BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE

Basic Computer Architecture

A Microcomputer comprises of a number of devices which together make the overall
computer system. At the heart of the computer system is the microprocessor, which carries
out all of the processing of data to formulate an answer. The microprocessor is a
programmable logic device made by large scale integration on a single silicon chip. As will be
seen, a microprocessor has a large degree of flexibility built into it. By itself it cannot
perform a given task but must be programmed and connected to a set of additional system
devices. These additional system devices usually include memory elements and
input/output devices.
In general, a set of system devices, including the microprocessor, memory, and input/output
elements, interconnected for the purpose of performing some well-defined function, is
known as a microcomputer or microprocessor based system.
As with the purpose of a basic computer, the structure of a basic computer does not vary
between computers. Each computer is comprised of an input section, output section,
central processing unit, and memory section. The differences in the computers are in the
characteristics of devices used to make up each section of the computer, and the instruction
steps used to control the operation of the computer.
A basic computer system consists of four functional system device units:
1. the input unit
2. the memory unit
3. the Central Processing Unit
4. the output unit

The physical components and circuits that comprise a computer system are known as its
hardware. These circuits are capable of performing only a small number of different
operations. Any additional operational capabilities of the computer must be accomplished
by programming. A program is an organized collection of elementary computer operations,
called instructions that manipulate information, called data. The programs that are written
for a computer are called its software.
The program and data are first stored in the memory unit via the input unit. The individual
instructions of the program are then automatically entered, one at a time as directed by the
Control Unit, into the Central Processing Unit (CPU), where they are interpreted and
executed. The execution usually requires data to be entered into the Arithmetic/Logic Unit
(ALU) where the circuitry necessary for manipulating the data is contained. During the
course of computation, or at its completion, the derived results are sent to the output unit.
The ALU and control unit together are normally called the Central Processing Unit (CPU). In
addition to the memory unit, the other computer units are also capable of storing
information. Information is stored as groups of binary digits (bits) in storage devices called
registers. Essentially the operation of the computer can be regarded as a series of
information transfers from register to register with possible information modification (e.g.
addition)being performed between transfers. The group of bits handled all at the same time
by the computer is known as a word, and the number of bits that make up the word is the
word length. A word is the basic logical unit of information in a computer. Microprocessors
are available with 4, 8, and 16 bit word lengths. The 8 bit word length is so common that it is
given the special name 'byte' (4 bits is called a nibble).

The Computer Bus

5.6.2 Buses
In a microcomputer the various units are connected by Buses. A bus is a set of lines over
which information is transferred from any of several sources to any of several destinations.
A common bus structure is:

Data Bus, Address Bus and Control Bus

The Address Bus.
The Address Bus consists of up to 16 parallel lines and is uni-directional: i.e. information
flows in only one direction. This bus is used to transmit an address from the microprocessor
to the memory, input or output unit.
The Data Bus
The Data Bus normally consists of 8 parallel lines and is bi-directional: i.e. information can
flow in either direction on these lines. This bus is used to carry data and instructions from
one unit to another.
The Control Bus.
No standard format exists for the Control Bus lines, their function and number varying
considerably between different types of processors. Some of the lines are bi-directional and
others uni-directional. This bus is a set of lines over which signals travel to maintain timing
and status information.

5.6.3 Input Section

A digital computer requires a means of sensing and communicating with the outside world.
This requirement is satisfied by the input section which converts the inputs into the proper
format for the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The input section is commanded by the CPU
to bring in data. This data is sent either to memory for storage or to the CPU for processing.
There are three types of inputs which the computer may receive: analogue, digital, and
discrete.

