e n p u b lis h e d in a v o lu m e of
1137 p ag es c o n ta in in g 103 s e p a ra te p a p e r s a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t d isc u ssio n s, as well
as a b rief r e p o rt o n th e social fu n c tio n s a s s o c ia te d w i th t h e C o n feren ce.
T h e scope of t h e C onference in c lu d e d t h e w h o le ra n g e o f r u b b e r tech n o lo g y , so
t h a t th e p a p e rs co v er a n e x tr a o r d in a r ily w id e v a r i e ty o f s u b je c ts . S om e of these,
of course, a re of sp ecialized in te r e s t, a s t h e y d e a l w i th s u c h to p ic s a s th e p ro d u ctio n
a n d te s tin g of la te x a n d ra w r u b b e r a n d o f v a r io u s m a n u f a c tu r e d a rtic le s , such as
ty re s, elastic te x tile s , ru b b e riz e d fa b ric s a n d c ab les. M a n y , h o w e v e r, w h ile referring
in th e m a in to ru b b e r a n d i t s p r o d u c ts , a r e o f m o re g e n e ra l sc o p e a s w ell, a n d m ay
be read w ith in te r e s t a n d a d v a n ta g e b y c h e m is ts a n d p h y s ic is ts e n g a g e d in o th er
lines of w ork. P a p e rs o n s y n th e tic ru b b e r-lik e m a te r ia ls s u c h a s N e o p re n e a n d th e
B u n as, o n c a rb o n b la c k s, on th e a b s o r p tio n o f o x y g e n b y r u b b e r , t h e u se of in h ib ito rs
a n d a n ti- o x id a n ts a n d th e d e v e lo p m e n t a n d u t i l i t y o f a c c e le ra te d ag ein g te s ts are
o nly a few ex am p les o f c o n tr ib u tio n s t o k n o w le d g e w h ic h h a v e sp e c ia l a p p lic a b ility
to th e p e tro le u m in d u s tr y . F u rth e rm o r e , th o s e c o n tr ib u tio n s in w h ic h physical
m e th o d s such a s X -ra y s , fluorescence, c o llo id e x a m in a tio n a n d v a rio u s form s of
m ech an ical te s tin g a re d e s c rib e d , c o n ta in m a n y f r u it f u l su g g e s tio n s fo r physical
c h e m ists a n d for en g in eers, a n d a r e w ell w o r th p e ru s a l.
A n ex cellen t in d e x , p le n tifu l d ia g ra m s a n d a n e x c e p tio n a lly g o o d q u a lity of paper
a n d b in d in g m a k e th e v o lu m e a v a lu a b le a c q u is itio n b o t h fo r r e a d in g a n d for
reference. F . B . T h o le .

BOOK RECEIVED.
Standard Specifications for B enzole and A llied P roducts. S ec o n d E d itio n . 1938.
P p . 197. N a tio n a l B enzole A sso c ia tio n , W e llin g to n H o u s e , B u c k in g h a m Gate,
S .W . 1. P ric e Is. 6d.

W ith th e in c re a sin g in te r e s t in th e p r o d u c tio n o f b e n z o le fro m co al th e new

e d itio n of “ S ta n d a r d S p ecificatio n s fo r B e n z o le a n d A llie d P r o d u c ts ,” j u s t p u b ­
lish ed b y th e N a tio n a l B enzole A s so c ia tio n , p r o v id e s c o m p re h e n s iv e d a t a m ost
n ecessary to th o se w hose b u sin e ss is c o n c e rn e d in a n y w a y w i th t h e p ro d u c tio n and
use of ben zo le a n d i t s a llie d p r o d u c ts .
T h e se v en teen s ta n d a r d sp e c ific a tio n s n o w is s u e d , wTh ic h c o v e r v a rio u s grades
of benzole, to lu o le, xy lo le, co al t a r s o lv e n t n a p h t h a a n d c o a l t a r h e a v y n a p h th a ,
a re th e re s u lt of a th o ro u g h re v isio n o f a ll sp e c ific a tio n s b y a C o m m itte e of the
A sso ciatio n re p re s e n ta tiv e of th e B e n zo le I n d u s tr y . T h is c o m m itte e , in co llab o ra­
tio n w ith th e B r itis h S ta n d a r d s I n s t i t u t i o n , h a s t a k e n i n to c o n s id e ra tio n the
re q u ire m e n ts of b o th th e m a n u f a c tu re rs a n d u se rs o f t h e v a r io u s p ro d u c ts .
I n a d d itio n to th e d e ta ile d sp e c ific a tio n s , fu ll in f o r m a tio n a s t o sta n d a rd iz e d
m e th o d s of te s t a n d sch ed u les of a p p a r a t u s a r e g iv e n . T h e m e th o d s of te s tin g and
d escrip tio n s of a p p a r a tu s a re th o s e re c o m m e n d e d b y t h e S ta n d a r d iz a tio n of T ar
P ro d u c ts l e s t s C o m m itte e issu e d in i t s r e c e n t p u b lic a tio n “ S ta n d a r d M e th o d s for
t e s tin g T a r a n d I t s P r o d u c ts .”
 IN S T IT U T E N O TES.
M arch 1939.

