Chapter 3

ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY, GAUSS’S

LAW, AND DIVERGENCE
 3.1 Electric Flux Density
Faraday’s Experiment
Electric Flux Density, D
Units: C/m2
Magnitude: Number of flux lines (coulombs)
crossing a surface normal to the lines divided by the
surface area.
Direction: Direction of flux lines (same direction as
E).
For a point charge:

For a general charge distribution,

D3.1
Given a 60-uC point charge located at the origin, find the
total electric flux passing through:

(a) That portion of the sphere r = 26 cm bounded by

0 < theta < Pi/2 and 0 < phi < Pi/2
D3.2
Calculate D in rectangular coordinates at point P(2,-3,6)
produced by : (a) a point charge QA = 55mC at Q(-2,3,-6)

2  2 
P   3 
3
Q   3 
QA  55 10
   
6
 6 
 12 PQ
0  8.85410
 R  P  Q r 
PQ

 6.38  10 6 
 
D   9.57  10 6 
QA
D  r
 
4   R 2  1.914 10 5 
 
Gauss’s Law
“The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed by that surface.”
The integration is performed over a closed surface, i.e. gaussian surface.
We can check Gauss’s law with a point charge example.
Symmetrical Charge Distributions
Gauss’s law is useful under two conditions.
1. DS is everywhere either normal or tangential to the closed surface,
so that DS.dS becomes either DS dS or zero, respectively.
2. On that portion of the closed surface for which DS.dS is not zero, DS
= constant.
Gauss’s law simplifies the task of finding D near an
infinite line charge.
Infinite coaxial cable:
Differential Volume Element
If we take a small enough closed surface, then D is almost constant over
the surface.
D3.6a

 8 x y  z4 
 
D( x y  z)   4 x2 z4 
 
 16 x2 y  z3 
 
3 2
 
  D( x y  2)  10 12 d x d y  1.365 10 9
  2
 
1 0
D3.6b

 8 x y  z4 
 
D( x y  z)   4 x2 z4   10
 12
 
 2 3
 16 x  y  z 

 12
0  8.85410


2 D( 2  1  3)  146.375
P   1  E   146.375 
E 
  0  
3  195.166
 Divergence
Divergence is the outflow of flux from a small
closed surface area (per unit volume) as
volume shrinks to zero.
-Water leaving a bathtub
-Closed surface (water itself) is essentially incompressible
-Net outflow is zero

-Air leaving a punctured tire

-Divergence is positive, as closed surface (tire) exhibits net
outflow
Mathematical definition of divergence

div D
D
lim  dS
v  0  v


Surface integral as the volume element (v) approaches zero

D is the vector flux density

 D x D y D z 
div  D    
 x y z 

- Cartesian
Divergence in Other Coordinate Systems

Cylindrical
 D Dz
div  D    D 
1 1
  
    z

Spherical

div D
1  r

 D r 2
  1


 D   sin     1

D 
2 r r sin     r sin    
r
Divergence at origin for given vector flux density A

 e x  sin ( y ) 
 
A  e x  cos ( y ) 
 
 2 z 

div A
 e x  sin( y)   
  e  cos ( y )  
x 
 ( 2  z)
x y z

div A
x x
e  sin ( y )  e  sin ( y )  2
3-6: Maxwell’s First Equation

.

 A dS Q Gauss’ Law…

S

.

 A dS
 …per unit volume
S Q
v v
.

 A dS

S Q
lim lim
Volume shrinks to zero v  0 v v  0 v

Electric flux per unit volume is equal to the volume charge density
Maxwell’s First Equation
.

 A dS

S Q
lim lim
v  0 v v  0 v

div D v

Sometimes called the point form of Gauss’ Law

Enclosed surface is reduced to a single point

3-7:  and the Divergence Theorem
  del operator

What is del?


   ay  az
 ax
 x y z
’s Relationship to Divergence

div D  D
V
True for all coordinate systems
Other  Relationships
Gradient – results from  operating on a function

Represents direction of greatest change

Curl – cross product of  and

Relates to work in a field

If curl is zero, so is work

Exercises of  and flux
Cube defined by 1 < x,y,z < 1.2
2 2 2
D 2 x  y  a x  3 x  y  a y

Calculation of total flux


. . x1  1 x2  1.2

Q  D dS   v dv  y1  1 y2  1.2
S vol
z1  1 z2  1.2
 total  left   right   front   back

z y z x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 x1    2  x1  y d y d z  y1    3  x  y 1 d x d z
z y z x
1 1 1 1

z y z x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 x2    2  x2  y d y d z  y2    3  x  y 2 d x d z
z y z x
1 1 1 1
  total   x1   x2   y1   y2

 total  0.103

 Dat center of cube

Evaluation ofV

div D
d 2
2 x  y  
d 2 
3 x  y
2 
dx dy

div D
2
4  x y  6  x  y
2
divD  4  ( 1.1)  ( 1.1)  6  ( 1.1)  ( 1.1)

divD  12.826
Semiconductor Application - Device Charge Field Potential
Vector Fields
Potential Field
Applications of Gauss’s Law