The Wavefunction

Each “particle” [that is, matter wave] is represented by a wavefunction (x,y,z,t). However, unlike
other waves, it does not represent any measureable quantity such as displacement or intensity. It is
physically meaningless and could in general be complex. However, * is the probability density of
finding the particle at the location (x,y,z) and at time t, which is physically meaningful. Here, * is
the complex conjugate of  and *=||2. According to one of the postulates of quantum
mechanics, the wavefunction gives all the information about the particle.

The wavefunction is used in the Schrödinger equation, which plays the role of Newton’s laws and
conservation of energy in classical mechanics. That is, it predicts the probability of events.

Properties of Wavefunction
1. It contains all the measurable information about the particle.
2. ∫ |Ψ| = 1, as the probability of finding the particle somewhere must be unity.
3. It allows energy calculations of the particle via Schrödinger equation.
4. It establishes the probability distribution in three dimensions.
5. It permits the calculation of the expectation value [effective average value] of a given variable
(e.g. position, momentum etc.).
6. For a free particle, the wave function is a sine wave, implying a precisely determined momentum
and a totally uncertain position (as Δ Δ ≥ ℏ, according to the uncertainty principle).

Restrictions/Constraints on wavefunction [or] Well behaved

wavefunction
1. The wavefunction does not have any physical meaning. However, ||2 is interpreted as
probability density. Therefore, the probability of finding the physical object represented by the
wavefunction should be unity, if whole of space is considered. That is,

|Ψ| =1

The above condition is called normalization. If a wavefunction is not normalizable, it can be

made so by multiplying with a suitable constant.

2. The integral mentioned above should be a finite quantity, as it cannot blow up to infinity [being
probability]. For finiteness, →0 as r→.
3. The wavefunction must be single-valued everywhere. Otherwise multiple probabilities would
exist in a given point in space, which is absurd.
4. The wavefunction must be continuous. Otherwise there will not be a probability at the
discontinuity.
5. The first derivative of wavefuntion with respect to time and the first two derivatives with respect
to space should be continuous [as they appear in the Schroedinger equation].
We will see the applications of these constraints in the solutions of Schrödinger equation to
determine energy eigenvalues.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

Statement
One of the co-ordinates of position [say, x] and its corresponding momentum [px] cannot be
measured simultaneously and accurately [that is, with infinite precision]. Mathematically,

Δ Δ ≥ℏ

Here, Δx and Δpx are uncertainties in position and momentum respectively.

1. This statement is not valid for the pair of variables (x, py), (x, pz) etc. Hence the word
‘corresponding’ in the above statement.

2. The uncertainties are not due to experimental errors and they are inherent in a quantum
mechanical system. Experimental uncertainties will nevertheless add to the inherent
uncertainties.

3. Uncertainty relation can exist between other pair of variables such as energy and time. For
example, short lived photon states don’t have definite energy. For definite energy, frequency of
the state must accurately be defined, and this requires the state to hang around for many cycles.
The average energy of the photon has a peak at the theoretical energy of the state, but the
distribution has a finite width called the natural linewidth. Fast-decaying states have a broad
linewidth, while slow decaying states have a narrow linewidth. Hence we have the relation
Δ Δt ≥ ℏ.

Note:

In 1927 Heisenberg established that ∆ ∆ ≈ ℎ. Later he refined his principle to give ∆ ∆ ≥ ℏ.

ℏ
Kennard in 1927 proved the modern inequality ≥ , where σx and σp are the standard deviations
of position and momentum. Note that σx and Δx (σp and Δp) are not the same quantities. σx and σp
are standard deviations. The Kennard expression, therefore says nothing about the simultaneous
measurement of position and momentum. We use the relation ≥ ℏ consistently in solving the
numerical problems and in the statement of the principle.