FORTHCOMING MEETINGS.
T h u r s d a y , 2 0 th A p ril, 1939, a t 5.30 p .m . a t t h e R o y a l S o c ie ty o f A r ts , J o h n
S tr e e t, L o n d o n , W .C . 2. A n n u al G eneräl M eeting.

SUMMER MEETING.
The Summer Meeting of the Institute will be held at Birmingham
from May 22nd-24th, 1939, under the Presidency of Professor
A. W. Nash, M.Sc., M.I.Mech.E. The objects of the meeting are to
review and interpret recent work on fuels and lubricants for use in
internal combustion engines.
The programme of the meeting, together with details regarding
Ladies’ Visits, Registration, etc., are given in the circular sent out
separately to members.
A Summary of the programme is given below :
Monday, May 22nd.
Evening. Informal Reception by the President at the
Grand Hotel, Birmingham.
Tuesday, May 23rd.
Morning. Technical Session.—Knock-Rating.
Afternoon. Technical Session.—Lubrication.
Evening. Reception in the Grand Hall, The University,
Edgbaston.
Wednesday, May 24th.
Morning. Technical Session.—Fuels for Compression—
Ignition Engines; Lubrication.
Afternoon. Visits to Austin Motor Company and Morris
Commercial Cars Ltd.
Evening. Dinner and Dance a t the Grand Hotel.

S t u d e n t s ’ S e c t io n (L o n d o n B r a n c h ).
T u e s d a y , 4 t h A p ril, 1939, a t 6.15 p .m . a t t h e S ir J o h n C ass T e c h n ic a l I n s t i t u t e ,
J e w r y S tr e e t, A ld g a te , L o n d o n , E .C . 3. A n n u a l O p e n M e e tin g .
“ H ig h Speed E n g in es,” b y H . R . R ic a rd o , F .R .S .
W e d n e s d a y , 1 9 th A p ril, 1939, a t 5.45 p .m . a t t h e Offices o f t h e I n s t i t u t e ,
T h e A d e lp h i, L o n d o n , W .C . 2. “ The Oilfields of Iraq ,” b y X . P a c h a c h i.

TRANSFERS TO NEW CLASSES OF MEMBERSHIP.

The Temporary Regulations relating to the transfer of the existing
members to the new classes of membership, as set out in the leaflet
sent to all members of the Institute, were approved at the Special
General Meeting held on 10th January, 1939.
Members who wish to transfer to one of the new classes of member­
ship are requested to submit their applications as early as possible
on the forms provided for the purpose at the back of the leaflet con­
vening the Special General Meeting.
^ in s t it u t e n o tes.

STUDENTS’ MEDAL AND PRIZE.

The Council has decided th at the Students’ Medal and Prize in
1939 will be awarded for a thesis on a set subject, and not for
theses on subjects chosen by the candidates themselves.
A short list of alternative subjects on which theses are invited
will be issued by the Council to all Students of the Institute after
30th June, 1939.

CANDIDATES FOR ADMISSION.

