An introduction to Direct Shear Testing

1. Introduction
This support document is designed to give a brief description to direct shear testing procedure
for a technician new to this test. This includes why the test is performed and how it is performed.
The paper will look at the systems for direct shear tests, sample preparation, the stages of the
test, some of the theory behind direct shear tests and also automation of the
test process.
It is recommended that this support document is read in conjunction with the glossary of
terms that can be found in the ‘Support’ section of VJ Tech’s website.

2. Direct Shear Test – what is it?

Failure in soils usually occurs on a specific surface (shear plane) in opposition to other
material, like concrete or metals. The failure occurs when the shear stress, acting
parallel to that surface, exceeds the shear strength. In the case of shear stress acting on
a body, the deformation which is produced is called shear strain. In direct shear tests,
shear strain is measured as the displacement between the two portions of the soil
specimen.
Shear strength is defined as the resistance of a soil to the induced shear strain. Shear
strength is not a fundamental property in soils as it depends on the in-situ conditions,
such as density, moisture, stress state etc. The value measured in the laboratory is
likewise dependent upon the conditions imposed during the test and in some instances
upon the duration of the test. Therefore, it is important to apply similar conditions in the
laboratory as in the field.
The procedure in a direct shear test consists of;

1) placing a soil specimen in the direct shear device (shear box apparatus)

2) applying a predetermined normal stress,

3) providing the necessary conditions for wetting and/or draining of the specimen,

4) consolidating the specimen under the normal stress,

5) removing the pins that lock the shear box halves holding the test specimen, and
shearing the specimen by displacing one shear box half laterally with respect to the
other at a constant rate of shearing deformation while measuring the shearing force,
relative lateral displacement, and normal displacement. The shearing rate must be slow
enough to allow nearly complete dissipation of excess pore pressure.

The strength parameters obtained from a direct shear test are the cohesion (c) and angle
of friction (φ). In densely packed granular soils, two distinct values for these parameters
exist, namely Peak or Maximum and Residual or Constant.
The test is usually conducted in two stages;

The first stage involves the consolidation of the specimen under the same vertical stress
as that which will be applied during shearing.

When this stage finishes, the consolidation parameters can be obtained and the time
needed for the end of the primary consolidation is determined. More information on the
procedures followed at the consolidation stage can be found in the support
document ‘Consolidation Testing – An introduction’ which can be obtained from VJ
Tech.
In the second stage (i.e. shearing stage), the specimen is sheared at a constant speed
which depends on the consolidation parameters determined from the Consolidation
stage. The speed must be such that sufficient time is allowed for the soil to expel the
excess pore water and therefore provide drained conditions.

The apparatus used to perform direct shear tests is called a shear box. i.e. The rigid
metallic container in which the soil specimen is retained during testing.

This should not be confused with the term ‘shear box apparatus’, which refers to the
testing system that also includes the loading devices and the sensors.

3. Advantages and Disadvantages of

Direct Shear Tests
Some of the advantages of the direct shear tests are:

• Direct measurement of shear strength

• Basic principles are easily understood
• Relatively easy testing procedure
• Simple and easy sample preparation
• Quick consolidation procedure due to the small thickness of the specimen
• Almost all soil types can be tested
• Both peak and residual shear strength is determined
• Residual strength tests are applicable
• Partially saturated soil specimens can be tested with the appropriate equipment

However, the user must be also aware of the following disadvantages, regarding the
direct shear tests:
• Shear strength is measured only on a predefined shear plane
• Distribution of stresses along the shear plane is not uniform
• Only total stresses are applied, except on the testing of dry granular material, as pore
water pressures cannot be measured
• There is no control of the drainage, therefore only drained tests can be performed
• The continual decrease in the contact surface of the two halves during the test
produces a small error on the shear and normal stress and affects the Mohr-Coulomb
failure envelope.This error is generally ignored.

4. Shear Box Apparatus

Shear Box apparatus is designed for carrying out tests on soil specimens of 60 mm or
100 mm square and 20 mm to 25 mm high. The Large Shear Box apparatus is able to
carry out tests on soil specimens up to 305 mm square and 150 mm high. Finally,
the Unsaturated Shear Box apparatus is used to carry out direct shear tests on
unsaturated soil samples under constant suction. The size of the samples tested in the
unsaturated shear box ranges between 50 and 75mm and they are either round or
square shape.
A typical setup for direct shear tests is shown in Figure 1 Typical setup for a direct shear
The soil specimen is placed inside the shear box and the two halves are held together
using two securing pins. Porous and perforated plates are placed on the top and bottom
surface of the specimen which allows free drainage during the test. The whole shear
box is placed inside a container (carriage box) which is filled with water and enables the
test specimen to be submerged during the test.

The vertical load is applied to the specimen through a loading cap. The side of the
loading cap facing downwards is grooved allowing water to move out of the soil
specimen when needed. The loading yoke supports the top half of the shear box and is
connected to a load transducer which reads the resistance of the soil to the horizontal
loading. This loading is applied to the specimen through a motorised device which is
able to provide constant rate of displacement. The shear box assembly sits on low
friction bearings which allows the bottom half to move with a minimum resistance and
only in the longitudinal direction. Finally, the whole setup sits on a rigid machine bed.

Shear Box apparatus is designed for carrying out tests on soil specimens of 60 mm or
100 mm square and 20 mm to 25 mm high. The Large Shear Box apparatus is able to
carry out tests on soil specimens up to 305 mm square and 150 mm high. Finally, the
Unsaturated Shear Box apparatus is used to carry out direct shear tests on unsaturated
soil samples under constant suction. The size of the samples tested in the unsaturated
shear box ranges between 50 and 75 mm and they are either round or square shape.
A typical setup for direct shear tests is shown in Figure 1 Typical setup for a direct shear
The soil specimen is placed inside the shear box and the two halves are held together
using two securing pins. Porous and perforated plates are placed on the top and bottom
surface of the specimen which allows free drainage during the test. The whole shear
box is placed inside a container (carriage box) which is filled with water and enables the
test specimen to be submerged during the test.

