Carlos Hilado Memorial State College

Graduate Studies
Talisay City, Negros Occidental

Subject : ED502: Foundation of Education

Term : 2nd Semester 2018-2019
Reporter : Rhonna May G. Casilao MAT-MATH I-A
Topic : Constructivism, Social and Situation Theory
Professor : Vanessa Joy Z. Judith, Ph.D.

CONSTRUCTIVISM, SOCIAL AND SITUATIONAL THEORY

Cognitive Apprenticeship (Collins et, al)
Discovery Learning (Bruner)
Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

 COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP
 A theory of the process where a master of a skill teaches that skill to an apprentice.
 Cognitive apprenticeships are designed to bring implicit processes in carrying out
complex skills into the open, where students can observe, enact, and practice them with
help from the teacher.
 This model is supported by Albert Bandura's (1997) theory of modeling, which
hypothesized that in order for modeling to be successful, the learner must be
attentive, must have access to and retain the information presented, must be motivated
to learn, and must be able to accurately reproduce the desired skill.
 Part of the effectiveness of the cognitive apprenticeship model comes from learning in
context and is based on theories of situated cognition.
 In cognitive apprenticeships, the activity being taught is modeled in real-world situations.

Teaching Methods
Collins, Brown, and Newman developed six teaching methods rooted in cognitive
apprenticeship theory and claimed that these methods help students attain cognitive and
metacognitive strategies for "using, managing, and discovering knowledge".
 The first three (modeling, coaching, scaffolding) are at the core of cognitive
apprenticeship and help with cognitive and metacognitive development.
 The next two (articulation and reflection) are designed to help novices with awareness
of problem-solving strategies and execution similar to that of an expert.
 The final step (exploration) intends to guide the novice towards independence and
the ability to solve and identify problems within the domain on their own.

MODELING

Modeling of expert performance.

 This includes making the problem-solving process of experts known to students.
Modeling of processes in the world. This includes making invisible parts of a process
visible (e.g., photosynthesis processes).
 These two kinds of modeling can be interwoven, especially when the problem includes
the invisible parts of the process. In applying these two types of modeling in educational
settings, two strategies are available to teachers:
Modeling on the outset. Apprenticeships normally start with modeling and explaining the
process that students are to use.
Modeling after students' attempt at a task. Another strategy is to present the problem to
the students first, let them think through the process, and then provide modeling of experts'
processes.
 The major responsibilities of the teacher during the modeling stage of cognitive
apprenticeship are structuring situations of expert practice and demonstrating the
expert's thinking process in a manner that does not overwhelm students (Rogoff, 1990).
 The goal of this stage is to build mental models of experts' cognitive processes so that
students can eventually work on their own.
 Because it involves a process that cannot be directly observed and experienced,
cognitive modeling requires more sophisticated planning to apply in classrooms than
does modeling of physical performance.
 A key component of cognitive apprenticeship is that students learn the cognitive
processes in realistic contexts so that they may process their thoughts accordingly in
actual situations.
 In the teaching of reading comprehension, teachers might use an authentic newspaper
and go through the process of reading and comprehending an article.
 Thus, students understand and build a conceptual model of the comprehension process
and its conditions for application in conditions similar to real life situations (Collins,
Brown, & Newman, 1989).

COACHING AND SCAFFOLDING

 Coaching and scaffolding are two critical components of the cognitive apprenticeship
model.
 These elements are addressed together because they share many characteristics.
 Although coaching does not enjoy the familiarity of its cousin scaffolding in the research
literature, some researchers call it "the thread running through the entire apprenticeship
experience" (Collins, Brown, & Holum, 1991).
 Coaching and scaffolding are two critical components of the cognitive apprenticeship
model.
 These elements are addressed together because they share many characteristics.
 Although coaching does not enjoy the familiarity of its cousin scaffolding in the research
literature, some researchers call it "the thread running through the entire apprenticeship
experience" (Collins, Brown, & Holum, 1991).
 It can be said that coaching is the process of doing whatever it takes to assist learners in
their learning, from start until finish.
One of the important components of coaching -- scaffolding.
 Of the six characteristics of the cognitive apprenticeship model, scaffolding is perhaps
the best known and most discussed.
 First, two definitions offered by the Merriam - Webster Dictionary:
- A temporary or movable platform for workers (as bricklayers, painters, or miners) to
stand or sit on when working at a height above the floor or ground
- A supporting framework.
Instructional scaffolding is a process through which a teacher adds supports for students in
order to enhance learning and aid in the mastery of tasks.
 The purpose of the support is to allow the child to achieve higher levels of development
by:
 simplifying the task or idea
 motivating and encouraging the child
 highlighting important task elements or errors
 giving models that can be imitated

