29/02/2016

Concrete Behavior

Chapter 2

Structural Cracking
 Process: Concrete, when subjected to tensile beyond its
tensile stress limit, develops cracks. The tensile stress at
which concrete cracks is variable, even within the same
batch of concrete, and depends on the total state of
stress, the type of stress, the location within the concrete
cross-section of the maximum stress, the amount and
depth of the reinforcement, and a variety of other factors.
 The tensile strength of concrete is about 10 percent of
the compressive strength, but in the design of reinforced
concrete structural elements, this strength is neglected.
Steel reinforcement is provided to carry the tensile
stresses in a member due to applied loads.

1
 29/02/2016

 Tensile stresses due to bending tend to produce

cracks that propagate from the edge of the beam,
slab, or shell, in a direction parallel to the supports
and perpendicular to the face of the beam, slab, or
shell. Shear cracks are located close to the support,
and take a more diagonal direction. This is because
a shearing stress resolves into a tensile stress in a
diagonal direction.

2
 29/02/2016

Contributing Factors
 Low-strength concrete: Concrete is designed for
compressive strength, and improved or increased tensile
strength is generally incidental to improved compressive
strength. Lower strength concrete will have lower tensile
strength and be more likely to crack, given equal stress
magnitudes.
 Poorly consolidated concrete: Poor consolidation causes
loss of cross sectional area, and provides opportunities
for cracks to initiate.
 Unanticipated stresses: Stresses of magnitudes, and
especially directions that were not anticipated in the initial
design of the structure may cause unanticipated cracks.
Examples of this kind of structural cracking include
diagonal cracks at corners of slabs, or at re-entrant
corners in building slabs or building facades.

Poorly consolidated concrete displays rock pockets or

honeycombing, where the cement paste has not fully penetrated
the coarse aggregate.

3
 29/02/2016

Results
 The result of structural cracking in properly designed
concrete is simply a visual problem: owners and
building users often find cracks in concrete to be
unsightly, or even threatening.
 However, cracks can be an indication of more
serious shortcomings in the structural design. They
also form a pathway for moisture and air to reach the
reinforcement, and may hasten the corrosion of the
reinforcement (although this is the topic of a vigorous
debate in the engineering literature). They do allow
penetration of moisture and promotion of freeze-
thaw effects, and can eventually develop into larger
cracks and spalled or damaged areas.

Remedies
 Usually, this is a condition that does not require
remedies. Where the cracking becomes unsightly, or
admits too much moisture to the interior of the
structure, some sort of repair may be warranted. If
the structure is deficient, external reinforcement, or
external post tensioning may be undertaken. If the
problem is superficial, the cracks may be repaired by
epoxy injection.

4
 29/02/2016

Investigations of Structural Cracking

 Structural cracking is investigated by visual inspection,
and by analysis of the structure that attempts to
reproduce the conditions that produced the cracks. The
analysis of the structure can involve simply some
understanding of the nature of the stresses in the zone
where cracking is observed, such as stresses due to
edge restraint. The investigation may also involve more
complex computer models, to determine the direction,
location, and magnitude of maximum tensile
stresses. The visual inspection may be accompanied by
laboratory tests, such as petrographic analysis of the
concrete (ASTM C856). The petrographic analysis would
be specifically looking for reasons for the weakness of
the cement matrix: lack of cement, chemical attack of the
cement matrix, etc. The petrographic analysis may also
be useful in estimate the age of the cracks.

Structure Failure
 Structural failure is a distinct process from structural
cracking, described above. Structural failure in
concrete is only rarely a total collapse of a part or all
of a structure. Usually, a structural failure is evident
as a large deflection or other excessive
displacement, or the development of cracks beyond
the limit of tolerability. The types of conditions that
usually produce structural failures of reinforced
concrete structures are inadequate edge support, or
unanticipated loading.

5
 29/02/2016

Contributing Factors
 Foundation Settlement
Settlement, especially differential settlement of the foundation produces
unanticipated stresses in the superstructure, due to loss of support at the
locations of the settlement.
 Poor or uncertain concrete quality
Concrete of low compressive strength or poorly consolidated concrete is
more subject to creep, or long term compressive deformations. As a low-rise
arch, vault or dome creeps, the structure sags, inducing further compressive
stresses, which may lead to a creep instability.
 Placement of reinforcement
Structural failures may result from misplaced or omitted reinforcement in
zones where tension occurs. This may be a design deficiency, or the result
of errors or changes during construction.
 Corrosion of reinforcement
Large-scale corrosion of the reinforcement removes a significant proportion
of the cross sectional area of the concrete through delamination of the
concrete cover on the reinforcement, and may also remove a significant
portion of the cross sectional area of the steel tension reinforcement.

