PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017

OCTOBER 1-3, 2017

INSTITUTE OF CLIMATE CHANGE (IPI)
UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA

eISBN 978-967-0829-83-8

Editors: Technical Committee:

Rawshan Ara Begum Noridawaty Mat Daud

Fatimah PK Ahamad Farhanah Md Isa
Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque
Sabirin Abdullah
Khairul Nizam Abd Maulud

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linguistic correctness.

PUBLISHED BY INSTITUTE OF CLIMATE CHANGE (IPI)

Cetakan Pertama / First Printing February 2018
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Sidang Editor / Editorial

Rawshan Ara Begum

Fatimah PK Ahamad
Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque
Sabirin Abdullah
Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud

Jawatankuasa Teknikal / Technical Committee

Noridawaty Mat Daud

Farhanah Md Isa

Rekabentuk oleh / Designed by

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eISBN 978-967-0829-83-8
 PREFACE

The Institute of Climate Change (IPI) Research Colloquium 2017 was held at the Felda
Residence Trolak, Perak, on 1-3 October, 2017 and organised by the Institute of Climate
Change (IPI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) in collaboration with the UKM-YSD
Chair in Climate Change. This is the first IPI Research Colloquium focusing on research
progress and articles of the IPI postgraduate students. It is also a continuation of the
ANGKASA Postgraduate Research Seminar and Colloquium from 2014 to 2016.

The IPI Research Colloquium provides an excellent opportunity for all the postgraduate
students, presenters, researchers, supervisors, evaluators and participants to meet, discuss and
share a broad range of issues in terms of research progress and presentation, thesis writing,
challenges and improvements as well as preparing and writing manuscripts for publication. The
proceedings include all the accepted articles consisting of full paper and abstract that were
presented in the IPI Research Colloquium 2017. The papers of the proceedings are arranged
according to the presentation sessions covering the research themes of climate change and
space science.

We would like to thank all the postgraduate students, presenters, participants, researchers,
supervisors, reviewers, evaluators, organising committee members and those who have
contributed to make this colloquium successful. We also acknowledge UKM-YSD Chair in
Climate Change for sponsoring the publication of the proceedings.

We are indeed very happy for the publication of the Proceedings of IPI Research Colloquium
2017. We believe the proceedings will contribute to the improvement and further development
of knowledge and intellectual in the fields of climate change and space science.

Thank you very much!

Best regards,

Editors
February 2018
 CONTENTS

PAGE
NO. TITLE & AUTHORS
NUMBERS

1 Possibility of UAV Application to Monitor Shoreline Changes 1

Abdul Aziz Ab Rahman
Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud
Othman Jaafar

2 Study on Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) for Selangor Coastal Area 4

Muhammad Afiq Ibrahim
Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud
Fazly Amri Mohd
Mohd Radzi Abdul Hamid
Nor Aslinda Awang

3 GIS-integrated Infrastructure Asset Management System 7

Muhammad Aqiff Abdul Wahid
Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud
Mohd Aizat Saiful Bahri
Muhammad Amartur Rahman
Othman Jaafar

4 Assessing of Shoreline Changes by using Geospatial Technique 12

Siti Norsakinah Selamat
Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud
Othman Jaafar

5 Heat Stress on Mangrove (Rhizophora apiculata) and Adaptation Options 16

Baseem M. Tamimi
Wan Juliana Wan Ahmad
Mohd. Nizam Mohd. Said
Che Radziah Che Mohd. Zain

6 Terahertz Meta-surface Absorber for Absorbing Application 20

Md. Mehedi Hasan
Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque
Mohammad Tariqul Islam

7 Labyrinth Resonator for Wideband Application 24

Md. Jubaer Alam
Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque
Mohammad Tariqul Islam
8 Design and Analysis of a Metamaterial Structure with Different Substrate 28
Materials for C Band and Ku Band Applications
Eistiak Ahamed
Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque
Mohd Fais Mansor

9 9th September 2011 Solar Flare to MAGDAS Reading 33

Norhani Muhammad Nasir Annadurai
Nurul Shazana Abdul Hamid
Akimasa Yoshikawa

10 Comparison of the Neural Network and the IRI Model for Forecasting TEC 35
over UKM Station
Rohaida Mat Akir
Mardina Abdullah
Kalaivani Chellappan
Siti Aminah Bahari

11 Variation of EEJ Longitudinal Profile during Maximum Phase of Solar 39

Cycle 24
Wan Nur Izzaty Ismail
Nurul Shazana Abdul Hamid
Mardina Abdullah
Akimasa Yoshikawa

12 The Impact of High Environmental Temperature on Branchial 42

Ammonia Excretion Efficiency between Euryhaline and Stenohaline
Teleosts
Hon Jung Liew,
Yusnita A Thalib
Ros Suhaida Razali
Sharifah Rahmah
Mazlan Abd. Ghaffar
Gudrun De Boeck

13 Large Scale Wave Structure Prior to the Development of Equatorial 46

Plasma Bubbles
Suhaila M Buhari
Mardina Abdullah
Tajul Ariffin Musa

14 Determining the Probability of Sediment Resuspension in the East Coast of 49

Peninsular Malaysia through Wind Analysis
Shahirah Hayati Mohd Salleh
Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar
Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud
Nor Aslinda Awang
15 A Review on Forest Carbon Sequestration as a Cost-effective Way to 53
Mitigate Global Climate Change
Asif Raihan
Rawshan Ara Begum
Mohd Nizam Mohd Said
Sharifah Mastura Syed Abdullah

16 Review of Methodology on Source Apportionment of PM2.5 near a Coal- 58

fired Power Plant using Multivariate Receptor Modelling
Ahmad Hazuwan Hamid
Md Firoz Khan
Mohd Talib Latif

17 Study of Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) for High Frequency (HF) 62

Band at Equatorial Region in Malaysia
Johari Talib
Sabirin Abdullah

18 Performance Analysis of a Negative-permeability Metamaterial Inspired 65

Antenna with 1U Cubesat
Touhidul Alam
Farhad Asraf
Mohammed Shamsul Alam
Mohammad Tariqul Islam
Mengu Cho

19 Zonal Velocity Drift of Equatorial Plasma Bubbles Calculated over 68

Southeast Asia
Idahwati Sarudin
Nurul Shazana Abdul Hamid
Mardina Abdullah
Suhaila M Buhari

20 Effect of Elevated Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide on Mangrove Growth in 71

Controlled Conditions
Baseem M. Tamimi
Wan Juliana Wan Ahmad
Mohd. Nizam Mohd. Said
Che Radziah Che Mohd. Zain

21 Observations of Lightning and Background Electric Field in Antarctica 75

Peninsula
Norbayah Yusop
Mardina Abdullah
Mohd Riduan Ahmad
22 Determination of the GPS Satellite Elevation Mask Angle for 78
Ionospheric Modeling the Ionosphere over Malaysia
Siti Aminah Bahari
Mardina Abdullah
Zahra Bouya
Tajul Ariffin Musa

23 A New Wide Negative Refractive Index Meta-atom for Satellite 82

Communications
Mohammad Jakir Hossain
Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque
Mohammad Tariqul Islam

24 Ionospheric Bottomside Electron Density Thickness Parameter over 87

Southeast Asian Sector
Saeed Abioye Bello
Mardina Abdullah
Nurul Shazana Abdul Hamid

25 Assessing the Accuracy of Hydrodynamic Parameters using Statistical 91

Approaches
Fazly Amri Mohd
Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud
Othman A. Karim
Rawshan Ara Begum

26 Socio-economic Impacts of Climate Change in the Coastal Areas of 95

Malaysia
Mohd Khairul Zainal
Rawshan Ara Begum
Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud
Norlida Hanim Mohd Salleh

PRESENTERS PROFILE 100

 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
1
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

Possibility of UAV Application to Monitor Shoreline Changes

Abdul Aziz Ab Rahman1, Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud1,2 and Othman Jaafar2
1
Earth Observation Centre, Institute of Climate Change (IPI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi,
Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: p90513@siswa.ukm.edu.my