ARTICULATION AND REFLECTION

 Articulation and Reflection are two hallmarks of cognitive apprenticeship practices.
These components are discussed together as they often go hand-in-hand in practice.
 Articulation is defined as "the act of giving utterance or expression" (Merriam Webster's,
2001).
 In terms of cognitive apprenticeship, articulation is described by McLellan as consisting
of two aspects: separating component knowledge and skills to learn them more
effectively and, more common verbalizing or demonstrating knowledge and thinking
processes in order to expose and clarify them.
 Through articulation, the learners make their learning known through language so that
community members have a basis of interaction to refine and expand understanding.
 Articulation can be interwoven in a learning experience through a variety of strategies
including discussion, demonstration, presentation, and the exchange of written or other
learner-produced materials.
 Merriam Webster (2001) defines reflection as "consideration of some subject matter,
idea, or purpose."
 Reflection has been identified as one of the most important, yet neglected, aspects of
learning and instruction.
 It is the activity that evokes insights and nurtures revisions in our
plans. It is also the activity we are least accustomed in doing therefore, it is the most
rigorous as we will have to help students develop their skills in.
 The goal of reflection is that students have guided opportunities to look back and
analyze their individual and group performance with an eye toward understanding and
improvement. Like other components of cognitive apprenticeship, reflection can be
encouraged in students in a variety of ways.
For example, a mentor can pose experientially-based questions, or ask students to
construct their own questions, throughout the learning experience --questions that
consider content (e.g. who or what?) while emphasizing process (e.g. how and why?).

EXPLORATION
 Exploration in cognitive apprenticeship is pushing students to try out their hypotheses,
methods, and strategies with processes similar to those that experts use to solve
problems (Collins, 1991). Students are usually engaged in two kinds of exploration:
• Exploration of the world. Students explore and even play with facts, problems,
phenomena, and properties of our world in a less structured learning environment (Rose,
1995).
• Exploration of problem solving processes. When problems that require adjustment of
pre-existing cognitive processes are presented to the students, the learners try different
problem-solving processes.
 Learners become independent of the teacher and begin to apply what experts do
regarding forming and testing hypotheses, formulating rules, and gathering information.
Once they are in problem-solving mode, students are forced to make discoveries on
their own.
 It is the teacher's responsibility to find general tasks that students will find interesting.
The goals should be broad enough so that students or student groups can find their own
achievable goals.
 Goals for exploration should take into account thinking and the learning process. Goals
that only require memorization or simple physical practice should not be considered.
 Through exploration, learners are encouraged to carry out expert problem-solving
processes on their own. Exploration also promotes learner autonomy in defining or
formulating the problems to be solved. (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989).
 The goal of the students is to actually use their mental models of experts' cognitive
processes on their own or as a group to find and solve problems, set achievable goals,
test hypotheses, and make their own discoveries (Collins, 1991).
 Learners become independent of the teacher and begin to apply what experts do
regarding forming and testing hypotheses, formulating rules, and gathering information.
Once they are in problem-solving mode, students are forced to make discoveries on
their own.
 It is the teacher's responsibility to find general tasks that students will find interesting.
The goals should be broad enough so that students or student groups can find their own
achievable goals.
 Goals for exploration should take into account thinking and the learning process. Goals
that only require memorization or simple physical practice should not be considered.

 DISCOVERY LEARNING
- JEROME S. BRUNER
 Bruner’s Beliefs
• Bruner believes that students must be active—they must identify key principles for
themselves rather than simply accepting teachers’ explanations.
• This process has been called DISCOVERY LEARNING.
Teaching method
• Inquiry based process.
• Focuses on learning through experience.
• Inductive Reasoning – using specific examples to formulate a general principle.
• Spiral construction of curriculum (revisits concepts)
• Learner builds on past experience
• Students interact with environment
• Discovers facts and relationships on own
• Students create own construct of knowledge through narrative
 Advantages of Discovery Learning
• Active engagement
• promotes motivation
 • promotes ownership of learning
• the development of creativity and problem solving skills
• a tailored learning experience
 Criticisms of Discovery Learning
• Too much information (cognitive overload)
• Often requires vast resources unavailable in traditional classroom
• Lack of teacher control
• Potential misconceptions
• Teachers may fail to recognize misconceptions
 Examples of Discovery Learning
• learning with and through narratives
• case-based learning
• guided discovery
• problem-based learning
• simulation-based learning
• incidental learning
 The Inquiry Cycle

