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A thesis project submitted to the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Fall 2010
2
By
A thesis project submitted to the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of
Supervisor
Mohammad Monir Morshed
Assistant Professor
Dept. of EEE
Fall 2010
3
Dedication
To our Parents. . . . .
Thank you for your unconditional support with our studies. Thank you for giving us a
chance to prove and improve ourselves thorough all our walks of life. We love our
parents, thanks to both of you for helping to make us who we are, for teaching us to be
proud of who we are, for showing us how to be strong, for giving us the courage to be
weak, and giving us the strength to always strive for better and giving us the wisdom to
know when to turn away and when to change ahead. Our parents are our rock and
foundation.
4
Declaration
It is hereby declared that this thesis is done by ourselves and has not been submitted
elsewhere for the award of any degree or diploma. There is lots of information that are
used from the published and unpublished work of others has been acknowledged in the
text. We have provided the list of references.
Mousume Haque
Mubina Farhin
Acknowledgements
All praises are to the Supreme Being, Creator and Ruler of the universe, whose mercy keeps us
alive and enable to pursue our education in Electrical & Electronics Engineering to complete the
thesis on “Design and Implementation of a pair of Horn antenna for UIU microwave test
setup”.
We thank our honorable supervisor Mr. Mohammad Monir Morshed, Assistant professor,
Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, United International University, for his
day to day supervision, constructive suggestions, valuable criticism and keen interest to carry
out this work. His scientific integrity and dedication have been inspiring us throughout our
graduate study and his patience and continuous encouragement helped our scientific approaches
during these years.
Cordial thanks to our parents, relatives and all our well wishers for their wholehearted
inspiration throughout the period of the thesis work.
6
Abstract
This paper is our report for designing a pair of horn antenna for the UIU microwave test
setup. This work includes designing and implementation of a pair of pyramidal horn
antenna, and simulation of basic parameters using (HFSS). A brief theory on microwave
communication system, antenna basics, software introduction, design and
implementation of horn antenna will be discussed along the result of our design. Our
results and analysis show that the project was within the scope of our ability to design
and test the horn antennas.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 5
List of figures.…………………………………………………………………………11
1.9 Advantages................................................................................................................ 29
3.8.1-Create waveguide.............................................................................................. 54
3.8.2- Drawing the Dipole.......................................................................................... 56
3.9- Creating the port ...................................................................................................... 59
3.10- Radiation Boundary ............................................................................................... 63
3.11- Solution Setup ....................................................................................................... 65
3.12- Structure Analysis ................................................................................................. 66
3.13- Create Reports ....................................................................................................... 67
References……………………………………………………………………………106
List of Tables
Table 1.1: IEEE Frequency Spectrum ............................................................................ 19
List of Figures
Fig 1.1: Microwave Communication System ............................................................ 16
Fig 1.2: Microwave transmitter and receiver ............................................................. 22
Fig 2.1: Receiving Antenna ....................................................................................... 32
Fig 2.2: Transmitting Antenna ................................................................................... 32
Fig 2.3: Propagation of TEM wave using transmitting & receiving antenna ............ 33
Fig 2.4: Antenna Pattern Parameters (Normalized Power Pattern) ........................... 37
Fig 2.5: Monopole Antenna ....................................................................................... 38
Fig 2.6(a)&(b): Elevation........................................................................................... 38
Fig 2.7: λ/2 Dipole Antenna ....................................................................................... 39
Fig 2.8(a)&(b): Elevation........................................................................................... 39
Fig 2.9: Biconical Antenna ........................................................................................ 40
Fig 2.10(a): Elevation ................................................................................................ 40
Fig 2.10(b): Azimuth.................................................................................................. 40
Fig 2.11: Yagi Antenna .............................................................................................. 41
Fig 2.12(a)&(b): Elevation......................................................................................... 41
Fig 2.13 Horn antenna ................................................................................................ 42
Fig 2.14(a): Elevation (3 dB beamwidth = 56λ/dz) ................................................... 42
Fig 2.14(b): Azimuth (3 dBbeamwidth = 70 8E/dx).................................................. 42
Fig:3.1Differents terms of ansoft ............................................................................... 46
Fig:3.2 Differents terms of Project window............................................................... 46
Fig:3.2(a) Differents terms of Property window ........................................................ 47
Fig:3.2(b)Different terms of 3D modeler window .................................................... 47
Fig:3.2(c)Different terms of 3D model ...................................................................... 48
Fig:3.3 Modeler design tree ....................................................................................... 48
Fig:3.4 Toolbars of ansoft HFSS ............................................................................... 49
Fig:3.5 Ansoft desktop design tree. ........................................................................... 50
Fig:3.6 Status bar ....................................................................................................... 51
Fig:3.7Active Cursor .................................................................................................. 51
Fig:3.8 Project menu window .................................................................................... 53
Fig: 3.9 Solution type window ................................................................................... 53
Fig. 3.10 Model Unit window .................................................................................... 54
Fig. 3.11 set the default material ................................................................................ 54
Fig. 3.12 Property window........................................................................................ 55
Fig. 3.13 Final variable table .................................................................................... 55
Fig. 3.14 Drawing dipole ........................................................................................... 56
Fig. 3.15 appeared table by creating the dipole ......................................................... 57
Fig. 3.16 table from model menu .............................................................................. 57
Fig. 3.17 form the duplicate dipole in the 180 degree position ................................ 58
Fig. 3.18 Duplicate Around Axis window ................................................................ 58
Fig. 3.19 Final dipole structure ................................................................................. 59
Fig:3.20 (a)&(b) Selecting YZ plane ......................................................................... 59
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Chapter 1
Introduction to
Microwave
Communication
System
15
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
1.1 Introduction
Microwave communication is the transmission of signals via radio using a series of
microwave towers. Microwave communication is known as a form of “line of sight”
communication, because there must be nothing obstructing the transmission of data
between these towers for signals to be properly sent and received.