erosion that covered the 3.5 km long dew on a spatial scale

Abstract
Unmanned Aviation Vehicles (UAV) are recently growing
up fast in the world market. Moreover, it is the first choice
for companies to complete their work especially in survey
work. In fact, conventional survey work is expensive and
takes more time for a complete project. It is used for
mapping and monitoring of air for coastal areas. The
findings show that UAV has been a key tool for conducting
topographic change monitoring works along the coast and
can do good results. This paper focuses on the literature of
the possibility of UAV to monitor the shoreline changes. In
addition, UAV images can generate into orthophoto and the
images also have their own projection because it is
geotagged due to GPS signals from satellites. Consequently,
the rate of physical changes either erosion or acceleration
can be determined using monitoring along coastal area
using this UAV. Hence, this paper presents to show and
prove that shoreline changes can be monitored by UAV
application.
1. Introduction
Generally, landscape changes can help to understand how
certain traits and elements exist and behave. Understanding
functions, relationships and rules can support landscape
management and sustainable development such as the
prevention is the effect of the devastating floods.
Furthermore, the coastal area is experiencing destruction due
to sea action and the causes of nature and humanity caused
by it. Changing topography on the beach and sand dunes
should be assessed, after severe and regular events, to build
a model that can predict the evolution of this natural
environment. This is an essential app for LIDAR airborne,
and conventional photogrammetry is also used for sensitive
monitoring of coastal areas (Gonçalves, & Henriques 2015).
According to Turner, Harley & Drummond (2016) UAV
beach engineering application is used here to illustrate the
practical use and potential benefits of this latest survey
technology. Over the last 2 years, the rapidly expanding
UAV survey has been successfully integrated into a four-
decade coastline surveillance program in Narrabeen Beach,
Australia. This has expanded the scope of the program to
include detailed measurements from the desert and coastal
and temporal resolution previously unprofitable. In fact,
Čermáková, Komárková & Sedlák (2016) mentioned that
Unmanned aerial vehicles are increasingly being used to
monitor small areas, e.g. Small water bodies (ponds). UAV
can yield faster results and usually have higher spatial
resolution. Therefore, this paper presents to show and prove
that shoreline changes can be monitored by UAV
application.
2. Review on UAV Application on Monitoring
Shoreline Changes
All the methods were combined to display the possibility of
UAV application to monitor the physical changes of the
coast.
2.1. Beach topographical changes at the Ligurian Sea
This study was conducted at Region of Liguria, Italy which
is located at the north-western Mediterranean. Based on
Casella et al. (2016) writing state this region has been
monitored three times more than 5 months in autumn 2013-
2014 autumn (November 1, 2013, December 4, 2013, March
17, 2014) to get Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and beach
orthophotos. The coastal topography changes associated
with storm events and human activities are assessed in terms
of either increase or decrease of sediment and the transition
of dry wet boundaries that determine the coastline.
Moreover, the flying height was set up at 70m altitude and
the flight programmed by Microdropter OSD tool software
to cover the entire region coast. In addition, UAV pilots and
observer have the duty to control the mission and carry out
take-off and landing operations. It interfered with GPS
guided flights in the case of unwanted RPAS behaviour and
the most important are the pilot has the duty to follow the
flight from the land station and convey the change from the
designated path to the pilot (Casella et al. 2016).
2.2. The Structure from Motion Approach on Coastal
Environment
Beach geomorphology requires accurate topographical
information on coastal systems called for the
implementation of coastal erosion simulation, flood
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
phenomenon, and coastal sediment budget assessment. For
such a study, the availability of topographic datasets is a
specific basis for systems characterized by complex
morphology. The presence of sand dunes should be carefully
considered because of their role in coastal defence as a
natural protective feature, providing sediment supply to the
shore and protecting the interior from storm surges (Mancini
et al. 2013).
This study stated that the unmanned aerial vehicle
(UAV) for reconstruction of the 3D coastal environment is
being investigated in this study. UAV images in the sandy
beach environment require additional verification
procedures. Tidal plates, beaches, and sewerage systems
show different differences in images obtained by air surveys
near the possibility of responding to the dominant grain size
or with the presence of coastal plants. This study was
successfully held at Ravenna, Italy on the North Adriatic
coast. The Ravenna coastline, stretching less than 40 km in
the direction of N-S, is characterized by the presence of a
natural site and sandy beach equipped, sometimes bordered
with pine forests, and proximate urban areas. Almost all of
these areas are affected by erosive trends as a result of
several factors, such as the reduction of strong river
sediment supply, the destruction of sand dunes system by
tourism-related pressure, the establishment of ports and
poles that affect sedimentation along the coast, land
subsidence, ineffective defensive structure, and rising sea
levels.
Despite, Mancini et al. (2013) also found that UAV
system used is the VTOL (Vertical Take Off and Landing)
hexacopter designed and produced by Sal Engineering (Sea
Air Land) and is equipped with calibrated Canon EOS 550D
digital cameras. The survey line was designed using an
orthophoto air at an average aviation height of 40 m and the
acquisition was automatically set at one shot per second.
Operating operations and landing operations are manually
guided by remote pilots. During the survey, flights are
automatically enabled by waypoints. Acquisition time
provides up to 10 overlapping images for any single land
feature and any attempt to visualize coverage of aerial
imagery for a limited area will result in a somewhat
confused figure.
Further, The NRTKs have been used on May 27, 2013.
The NRTK study has a threefold collection purpose.
Eighteen 3D Land Control Points (GCPs) consisting of
cubes (30×40×30 cm) with 20 cm wide board chess are
printed at the top, 126 Points of Authentication (VP) at a
surface level along five transects across the whole Dots, and
19 Vertical Targets (VTs) designed for georeferenced. The
GNSS-NRTK study performed by multiple frequency GRS1
(Topcon) for the mentioned datasets (GCPs, VPs, and VTs)
each produces RMS values less than 0.018 m and 0.029 m
for horizontal and vertical precision respectively. Horizontal
coordinates are referred to the UTM 33N Zone (ETRF00),
while the vertical values also referred to min sea level using
the ITALGEO2005 geoid model provided by the Italian
Institute of Geography (IGMI) (Teatini, Ferronato,
Gambolati, Bertoni, & Gonella, 2005).
2
Table 1: Hexcopter Specification (Mancini et al. 2013)
Manufacturer Description
Type Micro-drone Hexacopter
Engine Power 6 Electric Brushles
Dimension & Weight 100 cm, 3.3 kg (total
weight for all equipment
is approximately 5 kg)
Flight Mode Dual, automatic based on
waypoints or base on
wireless control
Endurance Standard 20 min (+5 min
safety
Camera Configurations Digital gimbal, Canon
EOS 550D (focal length
27 mm), res. 5184 ×
3456 Bi-axial roll and
pitch control
2.3. Delineation a Part of Shoreline of the Chosen Pond
at Pohranov Pond, Czech Republic
The attractive area is close to the town of Pardubice, in the
Czech Republic. Case study studies part of Pohranov's beach
shoreline, close to Pohranov municipality. The pond size is
0.4 km2and it is surrounded by forests. This means that the
observation to collect the data is difficult. Satellite
Imagination does not provide data with the appropriate
resolution. Therefore, UAV represents a more appropriate
way of data collection in this case. The UAV provides data
in high contrast and lower costs are also lower. Tarot 690 is
one of UAV type was used for Pohranov pond monitoring. It
can be characterized as follows: vent tool; 6 gears; Average
impeller of 0.985 m; Height of 0.35 m, the maximum speed
of 70 km / h. This UAV has the following restrictions
(conditions where it cannot be used): temperature below -
10ºC; wind spinner from 10 m.s-1; mist with sight below 100
m; frozen creation on airscrew; drizzle, rain and snow. The
conclusion must be done several times in a few days to get a
short time series. The time horizons are selected according
to the weather conditions described above and cover longer
periods of time ie: 7. 7. 2015, 18. 7. 2015, 23. 8. 2015 and 2.
11. 2015. The flight altitude is 80 m (high installed in UAV
software before the flight) for all flights (Čermáková et al.
2016).
This article also mentioned that during the observation,
videos were collected by the UAV cameras are on the
spectrum only. Videos provided from UAV must be initially
processed to create an image of each observation. In
particular, the image must be selected and created from the
video. Software not available Free Video to JPG Converter
is used for this step. Combining all the collected images into
one picture is the next step. Image Composer Editor
(available for free) is used for this step. A Mosaicsgenerated
from the image cannot be distorted as only the central part is
selected for merging. The centre of the image cannot be
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
inferred. The resulting image represents our monitored area
and changes during the monitoring period. Figure 1 shows
the type of UAV used in this observation.
Figure 1: UAV Tarot 690 (dji, 2017)
3. Discussion of the Possibility of UAV Application
Based on the all methods were combined to display the
possibility of UAV application to monitor the physical
changes of the coast, show that UAV is capable for
monitoring coastal changes and it is sufficient to state that
using UAV is good enough to see the physical changes of
the coastal area. Various of UAV methods have been
utilised to monitor the shoreline changes such as based on
the previous literature show that all the images acquisition
was taken at range altitude from 40m to 80m. Furthermore,
show that within that range of altitude, after mosaicking
stage it will produce the orthophoto result to see the physical
changes of the coastal area. The orthophoto result represents
the monitored area. The result can be seen more clearly
when the UAV is used as a major tool to retrieve the data
compared to satellite images where the image is unclear.
Mancini et al. (2013) identified that the coastal change
monitoring method needs to set off some control points
which the Ground Control Point (GCP) to the coordinate x,
y and z to avoid distortion. As example, the study at the
Ravenna, Italy used the GNSS-NRTK to produce RMS
values less than 0.018m for the horizontal and 0.029m for
the vertical precision. Therefore, when the image was
georeferenced by the coordinates the images is easy to
process and it will be placed at exact location. The less RMS
values get the less distortion will affected to the results.
However, the study at Pohranov Pond, Czech Republic
did not use the method of placing GCP in coastal areas
because they already get the reference data from the State
Administration of Land Surveying and Cadastre (CUZK).
The data collection is focused on the video that was taken by
the UAV. The main disadvantage of this method is the
actual value of coordinate for georeferenced cannot get the
real value because there is no in situ observation to get the
real coordinate but still can use to process the data to get the
orthophoto.
Thus, since the possibility of UAV application to
monitor shoreline changes has been proved, I will choose
low cost UAV to monitor shoreline to see the physical
changes at coastal area.
3
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper is showed and proved that
shoreline changes can be monitored by UAV application.
Based on all the previous study, using UAV for monitor the
shoreline changes is one of the most successful methods for
determining and see the physical changes on the shoreline
area. UAV application is possible to monitor shoreline
changes. Further research can be conducted by using more
high intense of UAV to monitor shoreline changes.
Acknowledgements
Praise be to Allah Almighty for this opportunity. This study
is supported by a Research Discipline Research Grant
Scheme (TRGS/1/201/UKM /02/5/1). The author also
wishes to thank the Earth Observation Centre, Institute of
Climate Change, UKM.
References
[1] Casella, E., Rovere, A., Pedroncini, A., Stark, C. P.,
Casella, M., Ferrari, M. & Firpo, M. 2016. Drones as
tools for monitoring beach topography changes in the
Ligurian Sea (NW Mediterranean). Geo-Marine Letters,
36(2), 151–163. doi:10.1007/s00367-016-0435-9
[2] Čermáková, I., Komárková, J. & Sedlák, P. 2016. Using
UAV to detect shoreline changes: Case study -
pohranov pond, Czech Republic. International Archives
of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial
Information Sciences - ISPRS Archives, 2016–
Janua(July), 803–808. doi:10.5194/isprsarchives-XLI-
B1-803-2016
[3] Gonçalves, J. A. & Henriques, R. 2015. UAV
photogrammetry for topographic monitoring of coastal
areas. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing, 104, 101–111.
doi:10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2015.02.009
[4] Mancini, F., Dubbini, M., Gattelli, M., Stecchi, F.,
Fabbri, S. & Gabbianelli, G. 2013. Using unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAV) for high-resolution reconstruction
of topography: The structure from motion approach on
coastal environments. Remote Sensing, 5(12).
doi:10.3390/rs5126880
[5] Turner, I. L., Harley, M. D. & Drummond, C. D. 2016.
UAVs for coastal surveying. Coastal Engineering, 114,
19–24. doi:10.1016/j.coastaleng.2016.03.011
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

Study on Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) for Selangor Coastal

Area
Muhammad Afiq Ibrahim1, Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud1, 2, Fazly Amri Mohd2,
Mohd Radzi Abdul Hamid3, Nor Aslinda Awang3
1
Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)
2
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)
3
Coastal Management & Oceanography Research Centre, National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia,
Ministry of Natural Resources & Environment, Selangor, Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: p90562@siswa.ukm.edu.my