The following have applied for admission to the Institute or
transfer to another grade of membership, and in accordance with
the By-laws the proposals will not be considered until the lapse
of at least one month subsequent to the issue of this Journal, during
which any Member or Associate Member m ay communicate by
letter to the Secretary, for the confidential information of the
Council, any particulars he may possess respecting the qualifications
or suitability of any candidate.
The object of this information is to assist the Council in grading
candidates according to the class of membership.
The names of the candidate’s proposer and seconder are given in
parentheses.
A rm stro n g , V a le n tin e , S tu d e n t, 27, K e n s in g to n G a r d e n s S q u a re , L o n d o n ,
W . 2. (A. C. Egerton ; V. C. Illing.)
B r a d d i c k , H e r b e r t J a m e s W i l l i a m , E n g in e e r (A nglo-lran ian Oil Co., Ltd.),
25, P ic k h u r s t M ead, H a y e s , K e n t. {A. C. H a r tle y ; A . E . Dunstan.)
(Transfer to A . M .)
C liffo rd , Jo s e p h , C h e m ist, 5, A r lin g to n A v e n u e , S o u th S h o re , B lac k p o o l.
(W. H . Cadman ; C. W. Wood.)
B r ig h to n , R o b e rt M ill M cC om be, E n g in e e r (W illiam Briggs & Sons, Ltd.),
30, T h o m so n S tre e t, D u n d e e , A n g u s . (A. D . M cLuckie ; W. F . M urray.)
C ro s sle y , S ta n le y , D ire c to r (British Transformer Oil db Lubricants, Ltd.),
“ S o u th v ie w ,” O ld F o rg e C lose, S ta n m o re , M id d x . (E. J . D unstan ; B. J .
Vavasour.)
(Roman Bank Crude Oil Works), W o o d sid e,
F r a m e , A le x a n d e r, W o rk s M a n a g e r
D ru m sh o re la n d , B ro x b u rn , W . L o th ia n . (R. Crichton ; O. H . Smith.)
H a l l , J o h n D esm o n d , C h e m ica l E n g in e e r (Foster Wheeler, L td.), “ E arls-
c ro ft,” 82, Cecil P a r k , P in n e r , M id d x . (A. W . N ash ; R . K . Fischer.)
(Transfer to A . M .)
H a t t , E rn e s t R ic h a rd , W o rk s M a n a g e r (Dussek B itum en db Taroleum Ltd.),
“ K in g a r th ,” L o n g d o n W o o d , K e s to n , K e n t. (F . H . O am er ; A . Osborn.)
H e l t o n , J o h n S y d n e y , C h e m ist (Belgrave Oil db Grease Co. (Leeds), Ltd.),
“ B e lg rav e,” 19, S a n d h ill O v al, A lw o o d ley , L e e d s. (F. D akin.)
L e w i s , P h ilip C o ttre ll, M e ch an ical E n g in e e r, T h e W h e s so e F o u n d r y & E n g in ­
eerin g Co., L td ., D a rlin g to n , Co. D u r h a m . (E. R . C artw righ t; H . D.
Demoulins.)
L u m b , E rlin g , C h e m ist (Munster, Sim m s db Co., L td .), “ L a r v ik ,” 71, R u g b y
A v en u e, B a n g o r, Co. D o w n . (L. R . P h illips ; A . W. N ash.)
M a c A rth u r, H e c to r, C h e m ist ( It'. B . D ick i Co.), 38, R iv e rs id e R o a d ,
X ew lan d s, G lasgow , S. 3. (IF . M . G um m ing; G. H . Sm ith.)
M a r t i n , B e rn a rd D a v is , D ire c to r (Germ Lubricants, L td.), C i t y G a t e H o u s e ,
F in sb u ry S q u are, L o n d o n , E .C . 2. (J. E. Southcombe.)
M a r t i n , J a c k W illiam , E n g in e e r (Whessoe Foundry db Engineering Co., Ltd.),
G reen g ates, C aledon R o a d , B e aco n sfield , B u c k s. ( E. R . C artw righ t; H. D.
Demoulins.)
M e t c a l f e , T h o m a s J o h n , C h e m ist (E. Joy db Sons, L td .), 3 , G r a f t o n V illas,
S ta n k s, L eeds. (G. V. D avies ; J . R. Sm ellie.)
M o r t i m e r , G eorge A b b o tt, C h e m ist (Pumpherston Shale Oil Co.), 47, Q ueens
A v en u e, B la c k h a ll, E d in b u r g h . (R. Crichton ; G. H . Sm ith.)
N a k ib , M o h a m m a d A b d u l G h a z i, E n g in e e r, G o v e r n m e n t Office O il M e a s u re ­
m e n t S e c tio n , K ir k u k , I r a q . (A. IV. Nash ; L . V. W. Clark.) (Transfer
to A . M . )
N e w e y , C liffo rd S a m u e l, E n g in e e r (Caribbean Petroleum Co., L td.), 49, D a r t ­
m o u th S tr e e t, W e s t B ro m w ic h . (A. W . N a s h ; L . V. W . Clark.) (Transfer
to A . M . )
N e w t o n , E r n e s t J o h n , C h e m is t (Ernest Newton A Co.), 353, B irm in gham
R o a d , W y ld e G re e n , S u t to n C oldfield. (H . C. T ett ; A . H am ilton.)
O ’B r i e n , K e v in , D ir e c to r (H. F. O'Brien A Co., L td.), “ T h o m o n d ,” B r o o k ­
field A v e n u e , T im p e rle y . (D . W . O’B rien ; J . Barrett.)
O ’M e a r a , T e re n c e B a r r y , C h e m is t, c /o C olas P r o d u c ts , L t d ., N o r m a n H o u s e ,
S tra n d , W .C . 2. (L. 6 . O abriel; J . 8 . Jackson.)
P r o c t e r , R e g in a ld H e n r y , E n g in e e r (English D rilling Equipm ent Co.), 65,
E lg a r A v e n u e , T o lw o rth , S u rre y . (F. E . Cherry ; A . J . Yokes.) (Transfer
to A . M .)
R ig d e n , P e t e r M o n tg o m e ry , C h e m is t (W ailes Dove B itum astic, L td.), 12,
V ic to ria S q u a re , J e s m o n d , N e w c a s tle -o n -T y n e . (R .S h aw ; H . C. Ram pton.)
(Transfer to A . M .)
S a i b , M o h a m m e d A li, E n g in e e r, c /o M in is try o f E c o n o m ic s & C o m m u n ic a tio n s ,
B a g h d a d , I r a q . (A. W. N a s h ; L . V. W. Clark.) (Transfer to A . M .)
(Shell M arketing Co.), 25, M a th e s o n R o a d ,
T a y l o r , T h e o M a llin so n , C h e m is t
W e s t K e n s in g to n , W . 14. (J. S. Jackson ; S . R . H ills.)
W h i t e , C o lin M c L u c k ie , C h e m is t (Pumpherston Oil Co.), 60, M a in S tr e e t,
W in c h b u rg h , W . L o th ia n (R . Crichton ; O. H. Sm ith.)
W i l d , E ric H e r b e r t, C h e m is t (Anglo-American Oil Co., L td.), 9, R u s la n d R o a d ,
W e a ld s to n e , H a r ro w . (H. C. T ett ; E . B . Evans.)

ARTHUR W. EASTLAKE,
Honorary Secretary.

JOURNALS WANTED TO PURCHASE.