Remedies
 The repair of a structural failure requires intervention
through a program including temporary support of
the structure, usually followed by removal and
replacement of the affected portions of the
structure. Some alternative repair methods do not
require removal of the existing structure. These
include the provision of external prestressing, or
repair with bonded fiber reinforced polymer sheets or
plates. Both of the methods are likely to have a
substantial visual impact on the structure, and
should be used cautiously on historically significant
structures.

6
 29/02/2016

Reinforcing

External prestressing

7
 29/02/2016

Fiber Reinforced Polymer

Investigations of Structural Failure

 Investigations of structural failure are completed by a
coordinated program of observations of the structure and
analysis of the structure. Field investigations look into
the patterns of damage and attempt to infer possible
causes, while the structural analysis is used to confirm
the likelihood of failure due to the possible causes being
investigated. Tools for the investigation of a failure
include consulation of the as-built construction plans, and
any of the concrete investigation methods described
above. Concrete strength in situ can be measured using
a rebound hammer (ASTM C805) or a Windsor probe
(ASTM C803). Concrete strength can also be
determined by taking core specimens. Reinforcement
can be roughly located using a rebar locator, or by
exploratory drilling.

8
 29/02/2016

Shrinkage Cracking
 Process: Concrete shrinks as it dries out after initial
placement. This is primarily due to the change in volume
after excess water is removed from the material by
drying. The length change for ordinary concrete can vary
from about .01% to .1%, depending on a number of
factors listed below. Since most concrete structures are
not free to shrink, but are restrained at the ends, the
results of the tendency to shrink is to develop tensile
stresses in the concrete, which cause the development of
cracks, approximately spaced at some interval varying
from about 5 feet to about 20 feet. Although it is not
possible to control the tendency of the concrete to shrink,
the size and severity of the cracks can be controlled by
the addition of reinforcement. Shrinkage reinforcement
must be continuous and uniformly distributed throughout
the structure.

Severe shrinkage cracking of a concrete patch: the patching concrete mix was
probably overwatered and/or insufficiently cured.

9
 29/02/2016

Contributing Factors
 High water-cement ratio: The larger the proportion of water in the concrete,
the greater the volume change on drying, and the greater the tendency to
shrink. As stated above, a water/cement ratio of about .25 is chemically
sufficient for hydration of the cement, but additional water must be added to
make the concrete workable. Large amounts of excess water are
undesirable from the point of view of concrete strength, and dimensional
stability, but do improve the workability and the economy of the concrete.
 Temperature extremes: Temperature extremes, especially just after
placement of the concrete, may promote more rapid drying and hasten the
development of shrinkage cracks.
 Lack of adequate reinforcement: Reinforcement of the concrete cannot
prevent shrinkage cracking, but can control the severity and extent of the
development of cracks.
 Lack of adequate curing of concrete at initial placement: Curing
concrete properly means maintaining the material in a moist condition as it
gains its early strength. If drying and subsequent shrinkage develop early,
the material has much lower tensile strength and is much more susceptible
to the development of cracks.

Results
 The result of shrinkage cracking, like structural
cracking in properly designed concrete is simply a
visual problem: owners and building users often find
cracks in concrete to be unsightly, or even
threatening. Shrinkage cracks also form a pathway
for moisture and air to reach the reinforcement, and
may hasten the corrosion of the reinforcement
(although this is the topic of a vigorous debate in the
engineering literature). They do allow penetration of
moisture and promotion of freeze-thaw effects, and
can eventually develop into larger cracks and spalled
or damaged areas.

10
 29/02/2016

Remedies
 Usually, this is a condition that does not require
remedies. Where the cracking becomes unsightly, or
admits too much moisture to the interior of the
structure, some sort of repair may be warranted. If
the structure is deficient, external reinforcement, or
external post tensioning may be undertaken. If the
problem is superficial, the cracks may be repaired by
epoxy injection.