Abstract
Sea level rise has high potential on changing and affecting
the ecosystem that already exist in the local area. This also
affects the local residential and local activities at the coastal
area. The rate of sea level rise is greater than the global rate
especially at low ground area. Thus, this research is to study
on coastal vulnerability index (CVI) for Selangor coastal
area. Selangor coastal area has been announced as one of the
area that is affected by erosion due to sea-level rise impact.
This area has been reported to be eroded for the past few
years until today and still on going. The only way to deal with
this is to do some adjustment and adaptation on the coastal
area so that the effect of sea-level rise can be minimized.
Using coastal vulnerability index (CVI) method, which is a
relatively simple and functional method that can be used to
estimate the vulnerability of the coastal area against erosion
due to of sea-level rise phenomena. In this study, six physical
parameters were taken count in coastal vulnerability index
calculation. By ranking the vulnerability of the coastal area,
it is easier to identify the areas that area comparatively more
vulnerable to sea-level rise changes.
1. Introduction
Climate change has causes the change on the environment
such as ice on rivers breaking up earlier, the shrunk of the
glaciers and also plant and animals ranges have shifted. This
will result on melting of ice, sea level rise and global
warming as shown in figure 1 below. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted that the
global temperature will rise from 2.5 up to 10 degrees
Fahrenheit over the next century [1]. The increases in global
temperature somehow give beneficial impacts on some area
and harmful ones in the others. As the global temperature
increase over time, the net annual cost also increases. Earth
ecosystem is disturbed because of the global climate change
that occurs regularly today. Humans and other living things
on Earth is threatened by the climate change that causes
many houses and habitats were destroyed and less place left
for living.
Climate change shows the difference on earth atmosphere
condition which is mainly consist of the sea, surface area that
is covered by ice and also all human activities [2]. The
physical impact of sea level rise is explained that sea level
rise leads to flood and also the movement of low-land and
humid-land on the Earth [3]. Due to this, the local community
live nearby coastal area is threatened and disturbance in
economic activities in that area. That’s why it is very
important to know the hydrodynamic behaviour of the sea
based on several aspects includes the beach structure,
sediment transportation and also the beach morphology
change and assessment. The effect of sea level rise from
global warming has cause the coastal area and nearby island
in Malaysia to be affected by flood, coastal erosion and
destruction of ecosystem at wetlands and swamp areas. The
flood incidence at Johor in 2007 might be one of the sea level
rise effect that may cause from the heating temperature in
Malaysia that destroy a large-scale settlement area and also
affecting the economic activities in the area.
2. Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI)
Coastal vulnerability index (CVI) is a relatively simple and
functional method that can be used to estimate the
vulnerability to erosion of any coastal zone regarding the
future sea-level rise [5]. It is an index representative of six
physical variables to be related in a quantifiable manner that
can be easily understandable. The six physical variables
includes geomorphology, mean tidal range, sea-level rise
rate, erosion and accretion, mean height and significant wave
and also coastal slope. It combines the sensitivity of coastal
zone to changes and also the ability of the coastal to adapt
the changes made. Using numerical data that is arranged by
ranking, this method can highlight the areas where the
various effects of sea-level rise may be the greatest. The
geometric average is quite sensitive to small changes in
individual ranking factors but the square root is used to
reduce the extreme range. Thus, it is important to identify the
coastal vulnerability index of the coastal area before
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
executing any methods of coastal protection at a specific area
in order to prevent any erosion cases.
2.1. CVI Calculation
CVI value can be calculated using the following formula. By
multiplying all the parameters and divide into total number of
parameters then square root of the answer is the CVI value.
The formula can be represented as follows:
(a * b * c * d * e * f )
CVI  , (1)
6
where;
a = geomorphology
b = mean tidal range
c = sea-level rise
d = erosion and accretion
e = mean height and significant wave
f = coastal slope
3. Discussion
The discussion of this paper is focusing on the basic physical
parameters that is used for coastal vulnerability index in
Selangor coastal area. The following parameter are suitable
and has been identified to be used for coastal vulnerability
index study at Selangor coastal area. The parameters are
listed below.
3.1. Geomorphology
Geomorphology is the study of the nature and history of
landforms and the processes which create them. Initially, the
subject was committed to unravelling the history of landform
development, but to this evolutionary approach has been
added a drive to understand the way in which
geomorphological processes operate. In many cases,
geomorphologists have tried to model geomorphological
processes, and, more recently, some have been concerned
with the effect of human agency on such processes.
3.2. Mean Tidal Range
Tidal range is the difference between the high tide and the low
tide. The tidal range is the vertical difference between the
high tide and the succeeding low tide. Tides are the rise and
fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the
gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the
rotation of the Earth. The tidal range is not constant, but
changes depending on where the sun and the moon are. The
most extreme tidal range occurs when the gravitational forces
of both the Sun and Moon are aligned, reinforcing each other
in the same direction which is called the new moon or in the
opposite directions which is called the full moon. This type of
tide is known as a spring tide. During neap tides, when the
Moon and Sun's gravitational force are in a right angle to the
Earth's orbit, the difference between high and low tides is
smaller. Neap tides occur during the first and last quarters of
the moon's phases. The largest annual tidal range can be
5
expected around the time of the equinox, if accidental with a
spring tide.
Tidal data for coastal areas are published by the
Department of Survey and Mapping Malaysia (JUPEM). It is
based on astronomical phenomena and it is predictable. Storm
force winds blowing from a constant direction for a prolonged
time interval combined with low atmospheric pressure can
increase the tidal range, especially in narrow bays. Such
weather-related effects on the tide, which can cause ranges in
excess of predicted values and can cause localized flooding,
are not calculable in advance.
3.3. Sea-level Rise Rate
Sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the
world’s oceans which resulting in an increase in global mean
sea level. Sea level rise is due to global climate change by
thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting
of ice sheets and glaciers on land. Sea level rise at specific
locations may be more or less than the global average
depending on the environment of the location. Sea level rise
is expected to be ongoing for centuries. Based on IPCC
Summary for Policymakers, AR5, 2014, indicated that the
global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st
century, very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971
to 2010. Sea level rises significantly influence human
populations in both coastal and island regions and also
affecting natural environments like marine ecosystems in the
area.
3.4. Erosion and Accretion
Erosion is the action of surface processes such as water flow
or wind that remove soil, rock, or dissolved material from one
location to another location. Natural rates of erosion are
controlled by the action of geomorphic drivers, such as
rainfall, bedrock wear in rivers, coastal erosion by the sea and
waves, glacial plucking, and mass movement processes in
steep landscapes like landslides and wreckage flows. The
rates of such processes act control the rate of erosion.
Processes of erosion that produce sediment or solutes from a
place contrast with those of deposition, which control the
arrival and emplacement of material at a new location. While
erosion is a natural process, human activities have increased
the rate at which erosion is occurring globally around the
world.
Accretion is the process of coastal sediment returning to
the visible portion of a beach or foreshore following a
submersion event. A sustainable beach or foreshore often
goes through a cycle of submersion during rough weather
then accretion during calmer periods. If a coastline is not in a
healthy sustainable state, then erosion can be more serious
and accretion does not fully restore the original volume of the
visible beach or foreshore leading to permanent beach loss.
3.5. Mean Height and Significant Wave
The wave height value in a forecast, and reported by ships and
buoys is called the significant wave height. The term
significant wave height is historical as this value appeared to
be well correlated with visual estimates of wave height from
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6
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

experienced observers. It can be shown to correspond to the

average 1/3rd highest waves (H1/3).

3.6. Coastal Slope

Coastal slope is an indication of the relative vulnerability to
inundation and the potential rapidity of shoreline retreat
because low-sloping coastal regions should retreat faster than
steeper regions. The regional slope of the coastal zone was
calculated from a grid of topographic and bathymetry
elevations extending about 5 km landward and seaward of the
shoreline.

4. Conclusion
Based on the discussion that has been made, it is clearly seen
that by using the six physical parameters, which are
geomorphology, mean tidal range, sea-level rise, erosion and
accretion, mean height and significant wave and coastal slope
of coastal vulnerability index formula by Gornitz, more
accurate estimation can be obtained regarding the
vulnerability of the coastal area to erosion. It also combines
the sensitivity of the coastal area to changes and also allow
the ability of the coastal area to adapt with the new
conditions. Thus, all the physical parameters would be used
for coastal vulnerability index (CVI) at Selangor coastal area
for further research.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the National Hydraulic Research

Institute Malaysia (NAHRIM). I also would like to
acknowledge to Ministry of Education for supporting the
TRGS research grant (TRGS/1/2015/UKM/02/5/1).

References
[1] IPCC. 2013. IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5).
IPCC, s. 10-12.
[2] Md.Jahi, J. 2009. Pembangunan Pelancongan dan
Impaknya terhadap Persekitaran Fizikal Pinggir Pantai.
Malaysian Journal of Environmental Management,
10(2), 18.
[3] Faour, Ghaleb, Fayad, Abbas, Mhawej, Mario. 2013.
“GIS-Based Approach to the Assessment of Coastal
Vulnerability to Sea Level Rise: Case Study on the
Eastern Mediterranean” 1 (i): 41– 48.
[4] Gornitz, V., White, T. W. & Cushman, R. M. 1991.
Vulnerability of the US to future sea level rise.
Proceedings of the 7th Symposium on Coastal and Ocean
Management, 2354–2368.
doi:10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004.
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GIS-integrated Infrastructure Asset Management System

Muhammad Aqiff Abdul Wahid1, Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud2,3, Mohd Aizat Saiful Bahri4,
Muhammad Amartur Rahman4, Othman Jaafar4
1
Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
2
Earth Observation Centre (EOC), Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
3
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
Malaysia
4
Prasarana UKM, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
*corresponding auhor, E-mail: aqiff.jr@gmail.com