The vertical load is applied to the specimen through a loading cap. The side of the
loading cap facing downwards is grooved allowing water to move out of the soil
specimen when needed. The loading yoke supports the top half of the shear box and is
connected to a load transducer which reads the resistance of the soil to the horizontal
loading. This loading is applied to the specimen through a motorised device which is
able to provide constant rate of displacement. The shear box assembly sits on low
friction bearings which allows the bottom half to move with a minimum resistance and
only in the longitudinal direction. Finally, the whole setup sits on a rigid machine bed.
In its early version, the shear box apparatus was supplied with a manual system to
apply normal stress.
This was generated using calibrated dead weights placed on a weight holder while the load was
applied to the specimen through a level arm.
One upgraded design of the apparatus uses an automated pneumatic controller to apply
the vertical stress, thus obviating the need for dead weights.
The most recent and advanced version, uses an integrated mechanical stepper motor to
apply vertical stress to the specimen. This means that neither dead weights, nor a
pneumatic air supply is required.

5. Large Shear Box Apparatus

To test larger samples, the Large Shear Box apparatus is used. The principle of the
Large shear box is similar to the small shear box apparatus but the maximum sample
size is up to 300 mm square. This allows for testing of soils containing particles up to
37.5 mm, i.e. coarse gravel size.
Moreover, the large shear box enables testing of soil specimens with irregular shapes
where the sample is placed in the middle of the shear box and the surrounding space is
filled with a rapid setting filling material (Figure 2).

Finally, soil or rock samples which contain several types of discontinuities can be tested
in the large shear box. This allows the determination of the shear strength on the
particular surface which needs to be levelled with the shearing surface of the shear box.
The shear strength of unsaturated soils can be determined using the Unsaturated Shear
Box apparatus. In these tests, soil specimens are partially saturated while they are
subjected into a Under these conditions, the specimen is sheared and the unsaturated
shear strength parameters can be determined.

6. Additional Equipment

- Calibrated dead weights used to apply the vertical load to the specimen, if the older
version of the shear box apparatus is used. However, the use of the dead weights is not
applicable when high vertical load is desirable. In this case, the vertical force must be
applied using either a pneumatic or a motorised controller.
Calibrated dead weights used to apply the vertical load to the specimen, if the older
version of the shear box apparatus is used. However, the use of the dead weights is not
applicable when high vertical load is desirable. In this case, the vertical force must be
applied using either a pneumatic or a motorised controller.

- Two calibrated load cells to measure the horizontal and vertical load.

- One displacement transducer, used to measure the horizontal displacement of the

shear box and therefore the relative movement between the two portions of the
specimen when it is sheared. Another displacement transducer is installed above the
top cap to measure the vertical movement (settlement) of the specimen during testing.
- Several tools for the preparation of the specimen inside the shear box.

- Balance, readable to 0.01 g.

- Stopwatch, readable to 1 s.

- Oven and aluminium trays to dry out soil samples and determine the moisture content.

7. Test Procedure – Standards for Direct

Shear Tests

The testing procedure of the direct shear tests is described in the following standards:

• BS1377 - Part 7:1990 : British Standard Methods of test for Soils for civil engineering
purposes, Part 7 - Shear strength tests (total stress)
• ASTM D3080-04 : Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under
Consolidated Drained Conditions
• AS1289.6.2.2 – 1998 : Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes – Method 6.2.2:
Soil strength and consolidation tests – Determination of the shear strength of a soil –
Direct shear test using a shear box.

8. Test Procedure – System Preparation

The first step for every laboratory test is the preparation of the testing setup. In direct
shear tests, the preparation of the system is relatively simple and easy. The carriage is
placed on the roller bearings and is fixed onto the motor shaft on one side. The
procedure to be followed is:

- Installation of two load transducers: One load transducer is installed behind the
horizontal loading yoke and another above the shear box. The transducers need to be
calibrated before the first use and at regular intervals to ensure accuracy of the
readings.

- Installation of two displacement transducers: One transducer is installed behind the

container (carriage), measuring the horizontal displacement of the bottom portion of the
shear box, and another above the top cap measuring the settlement of the specimen
during the consolidation and shearing stages. Displacement transducers must be
calibrated before the first use and at regular intervals to ensure accuracy of the
readings.
- Preparation of the shear box: The shear box should be clean and dry before the test
and its dimensions should be measured as much accurate as possible. Moreover, the
thickness of the porous plates and perforated grid plates must be measured and the
available volume space for the soil specimen must be determined. A thin coat of silicone
grease is applied to the contact between the two halves of the shear box to reduce
friction during movement. The two halves are clamped together using two securing
pins placed at either corners of the box. The baseplate is placed at the bottom, followed by a
porous plate and a perforated grid plate. The arrangement of the individual components in the
shear box is shown in Figure 3. The perforated grid plates must be placed so as the grooves are
oriented vertically to the axis of the horizontal movement.
9. Test Procedure – Sample Preparation
Either cohesive (clays) or non-cohesive (sands, silts) soils can be tested in the shear
box apparatus. The large shear box apparatus, however, is also able to accommodate
coarser soils (like gravels) and irregular-shaped specimens.

Normally, three or more similar specimens are prepared, either from an undisturbed or
remoulded sample, and tested under different normal stress values. If the soil is
prepared inside the shear box by compaction, the density of the three specimens must
be identical. The preparation procedure depends on the soil type and desired testing
conditions. A brief description of the processes involved for each type of soil is given
below. Prior to sample preparation, the base plate, and lower porous disc and
perforated grid plate are installed at the bottom of the shear box.