Reinforcement Corrosion
 Corrosion of embedded steel in concrete, including
reinforcement, is a complex electrochemical process
that can result in very severe damage to a concrete
structure. In order to corrode, the reinforcement
must have access to moisture, oxygen, and
electrolyte. Because concrete is a porous material,
permeable to air and water, these three elements are
nearly always available in concrete. However, the
alkalinity of the environment within a concrete
member tends to suppress the corrosion reaction,
and other conditions are necessary for the
development of damaging corrosion of
reinforcement.

11
 29/02/2016

Process
 A full corrosion cell consists of two components, a cathode,
where free electrons combine with oxygen and water to form
hydroxide (OH)ˉ ions and an anode, where iron ionizes by the
loss of electrons, and combines with the hydroxide ions to
form products of corrosion, commonly known as rust. The
electrons migrate from the anode to the cathode through the
steel, while the negatively charged hydroxide ions migrate
through a medium, which consists of water and dissolved ions,
or electrolytes. So, the reactions in the corrosion process are

anode (oxidation) Fe → Fe++ + 2eˉ

X·Fe(OH)2 + H2O→ iron oxide products of corrosion (rust)

cathode (reduction) O2 + 2H2O + 4eˉ→ 4(OH)ˉ

12
 29/02/2016

 The products of corrosion occupy a much greater volume

than the steel. As a result of continued deposition
of products of corrosion on the surface of the steel,
tensile stresses develop in the concrete, which cause
splitting cracks along the surface of the concrete along
the length of the reinforcement, localized spalling of the
concrete cover over the area of corroding reinforcement,
or delamination of large areas of the concrete cover.

Contributing Factors
 Moisture Pathways
 If the surface of the concrete is subject to long-term wetting, the water will
eventually reach the level of the reinforcement, either through diffusion
through the porous structure of the concrete, or by traveling along cracks in
the concrete. Concrete roof decks, by their nature, are meant to be protected
from moisture. However, the presence of moisture on roofing systems may
result from failure of the roofing membrane, poor detailing of drainage
facilities, or lack of maintenance of drainage facilities.
 High water-cement ratio
Concrete placed with a high water-cement ratio, as seen under Freeze-thaw
cycles, is more porous due to the presence of excess water in the plastic
concrete. The porosity increases the rate of diffusion of water and
electrolytes through the concrete and makes the concrete more susceptible
to cracking.
 Presence of Chloride Ions
This is clearly the most important risk factor for bridge decks, which are
continually exposed to chloride ions by the use of de-icing salts, but is less
of a factor for roof structures.

13
 29/02/2016

 Carbonation of Concrete
Carbonation refers to the chemical process where free calcium
hydroxide in the porewater of the concrete combines with
atmospheric carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate. The
chemical reaction is
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
As the calcium hydroxide is alkaline and the calcium carbonate is
not, the pH of the environment of the reinforcing may be significantly
lowered by this reaction. This causes 'depassivation' of the
reinforcement, and allows the corrosion process to initiate. This
process is more active in concrete which is subject to wetting and
drying, and in which pathways for atmospheric carbon dioxide exist
through cracks or pores in the concrete.
 Low concrete tensile strength
Concrete with low tensile strength facilitates corrosion damage in two
ways. First, the concrete develops tension or shrinkage cracks more
easily, admitting moisture and oxygen, and in some cases chlorides,
to the level of the reinforcement. Second, the concrete is more
susceptible to developing cracks at the point that the reinforcement
begins to corrode.

14
 29/02/2016

Remedies
 The initial remedy for corrosion of concrete reinforcement is always
to remove the source of the water entering the concrete. If the water
is penetrating a roofing membrane, the roof must be repaired or
replaced. If the water is entering the concrete because of improper
drainage patterns, a more favorable drainage scheme must be
implemented. Usually, though, by the time that corrosion damage is
detected, portions of the concrete will also require repair. Remedies
for corrosion-damaged concrete include removal of all delaminated
concrete, cleaning of the reinforcement by abrasive blast cleaning,
high pressure water, or needle scaling, and use of a concrete
patching material. If the steel has lost a large part of its cross
section, it may also need to be replaced to restore the original
capacity of the structure. The reinforcement may be further
protected by encapsulation by coating with epoxy.
Cathodic protection is also occasionally used to alter the direction of
the corrosion current, by installing a sacrificial anode electrically
connected to the reinforcement at a near location.