generation that can benefit the country. Thus, infrastructure

Abstract
Infrastructure asset management is a core process in asset
management. An organisation is constantly striving for a
better infrastructure asset management to ensure the
effectiveness in decision making. This paper aims to
investigate how infrastructure asset management can be
integrated with geographic information systems (GIS)
technology. In the previous study, multiple questions were
asked to identify how GIS can be integrated with asset
management, the requirements and the challenges also. The
studies revealed that GIS and asset management can be
integrated with spatial and non-spatial information of the
assets in GIS environment. However, there are requirements
and challenges in the process, such as the data need to be
converted into digital and GIS format. The size of
geodatabase also will mostly be occupied and it is a
necessity to have big storage. GIS technology also needs to
have the ability to absorb new technology which means it is
customizable based on projects and operations. The paper
provides an in-depth overview of how GIS can be integrated
with infrastructure asset management and highlight the
importance of GIS technology in asset management. An
integrated pipeline management systems was develop as a
preliminary prototype. The advantage is that it can improve
the effectiveness of decision making and managing pipeline
network.
1. Introduction
Infrastructure assets such as sewers, water pipes, roads and
electricity lines are the supporting pillars of a society
specifically an organization such as a university.
Infrastructure asset is a multiplex structure with extremely
important and essential elements for an organization [1]. In
addition, [2,3,4] mentioned that economic growth also
depends on the imperative role of the infrastructure asset.
The important roles of infrastructure assets require massive
attention from the management of an organization such as
policy makers, decision makers, asset managers and also
down to technical staff and users.
Investment in the development of the infrastructure
assets for a university is focusing on the maintaining the
good environment. Education institution needs to provide a
very calm and productive environment for their community
to enhance the learning process and to produce the next
asset management plays a vital role to support the needs of
the university’s community. The infrastructure assets also
should be uses and pass to many generations. Taken
together, managing asset is not a simple task. It takes a great
responsibility and many decisions can be wrong without
fully recognizing the complexity, diversity, and social and
technological evolution of the system [1]. Furthermore, a
great responsibility comes with great challenges. One of the
purposes of managing infrastructure asset is to extend its life
value. Without a proper method or tools, the inefficiencies
will lead to many negative decisions, profit loss and lastly
the investment becomes a waste.
At the same time, emerging new technology, science and
mathematics are influencing our approaches and
understanding in designing and analyzing infrastructure. The
public is getting aware the importance of good management
practice and its change the philosophy of long term
management responsibility [1,5]. In addition, new
technology such as Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS),
Supervision, Control, and Data Acquisition (SCADA) and
Geographic Information System (GIS) signal the start of a
new understanding of future management system. This
paper briefly discusses the advantages of GIS technology in
infrastructure asset management as a decision support tool.
2. Methodology
This study was conducted to customise web applications
using ArcGIS Online – WebApp Builder to visualise the
information of pipeline infrastructure in UKM and also to
integrate the information of pipeline infrastructure with GIS
geodatabase. The study will cover UKM, Bangi area. The
study is divided into four phases as a guideline and each
phase needs to be done according to the guideline in order to
ensure the objectives can be achieved. Figure 1 shows the
workflow of the study.
Database design and application design is important
phase where all the spatial and non-spatial data are link
together. Then, the application needs to be able to
understand the database environment and able to translate
the data into a display in the application. Both of database
and application development used desktop and online
application of ESRI’s software.
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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Figure 1: System development framework
3. GIS in Asset Management
Spatial and information system capabilities of GIS
technology becomes an obvious solution to assist in the
management of infrastructure asset [6]. The capabilities to
answer questions about location, patterns, trends and
conditions that is GIS [7]. Many well-known that GIS can be
viewed as a software package, which is used to collect,
store, manipulate, analyze and display output data [8].
In theory Information Technology (IT) in asset
management have three major roles. IT is utilized in
collection, storage, and analysis of information spanning
asset lifecycle processes. Secondly, IT provides decision
support capabilities through the analytic conclusions from
analysis of data. Thirdly, IT provides an integrated view of
asset management through processing and communication
of information and thereby allow for the basis of asset
management functional integration [9]. The minimum
requirements for asset management at the operational and
tactical levels is to provide functionality that facilitates;
 knowing what and where the assets that the organization
own and is responsible for are
 knowing the condition of the assets
 establishing suitable maintenance, operational and
renewal regimes to suit the
 assets and the level of service required of them by
present and future customers
 reviewing maintenance practices
 implementing job/resources management
 improving risk management techniques
 identifying the true cost of operations and maintenance,
and
 optimizing operational procedures [10].
8
Taking the point of knowing what and where the location
of the assets is where GIS comes to be acknowledged the
transformation of GIS technology from desktop-based
solution to the enterprise system will give the chance for an
organization to use spatial application in asset management
and services. A system with spatial integration is capable to
analyses a complex data structure based on spatial location,
such as visualize data using a map using various relation to
show the proximity, adjacency, and others spatial
relationship [11]. Asset management system with integration
of GIS technology is best suited for spatial asset
management. In addition, GIS technology plays an
important role in asset management within utility, power,
government, transportation, telecommunication, and much
more in asset intensive industry by providing the additional
tools for collecting and updating data with spatial location
[11].
The impact of GIS is increasing as the users and the
organization is keen to know the status of the asset but also
the location of the asset. Furthermore, many previous studies
of GIS integration to computerized maintenance
management systems (CMMS) have concluded that the
system integration will only benefit the user such as:
providing maps of utility with the work orders; tracing water
pipeline infrastructure prior to fieldwork; planning travel
roads for work crews; and scheduling maintenance of
infrastructure assets [12]. The integration of GIS with the
process of asset management will be a very effective
geospatial solution [11]. The process of planning and
making decisions will be better and also it will improve the
productivity and the customer relation will become more
convenient.
4. GIS-Integrated Infrastructure Asset
Management
The key challenge to achieving effective infrastructure asset
management is to improve the effectiveness of decision
making. However, effective infrastructure asset
management seems to be more challenging since: the
function of infrastructure assets is complex; a standard is
needed to define failure and benefits of the assets; and these
standards are hard to quantify or measure [13]. At the same
time, the challenges faced from the complexity caused by
technical, economic, environmental, political and social
factors [14]. Over the years, the expectations in terms of
reliability, safety and availability of the infrastructure
networks also have steadily increased [15]. The crucial
assessment here is infrastructure asset management is a
method of a process to help improve the decision making.
The complexity faces in infrastructure asset management
have continually caused public agencies or an organization
to continually allocated large budgets for the maintenance,
renovation and reconstruction work. However, this situation
has effected many agencies. These agencies are unable to
guarantee a performance level that meets the expectations
of the public because of budgetary constraints [16]. The
new approach has emerged in asset management for public
agencies which to achieve more value with fewer resources
[17]. While these approaches clearly pointed out different
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FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
kind of models, numbers and decisions focus, there are
three general areas of decision making can be identified:
 decisions with regard to the infrastructure objectives of
the public agencies;
 decisions with regard to the performance-related
situation of the agency’s infrastructure; and
 decisions with regard to the interventions applied by
the agency to the infrastructure [16].
Another approach to improve the decision making is to
integrate infrastructure asset inventory data and spatial data
by using GIS technology. This approach will not only
improve the data access but the management capability with
the information that will make the decision effective.
4.1. Requirements and Challenges
The main purpose of a GIS-integrated infrastructure asset
management system is to maintain an accurate, updated, and
reliable data on the current infrastructure assets. Moreover,
the systems enable users to efficiently access this data to
make future predictions and decisions of the infrastructure
performance, to plan maintenance operations and
maintenance budget [18]. The goal requires as such
requirements:
 modeling and management of infrastructure physical,
functional, and performance data as well as gathering
condition data in a timely and effective manner
 interoperation and data exchange between different
function-specific software tools
 modeling, management, and coordination of
maintenance operations and effective communication of
accurate and timely information
 the ability to customize the system to specific project or
organization policies and to accommodate various
operations that reflect industry practices [19].
Each of these requirements has its own challenge to be
addressed. Firstly is the data, probably the most crucial
challenge that needs to be sort before the others. The size,
complexity, and the nature of data present several challenges
that the integrated system needs to address. An efficient data
gathering, analysis, and management techniques are the key
to develop successful GIS-integrated infrastructure asset
management system. Furthermore, the integrated system
should also support different modes of data access and
exchange such as centralized geodatabase, application-to-
application file exchange, and Intranet/Extranet access
[18,19].
To support the integration and interoperability of legacy
software tools a standard module need to be established.
This important implication in reducing the systems
implementation and maintenance time and cost [20]. It is
important not to spend money for a new tools or technology
when you can just upgrade current one by reused its in other
ways. By using this module also will not impact the
operation of the systems in overall.
Infrastructure asset management is not a single
operation, it is a multi-disciplinary process that involves a
lot of different operations but with the same purpose.
9
Although, it is very important to manage the inter-dependent
operations in a coordinated manner. Integrated systems
should enable the efficient flow of information among
various activities such as efficient access, sharing,
management, and tracking of documents. Infrastructure asset
management team needs to share information to organize
their tasks [18,19].
The integrated systems also should have a modular
architecture to cope with future modification, extension, and
technology improvement. Furthermore, another major
design consideration is the necessity to separate the
responsibilities between the function-specific toolset and
other framework components. Tools would provide users
with the functionality to perform specific tasks, while the
integrated systems components would provide the
functionality to integrate and manage different processes.
5. Implementation of an Integrated Pipeline
Management Systems
A preliminary prototype has been developed on an
integrated pipeline management systems to support the
maintenance management of the National University of
Malaysia, Bangi as shown in Figure 2. The integrated
systems implemented several requirements as described in
the previous topic. Modelling and management of
infrastructure data in timely and effective manner. Second,
the data exchange between different software also can be
achieved. Thirdly, effective and accurate timely information
also can be shared among the management and
stakeholders. Lastly, the ability to customize the systems to
accommodate various operations and projects.
Figure 2: GIS-integrated pipeline management system.
As for the GIS-integrated pipeline management systems,
ESRI software which is ArcGIS has been chosen as a
medium application to integrate all the spatial and non-
spatial information. Moreover, a web GIS application will
be used to access all the pipeline information. The
integrated web GIS applications should provide an
informative solution to the users. Combining the database
that keeps all the information of the infrastructures and a
geodatabase that contain the spatial information of the
infrastructures into one and can access in one application.
ArcGIS Online technology is a convenient method to
use for publishing spatial data online [20]. It is a
collaborative, cloud-based platform that allows members of
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an organization to use, create, and share maps, apps, and
data, including authoritative basemaps published by ESRI.
Through ArcGIS Online user will get access to ESRI’s
secure cloud, and use it to manage, create, store, and access
data as published web layers, and because ArcGIS Online is
an integral part of the ArcGIS system, user can use it to
extend the capabilities of ArcGIS for Desktop, ArcGIS for
Server, ArcGIS apps, and ArcGIS Web APIs, and ArcGIS
Runtime SDKs.
The applications already provide many templates that
can be used for the web applications and the user also can
choose to build new applications using Web AppBuilder.
Web AppBuilder offers the user more choices in
configuring the appearance, settings and functionality of the
web application. Furthermore, the web application using
visual and compositional themes offer in the Web
AppBuilder and following widgets layer list, attribute table,
print, zoom slider, measurement, home, scalebar, coordinate
and filter are added to provide more options for the user.
Once the web applications are ready it has an option where
it can be shared among the organization members. Only an
authorized member will have an access to the web
application because of the data security issues.
GIS-integrated asset management system is becoming
more of necessity in asset management, generally.
Infrastructure assets information which is previously stored
using conventional methods such as in paper form, paper
maps, CAD drawing and standard database are not efficient
anymore. However, this information can be used by
converting them into a geospatial data format. Converting
these information into digital based in not an easy task and
might take big size of data storage. Furthermore, a
geodatabase is created to store all the information. Spatial
data and attribute data are connected to each other in the
geodatabase. ESRI’s software such as ArcGIS is an
application to create, manage, edit, manipulate, visualize
and publish geospatial data.
The published service would be used in ArcGIS Online
and act as a medium to customise a web map application.
The web-map application is capable to provide and
visualize the spatial and non-spatial information of each
infrastructure asset. In addition, assets information can
easily be shared among the university management and with
the advantage of GIS mapping the information can easily be
interpreted by everyone.
6. Conclusion
Asset management is already existed a long time ago.
Although, the method is difference to what exists today, the
purpose of asset management is still the same. It is to have
an inventory of the assets and to make sure the investment
will only gain profit in the future. GIS capabilities in
providing a good platform for the user to customize and
configure the applications based on the user needs is a
privilege for the user to integrate it with infrastructure asset
management.
The process of storing, editing, manipulating and
visualizing the information of the infrastructure asset
becomes more convenient and efficient. Moreover, users are
10
able to access the updated data and share it among the
members of the organization. A good infrastructure asset
management will always benefit the organisation in many
ways. It would be a great help to management in making
better planning and decisions for the better future of the
organisation and its customers.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge and thankful for the financial
support given by the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Top
Down Grant through TD-2016-012.
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Assessing of Shoreline Changes by using Geospatial Technique

Siti Norsakinah Selamat1, Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud1&2, and Othman Jaafar2
1
Earth Observation Centre, Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
2
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: sitinorsakinah92@gmail.com

Abstract
The changing of the shoreline position has become a major
problem that involve coastal zones around the world.
Therefore, analysing and understanding of shoreline
changes are importance task to address the issues of
shoreline changes. This study focuses on determination
analysis rate of shoreline changes using the geospatial
technique in 1993 to 2014. To archive our objectives multi
temporal data and high spatial resolution imagery used as
investigation data. The rate of shoreline changes was
computed using Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS)
technique, where end point rate (EPR) has been used in this
study to determine the rate of shoreline changes for short
term analysis. Approximately 348 transects along Bagan
Pasir was created with 25 meter interval. Results illustrated
the average rate of shoreline changes between 0.01 to -
33.28 m/year during 1993 and 2006. From 2006 to 2014,
the rate of changes existed from 0.01 to 46.64 m/year. The
research proved that DSAS method can be an effective way
to determine the rate of shoreline changes.
1. Introduction
Climate change issues are the main problem that are often
discussed around the world. According to the [1] climate
change is a weather changing process that is complicated
and time consuming. Generally, climate change is not a
change of weather because the weather naturally changes
daily and even changes every hour. Climate change is a
weather pattern that has changed dramatically in recent
years and long term effects. These phenomena influenced by
two major factors that are natural changes and human
activities that contribute to the increase of greenhouse gases.
Therefore, critical natural disasters such as rising sea levels,
floods, landslides, coastal erosion, drought, forest fires and
haze due to the effects of climate change.
Human activity is a major factor contributing to climate
change from the mid-20th century [2]. Climate change can
also be attributed to the rise in global temperatures, known
as global warming. The phenomenon of global warming has
risen and is forecast to increase over time. Ice melting in the
Arctic is a major factor that causes sea level rise and poses a
threat especially to countries with high population rates and
socio-economic activities on coastal areas. Globally there
are about 400 million people living in the 20 meter sea level
and within 20 km of the beach [3] and stated these
phenomena seriously amplify risks to coastal populations
[4].
Nowadays, National development has been rising over
the years. Regarding that, coastal zones were recognized as a
centre of economy and tourism for the coastal country. The
increase in coastal populations indirectly contributes to the
development of coastal development. Malaysia has also
faced this situation. Hence monitoring coastal zones is
crucial for protecting and maintaining the environment so as
not to be affected by the development of coastal
development [3].
Shoreline change is one of the most dynamic processes
in coastal areas. Shoreline changes occurred caused by two
major phenomena such as natural phenomena and human
activities. In [5], it is found that natural change was due to
the process of unification between waves, currents, tides and
streams that often caused conflicts in the process of erosion.
Besides that shoreline is known as the main component
when determining the territorial boundaries of an area, but
unfortunately these zone is considered fragile area and easy
to change. Therefore, the mapping of shoreline changes
becomes an important process for analysing the history of
change and overcoming these problems.
Shoreline changes studies have been widely studied by
many authors such as [6], [7], [8], and [9]. Traditionally,
shoreline changes have been assessed by survey measuring,
where field measurements are needed to clarify data [10]
and [11]. However, rising technology help overcome this
problem. Geographical Information System (GIS) and
Remote Sensing technology able to cover a wide area and
capable to solve this problem efficiently. It can be proven by
the study conducted by [12], [13], and [14] which proves the
study using this approach is very useful and valuable.
The study area corresponds to the west coast of
Malaysia. It is located in Bagan Pasir, Selangor. These coast
categories as the muddy coast and recognized as density
populated area. Other than that, this area also knows as a
centre of economic for communities. Figure 1 illustrated the
condition of Bagan Pasir coastal area.
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Table 1: Data sources used for this study

Type of data Year Scale/Resolutio
n
Topographic map 199 1: 50 000
3
SPOT 5 200 2.5 meter
6
SPOT 5 201 2.5 meter
4

2.2. Shoreline Extraction

The shoreline dataset from 1993 to 2014 was extracted
using ArcGIS 10.4 software by using manual digitizing
technique.