The In stitu te is prepared to purchase copies of the following issues
of the Journal a t the price of 4s. 0d. each.
No. 152, June 1936
„ 171, January 1938
„ 174, April 1938
Journals should he forwarded to the Secretary, The Institute of
Petroleum, The Adelphi, London, W.C.2. Only copies in good
condition will be considered for purchase.

PERSONAL NOTES.
Mr. M. A l l a m has returned to Egypt after a long v is it to the
Hedjaz.
M r . B. D. C a u t h e r y is h o m e f r o m I r a n .
Mr. E. K. D y k e s has left for Trinidad.
Mr. J . C. J e w e l l has returned from Iran.
M r . H. H . M a r t i n i s h o m e f r o m E c u a d o r .
Mr. C. A. S a n s o m is home from Burma.
Correspondence or Journals forwarded to the following members
have been returned, and the Secretary would be pleased to receive
any information regarding their present address : E. C. B r o w n ,
K. B u r t o n , M. C a p p e r , 0 . C. E l v i n s , V. C. S . G e o r g e s c u , J. J. L.
H a m i l t o n , J. R. H o r t h , A. D. J o n e s , J. L a n d e r , H . R. L o v e l y ,
I. L u s t y , F. M a c k l e y , A. M a c L e a n , G. P.M e l v i l l e , C. A. M o o n ,
S . N i c o l , S . P a p p , R . G . R e i d , N . D. R o t h o n , H . G . S p e a r p o i n t ,
and A. H. W i l l i a m s .
 t a n k c a l ib r a t io n ----------------------------------------------
"BLU CH A LK" W A T E R -S E A R C H IN G C O M P O S IT IO N
and

"U LL A G E P A S T E " FO R A C C U R A T E L Y C A L I B R A T I N G AND

M EA SU RIN G P ET R O L EU M IN S T O R A G E T A N K S
Used by Government Authorities and Principal
Oil Companies throughout the world
P rices and Term s se n t on a p p lica tio n

Sole Patentees and M anufacturers :

THE BLUCHALK COM PANY, WEST HENDFORD, YEO VIL, ENG.

ANNUAL REVIEWS
OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
Vol. 3 (covering 1937)
P R IC E - 11s. p o st free

Members of the Institute and Annual Subscribers to the

Journal may purchase one copy only at 5s. 6d. post free.
O btainable from :
TH E IN S T IT U T E OF PETRO LEU M
TH E A D E L P H I, LO N D O N , W .C .2

KNOW W H ER E THE BIT IS AT A L L TIM ES BY

USING
SINGLE SHOTS
P re v en t off l e a s e d r illin g —or c h a n g e
th e c o u rse of y o u r w e ll a n d d ir e c t it
to a n o th e r p o in t u n d e r g r o u n d ! It's
p o ss ib le if y o u k e e p a re c o r d of th e
b it a s th e w ell is g o in g d ow n.
The L a n e -W e lls sin g le sh o t s u rv e y
in stru m e n t m e a s u re s b o th in c lin a tio n
a n d d ire c tio n in o p e n h o le d rillin g .
Its u n e rrin g d e p e n d a b ility is fa m o u s
in oil field s th ro u g h o u t th e w o rld a n d
ev ery w h e re e x p e rie n c e d o p e r a to r s
reco m m en d it. A n illu s tr a te d b u lle tin
c o n ta in s d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n . W rite
th e L a n e -W e lls C o m p a n y to d a y , 5610
S o u th S oto S tre et, Los A n g e le s ,
C a lifo rn ia , o r a n y b r a n c h office.

(Left)
LANE-WELLS
S IN Q L E

S H O T

IN S T R U M E N T G EN ER A L O fT IC E S EX PO R T O rriC E S
AN D P L A N T 420 L exington A ve.. N ew York City. N. Y.
5610 S. Solo SL, Lo s A ngeles, CaliL

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iv
 HADFIELD'S
1 v\\A v\A A iU ii/////////y^y v W W A A At 11// // // / / / / / / / ,
tra d e ^ E R A 131 (m a rk & tra d e HECLA 153 m ark
^ / '/ y y r i T v v v v v v v ^ ^ w m v y n m n ^

S TE AM PIPE
FLANGE BOLTS
HAVE A HIGH CREEP STRENGTH
For use at the highest temper­
ature employed in modern
steam practice.
Do not become brittle as a
result of operating conditions.

Steel C astings a n d Forgings of all Kinds.

iriSo*™ HADFIELDS LTD. “K ir"

1------- East Hecla and Hecla W orks, SHEFFIELD, Eng. -----
N o. 1666 .

SCHLUMBERGER ELECTRICAL CORING

F r a n c e .— Société de Prospection M o ro c c o .— M . T exier, Société de
E lectriq u e, 3 0 , rue F ab ert, P a r is . P rospection E lectrique, PetITJEAN.

U .S .A .— S ch lu m b erg er W ell Surveying R u m a n ia .— A. Poirault, 18 S trad a I. C .