Above 100 MHz the waves travel in straight lines and can therefore be narrowly
focused. Concentrating all the energy into a small beam using a parabolic antenna (like
the satellite TV dish) gives a much higher signal to noise ratio, but the transmitting and
receiving antennas must be accurately aligned with each other. Before the advent of
fiber optics, these microwaves formed the heart of the long distance telephone
transmission system.
In its simplest form the microwave link can be one hop, consisting of one pair of
antennas spaced as little as one or two kilometers apart, or can be a backbone, including
multiple hops, spanning several thousand kilometers. A single hop is typically 30 to 60
km in relatively flat regions for frequencies in the 2 to 8 GHz bands. When antennas are
placed between mountain peaks, a very long hop length can be achieved. Hop distances
in excess of 200 km are in existence.
The "line-of-sight" nature of microwaves has some very attractive advantages over
cable systems. Line of sight is a term which is only partially correct when describing
microwave paths. Atmospheric conditions and certain effects modify the propagation of
microwaves so that even if the designer can see from point A to point B (true line of
16
sight), it may not be possible to place antennas at those two points and achieve a
satisfactory communication performance.
In order to overcome the problems of line-of-sight and power amplification of weak
signals, microwave systems use repeaters at intervals of about 25 to 30 km in between
the transmitting receiving stations. The first repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the
transmitting station and the last repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the receiving
station. Two consecutive repeaters are also placed in line-of-sight of each other. The
data signals are received, amplified, and re-transmitted by each of these stations.
Transmission
Transmission
line
line
1.2 History
It is necessary in a study of the history of microwave communications to start with the
monumental discoveries and demonstrations in the fields of electrical communication
and the application of the principles of electromagnetic wave propagation to radio.
The technology used for microwave communication was developed in the early 1940’s
by Western Union. The first microwave message was sent in 1945 from towers located
in New York and Philadelphia. Following this successful attempt, microwave
communication became the most commonly used data transmission method for
telecommunications service providers.
Communication using electromagnetic radiation (except for light) began early in this
century, and most early practical systems used very long wavelengths (low frequencies)
which traveled great distances. Eventually, electronics were developed, including the
vacuum tube (or "valve") which allowed controlled frequencies and modulation. This
led to the use of higher frequencies, many channels, and commercial and industrial
radio. During the 1930's and 1940's various experimenters discovered that higher
frequencies could bring other advantages to communications. Some of these
experimenters were government agencies and the military - some were universities, and
some were private individuals.
Among these discoveries were that microwaves are easier to control (than longer
wavelengths) because small antennas could direct the waves very well. One advantage
of such control is that the energy could be easily confined to a tight beam (expressed as
narrow beam width). This beam could be focused on another antenna dozens of miles
away, making it very difficult for someone to intercept the conversation. Another
characteristic is that because of their high frequency, greater amounts of information
could be put on them (expressed as increased modulation bandwidth). Both of these
advantages (narrow beam width and modulation bandwidth) make microwaves very
useful for RADAR as well as communications.
Eventually, these qualities led to the use of microwaves by the telephone companies.
They placed towers every 30 to 60 miles each with antennas, receivers and transmitters.
These would relay hundreds or even thousands of voice conversations across the
country. The ability to modulate with a wide bandwidth permitted so many
18
conversations on just one signal, and the reduction in beam width made this reasonably
secure. In the 1950s experiments were conducted that showed the potential to connect
the two coasts of the US via these microwave circuits to produce television
programming on a continental basis, and true television networks were born.
Amateur radio interests in microwaves have mostly been for the challenge of working
with such esoteric frequencies that require specialized techniques in design, fabrication
and testing. Furthermore, in order to reach beyond LOS (line-of-sight) amateurs have
spent countless hours carefully measuring propagation phenomena. Amateurs have
carried on conversations using 10GHz well over 1,000 miles, and have bounced signals
at that frequency off the moon. For more information about amateur radio uses of
microwaves set your browser to www.wa1mba.org, contact a local VHF/Microwave
Amateur radio club, or contact the ARRL.
The interactions between matter and EM fields have clearly different properties when
comparing the interaction that causes a change in mechanical vibration with the
interaction that causes a change in electron orbital state. The first occurs in the
microwave and millimeter wave range - such as the serious absorption of 22 GHz
signals by water vapor in the atmosphere. Here the interaction causes vibration and
heat. To cause changes in electron orbital states, infrared, visible and UV range
wavelengths are involved - such as is evidenced by florescence and lasers. In these
cases much more than conversion to heat occurs. We call the second group of
wavelengths "light" and the word "photon" is derived from Greek for light.