2.3. Shoreline Analysis

Figure 1: Location of study Area
This study explores the analysis of shoreline changes
using DSAS approach to investigate erosion and accretion
phenomena and calculate the rate of shoreline changes that
have occurred. The main goals of this study to analysis the
shoreline change over the year and compare patterns of
changes for short term changes.
2. Materials and Methods
This paper focuses on determination shoreline changes using
multi-resolution and multi-temporal data. The study adopted
a methodology for extraction shoreline position and
determine the rate of changes is that used by several authors
[12], [14], and [15]. This methodology is based on three
stage of data process which is extraction shoreline position,
DSAS processing and analysis rate of shoreline changes.
2.1. Data Sources
In this study, SPOT 5 and topographic maps datasets
acquired from 1993 to 2014 were used to determine the rate
of shoreline changes along Bagan Pasir area. Table1 shows
the data sources used for determination of shoreline changes.
Projection systems used in this study are Rectified Skew
Orthomorphic (RSO) in meter unit.
DSAS V4.4 is an extension of ArcGIS 10 software, was
developed by United States Geological Survey (USGS)
[16]. The DSAS provided five statistical methods to
determined rate of changes such as shoreline changes
envelop (SCE), Net Shoreline Movement (NSM), End Point
Rate (EPR), Linear Regression Rate (LRR), and Least
Medium of Square (LMS). This approach can calculate the
rate of shoreline change either short term or long term
changes. In addition, users can choose any method to
address their research objectives because every method has
their own advantages and disadvantages to calculate the
change. In this study used EPR calculation to determined
rate of shoreline changes. The EPR method is an effective
operation to determine short-term changes. This method
consider dividing the distance movement of shoreline by the
time between the older and the most recent time to
calculated rate of changes.
DSAS tool computes the rate of shoreline changes using
four steps: (1) shoreline preparation, (2) baseline creation,
(3) transect generation, and (4) computation rate of
shoreline changes by [16]. In order to determine the rate of
shoreline changes, 348 transects perpendicular to shoreline
were generated with 25 meter interval. The erosion and
accretion were calculated by using the difference between
older and most recent shoreline. At the end of this study, the
rate of erosion and accretion were categorized into six
classes as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: EPR shoreline classification [15]
Rate of shoreline Shoreline classification
changes (m/year)
> -2 Very High Erosion
> -1 to < -2 High Erosion
> -1 to < 0 Moderate Erosion
0 Stable
> 0 to < 1 Moderate Accretion
> 1 to < 2 High Accretion
>2 Very High Accretion
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3. Results and Discussion

Shoreline analysis was conducted for two different periods
which are from 1993 and 2006 and then from 2006 and
2014. The results of the present study show in table 3,
evaluation rate of shoreline changes using EPR method for
short term changes analysis. Based on the results obtained
from year 1993 and 2006 show the highest erosion rate of
33.28 meters per year, while the highest accretion rate only
14.00 meters per year. Minimum readings for erosion rate
also exceed the accretion rate where the erosion rate is 0.06
meters and the accretion rate is 0.01 meters per year. It may
be seen in 13 years, shows that erosion phenomena exceed
those accretion phenomena. Figure 2 illustrated map of EPR
classification based on the rate of changes that occurred
along 1993 and 2006.

Table 3: Rate of shoreline changes using EPR method

1993 - 2006 2006 -2014
Erosio
Erosion Accretion n Accretion
Maximum 33.28 14 39.56 46.64
Minimum 0.06 0.01 0.01 0.01
Mean 11.7 6.09 13.16 9.26

Other than that, these results also show the rate of

changes that occurred along 2006 and 2014. The rate of
erosion changes from year 2006 and 2014 varied between
0.06 to 33.28 meters per year, while rates of accretion
changes fluctuate between 0.01 to 46.64 meters per year.
Here, the rate of erosion Here, the higher rate of erosion
was recorded is 39.56 meter while the accretion rate as high
as 46.65 meters per year. Based on these results shows both
rates of changes are significantly high recorded. Figure 3
represented map of shoreline classification based on EPR
calculation rate of changes between 2006 and 2014.
Based on these results, the rate of shoreline changes
during year 2006 and 2014 get the highest erosion rate
where applicable 39.56 meters per year compared with the
highest erosion during year 1993 and 2006 is 33.28 meters
per year. While, the highest rate of accretion occurred
during the year 2006 and 2014 compared with 1993 and
2006 where is 46.64 meters and 14.00 meters per year
respectively.
Figure 2: Classification rate of shoreline changes between
1993 and 2006
4. Conclusion
Bagan Pasir was known as high population density area
along the coast. It is also recognized as an economic centre
for some communities working in the fishing industry. The
historical investigation of shoreline changes is an important
task to determine the movement of shoreline for every year.
Monitoring of shoreline changes is easily and effectively
through GIS approach. This study provided the most
valuable information on the rate of shoreline changes
occurring at Bagan Pasir coastal area through DSAS
computation technique. This study has investigated the
changes according to two time period which are from 1993
and 2006 and then from 2006 and 2014. Based on the
analysis, Bagan Pasir experienced more erosion compared
with accretion phenomena. The findings showed that 1993
and 2006 indicated facing the higher erosion phenomena
compared with accretion which is 94.84% and 5.17%
respectively. Meanwhile, for 2006 and 2014 indicated the
same thing where the phenomena erosion still higher than
accretion phenomena with 68.43% and 31.57% respectively.
It may be seen along 21 years, shows that erosion
phenomena exceed that accretion phenomena occurred at
Bagan Pasir area. Therefore, further research and monitoring
are needed to emphasize the problem so that the erosion
phenomenon can be reduced.
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Acknowledgements [12] Anand. R, Chandrasekar. B. N, & Magesh. S. K. N. S,

Shoreline change rate and erosion risk assessment
The authors gratefully acknowledge to the Earth along the Trou Aux Biches – Mont Choisy beach on
Observation Centre, Institute of Climate Change, UKM for the northwest coast of Mauritius using GIS-DSAS
sharing the satellite data. This study was supported by the technique. Environmental Earth Sciences, 75(5), 1–12,
research grants of Trans Disciplinary Research Grant 2016.
Scheme (TRGS/1/2015/UKM/02/5/1) and Research
University Grant (AP-2015-009). [13] Erener. A, & Yakar. M, Monitoring Coastline Change
Using Remote Sensing and GIS Technologies, 30,
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[3] Rasuly. A, Naghdifar. R, & M. Rasoli, International Ergul. A, Dsas 4.0. Digital Shoreline Analysis System
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[4] Gornitz. V, Couch. S, & Hartig, E. K. Impacts of sea
level rise in the New York City metropolitan area. In
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[5] M. Ekhwan, Hakisan Muara dan Pantai Kuala
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Heat Stress on Mangrove (Rhizophora apiculata) and Adaptation Options

Baseem M. Tamimi1, Wan Juliana Wan Ahmad1, Mohd. Nizam Mohd. Said1, Che Radziah
Che Mohd. Zain2
1
School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
2
School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: baseemtamimi@siswa.ukm.edu.my

rise of mean annual surface air temperature over the last

Abstract
Global climate change has shown to have a significant impact
on critical ecosystems, that in turn has led to elevated CO2
and temperatures that accompany changes in many abiotic
factors, including mangrove forests, facing challenges in
their habitat. This study was conducted to investigate the
morphological and physiological attributes of the mangrove
Rhizophora apiculata in response increased air temperature
for the selection of tree species that are able to adapt to
climate change. The seedlings were grown in controlled
growth chambers with temperature of 38°C, CO2 at 450 ppm
and controlled condition for three months. The plants were
watered with two litres of saline water of 28 ppt every 48
hours. Thus, after two weeks the mangrove recorded positive
results for all parameters to high temperature. The
differences in temperature resulted in significant differences
and negative interaction between CO2 and increased
temperature that led to serious damage to all samples
compared to controlled samples, and decreased growth and
photosynthesis rates. These results suggested that low levels
of photosynthetic capacity may be attributed to the decreased
CO2 fixative reaction system and photosynthetic pigment
contents.
1. Introduction
Elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration (CO2)
and concomitant increasing temperatures are changing the
global environment [1], due to these factors being
determinants in the photosynthetic rates in plants, any
changes they present in the atmospheric composition and
climate will significantly affect planetary ecosystems [2].
Over the last century, atmospheric CO2 concentration has
increased from 280 to 360ppm as previous studies have
indicated making this an eminent and undeniable global
environmental change (GEC), with the current rate of
increase averaging at 1.5 µmol mol–1 year–1 [3]. It’s expected
that CO2 concentrations can reach 700ppm by the end of the
century as global population and economic activity increases,
leading to warmer global temperatures [4]. Recent model
projections suggest a global mean surface air temperature
increase of 1 to 4.5°C by 2100 AD [5] and the 0.3 to 0.6°C
century shows the clear effect of recent atmospheric changes
to projected increase in temperature [6]. However, important
details in (a) diurnal and seasonal patterns, (b) frequency,
timing and duration of extremes (e.g. high or low
temperatures, late or early frosts), and (c) climatic variability
can be obscured by these broad mean annual changes in
temperature predictions [7]. One example is that recent
scenarios predict most warming in mid- and high-northern
latitudes in late autumn and winter, and little or none (or even
a cooling in mid-latitudes) in summer [5], which could affect
growing season length. Indeed, there is already evidence of a
change in growing season length [8]. Another example is the
strong evidence that, over land, the increase in night time
minimum temperature has been about twice the increase in
the maximum [6]. Plant growth will be greatly affected by the
continuing changes in diurnal cycles compared to an even
change in temperature over 24 hours but these broad global
mean temperature predictions obscure aspects critical to
natural and managed ecosystems.
The conservation and restoration of mangroves and
associated coastal ecosystems play important roles in climate
change adaptation strategies. Mangroves are not only
valuable in climate change mitigation efforts, but they are
also influential in adaptation to changing climates [9]. Due to
the affect mangroves have in adapting to climate change,
more investments should be funneled to its development
plans as climate change adaptation is a growing concern in
most international development agendas [7]. Thus, the
objective of this study is to determine the effects of increased
temperature on the growth of the most dominant and
commonly distributed mangrove forest from the
Rhizophoraceae family found in Malaysia [10], as the
mangrove forests should be preserved, especially because of
their economic importance and their important role in
preserving the ecosystem and diversity of organisms.
2. Materials and Methods
This research study was conducted at the “Tropical
Ecophysiology Lab.”, in UKM, Bangi, Malaysia (2° 55'
12.03"N, 101° 47' 2.99 E). The facility consists of Plant
Growth Chamber model (GC-202C), the plant growth
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chamber monitored and controlled the relative humidity,
lighting, temperature and CO2 for the whole project duration,
which took three months. The mangrove plant seedlings with
soil were collected at the age of three months from Kuala
Gula in Perak (4.924012, 100.459581). These mangrove
seedlings were transplanted in box size (42-62cm) containers.
The propagules of mangrove seedlings were then planted in
two groups with seven samples in each box. Two weeks later,
the samples were checked in terms of physical growth. All the
plants that were rated as ‘in good health’ were transferred to
the plant growth chambers. The first group was exposed to
levels of the plant growth chamber at temperature 38°C with
CO2 at 450 ppm and the second group was at ambient.
Meanwhile, the plants were watered with two litres of saline
water (28 ppt) every 48 hours and were not given any
fertiliser. All dead or damaged plant material was removed
from the mesocosms, and all visible fauna (e.g. snails and
crabs) were removed to avoid confounding effects of soil
burrowing, herbivory, and other activities. Each mangrove
seedling was labelled according to groups and treatment. Any
changes in the seedling health were also recorded
qualitatively.
2.1. Experimental Design and Growth Measurement
2015 (after 90 days). The data was then analysed to examine
the plant growth changes within eight weeks.
2.2. Data Analysis
The experimental data was subjected to a variance analysis
(ANOVA) via SAS (Release 9.4) software and Duncan’s
multiple-range tests (DMRT) determined a significant
difference at α=0.05 level.
2.3. Results
2.3.1 Seedlings preparation and growth measurement
Seedlings growth parameters (plant height, the number of
branches, and stem diameter) between treatments of increase
temperature displayed various responses depending on the
number of days of treatments. Observations on plant height,
the number of branches, and stem diameter showed increased
significant differences between the treatments after 1-45 days
of exposure. Subsequent observation after 45-90 days of
treatments revealed various responses depending on different
temperature and number of days of treatments (Table 1).
Table 1: Growth parameters of mangrove seedlings
R. apiculata subjected to different air temperature.
1 Day 45 Days 90 Days
Parameters