Before placing any soil inside the shear box, the available volume must be determined
and the initial weight of the whole assembly (without soil in it) must be measured using
the balance.

- Dry sands: The sand pouring method is used to prepare a dry sandy specimen inside
the shear box at the desired density. To do that, sand is left to fall freely inside the shear
box at a constant flow rate and from a specific height. The higher the falling height of
material the higher the achieved density. A funnel with an appropriate neck opening can
be used in this procedure. When sand pouring is finished, the soil surface is carefully
levelled and the top perforated grid is placed on the sample. The final specimen height
is determined and the sample volume is calculated. The shear box is weighed again the
weight of the soil is determined by the difference between the two and the final achieved
density can be calculated. Several attempts may take place, pouring the sand from
different heights, so as to achieve the desired density. Compaction of the dry sand soil
using a dolly or another tool is not going to be effective.
- Saturated sands: Wet sandy specimens can be prepared in the same manner as the
dry sands, only this time the shear box needs to be placed inside the carriage and both
are filled with water up to the estimated soil level. Soil can then be poured into the
water, within the shear box, up to the desired height. The overflow of the carriage
removes the excess water and keeps the level just above the soil surface. This process
is not capable of producing specimens of low density.
- Wet cohesionless soils: Cohesionless soils can be prepared inside the shear box by
using the moist tamping method. The soil is brought to a specific moisture content,
usually close to its optimum value, by mixing it with water. If the optimum value is not
known, a moisture content of 5-10% should be sufficient. Compact the soil in layers
using a tamper; more layers produce denser samples. When preparing, avoid forming a
layer at the same level as the split surface of the shear box. Place the perforated grid
plate on the top of the specimen and determine its density in the same way as
described above. Place the top cap and then the whole shear box into the carriage.
Finally, determine the moisture content of the soil used by drying surplus material into
the oven.
- Undisturbed cohesive soils: Undisturbed specimens can be produced from large intact
samples of the soil by trimming at the right dimensions. The specimens need to be
handled with care to minimise their disturbance and loss of water content, especially
where sensitive soils are concerned.
- Large specimens (large shear box): Large undisturbed specimens to be tested in the
large shear box, are prepared by trimming larger undisturbed soil blocks. The specimen
needs to be oriented correctly at the desired direction with respect to the soil stratum in-
situ. Large disturbed specimens are prepared within the shear box by compaction or
moist tamping.Any particles of a size larger than the 1/10 of the specimen height must
normally be removed.

10. Test Procedure – Consolidation

The first stage of the testing process is consolidation. The procedure is identical to the
one dimensional consolidation test and is described in detail in the support
document SUP0112 -Consolidation testing - an introduction by VJ Tech. The purpose of
the consolidation stage is to ensure that effective stresses have been applied to the
specimen before the shearing stage starts. This practically means that after the
application of the vertical stress, the excess pore water needs to drain out of the soil.
Therefore, the consolidation stage takes more time to finish with finer soils with a lower
coefficient of permeability. The procedure is the following:
- The normal force is applied to the specimen to give the desired vertical (normal)
stress.

- The vertical deformation of the specimen is measured using the vertical displacement
transducer. Readings are taken at appropriate time intervals that allow a graph to be
drawn of the settlement against the square root of the elapsed time (√𝑡), or the
settlement against the logarithm of the elapsed time (log 𝑡). The stage is continued until
the readings indicate that the primary consolidation has ended.

- From the settlement plots, the values 𝑡100 and t50 can be determined, which then
allow the determination of the maximum shearing speed to be used in the next stage
(shear).

11. Test Procedure – Shear

At the end of the consolidation stage, the securing pins MUST BE removed from the
shear box before the specimen is ready for the shearing stage. A horizontal force is
applied to the bottom part of the shear box at a constant speed, which produces a
gradual displacement. The maximum speed used is determined from the consolidation
stage. The resistance of the soil to this movement is measured by the horizontal load
cell and reflects the strength of the soil to shearing, i.e. the shear strength. The readings
of the horizontal displacement, horizontal reaction force, vertical displacement and
vertical (normal) stress are recorded at suitable intervals. Shearing is continued until the
readings indicate that the shear stress has reached its maximum value. Usually,
shearing is left to continue until a drop in the shear stress is observed, followed by a
period of time at which it remains constant.
The shear box apparatus can also be used to determine the residual shear strength
parameters, i.e. cohesion (cR) and angle of friction (φR). These tests are performed by
returning the lower part of the shear box back to its initial position, after the first
shearing stage, and reshearing the specimen under the same normal stress. Repeated
loading cycles are applied until the soil exhibits the same residual shear stress at
subsequent cycles. This indicates that the residual strength has been achieved.

12. Test Procedure – Results

The typical behaviour of a sandy specimen to direct shearing is shown in Figure 4. In