Investigations of Corrosion Damage

 Delamination is investigated by sounding the concrete with a
hammer or a chain drag and listening for a hollow, or drum-like
sound. Areas of delamination may be marked on a plan, after
a systematic program of investigation. A number of
electrochemical methods are also available for investigations
of corrosion. The most commonly used procedure is the
measurement of half-cell potentials (ASTM C876). In this test,
the anodic electrical potential of the reinforcement is
measured at specific locations throughout the structure, and
compared to a reference value. The concrete is wetted at the
location of each measurement, and the open-circuit potential
is taken between a reference electrode at the measurement
location and an electrode attached directly to the
reinforcement mat. The result can be presented as a contour
map of half-cell potentials. According to the ASTM standard,
using a copper-copper sulfate reference electrode, the
following potentials give the following indications of corrosion
activity.

15
 29/02/2016

-50 to -200 mV passive

-200 to -350 mV uncertain
-350 mV or less corrosion is very likely

Severe corrosion and loss of concrete

cover can threaten the structural safety of
a building.

Freeze-Thaw Effects
 Concrete is a porous material and will absorb water,
either into pores, which always exist within the
cement matrix, or into previously formed structural or
shrinkage cracks. As is well-known, the volume of
water increases as it freezes, and freezing water
contained within the concrete can cause stresses to
develop in the concrete. When these stresses
exceed the tensile capacity of the concrete, they
may cause a number of effects: spalling of the
concrete, development of further cracks, 'popouts' of
the surface of the concrete

16
 29/02/2016

Contributing Factors
 Freeze-thaw cycles
The number of freeze-thaw cycles in a winter season is an important factor in producing
damage to concrete. This quantity varies not only with the coldness of the winter climate,
but also with the daily variations in temperature. The masonry industry defines a
weathering index as the product of the average annual number of freezing cycles times the
average annual winter rainfall.
 Moisture pathways
The pores in concrete, during freezing, must be nearly saturated with water (more than 90
percent of saturation) (Bureau of Reclamation 1997).
 High water-cement ratio
A higher than necessary water-cement ratio in the initial concrete placement contributes to
freeze-thaw problems in two ways. First, more water in the mix reduces the strength of the
concrete, and so reduces its resistance to the stresses produced by freezing water. The
reduced strength also makes the concrete more susceptible to structural, shrinkage and
thermal cracking. Second, excess water in the concrete mix dries eventually on aging of
the concrete and results in voids in the micro-structure of the concrete. These voids admit
water readily, and if the water freezes, damage to the concrete may result.


17
 29/02/2016

 Lack of entrained air

Entrained air is introduced into concrete by means of a chemical
admixture that produces small air bubbles in the concrete matrix that
provide space for water expansion during freezing. If the proper air
entraining admixture (AEA), at the correct concentration, is properly
mixed into high quality concrete, there should be very little damage
resulting from cyclic freezing and thawing except in very severe
climates. (Bureau of Reclamation 1996) The mechanism of
entrained air's contribution to resistance to freeze-thaw cycles
appear to be to provide a relief pathway for the expansion of the
water due to freezing. The use of AEA's in exterior exposed
concrete did not begin until the mid-1940's and was not widespread
in the building industry until well into the 1960's.
 Poorly consolidated concrete
Poorly consolidated concrete produces voids in the concrete that
cannot control freeze thaw action as air entraining does, admits
moisture into the concrete, and also weakens the concrete.

Results
 Freeze-thaw damage may manifest itself as cracking,
delamination, spalling, or popouts. Cracking may
develop or become visible as a result of the enlargement
of existing hairline cracks by freeze-thaw
action. Delamination refers specifically to the cover over
the concrete reinforcement losing connection to the
concrete below the reinforcement. Zones of delamination
are identified by sounding with a hammer or a chain
drag. When concrete spalls, the corners, or the concrete
cover over the reinforcement lose their connection to the
main body of the concrete member by the development
of widespread internal cracking or delamination. Popouts
of a concrete surface usually have a further underlying
cause, such as overworking during finishing, or improper
curing procedures.