The plant growth parameters were measured to study the

T 38 °C

Controlled

T 38 °C

Controlled

T 38 °C

Controlled
response of the mangrove plants to increase air temperature.
The measurement of the number of leaves, plant height,
number of branches, and diameter of stems, all the
morphological parameters, were done manually using the 57 58 63 60.5 62.3 61.5
Plant height
graphical method with tools such as the foot rule, and Log (cm) ±0.5b ±0.53d ±0.45a ±0.94d ±0.99
b
±0.93c

rule calliper, and the photosynthesis rate were measured by Number of 4.7 4.3 6.3 7.3 7 10.7
using a Li-cor 6400. Determination of chlorophyll ±0.57 ±0.56d ±0.57a ±1d ±0.95 ±0.57c
branches b b

concentration was conducted using standard procedure by Number of 8.7±0 7.7 7.3 9 6.3 13.7±
.57a ±0.53d ±0.55b ±0.98c ±1d 0.45dc
Nurdin et al. (2009) [11] on the reduction of the acetone leaves
Diameter of 2.3 2.6 2.5 2.69 2.7 2.76
volume where 0.1g of mangrove plants leaves were chopped ±0.26 ±0.25c ±0.24d ±0.27b ±0.22 ±0.26a
stems d c
into small pieces (about 2 mm), and the leaves were put into
Note: Mean ± standard deviation (SD) followed by different letter of the
a test tube, after which 20ml 80% acetone was added to the same rows parameter of treatment is significantly tested using (DMRT) at
test tube. The mixture was homogenised by a shaker and then α=0.05 level.
incubated in the dark for 48 hours. Concentrations of
At 90 days of exposure, the mean height of plants under
chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b were analysed using a
controlled condition increased, whereas the plants under CO2
spectrophotometer at the wavelength of 663nm and 645nm,
concentration and temperature 38°C decreased (Table 1). To
respectively. The chlorophyll concentrations were calculated illustrate, the result of Number of branches was not
using [12; 13] the following equations: significant between 45-90 days for the plants under 450 ppm
Cchl-a = 12.7A663- 2.69B645 CO2 and 38°C temperature, the increase in the number of
branches for the plants under controlled condation at 90 days
Cchl-b = 22.9 A645 - 4.68 B663
was slightly significant, Table 1. The difference in
Total chlorophyll = Cchl-a+Cchl-b
temperature resulted in a significant difference in the number
The measurement was done three times. The first quantitative of leaves in which of the plants under controlled condation at
measurement was made on the 1st of July 2015 and the second 45 and 90 days was increased. On the another hand, the plants
on 17th of August 2015 (after 45 days) and the measurements under CO2 concentration and temperature 38°C continued to
were made until the final measurements on 1st of October decline. At 90 days of exposure, the mean diameter of stems
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under controlled condation and under CO2 concentration and
temperature 38 °C increased (Table 1).
2.3.2. Photosynthetic Rate, and Chlorophyll Concentration
Measurement
The result shows that the photosynthesis process was poor
and inefficient under elevated CO2 concentration and
different temperature. Photosynthesis responses declined
gradually and slowed down at 1-45 days depending on
different temperature and the number of days of treatment. At
90 days of exposure, the photosynthesis responses declined
under CO2 concentration and temperature 38°C, whereas the
plants under controlled recovered in photosynthesis responses
Fig.1(A). The result found that the total chlorophyll under
CO2 concentration and different temperature displayed
various responses depending on the number of days of
treatments. Total chlorophyll increased gradually at 1-45
days for all treatments Fig. 1 (B). At 90 days of exposure, the
total chlorophyll declined significantly under CO2
concentration and temperature 38°C, whereas the plants
under controlled showed less increase compared to 1-45 days.
Fig.1 (B).
A and enzymes at ambient. The results of this study were
) identical to Wataru Yamori et. al. [15]. Climate change on
B
Figure 1: Comparative responses from ambient and
temperature of (A) photosynthesis rate, and (B) Total
Chlorophyll of mangrove seedlings R. apiculate
18
3. Discussion
The results showed significant differences in the parameters
studied and affected by CO2 and different temperature, where
various responses were displayed depending on a number of
days of treatments. There was an observed response to CO2
on the morphological parameters, especially after the first 45
days, but the high-temperature presence has a negative impact
on mangrove growth that was clear at the end of the study (90
days). Most of the samples died in this treatment, some
morphological parameters were affected, especially the
number of leaves that saw a significant decrease, which
affected the photosynthesis rate [14] despite the increase in
the chlorophyll concentration. This indicates that the increase
in temperature has a physiological effect on the plant through
the effect on the biological activities within the plant,
especially enzymes [2] (Rubisco enzyme responsible for CO2
Calvin cycle). However, the Rubisco limits photosynthesis
when electron transport limitations dominate [2] and there
can be a rapid fall-off of the photosynthetic rate at high
temperatures [15]. As for the low temperature, its effect was
very slow, leading to slow growth and the survival all of the
plants, which is why the studied morphological parameters
did not show great differences compared to samples in high
temperature, but there was a clear effect on photosynthesis
mangrove plants, especially during the early phases of
growth, can be considered dangerous by interfering between
biotic and abiotic factors in global warming, where these
results provide confirmatory evidence that the effect of the
interaction between the CO2 and temperature is negative and
dangerous, which will not only affect the geographical
distribution of mangrove plants but also their survival.
Moreover, the interaction of the other factors may have a
different effect so studies should be increased in this field to
improve the knowledge on interaction between the factors
which could affect growing season length. Indeed, evidence
of changes in growing season length exists [16], the extent of
heat stress along with time periods have affected on diurnal
cycles, which have greatly affect plant growth compared to
even temperature changes over 24 hours.
4. Conclusion
Generally, this research study showed that the rising CO2 and
temperature levels have a great impact on the growth rate. It
is imperative to understand CO2 responses in varying
temperature ranges due to the history of GEC and its future,
as well as the differing temperature ranges in different regions
of the world. However, the impacts of Temperature x CO2 are
not the only factors affecting plants. Light, water, and nutrient
supply are equally critical in assessing and interpreting the
effects of increased CO2. Indeed, many of these interactions
may be already included in the experiments reported.
Nevertheless, the rapid responses to elevated carbon dioxide
and temperature levels during the early phases of growth as
in seedling establishment may be important determinants in
the regeneration of species.
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Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledged the Sime Darby Foundation for
greenhouse facility, research fund from
FRGS/1/2014/STWN10/UKM/02/1 to fund this project. The
authors also thank staffs of PPSSSA, FST, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia for their contributions in completing
this project.

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Terahertz Meta-surface Absorber for Absorbing Application

Md. Mehedi Hasan1, Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque1, Mohammad Tariqul Islam2
1
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
2
Dept. of Electrical, Electronics and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi.
*corresponding author, E-mail: mehedi.hasan.ukm@gmail.com