dense soils, shear stress increases together with the horizontal displacement and
reaches a maximum value before it starts reducing. This is the maximum stress that the
soil can withstand and is called the Peak shear stress. As shearing progresses and
horizontal displacement increases, shear stress decreases until it reaches an almost
constant value which is known as the Residual shear stress. When the shear stress in a
soil exceeds the peak shear strength, then the maximum stress that the soil can
withstand would be equal to the residual one. This behaviour is not seen on loose
samples, at which the maximum shear stress is equal to the residual value from the
beginning.
Typical stress-strain curves of a soil specimen under different normal stresses are
shown in Figure 5. The peak and residual stress values from each curve are plotted
then on a Normal Stress – Shear Stress graph (Figure 6). The relationships between
the normal stress and peak shear stress and between normal stress and residual shear
stress are linear. Each one of these lines cross the Shear Stress axis (y-axis) to a value
which is read as the Cohesion (c) of the soil. The angle of each line to the x-axis is
giving the value of the Angle of Friction or Angle of Shearing Resistance (φ). Two angles
of friction are determined from this graph, i.e. the Peak angle of friction and the Residual
angle of friction.
Another useful plot is the volume change graph which defines the change of the
specimen volume during shearing (Figure 7). Dense sandy samples, at low normal
stress, tend to show an increase in volume while they are sheared. This phenomenon is
called dilatancy and occurs mainly due to the relocation and rolling of soil grains during
shearing. If the specimen is submerged, water may enter into the expanding pore space
and saturate it.
13. Residual strength tests
The residual strength of the soil specimen can also be obtained by performing multiple
direct shear tests on a single specimen (under the same normal stress) where the
Shearbox apparatus returns back to its initial position every time it completes its travel.
This process can be repeated a number of times until the residual shear stress remains
constant at subsequent shearing stages. Typical stress-strain curves obtained from a
residual direct shear test are shown in Figure 8.
The residual strength of the soil specimen can also be obtained by performing multiple
direct shear tests on a single specimen (under the same normal stress) where the
Shearbox apparatus returns back to its initial position every time it completes its travel.
This process can be repeated a number of times until the residual shear stress remains
constant at subsequent shearing stages. Typical stress-strain curves obtained from a
residual direct shear test are shown in Figure 8.
14. Range of VJ Tech Automatic Direct
Shear Systems
VJ Tech provides a range of direct shear testing apparatus capable to meet the needs
of every commercial or academic laboratory.
- Standard and Advanced Direct/Residual Shear Testing System - ShearTest
The VJ Tech Direct/Residual Shear Testing System (Figure 9) is based on a
microprocessor controlled apparatus which shears the sample using a controlling
stepper drive motor. This device utilises a lever loading piston for applying the vertical
load to the sample. The device is a self-contained floor mounted model that requires
weights for applying vertical load. The advanced version of the ShearTest apparatus
has inbuilt data logging and is supplied complete with a lever loading device, hanger
and Shearbox carriage all mounted on a floor standing frame. The user friendly Clisp
Studio csSHEAR software provides the necessary test configuration, control and data
acquisition and conforms to BS1377-7, AS1289.6.2.2 & ASTM D3080-04. This testing
system is capable for running either direct and/or residual tests.
- Automated Direct/Residual Shear Testing System – ShearSCAN 2
The VJ Tech ShearSCAN 2 utilises the pneumatic loading concept for applying the
vertical load to the sample when carrying out automated shear testing. The self-
contained table top model eliminates the need for the numerous weights used in dead
weight systems. The microprocessor based ShearSCAN 2 system incorporates a
stepper motor drive, a large graphical display, a touch sensitive keypad and
forward/reverse travel limit switches. Built in data acquisition automates the testing by
setting the starting and stopping conditions. The ShearSCAN 2 is designed for harsh lab
environments and is ruggedly constructed. The Clisp Studio csSHEAR software enables
easy test setup and control with live tabular and graphical display of measured and
calculated parameters and easy data export to standard packages. It conforms to
BS1377-7, ASTM D3080-04 & AS1289.6.2.2.
- Automated Direct/Residual Testing System - ShearSCAN pro
The Sheartest Pro Motorised Loading Instrument utilises stepper motors for applying
vertical and horizontal loads to the sample, which means that a compressed air supply
is not necessary. The device is a self-contained table-top model that eliminates the
need for the numerous weights used in dead weight systems, and is capable of cyclic
shearing, in addition to Direct and Residual Shearing. A 7” integrated touchscreen
display enables easy operation and even standalone usage. It is normally connected to
a PC or laptop via USB or Ethernet, and is controlled using our renowned Clisp Studio
software (csSHEAR module).
- Large Direct/Residual Shear Testing System
VJ Tech’s new microprocessor based electro-mechanical/hydraulic large shear box is
specifically designed for direct and residual shear testing on large specimen sizes up to
300 mm (11.8 inches) square and has a built-in four channel data logger for automatic
data acquisition. The horizontal load is applied electro-mechanically and the vertical
load is applied using a hydraulic actuator. The machine is capable of applying 50 or 100
kN (11240 or 22480 lbf) vertical and horizontal force. The user friendly Clisp
Studio csSHEAR software provides the necessary test configuration, control and data
acquisition and conforms to BS1377-7, S1289.6.2.2, ASTM D3080-04 & Q181C.
- Unsaturated Shear Testing System
The VJ Tech Unsaturated Shear Testing System is used to carry out unsaturated shear
tests on soil samples up to 75 mm (2.95 inches) (square or round) in a sealed sample
chamber. The Unsaturated Shearbox is bench mounted and is of rugged construction
designed for lab environments. The microprocessor based system incorporates a
stepper motor drive for horizontal load, a large graphical display, a touch sensitive
keypad and forward/reverse travel limit switches.
The pneumatic loading concept is utilised for applying the vertical load to the sample
(compressed air supply required). When testing, suction within the specimen is
maintained using a Pneumatic APC at the top of the sample and a Hydraulic APC at the
base applying the axis-translation technique. Built in data acquisition automates the
testing by recording the horizontal and vertical loads and displacements. Clisp
studio csUnsatShear software enables easy test setup and control with live tabular and
graphical display of measured and calculated parameters and easy test and data export
and import.