C orporation, 2 7 2 0 L eeland, H o u s t o n , B ratianu, C a m p in a , (P rah o v a).
T exas. G e r m a n y .— F irm a von Flotow , S chil-
Local Offices : L o n g Beach, O klahom a lerstrasse 3 6 1, H a n o v e r .
C ity, N ew York, C orpus C hristi, D r. B. Paul, K obenzlgasse 30, VlENNA.
B radford.
H u n g a r y .— M . Scheibli, V adaszkürt T ü r
V e n e z u e la .— P . Bayle, Villa Proselec, Istvan U .5, B u d a p e s t.
M a r a c a ib o . I r a q .— L . B eaufort, Q a i y a r a h .
T r in id a d , B .W .I.— Schlum berger E lec­ B r itis h I n d ia .— A. C ouret, D ig b o i,
trical C oring M eth o d s, S a n F e r n a n d o . A ssam .

C o lo m b ia .— H . R appart, P u e r t o - B e r r i o . B u r m a . — L . B ordât, K h o d a u n c .

A rg e n tin e .— G . G u ich ard o t, C o m o d o r o N e th e r la n d E a s t In d ie s .— R . Sauvage,

R iv a d a v ia , K m . 2 7 . P l a d j o e , S um atra.

S ch lu m b erg er M eth o d s also applied in : U .S .S .R ., Japan, Italy, Poland, Yugoslavia,

E gypt and B ritish N o rth Borneo.

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 SVENSKA DIAM AN TBERGBORRN IN GS A KTIEBOLA GET
(The Swedish Diamond Rock D rillin g C o .)

KU N G SG A TA N 4 4 STOCKHOLM SWEDEN
Manufacturers of compl et e Core Drilling Outfits

system ( C r a e l i u S

for Structure Investigations in Oil Fields

Drilling Contracts undertaken in all parts of the W orld
London R e p re se n ta tiv e : T e le p h o n e : V ic to r ia 8988
REX LAMBERT, A.R.S.M., 25, Victoria Street, London, S.W.1

R E P R E S E N T A T IO N and PETRO LEUM O P E R A T IO N S

CHARLES DABELL AND COMPANY

EN G IN EER S AND CON SULTAN TS

"DAB; RO S” 3 M ID A N S U A R E S
C A IR O • EGYPT

LIST OF ADVERTISERS.
AK TIEBO LAG ET E L E K T R IS K M A LM LETN IN G
A l l St e e l P r o d u c t s M f g . C o
A s k a n i a - W e r k e , A .G .
B a bc o c k & W il c o x , L t d .
B a k e r O il T o o ls, I n c . XUl
B l u c h a l k C o ........................... iv
W . Ch r is t ie & G r e y , L t d . Inside back cover
A . F . C r a i g & C o ., L t d . xviii
Charles D abell & Co vi
Duke & Ockenden, Ltd . Inside back cover
E d e l e a n u G e s e l l s c h a f t m .b
F oster W h e e l e r , L t d .
W . J . F r a s e r & Co., L t d .
G e o p h y s ic a l P r o s p e c t in g C o ., L t d .
H a d f ie l d s , L t d .
II AYWARD-T YLER & CO., LTD.
I n s t it u t io n o f P e t r o l e u m T e c h n o l o g is t s
I n t e r n a t io n a l P a in t & C o m p o s it io n s C o ., L t d .
L a n e -W e l l s C o .
L u f k in R u l e C o . XX
Lu m m u s Co m pan y xii
M e t r o p o l i t a n V i c k e r s E l e c t r i c C o ., L t d .
N a t io n a l S u p p l y C o r p o r a t io n
O i l C e n t e r T o o l C o ...........................................................
O il W e l l S u p p l y Co .
S e c u r i t y E n g i n e e r i n g C o ., I n c ............................... xiv
S o c ié t é d e P r o s p e c t io n É l e c t r iq u e
S p e r r y - S u n W e l l S u r v e y i n g C o . ... xvu
J o h n G . S t e i n & C o ., L t d .......................................... ! IX
Stew arts and L lo y d s, L t d . Back cover
SVENSKA DIAM A NTBERG BO RRN IN GS A K T IE B O L A G E T vi
J o h n T h o m p s o n ( W o l v e r h a m p t o n ), L t d . . .. xvi
T in t o m e t e r , L t d .

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vi
 REOP

PAINTS = PETROLEUM TR RK

INDUSTRY
“ DANBOLINE S I L V E R E T T E ” The super aluminium p a in t fo r
a ll refinery purposes. Only actual
experience can prove its amazing
durability.
“ TANCTECTOL” The only protective p a in t fo r the
IN T E R IO R o f petroleum storage
tan ks. W ith sta n d s p e rm a n e n t
immersion in a ll petroleum fra c­
tions, benzole and salt or fresh
w ater. U sed b y th e B ritis h
Admiralty, R oyal A ir Force, and
leading O il Companies.
W rite for free booklet “ PAINT IN TH E OIL IN DUSTRY.”

INTERNATIONAL PAINT & COMPOSITIONS Co., Ltd.

U .S . E n q u irie s : 31-32 G rO S V e n o r P lace . Main Factory
21 W E S T S T ., ’ F E L L IN G - O N - T Y N E
N EW Y O R K . L O N D O N , S.W . I EN G LA N D

GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS
The G.P.C. employs the most up-to-date
instruments and methods.

G R A V IM E T R I C
M A G N ETIC
ELECTRIC
SEISMIC
Consult the G.P.C. regarding the method best suited to
your particular problems.