In 2003, Ziolkowski et al. developed a metamaterial by

Abstract
A meta-surface absorber that absorbs waves from all
directions of incident can be realised if the surface
impedance is made from vary as a function of incidence in a
specific manner. In this paper, a terahertz meta-surface with
left handed characteristics for high absorbing application has
been discussed. The designed absorber small unit is
developed by cross metallic connection of two metal strips
printed on the epoxy resin fibre material. Commercially
available Finite integration technique based electromagnetic
simulator CST Microwave Studio has been utilized to
design, simulation and investigate the proposed design. The
proposed meta-surface shows resonance at 39.19 THz, 58.47
THz and 77.80 THz and the left handed characteristics at
15.3 THz and 87.7 THz, respectively. Besides, the absorber
structure presents the highest absorption peak respectively,
99.6% and 89.5% at 16.4 THz and 75.8 THz.
1. Introduction
In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in the
property of near perfect absorption from the scientific
community, originally used in stealth technology to reduce
radar cross section of objects at specific radar frequencies.
The advent of meta-surface with unique properties played a
key role in the development of high quality absorbers
ranging from microwaves to optical wavelengths and their
integration in numerous functional applications such as
imaging, solar energy collection, medical applications,
optical applications, etc. In the past two decades, the field of
terahertz technology has experienced remarkable
development due to advances in laser and semiconductor
technology. This has given rise to various potential
applications including sub-diffraction imaging, cloaking,
and polarization conversion systems. Meta-surface absorbers
can be divided into two broad categories based on their
principle of operation. The primary classification comprises
of device impedance coordinated to free space. If the
material impedance coordinated with substantial and lossy
estimations of permittivity and permeability, then the
surface will be reflection less at normal incidence. The
second classification in view of electrically responsive
metamaterial components firmly coupled to a ground plane.
capacitor loaded strips and split ring resonators, which
exhibited negative permittivity and negative permeability
both at the X-band frequencies [1]. In particular, meta-atom
absorbers have been studied since Landy et al. introduced
them in 2008 [2]. In 2016, Hasan et al. proposed a z-shaped
DNG metamaterial for wide band applications. The 10×10
mm2 structure metamaterial unit cell was applicable for C-
and X-band operations [3]. In 2017, Hasan et al. projected a
negative index meta-atom, resonance at C-, X- and Ku-band
with bandwidth from 7.0 to 12.81 GHz [4]. In 2017,
Karaaslan et al. introduced a multiband absorber based on
multi-layered square split ring structure. The multi-layered
metamaterial structure was designed to be used in the
frequency bands such as WIMAX, WLAN and satellite
communication. The absorption levels of the proposed
structure were higher than 90% for all resonance frequencies
[5]. A metamaterial absorber in microwave frequency is
shown in [6]. Yao et al. suggested a dynamically lambda-
tunable grapheme based terahertz metamaterial absorber,
which displayed absorption of 99% at 35 μm and 97% at 59
μm, respectively [7]. Microstrip patch antenna was designed
with artificial magnetic conductor for telemedicine
applications by Sneka et al. it was observed the antenna gain
about 6.21 dBi, directivity around 6.37Bi, return loss almost
-29 dB and the radiation efficiency was 96.21% [8]. Wang et
al. developed a U-shaped terahertz absorber in 2016 that had
been shown 98% [9]. Yahiaoui et al. in 2015 designed
metamaterial absorber, which shown at absorption
frequencies of 0.22 THz, 0.48 THz, 0.72 THz and 0.76 THz
the percentage of absorption were respectively, 79%, 80%,
76%, 74% [10].
A new 3D meta-surface absorber at terahertz frequency
has been designed in this study, whereas the working
frequency range is from 0 THz to 100 THz. The proposed
meta-surface shows resonance at 39.19 THz, 58.47 THz and
77.80 THz. The met-surface exhibits left handed
characteristics at 15.3 THz and 87.7 THz, whereas the
permittivity, permeability and refractive index are
respectively being -25.21, -177.5, -68.28 and -42.38, -0.78, -
8.12. Besides, the absorber structure presents absorption at
the resonance peak are respectively, 99.6% and 89.5% at
16.4 THz and 75.8 THz. The paper is decorated in this
manner; design of the proposed meta-surface absorber with
the schematic and 3d view is in section 2, methodology
explained elaborately with the simulated diagram, retrieval
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methods of effective medium parameters and equivalent
circuit model of the proposed meta-surface absorber in the
section 3. The results are shown in section 4 and section 5
concludes the paper.
2. Design of Meta-Surface Absorber
The schematic view, top view and 3D view of the proposed
meta-surface absorber are shown in figure 1(a-c). The
designed absorber small unit is developed by cross metallic
connection of two metal strips printed on the dielectric
substrate material. Epoxy resin fibre is used as substrate
material, which dielectric constant and loss tangent are
respectively 4.5 and 0.002. The thickness of the substrate
material is considering as 0.1 μm. The total dimension of the
designed meta-surface absorber is 5.1×5.15 μm2, whereas
the small single unit cell is 1×1.1 μm2.
(a) (b)
of the computer simulations to speed up the computation
process. For the simulation from 0 to 100 THz, the
electromagnetic waves are propagating along the z-axis,
whereas the x- and y-axis are respectively considered as a
perfect electric conductor and perfect magnetic conductor
boundaries. The equivalent circuit of proposed design,
where the shunt branches of the proposed meta-surface
absorber circuit model are purely inductive. The inductive
effect raises for the metal part shifted towards the resonance
to the lower frequency, whereas the gaps are accountable for
capacitive effect. The inductive and capacitive effect is
minimized together and set up resonance at a fixed point. In
addition, there is a parasitic coupling effect for the mutual
inductance and capacitance. However, are represents as
respectively capacitance, inductance and external source of
the lumped LC-circuit model.
4. Results and Analysis
The surface current distribution on the proposed absorber at
77.8 THz is displayed in the figure 2(a). The arrows on the
structure are showing the direction of the current and colour
state the intensity of the current. In the current distribution
several dominating current paths have been found, which are
causes the resonating modes of the structure when the
propagating electromagnetic waves are along z-axis. The
current on the absorber structure are flowing opposite
direction and nullify each other. Stop bands are found for
minimizing the surface current together. However, the
electric field density at 77.8 THz is exhibited in figure 2(b).

(c) (a) (b)

Figure 1: Schematic view of the: (a) unit cell, (b) top view of Figure 2: (a) Surface current distribution, and (b) Electric
the designed structure, and (c) meta-surface structure. field, in 77.8 THz of the designed meta-surface absorber.

Table 1: Design parameters of the meta-surface Figure 3(a) depicts, the magnitudes of the reflection (S11)
absorber single unit cell. and transmission (S21) coefficient. The figure shows the
resonance at 39.19 THz (magnitude of -41.90), 58.47 THz
Parameters L W p M N (magnitude of -48.18) and 77.80 THz (magnitude of -51.93).
Dimensions 5.4 5.1 0.95 5.5 5.15 Figure 3(b) reveals, the real magnitude of the effective
(μm) permittivity curves, whereas the negative peaks from 4.4
Parameters l w d t h THz to 46.9 THz and from 87.6 THz to 100 THz. From the
Dimensions 1 1.1 0.1 0.1 0.017 figure 3(c) the negative permeability curve from 14.7 THz to
(μm) 18.8 THz and from 45.7 THz to 89.6 THz. In figure 3(d), the
negative refractive index from 6.4 THz to 9.2 THz, 13.1
3. Methodology THz to 18.7 THz, 44.2 THz to 46.8 THz and 85.5 THz to 90
THz. If the permittivity and permeability are simultaneously
Finite integration technique based commercially available
negative, then refractive index is also negative. Here at 15.3
CST Microwave Studio is adopted for all the numerical
THz and 87.7 THz the designed meta-surface absorber
investigations. Boundary conditions are usually used in most
exhibits the permittivity, permeability and refractive index
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parameters are respectively -25.21, -177.5, -68.28 and -

42.38, -0.78, -8.12. As a result, the meta-surface structure
can be characterized as a left handed meta-surface at 15.3
THz and 87.7 THz.
Table 2: Value of effective medium parameters of the
meta-surface for the left handed characteristics.
Resonance Permeability Permittivity Refractive
Frequency (µ) (ε) Index (ƞ)
15.3 THz -25.21 -177.5 -68.28
87.7 THz -42.38 -0.78 -8.12
Figure 4: Calculated absorption of the recommended meta-
surface absorber.

5. Conclusion
This paper focused on a new left handed meta-surface
absorber for absorption application. The dielectric material
epoxy resin with woven glass fabric composite is used as
substrate material to construct the meta-surface absorber
structure. The designed structure exhibits left handed
(a) (b) properties at 15.3 THz and 87.7 THz. The absorber structure
also presents the highest absorption peak respectively,
99.6% and 89.5% at 16.4 THz and 75.8 THz. In addition, the
finite integration technique and the equivalent lumped
inductance-capacitance circuit model of the proposed design
have been explained elaborately.

(c) (d)
Figure 3: (a) Reflection and transmission coefficient,
Effective: (b) permittivity, (c) permeability, and (d)
refractive index, of the suggested meta-surface.
In figure 4, the result of the absorption has been discussed.
The absorption at the resonance peak are respectively,
99.6% and 89.5% at 16.4 THz and 75.8 THz. However, the
nature of the absorption can be easily understood by
observing the current density in the absorber structure from
the surface current distribution curves.
Table 3: Percentage of absorption of the meta-
surface absorber.
Resonance of the Absorption rate
reflection (S11)
16.4 THz 99.6%
75.8 THz 89.5%
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Research -Universiti Grant,
Geran Universiti Penyelidikan (GUP), code: 2016-028.
References
[1] R.W Ziolkowski, Design, fabrication, and testing of
double negative metamaterials, IEEE Transactions on
Antennas and Propagation, 51:1516–1529, 2003.
[2] N.I Landy, S. Sajuyigbe, J.J. Mock, D.R. Smith, W.J.
Padilla, A perfect metamaterial absorber, Physical
Review Letter, 100:1–4, 2008.
[3] M.M. Hasan, M.R.I. Faruque, S.S. Islam, M.T. Islam,
A New Compact Double-Negative Miniaturized
Metamaterial for Wideband Operation, Materials,
9(10):830, 2016.
[4] M.M. Hasan, M.R.I. Faruque, M.T. Islam, A Single
Layer Negative Index Meta Atom at Microwave
Frequencies, Microwave and Optical Technology
Letters, 59:1450–1454, 2017.
[5] M. Karaaslana, M. Bagmancıa, E. Unala, O. Akgola,
C. Sabahb, Microwave energy harvesting based on
metamaterial absorbers with multi-layered square split
rings for wireless communications, Optics
Communications, 392:31–38, 2017.
[6] M.M. Hasan, M.R.I. Faruque, M.T. Islam, A tri-band
microwave perfect metamaterial absorber, Microwave
and Optical Technology Letters, 59: 2302–2307, 2017.
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[7] M.H.G. Yao, F. Ling, J. Yue, C. Luo, J. Ji, J. Yao,

Dual-band tunable perfect metamaterial absorber in the
THz range, Optics Express, 24:1518-1527, 2016.
[8] N. Sneka, K.R. Kashwan, Design and implementation
of a metasurface patch antenna array for medical
applications, International Conference on Research
Advances in Integrated Navigation Systems, India,1-4,
2016.
[9] B.X. Wang, G.Z. Wang, L.L. Wang, Design of a Novel
Dual-Band Terahertz Metamaterial Absorber,
Plasmonics, 11:523–530, 2016.
[10] R. Yahiaoui, S. Tan, L. Cong, R. Singh, F. Yan, W.
Zhang, Multispectral terahertz sensing with highly
flexible ultrathin metamaterial absorber, Journal of
Physics, 118:083103-6, 2015.
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Labyrinth Resonator for Wideband Application

Md. Jubaer Alam1, Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque1, Mohammad Tariqul Islam2
1
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change (IPI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: jubaer.alam@iubat.edu