Figure 5.104 – Computer inputs

Analogue Inputs
Analogue inputs are constantly varying with respect to time. This is a smooth changing
voltage. An example of an analogue input would be a voltage representing flap position. As
the flap position changes, the voltage from the positional sensor also changes. In order to
use this positional voltage, the voltage must be converted into a form the computer can
use. The conversion from analogue to digital is accomplished by analogue to digital
converters (ADC).
Digital Inputs
Digital inputs are varying inputs also, but they vary in steps or increments. By using a
positive voltage to represent a logic "1" (HIGH), and ground or a negative voltage to
represent a logic "0" (LOW), information can be represented by a series of high and low
levels. Depending upon the input requirements of the computer, the digital input signal may
need to be "conditioned" before being used for processing. A digital receiver.
For example, one type of digital input uses +10 volts to represent logic "1" and -10 volts to
represent a logic "0". However, the computer can only use +5 volts for a logic "1.' and a
ground potential for logic "0". The digital receiver converts the -10 volt levels to the proper
ground potential (logic "0") and converts the +10 volts to +5 volts (logic "1"). The computer
can understand these levels as the proper logic and thus process the information. Discrete
Inputs
Discrete inputs are represented by an on/off condition, such as the closure of a switch or
relay. This on/off condition can be represented by a ground for logic "0" and an open for
logic "1", or open for logic "O" and +28 volts for logic because the computer can only use +5
volts and ground in its processing. Another method of input interfacing is by the use of a
multiplexer. A multiplexer, similar in function to a mechanical rotary switch, allows the
selection of one input of many to be sent to the CPU for processing. The selection of the
inputs is accomplished by means of the Address Bus, a group of directional circuits or lines
originating in the Central Processing Unit. The selected input can be routed to the CPU on
the Data Bus, a group of bi¬directional circuits or lines which connect the computer sections
and allow the transfer of data between the sections. The resultant output from the
multiplexer is a serial group of high and low states. This data is stored and/or processed by
the computer as a "word" of information.
Output Section
The purpose of the Output section is to provide interface between the computer and the
outside world. It provides output signal conditioning into a format usable by other systems
and computers. The CPU controls the transfer of data to the output section. Since the
devices outside the computer may require analogue, digital and discrete types of signals to
perform their tasks, the computer outputs need to be changed into proper formats. Digital
to Analogue Converter
Analogue devices, such as control surfaces drive units and analogue instruments, use
varying voltages to operate. The binary outputs from the CPU are transformed to analogue
by using a Digital to Analogue converter (DAC). Digital Transmitters

Aeroplane systems often need digital data formatted differently than that of the source
computer. The binary data from the source computer is sent to a digital transmitter where it
is converted and transmitted in the correct format to the user system via a digital bus.
Demultiplexers
Binary outputs from the computer may be used directly by systems requiring on/off inputs.
However, the outputs are often buffered between the computer and the users of that
signal. In addition, an output is often sent to several devices requiring that one output. The
demultiplexer accomplishes both of these functions. It operates in reverse of a multiplexer
by taking one input and sending it to one of many outputs.

5.6.4 The Central Processor Unit (CPU)

A microprocessor is a single integrated circuit which contains all the elements of a central
processing unit. These are:
§Accumulator
§Arithmetic Logic Unit.
§Buffers/Registers.
§Timing and Control