19
Here are some frequency bands, exact frequencies, approximate wavelength and their
applications.
SL.
Frequency Band Frequency Wavelength Application
No
ELF (Extreme Low 10,000-1,000 Radio band & radio
1 30-300 Hz
Frequency) km communication
VF (Voice 1,000-100 Transmits voice signal
2 300-3,000 Hz
Frequency) km
Communicate with
submarines near the
surface, radio navigation
VLF (Very Low
3 3-30 kHz 100-10 km beacons (alpha) and time
Frequency)
signals (beta),
electromagnetic
geophysical surveys
AM broadcasting as the
long wave band, aircraft
4 LF (Low Frequency) 30-300 kHz 10-1 km beacon, navigation
(LORAN), information,
and weather systems
Non-directional
navigational radio
MF (Medium 300-3,000
5 1-0.1 km beacons (NDBs) for
Frequency) kHz
maritime and aircraft
navigation
Amateur radio operators,
who can take advantage
of direct, long-distance
HF (High (often inter-continental)
6 3-30 MHz 100-10 m
Frequency) communications and the
"thrill factor" resulting
from making contacts in
variable conditions
Identify faults and
VHF (Very High
7 30-300 MHz 10-1 m defects in ceramic
Frequency)
insulators
UHF (Ultra High 300-3,000 Transmission of
8 100-10 cm
Frequency ) MHz television signals
20
Microwave devices,
SHF (Super High
9 3-30 GHz 10-1 cm WLAN, most modern
Frequency)
radars
EHF (Extreme High Radio astronomy and
10 30-300 GHz 1-0.1 cm
Frequency) remote sensing
300-3,000 Transmits signal
11 Decimillimeter 1-0.1 mm
GHz
Radar
12 P Band 0.23-1 GHz 130-30 cm
Satellite
13 L Band 1-2 GHz 30-15 cm
Weather radar, surface
ship radar, and some
communications
satellites, especially
14 S Band 2-4 GHz 15-7.5 cm those used by NASA to
communicate with the
Space Shuttle and the
International Space
Station
Long-distance radio
15 C Band 4-8 GHz 7.5-3.75 cm
telecommunications
Radar receivers,
electronic counter
16 X Band 8-12.5 GHz 3.75-2.4 cm measures, decoys,
jammers, and phased
array systems
Satellite communications
17 Ku Band 12.5-18 GHz 2.4-1.67 cm
Conforming bandage to
18 K Band 18-26.5 GHz 1.67-1.13 cm
hold dressings in place
Satellite communication
19 Ka Band 26.5-40 GHz 1.13-0.75 cm
Transmitting large
amounts of computer
20 Millimeter wave 40-300 GHz 7.5-1 mm data, cellular
communications, and
radar
300-3,000 Pulsed magnetic field
21 Sub millimeter wave 1-0.1 mm
GHz
21
Vacuum tube devices operate on the ballistic motion of electrons in a vacuum under the
influence of controlling electric or magnetic fields, and include the magnetron, klystron,
traveling-wave tube (TWT), and gyrotron. These devices work in the density modulated
mode, rather than the current modulated mode. This means that they work on the basis
of clumps of electrons flying ballistically through them, rather than using a continuous
stream.
A maser is a device similar to a laser, which amplifies light energy by stimulating the
emitted radiation. The maser, rather than amplifying light energy, amplifies the lower
frequency, longer wavelength microwaves.
The sun also emits microwave radiation, and most of it is blocked by Earth's
atmosphere.
Fig.1.2 below shows block diagram of microwave link transmitter and receiver section
The voice, video, or data channels are combined by a technique known as multiplexing
to produce a BB signal. This signal is frequency modulated to an IF and then up
converted (heterodyned) to the RF for transmission through the atmosphere. The reverse
process occurs at the receiver. The microwave transmission frequencies are within the
approximate range 2 to 24 GHz.
22
The frequency bands used for digital microwave radio are recommended by the CCIR.
Each recommendation clearly defines the frequency range, the number of channels that
can be used within that range, the channel spacing the bit rate and the polarization
possibilities.
A microwave link is a communications system that uses a beam of radio waves in the
microwave frequency range to transmit information between two fixed locations on the
earth. They are crucial to many forms of communication and impact a broad range of
industries. Broadcasters use microwave links to send programs from the studio to the
transmitter location, which might be miles away. Microwave links carry cellular
telephone calls between cell sites. Wireless Internet service providers use microwave
links to provide their clients with high-speed Internet access without the need for cable
connections. Telephone companies transmit calls between switching centers over
microwave links, although fairly recently they have been largely supplanted by fiber-
optic cables. Companies and government agencies use them to provide communications
networks between nearby facilities within an organization, such as a company with
several buildings within a city.
23
One of the reasons microwave links are so adaptable is that they are broadband. That
means they can move large amounts of information at high speeds. Another important
quality of microwave links is that they require no equipment or facilities between the
two terminal points, so installing a microwave link is often faster and less costly than a
cable connection. Finally, they can be used almost anywhere, as long as the distance to
be spanned is within the operating range of the equipment and there is clear path (that
is, no solid obstacles) between the locations. Microwaves are also able to penetrate rain,
fog, and snow, which mean bad weather doesn’t disrupt transmission.