W O RLD W ID E E X P E R IE N C E
Extending over a period of 15 years
A T Y O U R S E R V IC E

THE GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING CO. LTD.

M anaging D ire c to r: J a s . C . T e m p le t o n , B .S c ., F . G . S . , M .In s t .M .M ., M . I n s t . P .T .

9-11 Copthall A ve n u e , London, E.C.2

Telephone : Telegram s and Cables :
M E T R O P O L IT A N , 6363 G EO PRO SCO , LO N D O N

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 Just to be DOUBLY SURE
)
TOP OFF YOUR WELL CONTROL
HOOK-UP WITH AN

O-C-T PREVENTER

T y p e *‘ D ” w i t h r e g u l a r p a c k o f f , a v a ila b le
f la n g e d o r s c r e w e d , w i t h o r w i t h o u t o u t le ts

Most o p erato rs now in clu d e a n O-C-T Blowout

Preventer a s " sta n d a rd e q u ip m e n t" for well
control hook-ups. While the O-C-T P re v en ter is
often u sed in d ep en d en tly of other b low out p re v e n t­
ers. it is m ore g en erally u se d in co n ju n ctio n with
ram ty p e p rev en ters, a s show n a b o v e , to p ro v id e
a positive se c o n d a ry se al a n d to a b s o rb w e a r
o ccasio n ed b y ro tatin g a n d ra isin g a n d low ering
pipe to p rev en t sticking while killing th e well.
An O-C-T Blowout P reventer, e q u ip p e d w ith
regular packoff, perm its m ovem ent of drill p ip e
betw een tool jo in ts : e q u ip p e d w ith strip p e r
rubber, it perm its p ip e to b e m o v ed u p o r d o w n T ype " D " w i t h s t r i p p e r r u b b e r , w h ic h is
an y desired d istan ce, the strip p er ru b b e r re a d ily a v a ila b le for a ll typ es o-C-T P rev en ters,

passin g tool joints o r p ip e collars.

F u ll p a r tic u la r s c a r r ie d in o u r co m p lete c a t a lo g u e , a co p y o f w h ic h w i l l be g la d ly sent on request.

c e n t e r t o q #

° 'v P S F rl
1 ■u
H O U S T O N . T E X A S . U .S .A .
CABkL AOORtSS 'O C £ A t T O l '

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vi i1
SPECIALLY SUITABLE
FOR OIL REFINERIEi

HE r e lia b ilit y o f N E T T L E 4 2 /4 4 %

alu m in a f ir e b r ic k s in high t e m p e r a t u r e

in s ta lla tio n s is u n d is p u te d . U sers o f th is

b ran d a re co n v in c e d of th is : th o s e w ho

have t h e ir r e fr a c t o r y p ro b le m s t ill w it h

th e m m a y w e ll fin d t h a t a t r ia l o f N E T T L E

w ill p r o v id e a s o lu tio n .

JOHN G. STEIN & CO. LTD., BONNYBRIDGE, SCOTLAND

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 # Pressure S ap o n ification .

# Close scra p in g to give efficient

h eat transfer.

# Special type a g ita tio n to avo id

stratification .

# Sound co n stru ctio n to p erm it

altern ate h eatin g a n d cooling.

# L arg e outlet v alv es flush w ith

bottom to avo id pockets.

# A rran gem en t for com p lete dis­

ch arge.

# Simple an d efficient m otor drive

or belt drive.
% Speed con trol a s g re a s e s thicken.

W. J. FRASER & C O . , LTD.

DAGENHAM . . ESSEX

t a s /f z .

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BABCOCK
ClüJs C W W E L D E D
PRESSURE VESSELS
CONSTRUCTED AT RENFREW
BOILER OTHER
DRUMS VESSELS

To tal N u m b e r 261 273

G re a te s t Length 38' 4" 74' 0"

G re a te s t D ia m e te r 5' 6" 20' 0"

T h ic k e s t Shell 3IT •35"

J8

H eaviest 36 To n s 40 To n s

H igh est P re ssu re 1 124 lbs./sq. In. 1495 lbs./sq .in.

The 400,000 Volt X-Ray Unit installed

will penetrate 4£" thick steel plate.

EVERYTHING FOR THE BOILER

HOUSE I N C L U D I N G VALVES
BABCOCK & WILCOX LTD.
34 FARRINGDON STREET, LON DON . E.C.4

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COMPLETED IN 2 0 W EEKS FROM
DATE OF CONTRACT

a 44 00 B A R R EL per d ay
B EN ZO L-K ETO N E D E W A X IN G PLA N T

Benzol-Ketone Dew axing plant w a s signed with Sin clair Refining Com ­
pany. O n Janu ary 16th, 1939 — twenty w eeks to the d a y — despite snow
and the difficulties of winter w ea th e r —the plant w a s com pleted. » » » This
plant for Sinclair w as the eleventh B enzol-K etone plant designed and built
by Lummus within three years. Four more B en zo l-K eto n e plants are now
on the drawing boards —three a re ad ditions to Lummus-built installations;
the fourth is a new unit for another m ajor refiner.