Figure 5.105 – CPU structure

Accumulator
The accumulator has the result of any arithmetic or logic operation.
Arithmetic Logic Unit
The arithmetic and logic unit performs arithmetic and logical operations held in binary in
the accumulator. These are:
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
The Buffers/Registers
The registers consist of a number of temporary storage locations (shift registers).
Status Register
The status registers contain single bit registers which are:
Zero Flag — is the result zero?
Sign Flag — is the number plus or minus?
Carry Flag — did a carry occur?
Parity Flag — check whether the total number of bits is odd or even.
Timing and Control
The timing and control part of the microprocessor performs the following:
Co-ordinates the internal operation of the microprocessor.
Contains the clock for timing pulses.
Controls the operation of the ALU and registers.
Program counter initiates the next step in the program by incrementing and decrementing
the program counter.
Provides read/write pulses for registers and memories.
Provides read/write pulses for input/output devices via a control bus.
A more comprehensive description of the function of the CPU is provided in section 5.7 -
Microprocessors.
5.6.5 Memory
The purpose of the memory is to store the program instructions and data. These are
recalled at appropriate times by the CPU while it is performing its functions. Memory can be
basically divided into two types: solid state and magnetic. Magnetic memory is typically
used where bulk-data is maintained on a long-term basis. In this type of memory, the data
can be stored as a presence (or absence) of a magnetized area in the storage medium. Solid
state memory can be used for transient or permanent data storage. In this type of memory,
the data is stored as a voltage level.
Access to the memory elements is directed by the address bus. Information transfer is
accomplished using the bi-directional data bus. Memory devices are the individual elements
of the computer memory which can store Logic "1" and Logic "0" bits, in such a manner,
that a single bit or group of bits (words) can be stored and retrieved. The memory can be
physically part of the computer. For example, the computer-on-a-chip has built-in memory.
Although this memory is usually small, it does provide the Computer with the necessary
storage for instructions and data.
Memory devices may be on the same circuit card as the computer, in the same line
replaceable unit (LRU), or in a separate LRU. In the case of aircraft computer systems, the
memory is usually within the same LRU. There are many memory devices in use. The most
common are the magnetic tape, magnetic disc and solid state memory. General
Characteristics
Many devices have been used for storage of data in computers. Some of these devices have
found wide usage while others have seen only limited application. Because of the diversity
between the various memory types, it is difficult to define a set of standard characteristics
which apply to all. There are some characteristics, however, which are generally applied to
memory devices.
Volatile vs Non-Volatile Memories
The selection of a memory type for a given computer system can be based upon the need
for memory retention when system power is removed. If the memory is of a type that loses
its data when power is removed, it is termed volatile memory; memory that retains data
when power is removed is termed non-volatile memory. Volatile memory is made
temporarily nonvolatile by using a dedicated battery to provide enough power to the device
to hold its memory.
Magnetic vs Solid State Memories
In general, most memory devices are either classified as magnetic or solid state. Memory
devices using magnetic storage of data are typically employed where bulk data is maintained
on a long-term basis. In this type of device, a binary "1" is noted by the presence of a small
magnetized area in the storage medium. A binary "0" has no magnetized area or a
magnetized area of opposite flux.
Solid state memories are used for transient storage of data and for permanent storage of
data/instructions. Binary data is stored in these devices as a voltage level on a capacitor or
at the output of a latch circuit.
Destructive vs Non-Destructive Readouts
In configuring a computer system, the designer must provide additional circuitry for memories
whose data is lost upon readout. These type of memories are referred to as having
destructive readouts. Their use requires that the system temporarily store the data readout
then write that data back into the memory before processing it. Memory devices which do
not lose data upon readout are referred to as having nondestructive readouts.
Memory Types
Magnetic Tape - The magnetic tape is a flexible plastic tape, with a uniform coating of
magnetic material on one surface. The tape is usually stored on a plastic or metal reel, and
when the tape is used, it is unwound off the supply reel past a read/write head and is
wound onto a take-up reel. As the tape passes the read/write head, the computer controls
the reading and writing of the magnetic bits from parallel tracks on the tape. These tracks
extend from one end of the tape to the other. The read/write head is divided into the same
number of sections as there are tracks on the tape being used. One track on the tape is
usually reserved for the clock or timing pulses to allow synchronization of the tape with the
computer operation.
Magnetic tapes can be used to store the Computer program instructions and data. By means
of a bi-directional tape drive, the computer may access the stored information anywhere on
the length of the tape. Depending upon the length of the tape and the speed of the drive
mechanism, memory access times can be very long.
Magnetic tapes can also be used as a storage medium for permanent record or backup. If a
program is on a magnetic disc, for example, a copy of the program can be recorded onto the
magnetic tape for backup. This is stored in a library. If anything should happen to the disc,
the copy tape can be used to reprogram another disc. As revisions to the program are made,
revisions are also made to the stored backup tape.