A simplified rendering of a microwave link. A microwave link is a communications
system that uses a beam of radio waves in the microwave frequency range to transmit
information between two fixed locations on the earth.
A simple one-way microwave link includes four major elements: a transmitter, a
receiver, transmission lines, and antennas. These basic components exist in every radio
communications system, including cellular telephones, two-way radios, wireless
networks, and commercial broadcasting. But the technology used in microwave links
differs markedly from that used at the lower frequencies (longer wavelengths) in the
radio spectrum. Techniques and components that work well at low frequencies are not
useable at the higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths) used in microwave links. For
example, ordinary wires and cables function poorly as conductors of microwave signals.
On the other hand, microwave frequencies allow engineers to take advantage of certain
principles that are impractical to apply at lower frequencies. One example is the use of a
parabolic or “dish” antenna to focus a microwave radio beam. Such antennas can be
designed to operate at much lower frequencies, but they would be too large to be
economical for most purposes.
In a microwave link the transmitter produces a microwave signal that carries the
information to be communicated. That information—the input—can be anything
capable of being sent by electronic means, such as a telephone call, television or radio
programs, text, moving or still images, web pages, or a combination of those media.
The transmitter has two fundamental jobs: generating microwave energy at the required
frequency and power level, and modulating it with the input signal so that it conveys
meaningful information. Modulation is accomplished by varying some characteristic of
the energy in response to the transmitter’s input. Flashing a light to transmit a message
in Morse Code is an example of modulation. The differing lengths of the flashes (the
dots and dashes), and the intervals of darkness between them, convey the information—
in this case a text message.
The second integral part of a microwave link is a transmission line. This line carries the
signal from the transmitter to the antenna and, at the receiving end of the link, from the
antenna to the receiver. In electrical engineering, a transmission line is anything that
conducts current from one point to another. Lamp cord, power lines, telephone wires
and speaker cable are common transmission lines. But at microwave frequencies, those
24
media excessively weaken the signal. In their place, engineers use coaxial cables and,
especially, hollow pipes called waveguides.
The third part of the microwave system is the antennas. On the transmitting end, the
antenna emits the microwave signal from the transmission line into free space. “Free
space” is the electrical engineer’s term for the emptiness or void between the
transmitting and receiving antennas. It is not the same thing as “the atmosphere,”
because air is not necessary for any type of radio transmission (which is why radio
works in the vacuum of outer space). At the receiver site, an antenna pointed toward the
transmitting station collects the signal energy and feeds it into the transmission line for
processing by the receiver.
Antennas used in microwave links are highly directional, which means they tightly
focus the transmitted energy, and receive energy mainly from one specific direction.
This contrasts with antennas used in many other communications systems, such as
broadcasting. By directing the transmitter’s energy where it's needed—toward the
receiver—and by concentrating the received signal, this characteristic of microwave
antennas allows communication over long distances using small amounts of power.
Between the link’s antennas lies another vital element of the microwave link—the path
taken by the signal through the earth’s atmosphere. A clear path is critical to the
microwave link’s success. Since microwaves travel in essentially straight lines, man-
made obstacles (including possible future construction) that might block the signal must
either be overcome by tall antenna structures or avoided altogether. Natural obstacles
also exist. Flat terrain can create undesirable reflections, precipitation can absorb or
scatter some of the microwave energy, and the emergence of foliage in the spring can
weaken a marginally strong signal, which had been adequate when the trees were bare
in the winter. Engineers must take all the existing and potential problems into account
when designing a microwave link.
At the end of the link is the final component, the receiver. Here, information from the
microwave signal is extracted and made available in its original form. To accomplish
this, the receiver must demodulate the signal to separate the information from the
microwave energy that carries it. The receiver must be capable of detecting very small
amounts of microwave energy, because the signal loses much of its strength on its
journey.
This entire process takes place at close to the speed of light, so transmission is virtually
instantaneous even across long distances. With all of their advantages, microwave links
are certain to be important building blocks of the world’s communications infrastructure
for years to come.
25
Microwave communication takes place both analog and digital formats. While digital is
the most advanced form of microwave communication, both analog and digital methods
pose certain benefits for users.
1.8 Applications
Before the advent of fiber-optic transmission, most long distance telephone calls were
carried via networks of microwave radio relay links run by carriers such as AT&T Long
Lines. Starting in the early 1950s, frequency division multiplex was used to send up to
5,400 telephone channels on each microwave radio channel, with as many as ten radio
channels combined into one antenna for the hop to the next site, up to 70 km away.
Wireless LAN protocols, such as Bluetooth and the IEEE 802.11 specifications, also
use microwaves in the 2.4 GHz ISM band, although 802.11a uses ISM band and U-NII
frequencies in the 5 GHz range. Licensed long-range (up to about 25 km) Wireless
Internet Access services have been used for almost a decade in many countries in the
3.5–4.0 GHz range. The FCC recently carved out spectrum for carriers that wish to
offer services in this range in the U.S. — with emphasis on 3.65 GHz. Dozens of
service providers across the country are securing or have already received licenses from
the FCC to operate in this band. The WIMAX service offerings that can be carried on
the 3.65 GHz band will give business customers another option for connectivity.
