Canon Music

C ANON
A canon is a piece of music where a melody is played and then imitated (one or more times)
after a short delay. It is a contrapuntal technique as the melodic lines move independently from
each other, but are linked harmonically.

As you can see from the diagram above the first melody is called the leader (otherwise known
as dux or proposta), whilst the following melodies are called
the follower (or comes or riposta).
Let’s have a look at/listen to an example:

Play 3 Blind Mice Canon Example

The above example is a simple canon more commonly known as a Round – all of the voices are
identical in pitch and rhythm. A lot of other nursery rhymes can be sung in this way.
The above example can be described as a Canon in 3 as it has 3 voices. If it had 4 voices it
would be called a Canon in 4.
Other Types of Canon Music
Interval Canons
In some canons the leader melody is transposed when it is imitated – these are called interval
canons.
If the transpositions are carried out exactly then this is called strict canon.
If the intervals are changed slightly in order to fit the scale (e.g. a leap of a major sixth may
become a leap of a minor sixth) then this is called free canon.
Canon by Inversion
In a canon by inversion the follower moves in contrary motion to the leader. For example, if the
leader goes up a third the follower will go down a third and vice versa:

Retrograde Canon
In a retrograde canon the follower plays the leader melody backwards.

Retrograde Inversion
In retrograde inversion the follower plays the leader melody in contrary motion and backwards!!

More than one Simultaneous Canon

Sometimes you will come across a piece of music where there is more than one canon being
played simultaneously. E.g. if there were 4 voices playing and 2 simultaneous canons then it
would be described as a Canon: Four in Two (4 voices in 2 simultaneous canons).
Accompanied Canon
Sometimes a piece of music will have a canon accompanied by another separate part which does
not play in canon. This is the case with Pachelbel’s canon in D major, arguably the most famous
canon having become a regular feature in both concerts and at weddings. Palchelbel’s canon is a
simple canon (or round) in 3 voices with an additional Ground Bass accompaniment.
Composing Music in Canon Form
Canon Form can be a very useful tool for composing. I have used it on various occasions when
writing music for choirs. It can be tricky to get the parts to interweave effectively. My advice is
to start with a leader melody that is fairly simple and try delaying the entry of the 1st follower
line by about 2 bars. This should give you a good start to writing music in Canon Form.

Fugues
A fugue is a contrapuntal composition for a number of separate parts or voices.
e.g. “a fugue in 4 parts”, “a fugue in 3 voices”.
Each part/voices enters in imitation of each other.
In this music theory lesson we are going to look at the basic structure of a fugue in 4
voices/parts.
The Basic Structure of a Fugue
The 1st voice/part starts by playing a melody/phrase called the Subject.
The 2nd voice then enters playing the “answer”. The answer is a transposed version of the
subject.
The 3rd voice then enters playing the subject again and then the 4th voice enters playing
the answer.
This whole section of music is called The Exposition.
When all the voices have entered this signals the end of the Exposition
After the Exposition there comes an Episode.
This is a connecting passage of music and is usually made up of a development of the music that
has already been heard in the Exposition.
After the Episode, there is another entry (or entries) of the Subject, followed by
another Episode. This alternating of Subject entries and Episodes continues until the end of the
piece.

Contrasts of Key in a Fugue

Contrasting keys play a vital role in the composition of a fugue.
Key Contrasts in the Exposition
In the Exposition the subject 1st appears in the tonic key.
The 2nd voice plays the “answer” in dominant key (a 5th higher or a 4th lower) – this transposed
line in the 2nd voice is called the answer. If it is an exact transposition of the subject then it is
called a “real answer”. However, if it is altered to fit the new key then it is a ”tonal answer”.
The Subject is repeated in the entry of the 3rd voice (usually in the tonic, but at a different
octave) and is “answered” by the 4th voice, again in the dominant key.

Key Contrasts in Episodes

The Episodes are often used by the composer of a fugue to modulate to different keys. This
brings added variety to the entries of the Subject later on in the fugue.

Other Features of Fugues

Countersubject
A Countersubject often appears in the Exposition (and also later in the fugue). A
countersubject acts like an accompaniment to the Subject and Answer. So, the voice/part which
has just played the Subject will go on to play the Countersubject whilst the next voice is playing
the answer.
Stretto
Stretto literally means “drawn together”. In the context of a fugue it describes a situation where
each voice enters before the previous voice has finished its subject. This overlapping
technique is used by composers to increase the emotional tension of the piece.
Here is a diagram of stretto:
Can you see how each voices enters before the previous voice has finished playing its subject?