Figure 5.106 – The memory tape head

In a typical digital flight data recorder, aeroplane operating parameters are recorded for
later use during performance evaluation or during accident investigation. The flight data
recorder uses a 450 foot tape, with end-of-tape indicators. Recording of parameters begins
on track one of the tape. At the end of track one, the recorder senses the end of tape and
changes direction. Information is then recorded on track two in the opposite direction until
the other end-of-tape indicator is detected. The direction is then reversed and the track is
incremented.
This continues until track six is recorded to the end, then the recording changes direction
and switches back to track one. A total recording time of 25 hours is achieved by using this
multitrack, bi-directional recording method.
 Figure 5.107 – The memory used in a Flight Recorder

Magnetic Disc - The magnetic disc is a flat magnetically coated disc. Digital information is
stored on the disc in magnetic tracks. Generally, there are 40 to 80 tracks on a disc. The
tracks are concentric about the disc center and each track is divided into pie-shaped sectors.
Each sector can store between 128 and 512 bytes of information and is accessible by using
read/write heads. The disc is rotated to allow the read/write heads to store or to read the
information on any of the sectors.

Figure 5.108 – A magnetic floppy disk (diskette)

There are several sizes of magnetic discs, ranging from 3 1/2 inches to 14 inches in
diameter.
Memory capacity on these discs varies, depending on disc size and formatting. The most
common floppy disc is the 3 1/2 inch floppy. Usually it is formatted to hold 1440K bytes of
information.
Discs can be flexible (floppy discs) or rigid (hard discs). Rigid or hard discs can be stacked in
such a manner that one head or multiple heads on an access arm can extend between pairs
of discs to read or write on disc surfaces above and below the arm.
The flexible disc is usually packaged inside a more rigid plastic envelope or jacket. Head
access to the disc is provided through a slot in the envelope. A sliding guard protects the
magnetic disc when not in use. A drive spindle makes contact with the disc through a hole in
the center of the envelope. This allows the spindle to spin the disc at high speeds inside the
envelope. A typical 3 1/2 inch disc spins at around 300 rpm when data is read or written.
The advantage of magnetic discs is their rapid access time. The access for magnetic tape is in
seconds (or minutes) while disc access time is in milliseconds. Size is a disadvantage due to
the mechanical components needed to drive and read the discs.
Magnetic Hard Disk Drive (HDD) - A hard disk is a sealed unit containing a number of
platters in a stack. Hard disks may be mounted in a horizontal or a vertical position. In this
description, the hard drive is mounted horizontally.
Electromagnetic read/write heads are positioned above and below each platter. As the
plattersspin, the drive heads move in toward the center surface and out toward the edge. In
this way, the drive heads can reach the entire surface of each platter.
On a hard disk, data is stored in thin, concentric bands. A drive head, while in one position
can read or write a circular ring, or band called a track. There can be more than a thousand
tracks on a 3.5-inch hard disk. Sections within each track are called sectors. A sector is the
smallest physical storage unit on a disk, and is almost always 512 bytes (0.5 kB) in size. The
figure below shows a hard disk with two platters.

Figure 5.109 – The internal of HDD

Figure 5.110 – An HDD with and without its protective case power
 Figure 5.111 – Parts of a Hard Drive