1.8.6 Radar
Radar uses microwave radiation to detect the range, speed, and other characteristics of
remote objects. Development of radar was accelerated during World War II due to its
great military utility. Now radar is widely used for applications such as air traffic
control, weather forecasting, navigation of ships, and speed limit enforcement.
1.8.8 Navigation
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) including the Chinese Beidou, the
American Global Positioning System (GPS) and the Russian GLONASS broadcast
navigational signals in various bands between about 1.2 GHz and 1.6 GHz.
28
1.8.9 Power
A microwave oven passes (non-ionizing) microwave radiation (at a frequency near 2.45
GHz) through food, causing dielectric heating by absorption of energy in the water, fats
and sugar contained in the food. Microwave ovens became common kitchen appliances
in Western countries in the late 1970s, following development of inexpensive cavity
magnetrons. Water in the liquid state possesses many molecular interactions which
broaden the absorption peak. In the vapor phase, isolated water molecules absorb at
around 22 GHz, almost ten times the frequency of the microwave oven.
Microwave heating is used in industrial processes for drying and curing products.
Microwave frequencies typically ranging from 110 – 140 GHz are used in stellarators
and more notably in tokamak experimental fusion reactors to help heat the fuel into a
plasma state. The upcoming ITER Thermonuclear Reactor is expected to range from
110–170 GHz and will employ Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ECRH).
Microwaves can be used to transmit power over long distances, and post-World War II
research was done to examine possibilities. NASA worked in the 1970s and early 1980s
to research the possibilities of using solar power satellite (SPS) systems with large solar
arrays that would beam power down to the Earth's surface via microwaves.
Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of
human skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away.
A two-second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 130
°F (54 °C) at a depth of 1/64th of an inch (0.4 mm). The United States Air Force and
Marines are currently using this type of Active Denial System.
1.8.10 Spectroscopy
1.9 Advantages
1.10 Limitations
With the development of satellite and cellular technologies, microwave has become less
widely used in the telecommunications industry. Fiber-optic communication is now the
dominant data transmission method. However, microwave communication equipment is
still in use at many remote sites where fiber-optic cabling cannot be economically
installed.
Microwave radio systems are a line of sight technology, meaning the signals will not
pass through objects (e.g., mountains, buildings and airplanes). This drawback limits
microwave communication systems to line of sight operating distances. Signals flow
between one fixed point to another, provided no solid obstacle disrupts the flow.
According to "Rural America at the Crossroads: Networking for the Future," microwave
radio signals are affected by electromagnetic interference (EMI). EMI is any
disturbance that degrades, obstructs or interrupts the performance of microwave signals.
Microwave signal disruption EMI is caused by electric motors, electric power
transmission lines, wind turbines, television/radio stations and cell phone transmission
towers. Wind turbines, for instance, scatter and diffract TV, radio and microwave
signals when placed between signal transmitters and receivers. Microwave radio
communication is also affected by heavy moisture, snow, vapor, rain and fog due to rain
fade (the absorption of microwave signals by ice, snow or rain, causing signal
degradation and distortion).
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
31
Chapter 2
Antenna Basics
32
The receiver is represented by its input impedance as seen from the antenna terminals
(i.e. transformed by the transmission line).
Transmitting antenna:
It’s an antenna which is fed with AC from electronic equipment and generates an RF
field.
Fig 2.3: Propagation of TEM wave using transmitting & receiving antenna
Except this basis two types there are many antennas in our communication system. Such
as: Horn antenna, monopole antenna,band antenna,long wire antenna,corner
antenna,refletor antenna,cubical quad antenna,rhombic antenna,plasma antenna,mobile
phone detetor antenna,GPS antenna,groundplane antenna,metal-plate antenna,liquid
metal antenna,yagi antenna.
ÍL=Qú (Ams-1 )
34
Where,
2.2.2 Gain:
Antenna gain relates the intensity of an antenna in a given direction to the intensity that
would be produced by a hypothetical ideal antenna that radiates equally in all directions
(isotropically) and has no losses.
The gain is a measure of how much of the input power is concentrated in a particular
direction. It is expressed with respect to a hypothetical isotropic antenna, which radiates
equally in all directions. Thus in the direction (q, f), the gain is
Where Pin is the total input power and dP is the increment of radiated output power in
solid angle dW. The gain is maximum along the boresight direction.
The input power is Pin = Ea2 A / h Z0 where Ea is the average electric field over the area
A of the aperture, Z0 is the impedance of free space, and h is the net antenna efficiency.
The output power over solid angle dW is dP = E2 r2 dW/ Z0, where E is the electric field
at distance r. But by the Fraunhofer theory of diffraction, E = Ea A / r l along the
boresight direction, where l is the wavelength. Thus the boresight gain is given in terms
of the size of the antenna by the important relation as
G = h (4 p / l2) A
This equation determines the required antenna area for the specified gain at a given
wavelength. The net efficiency h is the product of the aperture taper efficiency ha, which
depends on the electric field distribution over the antenna aperture (it is the square of
the average divided by the average of the square), and the total radiation efficiency h *
= P/Pin associated with various losses. These losses include spillover, ohmic heating,
phase nonuniformity, blockage, surface roughness, and cross polarization. Thus h = ha h
*. For a typical antenna, h = 0.55.