15. Advantages of a VJ Tech Automatic

Direct Shear System
VJ Tech automatic direct shear systems offer the following advantages:

- Tests run 24 hours a day 7 days a week

- Tests can be set up and controlled through the user-friendly software Clisp studio

- Test procedure can be automated and limited staff supervision required (the
technicians
can perform other activities)

- Average time for a test to be complete is significantly reduced

- Can be monitored and controlled remotely

- Increased quality of results and minimise human error

- Effortless maintenance

- Simple calibration processes

- Easy report generation

- Easy analysis of data

The advantage of VJ Tech Direct Shear systems to automate test procedures is for
valuable time to be saved, especially in very busy laboratories. Automation allows for
tests to be stopped when one stage of the process has finished, and then move
automatically onto the next one, with minimum supervision by the technicians.

VJ Tech automatic direct shear systems offer the following advantages:

- Tests run 24 hours a day 7 days a week
- Tests can be set up and controlled through the user-friendly software Clisp studio
- Test procedure can be automated and limited staff supervision required (the
technicians
can perform other activities)
- Average time for a test to be complete is significantly reduced
- Can be monitored and controlled remotely
- Increased quality of results and minimise human error
- Effortless maintenance
- Simple calibration processes
- Easy report generation
- Easy analysis of data
The advantage of VJ Tech Direct Shear systems to automate test procedures is for
valuable time to be saved, especially in very busy laboratories. Automation allows for
tests to be stopped when one stage of the process has finished, and then move
automatically onto the next one, with minimum supervision by the technicians.

16. Further Reading on Direct Shear

Tests
The following text book helped put this document together.

K. H. Head and R. J. Epps. 2011. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Vol. II:
Permeability, Shear Strength and Compressibility Tests. Whittles Publishing, Caithness,
Scotland, 3rd edition.

VJ Tech would recommend this book to any technician or laboratory undertaking direct
shear tests. The books provide an in-depth understanding behind the theory of the test
and also the testing procedures including quality control and analysis of the results.

To purchase this book please contact the VJ Tech Sales department

(sales@vjtech.co.uk).

VJ Tech also offers a training course and/or additional information on the subject
matter.

For more information please contact service@vjtech.co.uk or visit our direct shear
testing playlist on YouTube.

Triaxial Testing - an Introduction

1 Introduction
This blog is designed to give a brief introduction to the theory of triaxial testing for a
technician new to this test. This includes why the test is performed and how it is
performed. The paper will look at systems for triaxial tests, the stages of a triaxial test,
some of the theory behind triaxial tests and also automation of the test process.

It is recommended that this support document is read in conjunction with the glossary of
terms that can be found in the ‘Support’ section of VJ Tech’s website

2 Triaxial testing what is it?

A typical triaxial test involves confining a cylindrical soil or rock specimen in a
pressurised cell to simulate a stress condition and then shearing to failure, in order to
determine the shear strength properties of the sample. Most triaxial tests are performed
on high quality undisturbed specimens. The samples normally range from 38 mm to 100
mm samples, although samples considerably larger can be tested with the correct
equipment. The test specimen most commonly has a height to diameter ratio of 2:1.

The sample will usually be saturated, then consolidated and finally sheared, most
commonly only in compression - but extension tests may be undertaken with the correct
equipment.

During the test the sample is subjected to stress conditions that attempt to simulate the
in-situ stresses. Figure 1 shows the stress conditions applied to a sample during a
typical test; Figure 2 shows the basic principles on effective stresses.
 Figure 1 – Stress Conditions in a Typical Triaxial Test
To summarise for a triaxial compression test:
σ1 - Vertical (axial) Stress (think of this as the vertical load applied to the sample)
This also known as the Major Principle Stress
Can also be call σv
σ3 - Confining Pressure (think of this as cell pressure)
This is also known as the Minor Principle Stress
Can also be called σh
U - Pore Pressure
Also known as Uw (Pore Water Pressure (P.W.P))
σ1 – σ3 – Deviator Stress (the stress due to the axial load applied to the specimen in
excess of the confining pressure)

Figure 2 – Effective Stresses

σ1’ – Effective Vertical (axial) Stress
σ3’ – Effective Confining Pressure
U - Pore Pressure

3 Triaxial Testing – Why we do it

Triaxial tests are one of the most widely performed tests in a geotechnical laboratory.
The advantages of the test over other test methods used in the geotechnical laboratory
used to determine shear strength (such as direct shear) is that specimen drainage can
be controlled and pore pressure can be measured. The triaxial test enables parameters
such as cohesion (c’), internal angle of friction (φ’) and shear strength to be determined.
The triaxial test can also be used to determine other variables such as stiffness and
permeability with the correct equipment.

A list of some of the common engineering issues that triaxial tests can be used for can
be seen in table 1, with the type of test described in the next section.
 Field Problem Type of Analysis Type of Test

First Time Slope Failure Effective Stress CU or CD Triaxial

Cut Slope Failure Effective Stress CU Triaxial

Earth Dams Total Stress UU triaxial

Effective Stress CU Triaxial

Triaxial permeability

Tunnel Linings Total Stress UU triaxial

Effective Stress CU Triaxial

Table 1 – Triaxial Tests used in common Engineering Problems

It is common for UU triaxial tests to be used for short term engineering problems and
CU and CD triaxials to look at long term engineering problems.

4 Triaxial Testing – The Different Types

There are 3 common types of triaxial test:

· UU Triaxial - Unconsolidated Undrained (this can also be termed QU for Quick

Undrained)

· CU Triaxial - Consolidated Undrained triaxial

· CD Triaxial - Consolidated Drained triaxial

UU triaxial tests are termed total stress tests and CU/CD triaxial tests are
termed effective stress tests. Figure 1 shows the stresses involved with a total stress
test and Figure 2 summaries the stresses in an effective stress test.
CU and CD Triaxial tests normally start with a saturation stage, which then leads onto a
consolidation stage. The consolidated stage can be either;

a) isotropic; the stress surrounding the sample is equal in all directions or

b) anisotropic; the stress surrounding the sample is not equal in all directions.
The tests are commonly abbreviated to CIU (Consolidated Isotropic Undrained) or CAU
(Consolidated Anisotropic Undrained). In the last stage the sample is sheared to failure.
UU triaxial tests commonly do not have a saturation or consolidation stage performed;
the test normally only consists of a shear stage. UU triaxial tests are quick tests, taking
under 30 minutes to perform. The CU and CD triaxial tests take significantly longer to
perform and can take weeks or even months to complete. The CD Triaxial commonly
has the longest test duration, as during the shear stage of the test, pore pressure is not
allowed to build up, resulting in very low strain rates. CU triaixals are quicker to perform
as PWP is allowed to increase and the excess PWP is measured throughout the shear
stage.