18
 29/02/2016

Remedies
 Freeze-thaw damage to concrete is not generally
repairable, except by removal and replacement of the
affected part of the material. Freeze-thaw action can be
arrested by denying access to moisture. In the case of
concrete under a roof membrane which has been wetted
and frozen, this may be accomplished by replacement of
the roofing membrane with a more suitable
material. Often, simple improvements in drainage can
direct water away from the affected zones. The
application of sealers to historic exposed concrete is not
generally recommended, as it may alter the appearance
of the concrete, or it may entrap mositure within the
concrete and cause further problems (Coney, undated).

Investigations of Freeze-Thaw Cracking

 Visual inspection can locate areas of damaged concrete
and make an initial determination that the freeze-thaw
mechanism is the source of the damage by investigation
of moisture pathways, and the pattern of cracking The
resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing by
extracting a core of the concrete under investigation and
subject the specimen to cycles of wetting drying and
freezing according to ASTM C666. This test does not
give any absolute measure of the resistance of the
concrete, but does give a relative measure for
comparison with other cases. Petrographic analysis by
ASTM C856 can also be very useful: the presence or
absence of entrained air can be detected by examination
of the concrete.

19
 29/02/2016

Thermal Cracking
 In most cases, shrinkage movements in concrete are
larger than the normal thermal expansion and contraction
cycles. However, under highly restrained conditions,
cracking due to the development of thermal stresses may
appear. This is most likely to occur in concrete that has a
high solar exposure, due to being south-facing or
horizontal, and thus undergoes large daily temperature
variations. If not provided with sufficient expansion joints,
the top layer of concrete may delaminate and buckle
outwards. This condition is remedied by saw cutting
expansion joints into the concrete at appropriate intervals
and general repair of the affected concrete.

Thermal cracking

20
 29/02/2016

Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity
 Certain types of sulfate-containing aggregates, when
wetted, react with the alkaline elements in concrete,
causing large volume changes around the
aggregate. This process produces large and
widespread tensile stresses in the affected zones of
the concrete. Because in this condition, practically
the entire volume of the concrete is affected, it is
practically incurable, and usually calls for removal
and replacement of the affected concrete.

Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity

21
 29/02/2016

D-Cracking
 Whereas most freeze-thaw cracking of normal
weight concrete occurs in the cement matrix, when
freeze-thaw expansion and damage occurs in
porous aggregate, it produces a characteristic
pattern of roughly parallel cracks exuding
calcite. These cracks most frequently occur at
exposed corners and edges in the concrete. The
main defense against this condition is ensuring that
the concrete element is not subjected to periodic
wetting. Otherwise, removal and replacement of the
concrete may be warranted.

D-Cracking

22
 29/02/2016

Main references
 http://www.engr.psu.edu/ae/ThinShells/module%20III
/concrete_behavior_text.htm
 http://www.engr.psu.edu/ae/ThinShells/module%20III
/module%20iiie.pps
 http://theconstructor.org/concrete/chloride-attack-on-
concrete-structures/7802/
 https://www.nachi.org/visual-inspection-concrete.htm

23
 29/02/2016

Inspection tools

24
 29/02/2016

Chain drag
 The method simply involves dragging lengths of
chain across the top of a concrete surface. A
distinctly hollow, drum-like sound is heard when
delaminations are encountered. Chain drag surveys
are particularly effective in locating shallow
delaminations on uncovered decks. The method
can't be used to locate delaminations in the concrete
below bituminous wearing surfaces, although
debonding between wearing surface and underlying
concrete can generally be detected by a chain drag
survey.

Hammer Sounding
 Hammer sounding can aid in detecting impending spalls and
existing delaminations which, when struck with a hammer, give
off a dull sound or loud pop as opposed to the sharp ring of
hard concrete without any internal discontinuities. This sound
is easily noted when progressing from solid areas to
delaminated areas. Similarly, hammer sounding of bolts and
rivets can serve as an aid in detecting loose fasteners. Bolts
and rivets should be struck sideways, as well as on their ends.
In the inspection of timber elements, hammer sounding is
used to detect the presence of significant decay. When a
seriously decayed member is struck with the hammer, a dull or
hollow sound is produced. However, when suspected timber
decay is encountered, it must be verified by other means such
as boring or coring. Hammer sounding can be satisfactorily
accomplished using a light hammer. Figure 6:3-1 shows an
inspector hammer sounding a concrete abutment.