2.2.3 Directivity:
Directivity (D): the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from the antenna
to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.
2.2.4 Beamwidth:
The beamwidth is a measure of how much the frequency can be varied while still
obtaining an acceptable VSWR (2:1 or less) and minimizing losses in unwanted
directions.
Half-power beamwidth (HPBW): Half-power beamwidth is the angle between two
vectors from the pattern’s origin to the points of the major lobe where the radiation
intensity is half its maximum
First-null beamwidth (FNBW): First-null beamwidth is the angle between two
vectors, originating at the pattern’s origin and tangent to the main beam at its base.
Often FNBW ≈ 2*HPB
2.2.5 VSWR:
The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is an indication of the amount of mismatch
between an antenna and the feed line connecting to it. The range of values for VSWR is
from 1 to ∞. A VSWR value under 2 is considered suitable for most antenna
applications. The antenna can be described as having a good match.
The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the radiation intensity
U (watts per steradian or per square degree). The normalized power pattern can also be
expressed in terms of this parameter as the ratio of the radiation intensity U(θ, φ), as a
function of angle, to its maximum value. Thus,
Pn(θ, φ) = U(θ, φ)/U(θ, φ)max
= S(θ, φ)/S(θ, φ)max
Whereas the Poynting vector S depends on the distance from the antenna (varying
inversely as the square of the distance), the radiation intensity U is independent of the
distance, assuming in both cases that we are in the far field of the antenna.
The ratio of the main beam area to the (total) beam area is called the (main) beam
efficiency εM. Thus,
Beam efficiency = εM
= ΩM/ΩA (dimensionless)
The ratio of the minor-lobe area (_m) to the (total) beam area is called the stray factor.
Thus,
Stray Factor =ε m
= Ωm/ΩA
It follows that,
εM+εm=1
1. Monopole Antenna:
Radiation Pattern:
Characteristics:
Radiation Pattern:
Characteristics:
Typical Gain: 2 dB
Remarks: Pattern and lobing changes significantly with L/f. Used as a gain reference <
2 GHz.
40
3. Biconical Antenna:
Radiation Pattern:
Characteristics:
4. Yagi Antenna:
Radiation Pattern:
Characteristics:
Typical Gain: 5 to 15 dB
42
5. Horn Antenna:
Radiation Pattern:
Characteristics:
Polarization: Linear
Typical Gain: 5 to 20 dB
………………………………………………………………………………………….....
43
Chapter 3
Introduction of HFSS
and
Modeling of Dipole
antenna
44
3.1-What is HFSS?
HFSS is a high-performance full-wave electromagnetic (EM) field simulator for
arbitrary 3D volumetric passive device modeling that takes advantage of the familiar
Microsoft Windows graphical user interface. It integrates simulation, visualization,
solid modeling, and automation in an easy-to-learn environment where solutions to your
3D EM problems are quickly and accurately obtained. Ansoft HFSS employs the Finite
Element Method (FEM), adaptive meshing, and brilliant graphics to give you
unparalleled performance and insight to all of your 3D EM problems. Ansoft HFSS can
be used to calculate parameters such as SParameters, Resonant Frequency, and Fields.
Typical uses include:
• Click the Microsoft Start button, select Programs, and select the Ansoft, HFSS 9
program group program group. Click HFSS 9.
• Or Double click on the HFSS 9 icon on the Windows Desktop.
3.3-Ansoft Terms
3.3.1-Project Manager-
3.3.2-Property window
3.3.3-Ansoft 3D Modeler-
Model
Graphics
Area
3D modeler Design
tree Context
menu
3.3.6-Toolbars
• The toolbar buttons are shortcuts for frequently used commands. Most of the
available toolbars are displayed in this illustration of the Ansoft HFSS initial
screen, but your Ansoft HFSS window probably will not be arranged this way.
• You can customize your toolbar display in a way that is convenient for you.
Some toolbars are always displayed; other toolbars display automatically when
you select a document of the related type. For example, when you select a 2D
report from the project tree, the 2D report toolbar displays.
Design
Boundaries
1.Parametric model
Geometry/Materials Excitations
Mesh refinement Solve
2.Analysis
Analyze Converged
Solution setup
Frequency sweep
3.Results
Update Finished
2D reports
fields
This section describes how to set the Solution Type. The Solution Type defines
the type of results, how the excitations are defined, and the convergence. The
following Solution Types are available:
• Driven Modal - calculates the modal-based S-parameters. The S-matrix
solutions will be expressed in terms of the incident and reflected powers of
waveguide modes.
• Driven Terminal - calculates the terminal-based S-parameters of
multiconductor
transmission line ports. The S-matrix solutions will be expressed
in terms of terminal voltages and currents.
• Eignemode – calculate the eigenmodes, or resonances, of a structure. The
Eigenmode solver finds the resonant frequencies of the structure and the
fields at those resonant frequencies.
51
• The Ansoft HFSS 3D Modeler is designed for ease of use and flexibility.
Thepower of the 3D Modeler is in its unique ability to create fully parametric
designswithout editing complex macros/model history.
• The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the 3D Modeling
capabilities. By understanding the basic concepts outlined here you will
be ableto quickly take advantage of the full feature set offered by the 3D
ParametricModeler.