An additional test called unconfined compressive strength (UCS) can also be

undertaken with a triaxial system. This shears a specimen under axial load with no
confining pressure.

5 Typical Triaxial System – Typical

Triaxial Cell
A typical triaxial cell is shown in Figure 3 of this document showing a sample setup for
testing. The setup shown is used for CU and CD triaxial tests. UU triaxial test can also
be undertaken with this system or a simpler cheaper system can be purchased if only
UU triaxial tests are required.

The sample is sealed inside a rubber membrane and then surround with water (cell
pressure). The cell pressure is then used to apply a stress to the sample (σ3) Back
pressure can be added to saturate the sample if required. The sample is axially loaded
during shearing with the force measured by the load cell, the deformation measured by
the displacement transducer and if required the pore pressure in the sample can be
measured. Volume change of the sample is measure from the back pressure line using
a volume change unit or an automatic pressure controller.
6 Typical Triaxial System –
Compressed Air
A typical triaxial system for triaxials that uses compressed air can be seen in figure 4.
This system consists of the following components that used for the following:

Pressure Panel – This enables water and compressed air to be correctly distributed to
the right equipment to undertake a triaxial test. Cell Pressure (σ3 - Confining Pressure)
and Back pressure are controlled from here. A pressure gauge is included so that
known pressures can be applied to the test specimen using the pressure regulators
fitted to the panel.
Load Frame – The load frame is used to apply deformation to the triaxial specimen. The
load frame can be controlled to a high level of accuracy (these tests normally require a
slow speed). Load frames come in a range of capacities, VJ Tech can supply frames
from 10kN to 250kN capacity. The one in Figure 4 is a 50kN load frame and can apply
loads of up to 50kN to a specimen.

Figure 4 – Compressed Air triaxial system

Air/Water Cylinders – These provide an interface between compressed air and water in
your triaxial system. They contain a rubber bladder which is filled with compressed air to
pressurise the water inside the cylinder, this in turn provides the pressure used in the
cell and back pressure for our triaxial test. The pressure the system can apply to
samples is limited by the compressor.
Load Cell – The load cell or other load measuring device such as a load ring, provide
the loads required to shear a triaxial specimen.
Displacement transducer – This could be a mechanical dial gauge, digital dial gauge or
LSCT type transducer and is used to accurately measure the deformation applied to the
triaxial specimen as it is sheared.
Triaxial Cell – The Triaxial cell comes in a range of sizes and pressure ratings. The cell
contains the triaxial specimen and is pressurised throughout the test.
Pore Pressure Transducer – In CU and CD triaxial tests, the pressures inside the sample
are measured (U - Pore Pressure). This is done using a pressure transducer attached to
the base of the triaxial cell.
Automatic Volume Change unit – The automatic volume change unit is used in some
triaxial tests to measure the volume of water going into the specimen and also the
volume change of the specimen through the test.
With a system like this the pressures are set manually by the technician undertaking the
test. It is common for the outputs from load cell, displacement transducers and pressure
transducers to be data logged in some way and data analysed using VJ Tech’s Clisp
Studio software.

7 Typical Triaxial System – Hydraulic

Pressure Controller
A triaixal system for testing triaxials using hydraulic pressure can be seen in Figure 5.
The system consists of the following components:

Figure 5 – Hydraulic Pressure Controller Triaxial system

Distribution Panel – The distribution panel is used to connect the pressure controllers to
the triaxial cell. It also has the de-aired water system connected to it. It allows for the
easy movement of water to the required location in the system without the need to
disconnect lines. The pressure gauge on the panel is used for calibration, but is not
used during testing.
Automatic Pressure/Volume Controllers – The automatic pressure and volume
controllers (APCs) are used to generate pressure for the triaxial test. They use a
stepper motor to pressurise a cylinder of water to generate cell pressure (σ 3 - Confining
Pressure) and back pressure. No compressed air supply is required. The units are also
able to measure volume change during the test. They are available in a range of
capacities from 1mPa to 70mPa and a range of volumes from 200cc to 1000cc.
Load Frame – The load frame is used to apply deformation to the triaxial specimen. The
load frame can be controlled to a high level of accuracy. Load frames come in a range
of capacities, VJ Tech can supply frames from 10kN to 250kN capacity. The one in
Figure 4 is a 50kN load frame and can apply loads of up to 50kN to a specimen. The
load frame will commonly have a built-in data logger to log transducer data during the
test; a separate data logger can be incorporated into the system if required.
Load Cell – The load cell or other load measuring device such as a load ring, provide
the loads required to shear a triaxial specimen.
Displacement transducer – This could be a mechanical dial gauge, digital dial gauge or
LSCT type transducer and is used to accurately measure the deformation applied to the
triaxial specimen as it is sheared
Triaxial Cell – The Triaxial cell comes in a range of sizes and pressure rating. The cell
contains the triaxial specimen and is pressurised throughout the test.
Pore Pressure Transducer – In CU and CD triaxial tests the pressures inside the sample
are measured (U - Pore Pressure), this is done using a pressure transducer attached to
the base of the triaxial cell

8 Additional equipment needed

For both CU/CD triaxial systems a de-aired water supply is also required for testing. The
UU system can use a mains water supply if required.