The structure of older hard drives (i.e. prior to Windows 95) will refer to a cylinder/head/
sector notation. A cylinder is formed while all drive heads are in the same position on the
disk. The tracks, stacked on top of each other form a cylinder. This scheme is slowly being
eliminated with modern hard drives. All new disks use a translation factor to make their
actual hardware layout appear continuous, as this is the way that operating systems from
Windows 95 onward like to work.
To the operating system of a computer, tracks are logical rather than physical in structure,
and are established when the disk is low-level formatted. Tracks are numbered, starting at 0
(the outermost edge of the disk), and going up to the highest numbered track, typically
1023, (close to the center). Similarly, there are 1,024 cylinders (numbered from 0 to 1023)
on a hard disk.
The stack of platters rotate at a constant speed. The drive head, while positioned close to
the center of the disk reads from a surface that is passing by more slowly than the surface at
the outer edges of the disk. To compensate for this physical difference, tracks near the
outside of the disk are less-densely populated with data than the tracks near the center of
the disk. The result of the different data density is that the same amount of data can be read
over the same period of time, from any drive head position.
The disk space is filled with data according to a standard plan. One side of one platter
contains space reserved for hardware track-positioning information and is not available to
the operating system. Thus, a disk assembly containing two platters has three sides
available for data. Track-positioning data is written to the disk during assembly at the
factory. The system disk controller reads this data to place the drive heads in the correct
sector position.
A sector, being the smallest physical storage unit on the disk, is almost always 512 bytes in
size because 512 is a power of 2 (2 to the power of 9). The number 2 is used because there
are two states in the most basic of computer languages - on and off.
Each disk sector is labeled using the factory track-positioning data. Sector identification data
is written to the area immediately before the contents of the sector and identifies the
starting address of the sector.
The optimal method of storing a file on a disk is in a contiguous series, i.e. all data in a stream
stored end-to-end in a single line. As many files are larger than 512 bytes, it is up to the file
system to allocate sectors to store the file's data. For example, if the file size is 800
bytes, two 512 k sectors are allocated for the file. A cluster is typically the same size as a
sector. These two sectors with 800 bytes of data are called two clusters.
They are called clusters because the space is reserved for the data contents. This process
protects the stored data from being over-written. Later, if data is appended to the file and
its size grows to 1600 bytes, another two clusters are allocated, storing the entire file within
four clusters.

Figure 5.112 – Sectors and Clusters

If contiguous clusters are not available (clusters that are adjacent to each other on the disk),
the second two clusters may be written elsewhere on the same disk or within the same
cylinder or on a different cylinder - wherever the file system finds two sectors available. A
file stored in this non-contiguous manner is considered to be fragmented. Fragmentation
can slow down system performance if the file system must direct the drive heads to several
different addresses to find all the data in the file you want to read. The extra time for the
heads to travel to a number of addresses causes a delay before the entire file is retrieved.
Cluster size can be changed to optimize file storage. A larger cluster size reduces the
potential for fragmentation, but increases the likelihood that clusters will have unused
space.
Using clusters larger than one sector reduces fragmentation, and reduces the amount of
disk space needed to store the information about the used and unused areas on the disk.
Most disks used in personal computers today rotate at a constant angular velocity. The
tracks near the outside of the disk are less densely populated with data than the tracks near
the center of the disk. Thus, a fixed amount of data can be read in a constant period of time,
even though the speed of the disk surface is faster on the tracks located further away from
the center of the disk.
Modern disks reserve one side of one platter for track positioning information, which is
written to the disk at the factory during disk assembly. It is not available to the operating
system. The disk controller uses this information to fine tune the head locations when the
heads move to another location on the disk. When a side contains the track position
information, that side cannot be used for data. Thus, a disk assembly containing two
platters has three sides that are available for data.
Optical Laser Disc - One of the developments in memory storage is the optical laser disc or
Compact Disc (CD). This method of storage uses a technique which allows a large volume of
information to be stored in a much smaller area.
 Figure 5.113 – The optical laser disc