25
 29/02/2016

Windsor probe
 The Windsor Probe rapidly and accurately
determines the concrete compressive strength of a
structure by driving a probe into the concrete with a
known amount of force. Improved and enhanced
over thirty years, this modern system is capable of
measuring concrete with a maximum compressive
strength of 17,000 PSI (110MPA). It has been
ruggedized for use in the construction environment,
yet refined to provide the user with a simpler system
to operate. An electronic measuring unit has been
added to help ensure proper test results which can
be recorded for later review or uploading to a
personal computer.

26
 29/02/2016

Impulse radar
 The impulse radar technique employs high-
frequency electromagnetic energy waves for rapidly
and continuously assessing a variety of
characteristics in concrete structures. The principle
of operation is based on reflection of electromagnetic
waves from varying dielectric constant boundaries in
the material being probed. The impulse radar
equipment is self-contained, compact, and portable.
The system consists of the main radar unit, antenna
and transducer cable. All data is stored in the main
radar unit, by means of a computer hard drive.

27
 29/02/2016

Impulse Response
 The impulse response method was developed from the
vibration method for pile integrity testing and has been
known variably as the transient dynamic response (TDR),
mobility or impedance method for the last 25 years. The
method has been extended to the inspection of concrete
structures other than piles, particularly plate-like
elements such as floor slabs, walls and large cylindrical
structures.The detection of voids or poorly compacted
areas below or behind plate-like structures is one
principal application of the method.
 A low-strain impact sends stress waves through the
tested element. The impactor is usually a 1-kg
sledgehammer with a built-in load cell in the
hammerhead. Response to the input stress is normally
measured using a velocity transducer (geophone).

28
 29/02/2016

Impact Encho
 Impact-Echo is a method for nondestructive evaluation of
concrete and masonry, based on the use of impact-generated
stress (sound) waves that propagate through the structure and
are reflected by internal flaws and external surfaces. Impact-
Echo can be used to make accurate, nondestructive, ASTM
approved measurements of thickness in concrete slabs and
plates, (ASTM Standard C 1383 - 98a). It can also be used to
determine the location and extent of flaws such as cracks,
delaminations, voids, honeycombing and debonding in plain,
reinforced and post-tensioned concrete structures. It can
locate voids in the subgrade directly beneath slabs and
pavements. It can be used to determine thickness or locate
cracks, voids and other defects in masonry structures where
the brick or block units are bonded together with mortar.
Impact-echo is not adversely affected by the presence of steel
reinforcing bars.

29
 29/02/2016

Half cell potential

 The method of half-cell potential measurements normally
involves measuring the potential of an embedded
reinforcing bar relative to a reference half-cell placed on
the concrete surface. The half-cell is usually a
copper/copper sulphate or silver/silver chloride cell but
other combinations are used. The concrete functions as
an electrolyte and the risk of corrosion of the
reinforcement in the immediate region of the test location
may be related empirically to the measured potential
difference. In some circumstances, useful measurements
can be obtained between two half-cells on the concrete
surface. ASTM C876 - 91 gives a Standard Test Method
for Half-Cell Potentials of Uncoated Reinforcing Steel in
Concrete.

30
 29/02/2016

Laboratory Analysis
 Time or environmental-dependent of concrete
material:
 Basic mechanical properties – Compressive strength,
tensile strength, shear strength, modulus of elasticity,
density, bond strength, fatigue strength, abrasion
resistance.
 Dimensional stability – Creep & shrinkage, coefficient of
thermal expansion.
 Pertographic analysis – Quantitative analysis, air content,
degree of hydration & carbonation, alkali-carbonate
reaction, alkali-silica reaction, cement aggregate reaction,
cement content, soundness, water/cement ratio, sulfate
attack.
 Corrosion & durability – Permeability, half-cell potential.

31
 29/02/2016

Petrographic Analysis

Chemical Analysis
 Investigation method for aggregate, Portland cement
mixtures of concrete, mortar, grout, plaster, stucco,
terrazzo & similar hardened hydraulic cement mixtures
involving determination of its chemical composition.
 Used to determine:
 Excessive alkalies in cement.
 Cement content.
 Type & amount of admixtures.
 Presence of fly ash.
 Presence of slag.
 Concrete durability & reinforcement-corrosion potential
measured through presence of chlorides from deicing salt
solutions.

32