Double Fugues
You will sometimes come across Double Fugues. These can be seen in 2 forms:
1. 2 subjects appear together at the start of the piece

2. A subject is introduced at the start of the piece and answered in the usual way. A second
subject is then introduced and also answered. The 2 subjects are then combined at a later
point in the piece.

Example of a double fugue – J.S. Bach – Prelude and double fugue no. 18 in G sharp minor
BMV 887 (WTC II)
Other Useful fugal forms
 Fughetta – this is a shortened fugue
 Fugato – this is a passage of music in fugal style, but not in itself an actual fugue.
 Accompanied Fugue – these are sometimes found in oratorio movements where there is a
free instrumental part accompanying the singing.
Examples of Fugues
There are many examples of fugues. Arguably the most famous composer of fugues is J.S. Bach.
Have a listen to any of Bach’s fugues from the Well Tempered Clavier to get started.
Alternatively, have a listen to this string quartet play The Art of Fugue by Bach.
In Depth Analysis of a Fugue
An in depth analysis of a fugue is beyond the scope of this music theory lesson.
However, if you are wanting to extend your knowledge of fugues here is an excellent analysis of
a Bach fugue by an American educator.

Rondo Form
R ONDO FOR M
Rondo Form is a natural extension of the 2 forms we have looked at already – Binary
Form and Ternary Form. If Binary Form is A-B and Ternary Form is A-B-A then Rondo Form is
A-B-A-C-A-D-A.
The main section or theme (known as “A”) alternates with contrasting themes (you will hear
these called various names such as “episodes”, “couplets” or “digressions”). These contrasting
themes are labelled B, C, D, etc.. So, a typical Rondo Form structure looks like:

Each new section contrasts in some way to what has gone before it. You will find that most
composers writing a Rondo Form piece will use changes in melody, key and harmony to contrast
the different sections.
It is quite similar to Theme and Variations form except for the fact that Section A returns each
time in Rondo Form, but does not return in Theme and Variations Form.
An Example of Rondo Form

How To Compose Music in Rondo Form

Composing in Rondo form is great – it is something I am always encouraging people to do
because it provides a solid and interesting structure to any piece of music.
The contrasting sections give a sense of variety to the piece, whilst the return A Section helps
give the piece a sense of coherence and unity. It is a great way to develop your compositions
beyond Binary Form and Ternary Form.

Ternary Form
TER NAR Y FOR M
A musical structure where the piece is divided into 3 distinct sections. The 1st and last sections
are exactly the same as each other and so the form can be written A – B – A as below:
Each of the sections sound like complete pieces of music in themselves – you could play just the
A Section of a Ternary Form piece and it would not “feel” like it must continue onto a new
section. This is because it ends on a perfect/authentic cadence.
The B Section is usually written in a key that is closely related to the key of the A Section as
below:

The B section also usually has a different mood to the A Section. If the A Section is upbeat and
lively then the B Section will often be more subdued.
Have a look/listen to this famous example of Ternary Form – “Alla Hornpipe” by Handel from
The Water Music.

Play Ternary Form Example Example

Compound Ternary Form

This is when each of the sections (A-B-A) are subdivided into a clear Ternary Form structure as
in the diagram below. Examples of Compound Ternary Form include trios and minuets.
Composing in Ternary Form
Ternary Form is a great structure to compose in because the repeated A Section gives your piece
a sense of unity and balance which you don’t quite get in Binary Form. The contrasting B section
will also help focus you to create fresh ideas and bring variety to your composition.
I would suggest writing an A Section (you may have already written a piece of music that would
work well as an A Section in a Ternary Form piece).
Once you have finished your A Section try writing a new section, but use the different keys
suggested in the Ternary Form diagram above.
Good luck!

THEM E AND V AR IAT IONS

Theme and variations is a very common musical structure you will come across, especially in
classical music. The structure is built upon a musical idea called the theme which is played at the
start of the piece. The theme can be as short as 8 bars in length or can be much longer. It usually
consists of a memorable melody with an accompaniment of some sorts.
Once the theme has been played the composer then repeats it, but varies it in some way. This is
called Variation 1.
Once Variation 1 has been played, the composer repeats the theme again, this time varying it in a
different way, thus producing Variation 2.
This process is repeated as many times as the composer chooses producing a musical
structure called Theme and Variations. Each variation is different, but can still be traced back
to the original theme in some way.
How are Variations Created?
There are a number of ways in which composers vary the theme. Here are the most
common elements of music which are changed:
Melody – composers will change the original melody in a number of different ways. These
include adding notes (addition), taking notes away (subtraction) and inverting the melody (if the
melody went up in pitch in the theme it is played going down in pitch in the variation). Another
common technique is to add ornamentation such as trills.
Rhythm – composers will change the rhythm of a melody when it is played again.
Harmony/Tonality – Key changes are a great way of varying a theme. A composer may play
the theme in a major key and then reharmonise it in a minor key (the relative minor is a common
choice) or vice versa.
Time Signature – a theme played in 4/4 and then changed to 3/4 will instantly lead to a
variation.
Other elements to look out for which can be varied are dynamics, tempo, instrumentation and
texture.