The 12 centimeter disc currently stores over 600 megabytes (600MB or 600 000 000 bytes).
This is enough data for an average 24 volume encyclopedia. This small compact size is used
in the smaller computers (or home computers). Other laser disc systems will be used with
large mainframe computers. For instance, one manufacturer produces a system which
stores one trillion bytes of information on four 14-inch laser discs. This is approximately
equivalent to 400 billion-typed pages.
There are several configurations for optical laser disc. One configuration is called CD-ROM
(Compact Disc, Read Only Memory). This performs a similar function as a Read Only
Memory microcircuit. A second configuration is called WORM (Write-Once, Read Many
times) often referred to as CD-R. This optical disc can be written onto only once but read
many times. Once data has been written onto the disc it cannot be erased or written over.
Currently, the capacity for a WORM is up to 650 Meg. A third configuration is the rewritable
CD-RW. These discs allow the user to write, read, erase and rewrite up to 650MB of
information on the disc.
There are two methods currently used to organize an optical disc. The first method is called
Constant Linear Velocity. In this method the disc is organized much like an old vinyl record
played on a stereo. The second is called Linear Angular Velocity where the data is arranged
on the disc in concentric rings, much like the tracks on a floppy disc.
Information is stored on the disc as "pits" or "bumps" which are only 0.83 to 3.04 microns
long and 0.50 microns (0.002 inches) wide. Each "track" is 1.6 microns apart.
The Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) is the same size as a standard CD but by using different data
encoding techniques, has a capacity of up to 4.7 Gigabytes (4.7GB or 4 700 000 000 bytes).
Like the CD they are available in both DVD-R and DVD-RW versions but due to the variety of
encoding methods compatibility can be a problem.
Both CDs and DVDs are available as double sided discs, with double the capacity, for
specialist applications.
In all configurations a laser disc has a special Dye-polymer coating which respond to the
wavelength of the recording laser to create either "bumps" or "pits". When reading the disc, the
absence or presence of these pits is detected by a photodetector. The photodetector compares
a beam of light being sent from the recording laser to a beam being returned from the disc. This
is done by using a beamsplitter in the laser disc system. The beamsplitter sends part of the light
to the detector. The other part of the light is sent to the laser disc,
reflected back to the beamsplitter and reflected onto the photodetector. The photodetector can
now compare the two beams of light. An erasable Laser disc system uses a second laser to heat
the dyepolymer layer and remove the bump or pit created by the recording laser.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

In most computers, it is useful to have often used instructions, such as those used to
bootstrap (initial system load) the computer or other specialized programs, permanently
stored inside the computer. Memory that enables us to do this without the programs and
data being lost (even when the computer is powered down) is called read-only memory.
Only the computer manufacturer can provide these programs in ROM and once done, they
cannot be changed.
Consequently, you cannot put any of your own data or programs in ROM. Many complex
functions such as routines to extract square roots, translators for programming languages,
and operating systems can be placed in ROM memory. Since these instructions are hard
wired (permanent), they can be performed quickly and accurately. Another advantage of
ROM is that your computer facility can order programs tailored for its needs and have them
permanently installed in ROM by the manufacturer. Such programs are called
microprograms or firmware.

Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM)

An alternative to ROM is programmable read only memory (PROM) that can be purchased
already programmed by the manufacturer or in a blank state.
To implant programs, or data, into a PROM a programming machine (called a PROM
programmer) is used to apply the correct voltage for the proper time to the appropriate
addresses selected by the programmer. As the PROM is simply an array of fusible links the
programming machine essentially blows the various unwanted links within the PROM
leaving the correct data patterns, a process which clearly cannot be reversed.
By using a blank PROM, you can enter any program into the memory. However, once the
PROM has been written into, it can never be altered or changed. Thus you have the
advantage of ROM with the additional flexibility to program the memory to meet a unique
need. The main disadvantage of PROM is that if a mistake is made and entered into PROM,
it cannot be corrected or erased. Also, a special device is needed to "burn" the program into
PROM.

Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM)

The erasable programmable read -only memory (EPROM) was developed to overcome the
drawback of PROM. EPROMs can also be purchased blank from the manufacturer and
programmed locally at your command/activity. Again, this requires special equipment. The
big difference with EPROM is that it can be erased if and when the need arises. Data and
programs can be retrieved over and over again without destroying the contents of the
EPROM. They will stay there quite safely until you want to reprogram it by first erasing the
EPROM with a burst of ultra-violet light. This is to your advantage, because if a mistake is
made while programming the EPROM, it is not considered fatal. The EPROM can be erased
and corrected. Also, it allows you the flexibility to change programs to include
improvements or modifications in the future.
EPROM is re-usable by exposing the EPROM to ultraviolet (UV) light. The EPROM has to be
removed from the microprocessor board and usually requires 15 to 20 minutes of
exposure.
A quartz window is installed on the top side of an EPROM to facilitate access to the UV
light. Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) was developed to
replace the difficulty of reprogramming EPROM. This type of ROM is electrically alterable
and the programming circuitry is included as part of the system.

Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)

EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge.
Like other types of PROM, EEPROM retains its contents even when the power is turned off.
Also like other types of ROM, EEPROM is not as fast as RAM.

Figure 5.117 – EPROM

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

Another kind of memory used inside computers is called random-access memory (RAM) or
read/write memory. RAM memory is rather like a blackboard on which you can scribble
down notes, read them, and rub them out when you are finished with them. In the
computer, RAM is the working memory. Data can be read (retrieved) from or written
(stored) into RAM just by giving the computer the address of the location where the data is
stored or is to be stored.
When the data is no longer needed, you can simply write over it. This allows you to use the
storage again for something else. Core, semiconductor, and bubble storage all have random
access capabilities.
Most modern RAM is of the integrated circuit (IC) or 'chip' form, containing flip flops, or
MOSFETS, each flip-flop being switched to the 1 or 0 position, corresponding to a 'bit' of
information.
 Figure 5.118 – A RAM disk

Older RAM used magnetic (ferrite) cores. There were two types as follows:
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) - SRAM's store bits (1's or O's) in memory
cells that are basically flip flops. In a logic diagram, an SRAM memory cell looks like
two crossconnected
NAND or NOR gates - that is, the output of each NAND or NOR gate is connected
to one input of the other NAND or NOR gate. This is a "flip flop", which can store a 1 or a
zero for as long as you apply power - but not very much power. Very little power
consumption is required except during transitions - writing into the memory cell. Static
power consumption (without transitions) is very low because the flip flop is based on CMOS
NAND or NOR gates where either a P-channel or an N-channel transistor conducts, but not
both - and the P and N channel transistors are connected in such a way that there is no
conduction path from the power supply to ground so power is not consumed in the static
state (except through leakage). The advantages of SRAM's are their very high speed and
very low power consumption - but SRAM memory cells generally require 6 transistors.
Static Random Access Memories are the fastest type of memory.

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) - DRAM's store bits in memory cells that are
basically capacitors under transistors. The transistor is used as a relay to the capacitor, and the
capacitor stores a bit (a "1" or a "0") as either storing charge on the capacitor or not storing
charge. However, the charge on a capacitor gradually leaks out over time - so, periodically
(generally several thousand times per second), the contents of a DRAM need to read out and
then rewritten back in - this is called a "refresh cycle", or a "refresh". As you might expect, the
refresh consumes a lot of power. DRAM's consume more power, and are slower than SRAM's -
but because a DRAM cell uses just one transistor (with a capacitor) compared to 6 transistors
for an SRAM cell, a DRAM memory is much cheaper than an

SRAM memory.
SDRAM - Synchronous DRAM - Short for Synchronous DRAM, a type of DRAM that can
run at much higher clock speeds than conventional memory. SDRAM actually synchronizes
itself with the CPU's bus. SDRAM is the new memory standard for modern PCs.
DDR SDRAM - Double Data Rate - Short for Double Data Rate-Synchronous DRAM, a
type of SDRAM that supports data transfers on both edges of each clock cycle (the rising and
falling edges), effectively doubling the memory chip's data throughput. DDR-SDRAM also
consumes less power, which makes it well-suited to notebook computers. DDR-SDRAM is
also called SDRAM II. and DDRAM. DDR-SDRAM and RDRAM are the two technologies
expected to replace SDRAM.