A. C. GRONBECK

R e p rin tin g : THE LUMMUS COMPANY

Bush House, A ld w y ch , London, W . C. 2

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CABLE TOOL OPERATORS

MAKE A
BULL’S
EYE
ON EVERY
RUN W IT H A

B A K E R Cable Tool
CORE BARREL
B A K E R A ffo r d s T h e s e Im p o r ta n t A d v a n ta g e s :

H i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f r e c o v e r i e s in a w id e r
r a n g e o f f o r m a t io n s
F a s t e r r u n n in g t im e
L o w e r m a in t e n a n c e c o s t
S i m p l i c it y o f o p e r a t i o n
M a x im u m s a f e t y in s e r v ic e
L o n g e r l if e
L o w in it ia l c o s t

C o m p le te d e ta ils c o n c e r n in g t h is e c o n o m ic a l and e f f i c ie n t
t o o l w ill b e g la d ly f u r n is h e d u p o n r e q u e s t — o r s e e y o u r 19 3 9
C o m p o s ite C a ta lo g .

BAKER OIL TOOLS, INC.

Telephone JEfferson 8211 - H U N T IN G T O N PARK, C A L IF O R N IA - 2959 E. Slauson Ave.
Telephone W Ayside 2 I0 3 - H O U S T O N PLA N T A N D O F F IC E -6 0 2 3 Navigation Blvd.
M ID -C O N T IN EN T O FFIC E A N D W A R E H O U SE :
Telephone 2-8083—Tulsa. Oklahoma - 3 12 East Fourth Street
W EST TEXAS B R A N C H O F F IC E EXPO R T SA LES O F F IC E R O C K Y M O U N TA IN H E A D Q U A R TE R S
O d e iia , T e .a i-T e le p h o n e 2 17 Rm. 1 9 1 4 - 19 Rector St.. New York C it y Tel. 2 2 30-Casp er, Wyom ing - Bo. 1464
Tel. Digby 4-SSIS

BAKER CABLE TOOL CORE BARREL

'eating w ith Advertisers.
 T h e e n tire p u r p o s e b e h in d th e d e v e lo p m e n t of " S e c u rc d o y " w a s to
p e rfe c t a d r illa b le m e ta l for p e r m a n e n t s u b s u r f a c e in s ta lla tio n s . . . a
m e ta l w ith h ig h e ro sio n a n d c o rro s io n r e s is tin g p r o p e r tie s . . . a m e ta l
w ith a m p le s tr e n g th to b e u s e d s a f e ly u n d e r a l l c o n d itio n s . . . a m e ta l
th a t c o u ld b e r u n in a w e ll a n d left th e r e t h e s a m e a s s te e l, y e t c o u ld b e
q u ick ly d rille d u p a n d c ir c u la te d o u t of th e h o le w h e n e v e r n e c e s s a ry .

A n d y o u c a n d o th e s e th in g s w ith " S e c u r a lo y " !

It is e ro sio n a n d co rro sio n r e s is ta n t, b e in g in f a c t m o r e r e s is ta n t th a n

s te e l to m a n y c o m m o n o ilfie ld c o rro s iv e s s u c h a s s u lp h u r a n d s u lp h u r
c o m p o u n d s. It is stro n g , b o th in c o lla p s e a n d te n s io n , a s th e s e s tr e n g th
fa c to rs for th e p o p u la r 6 5/e" size " S e c u r a lo y " p ip e w ill sh o w :

WEIGHT LENGTH OF STRING EQUIVALENT TO:

PER
“ SECURALOY" FOOT COLLAPSE IN SALT WATER
(Saiety Factor 2)
TENSILE STRENGTH
(Safety Factor 2«^)

PIPE 6 5/8" 10 ir 6284' 7211'

A n d a b o v e a ll, " S e c u r a lo y " is d r illa b le . A n o r d i n a r y d r illin g b it w ill

rem o v e it a t th e r a te of 20 to 30 fe e t p e r h o u r a n d th e c u ttin g s c ir c u la te
co m p le te ly o u t of th e h o le a s tin y c h ip s s u s p e n d e d in t h e flu id s tre a m .
T h at m e a n s r e a l p ro te c tio n fo r y o u r o ilfie ld in v e s tm e n t!

★ BY EVE RY E N G I N E E R I N G S T A N D A R D " S E C U R A L O Y " IS

THE MATERIAL FOR P E R M A N E N T BO T TO M H O L E S ERVIC E!

SECURITY ENGINEERING CO., INC.

WHITTIER, C ALI F OR NI A. P H O N E 42004 7
M I D - C O N T I N E N T * 5 5 2 5 C L I N T O N D R I V E , H O U S T O N . T E X A S . P H O N E C A P I T O L 9538
E XP OR T * S E C U R I T Y E N G I N E E R I N G C O . . I NC. , 420 L E X I N G T O N A V E N U E . N E W Y O R K CI TY

S ie v e su Re&me/U * S ec w va h u f ★ S e c u s u ty îb 'U lla h le ß n o d u c ti

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Y1\7
A Model R Double Drum Draw W orks with cable tool
drilling attachm ent was received in Ecuador exactly 14
DAYS from the date o rd er was placed.
" I am a d v is e d t h a t th e o t h e r m achine o r d e re d by c a b le from
•London a b o u t November 2 0 th , i s i n G u a y a q u il. I c a n n o t b e l ie v e i t ,
but- i f s o , i t i s s u r e l y a f i e l d r e c o r d f o r d e l i v e r y n e v e r even a p ­
p ro a c h e d b e f o re " , q u o te s H -S tu b b s, S u p e r in te n d e n t o f A n g lo -E c u a d o ria n
O i l f i e l d s , L td . When quick delivery and dependable performance is
: wanted; order "CARDWELL" draw works, servicing hoists
or pipe line equipment. Guaranteed shipment on any
standard model in five to eight days.