 Discovery in Action
• A distinction is usually made between pure discovery learning, in which the students
work on their own to a very great extent, and guided discovery, in which the teacher
provides some direction.
• Discovery Learning – Bruner’s approach, in which students work on their own to
discover basic principles
• Guided Discovery – An adaptation of discovery learning, in which the teacher provides
some direction.
 Modes of Representation 1
Bruner suggested that different ways of thinking were important at different ages.
• The enactive mode (used in 1st 18 months)
• The iconic mode (develops from 18 months)
• The symbolic mode (6 to 7 years onwards)
 Modes of Representation 2
Each of Bruner's stages of representation builds off of the knowledge and information
learned in the previous stage, or in other words, the stage before acts as scaffolding for the
next stage.
• Each stage is a "way in which information or knowledge are stored and encoded in
memory" (Mcleod, 2008).
 I. Enactive (action-based)
• Sometimes called the concrete stage, this first stage involves a tangible hands-on
method of learning.
• Bruner believed that "learning begins with an action - touching, feeling, and
manipulating" (Brahier, 2009, p. 52).
 II. Iconic (image-based)
• Sometimes called the pictorial stage, this second stage involves images or other visuals
to represent the concrete situation enacted in the first stage.
• One way of doing this is to simply draw images of the objects on paper or to picture
them in one's head.
• Other ways could be through the use of shapes, diagrams, and graphs.
 III. Symbolic (language-based)
• Sometimes called the abstract stage, the last stage takes the images from the second
stage and represents them using words and symbols.
• The use of words and symbols "allows a student to organize information in the mind by
relating concepts together" (Brahier, 2009, p. 53).
• Examples: Chemical symbols (H2O) or circuit symbols
• Finally, language and words are another way to abstractly represent the idea. In the
context of science, this could be the use of words such as current, force, growth, MRS
NERG, material etc…

 Social Development Theory

The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the development of cognition.
Social interaction:
•Affects the learning process in an individual.
•Creates consciousness and awareness upon the individual.

He believed that the social interactions that children engaged in helped them to both
discover and create meaning from the things that they discover.
 Overview
• Social Interaction Influences Cognitive Development
• Biological and Cultural Development do not occur in Isolation
• Language plays a major role in Cognitive Development
 Areas were social interaction can influence cognitive development…
• Engagement between the teacher and student
• Physical space and arrangement in learning environment
• Meaningful instruction in small or whole groups
• Scaffolding/Reciprocal teaching strategies; Zone of Proximal Development
 What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The zone of proximal development is the area of learning that a more
knowledgeable other (MKO) assists the student in developing a higher level of learning.
The goal is for the MKO to be less involved as the student develops the
necessary skills.
Vygotsky describes it as “the distance between the actual development level as
determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more
capable peers” (Vygotsky, 1978).
 Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal Teaching is used to improve students’ ability to learn from text
through the practice of four skills: summarizing, clarifying, questioning, and predicting.
 Biological & Cultural Development
Vygotsky (1978) states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development
appears twice: first, on the social level, and later on the individual level; first, between
people and then inside the child. This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical
memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual
relationships between individuals.”
 Language
Language plays a central role in mental development.
Language is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.
Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation
 How can we practically apply Vygotsky’s theories to our everyday classrooms?
• Physical Arrangement in the Classroom

Arrange student desks in clusters.

Arrange other work
spaces for peer
instruction, collaboration,
and small group
instruction.
 Scaffolding Strategies
• Motivate the child’s interest in the task.
• Break the task down into manageable steps.
• Provide some direction to keep the child focused.
• Reduce factors that cause frustration.
• Model and define the expectations of the activity.
 Reciprocal Strategies
• Use props to illustrate each of the four skills to be practiced: summarizing,
clarifying, questioning, and predicting.
Have students buddy read and practice using the reciprocal strategies.
 Lesson Content
• Create lessons that engage student interest and give them a basis for language
when socially interacting.
• Use technology and hands on activities to further engage them in learning.
Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting/shaping cognitive development.
Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive
development.
Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive
development.