How to Compose Theme and Variations

Composing theme and variations is extremely rewarding as a composer as it will push you on
to new levels. It will force you to get the most out of your ideas.
To get started, I suggest you find a short musical idea you have written which you are really
pleased with – something that is “catchy” will help. Try recording it or writing out the score of it
(whichever works best for you) – this is your theme.
Once you have done that try choosing one of the techniques listed above and use it to improvise
a variationbased on your theme. Varying the melody is a good place to start. Try improvising a
different melody. Record or notate your idea and then compare it to your original theme. Your
variation should sound different to the original theme, but should still be recognizable as being
based upon the theme.
Try this a few times until you have produced a variation you are pleased with. When you have
done this try varying the theme again, this time using a different technique such as rhythm.

Modulation
Modulation describes the process where a piece of music changes from one key to another
key.
When you start writing a piece of music one of the first things you do is choose a key to compose
in. This choice of key determines the scale you use, how many sharps and flats there are and
what chords you can use. This key is sometimes called the “home key”.
Many songs and pieces remain in this home key and do not change. However, to make a piece
more interesting a composer may choose to change into a different key at some point during the
piece. This change is called a modulation.
There are lots of different ways of modulating, but we are going to have a look at 2 of the most
common ways you will come across:

Pivot Chord or Common-chord Modulation

The advantage of pivot chord modulation is that it enables a smooth change from one key to
another. It does this by using a pivot chord.
A pivot chord is a chord that belongs to both the home key and the the key the music is
changing to.
Let’s look at an example:
Imagine we are wanting to write a piece of music in G major.
We could use the primary chords of G major (I, IV, V) which are the chords G, C, D.

Now imagine we would like to modulate to D major.

The primary chords in D major are D, G, A.

Can you see that chord V in G major (D) is the same as chord I in D major (D)?
This means we could use the chord D as a pivot chord to modulate from G major to D major.
Can you also see that chord I in G major (G) is the same as chord IV in D major (G)?

This means that we have a choice of 2 pivot chords that we could use.
Have a look/listen to the following piece which modulates from G major to D major:
 Click Here To Listen To Pivot Chord Modulation
This technique of pivot chord modulation works best if you move to closely related keys (keys
that only have a few sharps/flats different from each other).
Closely Related Keys

Phrase Modulation/Abrupt Modulation

The 2nd type of modulation we are going to have a look at is Phrase Modulation or Abrupt
Modulation.
This modulation is a sudden change of key.
No pivot chord is used.
A Phrase Modulation often involves a key change that goes up by a semitone or a tone. You will
hear it in lots of pop songs as the key changes for the last verse or chorus to create and exciting
ending to the song.
Have a listen to this example from The Backstreet Boys’ song “I want it that way”.
The song starts in A major. Listen to how there is a sudden key change up a tone to B major for
the last chorus of the song (2 mins 32 seconds into the video).
How to spot a modulation
Modulations can be spotted by listening and looking:
Abrupt Modulations can be easy to hear (like the Backstreet Boys’ track above). They are
sudden and not designed to be subtle!
However, pivot chord modulations can be harder to spot. You will be able to spot some pivot
chord modulations by listening. However, you may find it easier to spot them by looking at the
sheet music.
When a piece of music modulates a composer may write a new key signature – this is a sure
sign that the piece has changed key. Also, you will often see accidentals appear (accidentals are
sharps or flats written next to a note in the music). However, be careful as these accidentals may
also appear if the piece is in a minor key (the seventh note will often have a sharp next to it) or if
the music is quite chromatic.
Using Modulations
Hopefully this session has helped you understand modulation better.
Now it’s really important you have a go!
 Try improvising on the piano/guitar using the primary chords of G major. Then try
modulating from G major to D major using a pivot chord.

 Listen to some music from different styles. Can you hear any modulations? How many pop
songs can you find with an abrupt modulation for the final section?

 Have a look at some sheet music. Can you spot any pivot chord modulations?

Have fun!!