(Base M ap C o p y rig h te d b y R a n d M cN ally)

ALLSfm PRODUCTS MFG.CO.

Wichita, Kansas, U. S. A .
801 So. W ic h it a S t ., P. O. D r a w er 2001
C A B LE A D D RESS "A L L S T E E L " PH O N ES L D. 289, L O C A L 4 -4 3 8 1 -4-4 3 8 2

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xv
 CLA SS I

f u s io n w eld ed

BY

THOMPSON
tHa m pton ) ltd

WORKING PRESSURE OF
1 0 0 0 L B S . P E R SQ .IN -

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Down toVthe b o tto m o f one
of the deepèst w ells in T exas!

D a ily u se o f th e Syfo
C l i n o g r a p h p e r m it s
a c cu ra te c o n t r o l o f in ­
c l in a t i o n in d r i l l i n g
o p e ra tio n s . T h e tests

Another drilling record a re a c c u r a te ly an d

e a s il y m a d e w it h o u t
th e u s e o f d a n g e ro u s
with the aid of the Self- a c id s. T h e S y fo C l in o ­
g r a p h is sp e e d y , s e lf­
Checking SYFO Clinograph c h e c k i n g , s i m p le to
o p e ra te , a n d in e x p e n ­
sive . C a n b e u se d o n
Congratulations to the Union a w ir e l in e o r as a
Producing Company for drilling “ G o - D e v i l ” r u n n in g
in s id e th e d r i ll stem
the Minnie Brown No. 1 in the o r o n sa n d o r b a ilin g
Agua Dulce field—considered one lin e in o p e n h o le .
of the deepest tests ever drilled in
Texas !
The Sperry-Sun SYFO Clinograph
was used in checking inclinations
while drilling. Over 114 records
were made. The instrument was
used at first on the Halliburton
Wire line. A t a greater depth it
was run as a “ Go-Devil ” and fished out with a core barrel
overshot, or alternatively recovered when the drill stem was
pulled out of the hole. The mud, at the greater depths,
weighed up to 13 pounds per gallon, with a viscosity of 28
to 30.
Drillers everywhere may expect equally good performance
wherever the SYFO “ Go-Devil ” is used.

SPERRY-SUN WELL SURVEYING CO.

1608 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.A.
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x v ii
Lach m an V a p o u r P hase
T r e a t in g P r o c e ss
■ ■

LACHMAN T R EA TED spirit does not

require any inhibitor.

LACHMAN TREA TIN G » a single

operation conserves anti-knock q u a lity ; reduces
gum content to the vanishing point; reduces sludge
and polym erization losses to the minimum and
reduces sulphur.

T h e practical ad vantages also of a m ethod w h ich

is fool-proof in the sense that it cannot b e over­
done must appeal to all refiners.

A. F. CRAIG & CO., LTD.

PAISLEY
R e p resen tin g :

VAPOUR T R E A T IN G THE WINKLER-KOCH

P R O C E S S E S IN C ., ENGINEERING CO.,
555, South Flower Street, 335, West Lewis Street,
Los Angeles CALIFORNIA Wichita KANSAS

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x v iii
 of ro bber

That's what an engineer said

looking at a lively Duplex steam
pump that w as struggling with a
highly volatile product. This
odd behaviour is more usually
described as 'short-stroking/
and it occurs w henever the
ordinary Duplex steam pump
draw s gas instead of a full
charge of liquid; piston a ccelera­
tions become erratic, and the
steam ports are closed before
the completion of the stroke.
Some users have discarded with Twells' valve gear, and
Duplex pumps on this account; are now getting the economic
o th e rs have purchased advantages of this type com­
H ayw ard-Tyler Duplex pumps bined with positive action.
W ith Tw ells' valve gear each
piston rod closes its own steam
port at the end of the stroke, the
opening of the port being
effected by the opposite piston
as with the standard Duplex.
The result is ability to work with
gas-laden liquids or even against
a vacuum, and incidentally a
saving in steam.

S, CO. LTD .
PUMP MAKERS LU T ON BEDS
Kindly mention this Journal when communicating w ith Advertisers.
TAPES-RULES-PRECISION TOOLS
tA jL C f ii J r u lu / it r iy '

STAN DARD O F A C C U R A C Y F O R T A N K S T R A P P IN G ,
TANK G A G IN G AND G E N E R A L M E A S U R IN G
TH RO U G H O U T THE W O RLD . . .
Among others we mention:

"A tla s” — The W orld ’s B est Gaging Tape

"D errick” — The Tape with Sturdy Hook
SEND FO R F R E E C A T A LO G No. 12

th e / u fk /n P u le (7 o .
S A G IN A W , M IC H IG A N , U . S . A.

th e [u fk /n R u l e f? o . o f Q a n a d a J td .
W IN D S O R , O N T A R I O

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