Automatic systems require a computer and software package such as VJ Tech’s Clisp
Studio, to control the test and record transducer outputs.

A data logger (either inbuilt or external) will be used to store transducer readings taken
during the test.

Sample preparation equipment will also be required, such as: sample extruder, sample
moulds, membranes, ‘o’ rings, porous discs, ruler, balance and filter papers.

9 Test Procedure – Standards for

Triaxial Tests
Triaxial tests are document in a range of international standards. These include:

British Standard 1377 part 7 and 8

ASTM D2850, D4767 and D2166

Australian standard AS1289 6.4.1 and 6.4.2

Hong Kong Geospec 3

German DIN 18137

Russian GOST 12248-96

Additional tests can also be performed with triaxial systems such as Stress Path
analysis and anisotropic consolidation. Although the test procedures are not detailed in
the standards above the procedures are fairly common and details can be found in
either academic papers or in the Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing Vol. 2 and vol. 3.

With additional equipment, a standard triaxial system can be upgraded to undertake the
following tests:

Bender Element analysis (to determine the Gmax of a sample)

Cyclic/Dynamic triaxial testing (to determine the cyclic shear strength of a sample and
also used for modulus and damping properties)

Small Strain analysis (used for stiffness analysis) using on-sample transducers
measuring axial and radial deformation can also be performed.

10 Test Procedure – System

Preparation
Before any triaxial test is undertaken it is very important that checks are undertaken to
verify the performance of the system. Failure to do this may mean either an extended
test period or a sample being destroyed and no results obtained.

The following list is a suggested check list of the system before any test takes place. It
is assumed the system has already been installed. Additional checks may be required
depending on your local testing standard.

 Create enough de-aired water for the preparation and test (this can take a few hours to do)
 Clean the triaxial cell, paying special attention to the base and groove holding the ‘o’ ring.
 Clean ‘o’ ring in cell base and ensure it is free from defects
 Flush the de-airing block that the pore pressure transducer is connected to. Pressurise and check the
block for leaks
 Check the pore pressure transducer calibration and recalibrate if necessary
 Flush the back pressure line
 Check the back pressure line for leaks (following the procedure in most standards will take at least 24
hours)
 Check load cell and displacement transducers are accurate.

11 Test Procedure – Sample Setup

Most triaxial tests are performed on high quality undisturbed samples; local standards
such as Eurocode 7 give details on what is considered to be a high quality undisturbed
sample; it is important to realise that sample disturbance (from collection, transport to
lab and storage) will affect the results obtained from a triaxial test. Remoulded
specimens can be tested and preparation procedures can be found in relevant
standards and texts on this subject.

Samples are normally prepared to give a sample height to diameter ratio of 2:1. The
sample ends are trimmed to ensure they are level and flat. This is commonly and most
easily done using a sample mould or former for the diameter of sample that is being
tested and a straight edge.

Figure 6 - Sample preparation equipment

The sample is then weighed so the bulk density can be determined and measured (both
length and diameter) so the volume and area can be calculated. It is critical that the
 sample dimensions are accurate so that stress and strain being applied to the specimen
during testing can be calculated accurately.
A procedure for placing the sample into the cell and covering with a membrane can be
seen in the video on this link;

A number of critical checks should be made during this process:

1. Use a new membrane and make sure there are no holes in the membrane.

2. Ensure the porous discs are clean and not clogged with soil particles.

3. Place the ‘o’ rings using an ‘o’ ring tool, this will minimise sample disturbance.

4. Clean any loose material from the sample as you go. This loose material can cause
leaks.

5. Take care not to hit the sample when placing the top of the cell over the sample.

During this preparation process care must be taken to limit sample disturbance. Sample
disturbance can significantly affect the results obtained from the test.

12 Test Procedure – Saturation

Effective stress triaxials (CU and CD tests) require that the sample is saturated for
testing. The reason for this is so that reliable measurements of pore pressure can be
made. This is made possible by removing the air from the voids inside the sample.
The saturation process can be performed in a number of ways details of which can be
found in the available Standards and text books. The most common though is
incremental increase of cell and back pressure into the sample.

Figure 7 – B Check Example

Figure 8- Back Pressure Step Example

This process gradually increases both the cell and back pressure so to dissolve any air
that is in the voids of the soil sample. During this process the pore pressure coefficient
B is calculated to determine the degree of saturation.

Figure 7 shows the process that happens during a B check to determine the level of
saturation. Most standards state that a B value greater than 0.95 indicates that a
sample is sufficiently saturated.

The B value is calculated using the equation in figure 9.

 Figure 9 – B Value Equation

∆U = Change in pore pressure

∆σ3 = Change in Confining Pressure
Figure 8 shows the process that happens during a back pressure step. This step
pushes water into the sample to try and saturate it if the B check shows the sample isn’t
saturated. These steps are repeated until the sample is saturated

13 Test Procedure – Consolidation

After saturation, the specimen is normally consolidated to a stress condition
representative of its in-situ condition. The consolidation is normally isotropic (the
stresses applied vertically and horizontally to the sample are the same).

In effective stress tests the sample will be consolidated to an effective pressure. This is
the difference between the confining (cell) pressure and the back pressure. If this is
compared to the equation in Figure 2 defining effective stress you will see this is
incorrect.

At this point in the test pore pressure is replaced by back pressure to define our
effective stress, to help simplify setup of this phase of the test. When the confining
pressure and back pressure have been set to the correct values, there will be an excess
of pore pressure in the sample (the pore pressure will be higher than the back
pressure).