When using the 3D Modeler interface you will also interact with two additional
interfaces:
Status Bar/Coordinate Entry – The Status Bar on the Ansoft HFSS Desktop
Window displays the Coordinate Entry fields that can be used to define
points or offsets during the creation of structural objects.
Grid Plane
To simplify the creation of structural primitives, a grid or drawing plane is used.The
drawing plane does not in any way limit the user to two dimensional coordinates but
instead is used as a guide to simplify the creation of structural primitives. The drawing
plane is represented by the active grid plane (The grid does not have to be visible). To
demonstrate how drawing planes are used, review the following section: Creating and
Viewing Simple Structures.
Active Cursor
• The active cursor refers to the cursor that is available during object creation. The
cursor allows you to graphically change the current position. The position is
displayed on the status bar of the Ansoft HFSS Desktop Window
Fig:3.7Active Cursor
52
• When objects are not being constructed, the cursor remains passive and is set for
dynamic selection. See the Overview of Selecting Objects for more details.
Dipole antennas are extremely popular in the microwave region. Dipole antennas are
commonly used for broadcasting, cellular phones, and wireless communications due to
their omnidirective property. Thus in this tutorial, a dipole antenna will be constructed
and analyzed using the HFSS in this simulation.
3.8-Create Dipole
3.8.1-Create waveguide
HFSS relies on variables for any parameterization / optimization within the project.
Variables also hold many other benefits which will make them necessary for all
projects.
• Fixed Ratios (length, width, height) are easily maintained using variables.
This will open the variable table. Add all variables shown below by selecting Add. Be
sure to include units as needed.
• We will start to by creating the dipole element using the Draw Cylinder button
from the toolbar.
• By default the proprieties dialog will appear after you have finished drawing an
object. The position and size of objects can be modified from the dialog.
• Double click to the model menu and this will appear a window like as follow
• Follow the format above for structure size. Give the name dip1 to this object.
Assign the material PEC and click OK. PEC (Perfect Electric Conductor) will
create ideal conditions for the element.
The next step is to build the symmetric of dip1. To do that, Right -Click the drawing
area and select Edit -> Duplicate -> Around Axis.
Fig. 3.17 form the duplicate dipole in the 180 degree position
• In the section you will create a Lumped Gap Source. This will provide an
excitation to the dipole structure. Begin by selecting the YZ plane from the
toolbar. Using the 3D toolbar, click Draw Rectangle and place two arbitrary
points within the model area.
Double click “create rectangle’’ and this will appear a window like below.
• With the source geometry in place, the user must provide an excitation. A
lumped port will be used for the dipole model. This excitation is commonly used
when the far field region is of primary interest. In the project explorer, right-
click Excitation -> Assign -> Lumped Port.
Name the port source and leave the default values for impedance.
Name the port source and leave the default values for impedance
Using the mouse, position the cursor to the bottom-center of the port. Ansoft's snap
feature should place the pointer when the user approaches the center of any object. Left-
click to define the origin of the E-field vector. Move the cursor to the top-center of the
port. Left-click to terminate the E-field vector. Click finish to complete the port
excitation.
Note: In case you find some difficulties for drawing the lumped port, you can redraw
the rectangular plane, affect the lumped port, then resize the rectangular plane.
• With the geometry complete, the actual radiation boundary may now be assigned.
• Click and select all faces as
follow:
• With all faces selected, right-click the Boundary icon in the object explorer and
select Boundary -> Assign -> Radiation.
To view the frequency response of the structure, a frequency sweep must be defined.
From the project explorer select Setup1 -> Add Sweep.
66
Ø After completion of the analysis, we will create a report to display both the
resonant frequency and also the radiation pattern. Click on the heading HFSS
and select Results -> Create Reports.
• Select the following highlighted parameters and click Add Trace to load the
options into the Trace window.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.38 (a) Define the air box as infinite sphere; (b) Compute antenna properties
• Accept all default parameters and click Done. Right-click Infinite Sphere1 -
>Compute Antenna Parameters... from the project explorer as shown:
• Select all defaults and results are displayed as follows:
• Next, the far field will be plotted. Create Reports as previously shown. Modify
the following:
• Select Add Trace and click Done when complete. The radiation pattern is
displayed below:
Chapter 4
Parametric Study
of
Horn Antenna
73
Horn antennas are extremely popular in the microwave region. An aperture antenna
contains some sort of opening through which electromagnetic waves are transmitted or
received. One of the examples of aperture antenna is horns. The analysis of aperture
antennas is typically quite different than the analysis of wire antennas. Before the
parametric study here we discussed about different types of horn antennas
1. Sectoral Horn
2. Pyramidal Horn
3. Conical Horn
• Sectoral Horn is two types:
a. Sectoral H-plane Horn
b. Sectoral E-plane Horn
Fig: 4.1 H-plane sectoral horn Fig: 4.2 E-plane sectoral horn
The pyramidal horn is the most widely used antenna for feeding large microwave dish
antennas and for calibrating them. That’s why we are simulating a pyramidal horn
antenna here.
To access Ansoft HFSS, click the Microsoft Start button, select Programs, and
select the Ansoft, HFSS 9 program group. Click HFSS 9.