Once the consolidation is started the excess pore pressure in the sample will start to
dissipate as the consolidation process drains of water from the sample decreasing its
volume. Once this process is complete (the sample has stopped changing in volume)
the pore pressure will be at or very near the back pressure level and pore pressure will
be used to calculate the effective stress conditions the sample is under.

100% dissipation of excess pore pressure is not always possible so most standards
suggest a minimum dissipation of 95% is achieved before the consolidation process is
stopped.

Note during consolidation σ3 is the same as σ1.

14 Test Procedure – Shear

In the shear stage the axial force (σ1) is gradually increased whilst the confining
pressure (σ3) is maintained until failure happens. This is the maximum shear force the
soil can take.
This stage of the test is also commonly referred to as load stage, compression stage or
shearing to failure stage.

During the shear stage the drainage conditions that are applied to the sample will
determine if a drained or undrained test is performed. If the sample is not allowed to
drain this is an undrained test, the sample will not change in volume during this test but
will change in shape. If drainage is allowed, water will drain from the sample during the
test, allowing the volume and the shape of the sample to change. In a CU (undrained)
test, pore pressure changes (U) are allowed to take place and are measured. In a CD
(Drained) test drainage is allowed to prevent pore pressure changes happening. In this
type of test the volume change of the sample is measured during the shear stage.

From this stage of the test, as well as the shear strength being determined, the values
of cohesion (c’) and phi (φ’) can be determined using Mohr circle and stress path plots.
 Figure 10 - Mohr Circle Plot with Cohesion and Phi Results

15 Advantages of a VJ Tech Automatic

Triaxial System
An automatic triaxial system offers the following advantages:

· Tests run 24 hours a day 7 days a week

· Average time for a test to be complete is significantly reduced
· Can be monitored and controlled remotely
· Limited staff supervision required (the technicians can perform other activities)
· Less staff required to perform more tests
· Increased quality of results and minimise human error
· Easier to maintain
· Easier to calibrate
· No compressed air required (safer)
· Software provides updates on testing via email
· Easy report generation
· Easy analysis of data
· Easy to upgrade to undertake more advanced tests
 Triaxial Cell Sand Sample Preparation
1. This blog describes how to setup a remoulded sand sample for a triaxial test in a
standard triaxial cell using VJ Tech’s updated sample former with attachment for a
suction device.
2. In addition to a load frame and cell, the equipment in Figure 1 is also required.

3. Ensure the Back Pressure line and base pedestal are flushed with de-aired water and
are free from leaks. Clean the base of the cell.
4. Place the first porous disc onto the base pedestal of the cell (Figure 2 ).

5. Next place the membrane over the base pedestal (Figure 3 ).

UsUsing the ‘O’ Ring tool place two ‘O’ Rings over the membrane to secure it on the base
pedestal (Figure 4 ).

7. Take the silicone grease and sample former. Remove the clamp (see Figure 5 ) from
the former so the two halves can be separated.
8. Along the inside edges of the sample former (shown in Figure 6 ) smear a small amount
of silicone grease (other hydrocarbon based greases can damage the membranes).

9. Place the two halves of the former over the base pedestal taking care not to trap the
membrane between them Figure 7 (L).
10. Then place the former clamp over the former and once in place tighten using the
locking screw Figure 7 (R).
Fold membrane over sample and add suction device (Fig 8).
12. Apply suction using the suction device so that the membrane is stretched tight against
the inside of the former (Figure 9 ).

13. The sand can now be poured into the former to create the required density of sample.
The sand can be tamped down using the sample tamper and by gently tapping the side
of the former (Figure 10 ).

. Once the sand has filled the former and has been levelled place the final porous disc on
top of the sample (Figure 11 ).
15. Place an ‘O’ Ring over the top cap and place the top cap on the top porous disc
(Figure 12 ).

16. Fold up the excess membrane over the top cap. Using the ‘O’ Ring tool place the ‘O’
Ring over the membrane and top cap (Figure 13 ).
. Remove the suction device from the former. A small vacuum will now need to be applied
to the sample. The easiest way to do this is to attach the suction device (used for
stretching the membrane) to the valve on the base of the triaxial cell that is on the
opposite side to the pore pressure valve connection (Figure 14 ). Then create suction
using the suction device, this may need to be repeated a few times to remove a large
amounts of air from large samples. Once the air is removed and the suction holds shut
the valve that the suction device is connected to. Using this device typically applies a
small negative pressure of approximately -15 to -20 kPa. By applying a small negative
pressure to the sample the sample shouldn’t collapse once the former is removed.
Other methods can be used but are not detailed in this document.
18. Carefully undo the sample former clamp and remove it. Then remove the two halves of the
sample former again taking care not to damage the sample or membrane. Carefully fold down the
excess membrane. Clean any excess sand way from the base of the triaxial cell (Figure 15 ).

The triaxial cell can then be assembled (take care not to damage the sample when
lifting on the top half of the cell) and then filled with water for testing.

Tips:
 Before attempting saturation the following can be attempted to reduce the time and pressures
required when saturating a sand sample:

- Flush the sample with de-aired water. This should be done from base to top. To do this, increase
the cell pressure to approximately 30 kPa. Remove the suction device to release the vacuum on
the sample. Connect a line to the same valve as used by the suction device from the de-aired
water tank. Open the Back Pressure valve on the cell and allow water to flow up the sample. Do
this until no air is seen coming out of the Back Pressure line. After this flush, set the sample up
for testing. Continue with the normal saturation procedures.
- After flushing the sample (as described above) close the valve to the de- aired water supply and
the Back Pressure valve. Increase the Cell Pressure to a pressure greater than 300 kPa. Leave
the sample like this for 12 hours (overnight). After this, flush the sample again with clean de-
aired water. Then continue with the normal saturation process.
- The sample can be flushed with CO2. CO2 will dissolve more easily into water than air so
reducing the saturation time.