Note: In order to follow the steps outlined in this example, verify that
the following tool options are set:
Fig: 4.5 Project menu window Fig: 4.6 Solution type window
76
• Create waveguide
1. Select the menu item Draw > Box
2. Using the coordinate entry fields, enter the Box position
X: -11.43, Y: -5.08, Z: 0.0 Press the Enter key
3. Using the coordinate entry fields enter the ‘a’ and ‘b’:
dX: 22.86, dY: 10.16, dZ: 0.0 Press the Enter key
4. Using the coordinate entry fields, enter the height:
dX: 0.0, dY: 0.0, dZ: 8.0 Press the Enter key
1. Select the menu item View > Fit All > Active View.
Or press the CTRL+D key
• Create Rectangle:
Now you can connect the 2D objects that make up the base and the top of the
funnel to create the 3D, funnel-shaped object.
Fig. 4.10 Project menu Fig. 4.11 Highlight the Horn top and funnel base
Fig. 4.12 A complete horn after connection Fig. 4.13 A complete horn after unite
Or press CTRL+D.
2. Name it WavePort1.
1. Select the menu item HFSS > Analysis Setup > Add Solution Setup
2. Solution Setup Window:
1. Click the General tab:
Solution Frequency: 10.0 GHz
Maximum Number of Passes: 20
Maximum Delta S per Pass: 0.02
2. Click the OK button
1. Select the menu item HFSS > Analysis Setup > Add sweep
2. Solution Setup Window Click OK:
1. Edit sweep window:
Sweep type: Fast
Type: Linear count
Start: 8.4; Stop: 12.2; Count: 100.
2. Click the Display button and Click Ok.
Fig. 4.17 Solution setup window Fig: 4.18 Sweep setup window
84
4.3.13: Analyze
1. Select the menu item HFSS > Results > Create Report
2. Create Report Window:
1. Report Type: Far Fields
2. Display Type: 3D Polar Plot
3. Click the OK button
3. Traces Window:
1. Solution: Setup1: LastAdaptive
2. Domain: Radiation
3. Click the Mag tab
1. Category: rE
2. Quantity: rETotal
3. Function: dB
4. Click the Add Trace button
4. Click the Done button
1. Select the menu item HFSS > Results > Create Report
1. Select the menu item HFSS > Results > Create Report
Fig. 4.25 Rectangular plot for real and imaginary impedance of horn antenna
89
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 4.26 (a) Define the air box as infinite sphere; (b) Compute antenna properties
2. Then select Field Overlays> Plot fields> Mag_E from the project
menu window.
3. Create field plot window comes. Select default and click OK.
5. Click Ok.
6. With the same process the animation of magnetic field can be done.
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.27(a) Electric field propagation animation (b) Magnetic field propagation animation
91
But we simulated all the basic type of antennas, with computer aided engineering
software HFSS, for comparing among them.
The H-plane sectoral horn in which the long side of the wave guide is flared, the E-
plane sectoral horn in which the short side is flared, and the pyramidal horn in which
both sides are flared.
So here we can see that, the directivity and gain of this pyramidal horn antenna is very
high and close to our theoretical results. That’s why we choose this parameter for the
hardware interpretation.
97
• This is the impedance graph of the waveguide (WR90) we have used. Here
value of real part is 550Ω when imaginary part is zero. So the maximum power
will be transmitted when the impedance parameter of horn antenna will be very
closer to this result. Our analysis result is given below in the figure. And it is
closer to the value of waveguide.
98
……………………………………………………………………………………….........
99
Chapter 5
Implementation of
Horn Antenna
100
In this chapter we will discuss the hardware implementation of horn antenna. We tested
the antenna, which we have made, according to the parameter that we got from the
software analysis. We only measured the gain of horn antenna. Our microwave test
bench is Klystron based setup.
Fig. 5.2 Microwave bench set-up to measure the gain of horn antenna
101
5.3 Procedure
i. Set up the equipment as shown in Figure 5.1 and connect the tuner and crystal
detector assembly to the slotted line.
ii. Switch on fan and then power supply. Obtain oscillations of the klystron.
iii. Set the variable attenuator to get convenient reading in the VSWR meter
iv. Maximize the crystal detector power supply and match the detector with the help
of the tuner.
vi. Disconnect the tuner and detector assembly. Connect horn to the attenuator and
another horn to another attenuator and the detector assembly. Put the second
horn in front of the first. The distance between horns should be about one.
vii. Read the VSWR meter and note the difference in two reading and measure the
separation‘s’ between two horns.
viii. Repeat the same experiment for different values of separation between horns.
49
48 48
47 46.8
46 46
Gain (dB)
45
44.5
44
43
42
41 41
40
0 20 40 60 80 100
Distance (cm)
……………………………………………………………………………………..
104
Chapter 6
Conclusion
105
Chapter 6 Conclusion
The construction of the horn antennas was simple in terms of paper and pencil.
However, fabrication was far more difficult than anticipated before we started the
project, but we managed to construct the horn antennas and reach our goal. The resulted
measured data supports our expected result. We successfully transmitted the wave via
air with the help of horn antenna. Our data could have been improved if we had an
adequate antenna testing facility accommodation. But we hope that, for this antenna, a
new experiment will be added to microwave engineering laboratory. We are happy that
finally we able to fulfill the demand of the students.
106
References