antenna design [3-4], filters [5], invisibility cloaking [6],

Abstract
The paper presents the structure of a labyrinth resonator
double negative metamaterial unit cell that is suitable for dual
band of microwave frequency. A relation was made on the
performance after the analysis of unit cell, 1 × 2 array and 2
× 2 array structures. A great transmission coefficient of
almost 13GHz with a 500MHz band gap at the middle is
demonstrated for all of these configurations. The resonator
covers C, X and Ku-band separately with double negative
phenomena at X and Ku-band. To justify the performance of
the proposed resonator an analogy is conferred. Having a
compact design, double-negative characteristics and the
proposed metamaterial has potential to be used for wideband
application.
Keywords Array Structure, Double negative,
Metamaterial, Wideband application.
1. Introduction
Metamaterials are the special type of materials that are
usually not available in nature. They are actually engineered
materials, they need to embed periodic unit cell for their
formation to create naturally unavailable electromagnetic
properties. Moreover, these materials have the power to
control the electromagnetic wave beams to show their
unorthodox characteristics. These unusual features of the
metamaterials totally depend on the geometry of the atomic
construction. It has been started from the year 1968, Veselago
et al [1] observed unique properties of materials having
negative permittivity (ε) and permeability (μ).
But it was not appreciated until 2000 when Smith et al.
fortunately validated a new unreal with these unconventional
properties (both permittivity and permeability were negative)
is called left-handed metamaterial. In case of negativity, it has
been categorized as Single-negative (either permittivity is
negative or permeability is negative), Double-negative (both
permittivity and permeability are negative). There is also a
term called near-zero refractive index metamaterial (NZRI)
where the permittivity and permeability of a material become
approximately to zero on a particular range of frequency.
Having these captivating electromagnetic phenomena,
necessary applications, like SAR reduction [2], super lenses,
electromagnetic absorber, and electromagnetic band gaps etc
can be employed by metamaterials. In some cases, intrinsic
negative permittivity is found. It is really difficult to get the
negative refractive indices. Currently, multi-band
metamaterial absorbers have become an auspicious
application in the detection of explosives, even in bolometers
and thermal detectors. Moreover, a very few studies have
been made in designing this type of materials [7]. Different
alphabetic shapes have become popular for particular
operations [8]; like, Benosman et al. [9] introduced a double
S-shaped metamaterial that showed negative values of η from
15.67 to 17.43GHz. Mallik et al. proposed various U-shaped
rectangular array structures left-handed aspect at
approximately 5, 6 and 11GHz. A V-shaped metamaterial
was presented by Ekmekci et al. the architecture showed
double-negative characteristic. Zhou et al. designed an S-
shaped 15 × 15 mm2 chiral metamaterial for X- and Ku-band
application. Though the EMR was not higher than 4. For the
purpose of application on S and C bands, Hossain et al. [10]
design G-shaped DNG for different unit cells and array sizes.
A metamaterial unit cell of labyrinth resonator has been
proposed in this paper. The structure covers multiple bands
(C, X, and Ku) of frequencies for the transmission coefficient.
And for effective parameters, it covers the X and Ku bands
with double negative characteristic.
2. Cell Design
The diagram of the prospective resonator is itemized in Fig.
1. Here both front and back sides of the substrate are
comprised of labyrinth resonators. Each unit cell comprises
with 20mm in length and 20mm in width. All elements have
the thickness of 0.35mm. Each split resonator has the width
of 1mm with a same split gap. The outer length of the
resonator is 18mm. The entire patch (made of copper) is
developed on a substrate called FR-4. It has a dielectric
constant of εr = 4.3, a dielectric loss-tangent of tanδε = 0.025.
Sides of the substrate are L = W = 20mm and the thickness is
t = 1.6mm. Designed parameters of the proposed
metamaterial are enlisted in Table 1.
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CST Microwave Studio is used to get the result of S11 and S21 Agilent N5227A. To calibrate perfectly, an Agilent N4694-
with the help of hundred frequency samples. Two waveguide 60001 was utilized.
ports are used to propagate the electromagnetic waves to Vector Network Analyser
excite the configuration on two opposite direction of Z-axis.
PEC and PMC were used along the vertical direction of x and
y axis respectively. And for the free-space simulation
purposes, a frequency domain solver was utilized. Moreover,
for the analysis purpose of these configurations, a tetrahedral 1
mesh was used with a flexible mesh. The normalized
impedance was 50ohms and the system was performed from
1 to 18GHz.
W

Sample
b
a Waveguide Ports
(a)

(a) Front view 9.0 GHz 10.3 GHz

(b)
Fig.2: (a) Experimental set up for measuring S parameter;
(b) Current distribution of the unit cell at various
frequencies
To differentiate the effective permittivity ( 𝜀𝑟 ) and
permeability ( 𝜇𝑟 ) with 𝑆11 and 𝑆21 , the NRI method is
applied. To such a degree the 𝜀𝑟 and 𝜇𝑟 can be determined by
𝑐 (1−𝑉1 )
𝜀𝑟 = 𝑗𝜋𝑓𝑑
× (1+𝑉1 )
(1)

𝑐 (1−𝑉2 )
𝜇𝑟 = 𝑗𝜋𝑓𝑑
× (1+𝑉2 )
(2)
The effective refractive index (𝜂 r) can also be calculated from
𝑆21 and 𝑆11:
𝑐 (𝑆 −1)2 −𝑆 2
(b) Back view 𝜂𝑟 = 𝑗𝜋𝑓𝑑 × √(𝑆21 +1)2 −𝑆11 2 (3)
21 11

Fig.1 Geometry of Metamaterial Unit cell

Table 1: Parameters of the unit cell
Parameters Dimensions (mm)
L 20
W 20
a 1
b 1
By settling the perspective unit cell in between, the
waveguides as per the Fig. 2 to actuate the parameters
accurately of the metamaterial unit cell. To determine the
parameters, we used a vector analyzer commonly known as
By settling the perspective unit cell in between, the
waveguides as per the Fig. 2 (a) to determine the scattering
parameters accurately of the split metamaterial.
3. Results and Discussion
There are plenty of ways to find out the effective parameters
of a unit cell like NRW method, DRI, etc. This paper
highlights the electromagnetic properties using the real values
of ε, μ, and η using S11 and S21.
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3.1. Analysis of Unit Cell

As the unit cell is fabricated on a Fr-4 which has an area of
18 × 18 mm2, it has been measured within a frequency range
of 1 to 18GHz. The simulation was performed by CST MWS
to get the result of the transmission coefficient (S21). The
transmission coefficient exhibits a wide band with a coverage
of C, X and Ku-band. The first resonance is found in the L-
band at frequency 5.07GHz. Then a wide band from 5.07GHz
to 13.96GHz with a little band gap of 500MHz.
However, the optimized resonance frequency is 9.68GHz.
Fig.2 (b) shows the current distribution of the unit cell at 9.0
and 10.3GHz. Fig.3 (a) shows magnitude of the transmission
coefficient (S21). (c)
Fig.3 (b), (c) and (d) show negative permittivity,
permeability and refractive index at resonating points.
Table 2 shows the frequency range of refractive indices with
effective parameters of the unit cell at different resonating
frequency bands. Hence, the designed unit cell has significant
portions, where all the three effective parameters becomes
negative. Therefore, this configuration can be allegated as
double-negative metamaterial as it has negative peaks at 8.14
and 14.01GHz in all the three effective parameters which is
shown in Table 2 with bandwidths. (d)
Table 2: Parameters of the unit cell Fig. 3 (a) Measured and simulated results of S21 ; Real and
Effective Frequency Covered Values at imaginary values of (b) effective permittivity (ε) vs
parameters Range(GHz) Bands 9.68GHz frequency; (c) effective permeability (μ) vs frequency; (d)
Permittivity 2.60 to 5.16, 6.63 S, C, X -1.15 refractive index (η) vs frequency
(ε) to 10.31 & 13.03 & Ku
to 16.18 GHz 3.2. Array Analysis
Permeability 7.74 to 13.07 & C, X & -78.6 Fig. 4 describes the array formation of 1 × 2 and 2 × 2 arrays
(μ) 13.88 to Ku
on the basic unit structure for higher degrees of arrays on the
16.55GHz
Refractive 8.13 to 12.14, X& -6.99 same Fr-4 substrate. The array structure is measured within
Index (η) 13.01 to 15.22 & Ku the frequency range of 1 to 18GHz. For unit structure, both
16.73 to the patches are placed 1mm apart from each other on the
16.95GHz substrate. Fig.4 (a) shows array formation and (b) shows the
transmission coefficient of the array structures. It is apparent
that the resonances of the frequencies are found at the same
points as the unit cell, but having greater negative
magnitudes. The S21 improves in case of 1 × 2 and 2 × 2 array.
Fig.4 (c) shows the real values of the permittivity,
permeability and refractive index as a function of frequency
of array structures. All the effective parameters of these array
structures are summarized in table 3.

Table 3: Frequency range of effective parameters of array

structures
Effective Array Frequency Range Covered
parameters Structu (GHz) Bands
(a)
res
Permittivity 1×2 1.83 – 4.76, 6.55 – L, S, C,
(ε) 10.19 & 13.92 – 16.45 X & Ku
2×2 1.78 – 4.61, 6.44 –
10.19 & 12.96 – 16.27
Permeability 1×2 7.71 – 13.01 & 13.92 – C, X &
(μ) 16.57 Ku
2×2 7.71 – 13.01 & 13.85 –
16.58

(b)
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Refractive 1×2 7.92 – 12.32, 12.98 – C, X & relative permeability, permittivity and refractive index. The
Index (η) 15.56 & 16.63 – 17.18 Ku analyses and the comparisons are made on unit cell, 1 × 2, 2
2×2 8.10 – 11.98, 12.94 – × 2 array structures. The transmission coefficient (S21) is
15.24 & 16.73 – 17.11 calculated and compared with different array formations. The
transmission coefficient covered C, X and Ku bands for all
the configurations. Negative effective parameters are also
found in all the structures. However, unit cell, 1 × 2, 2 × 2
array structures shown good commitment to the effective
parameters. Even the negative values of each of the effective
parameters are found on the X and Ku bands at 8.14 and
1×2 array 14.01GHz with a bandwidth of more than 1.20 and 1.32GHz
respectively. It certainly represents the wide band double
negative characteristic of the proposed compact design.
Thus, these structures are valid for wide band and dual bands
2×2 array
applications. These can also be a promising choice for double
(a) negativity. This resonator can be an auspicious alternative to
new metamaterials, especially in utilizations where
metamaterials are the only requirement.

References
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simultaneously negative values of ε and μ, Sov. Phys. 10:
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Multiband High-Gain Printed Yagi Array Using Square
Spiral Ring Metamaterial Structures for S-Band
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Refractive Index Metamaterial for Electromagnetic
Invisibility Cloaking Operation, Materials 8: 4790–
4804, 2015
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dimensional negative-index metamaterial at optical
frequencies, Opt. Express. 19: 289–296, 2011.
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Design and Analysis of a Novel Split-H-Shaped
Metamaterial for Multi-Band Microwave Applications,
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Design and Analysis of a Metamaterial Structure with Different Substrate Materials

for C Band and Ku Band Applications

Eistiak Ahamed1, Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque1, Mohd Fais Mansor2

1
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
2
Dept. of Electrical, Electronics and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi,
Selangor, Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: eistiak.ahamed@gmail.com

permittivity, negative permeability that has some exotic

Abstract
A modified square shape resonator structure based
metamaterial is introduced that works for C and Ku band
applications in microwave regime. Commercially available
computer simulation technology CST microwave studio is
utilized to investigate the proposed structure retrieval
parameters characterization. At first, the FR-4 substrate is
used to investigate the proposed metamaterial design, and
its characteristics. Further investigation is done by replacing
Rogers RT 6006 and Polyimide substrate materials instead
of FR4 substrate material. Different metamaterials
properties are achieved like double negative characteristics,
near refractive index zero, epsilon negative and mu negative
within the C and Ku bands by changing the substrate.
Among all the substrates, the metamaterial characteristics
are showed in best results in terms of effective parameter.
Therefore, the proposed design can be used for different
microwave applications within C and Ku band.
Key words: Metamaterials, DNG, C band, Ku band,
Satellite.
1. Introduction
Metamaterial is a composite structure material unimagined
in nature with extraordinary electromagnetic properties
controlled by the geometrical features, but not controlled by
the composite of the materials. The periodic metamaterial
unit cell dimensions are much smaller than wavelength that
created plasmonic resonances [1]. Unusual electromagnetic
properties like negative permittivity, negative permeability
and negative refractive index are shown in metamaterial so
it is different from the other natural materials.
In 1968, the Russian physicist Victor Veselago first
introduce with negative permittivity ( ε < 0) as well as
negative permeability (μ < 0) in a material with a certain
frequency range [2]. J.B Pendry et al explained negative
estimated permittivity (ε) and negative estimated
permeability (μ) for thin wire configuration and split ring
resonator respectively [3]. And later smith et al, invented
some special type of metamaterial that exhibit negative
properties like inverted Snell’s law, negative refractive
index, reversed Doppler effect etc [4]. Metamaterials are
mainly divided into three categories zero-index materials,
single negative materials and negative materials.
Permittivity (ε) and permeability (μ) are equal to zero over a
certain frequency range is called zero index materials [5-6].
When permittivity or permeability only one is negative,
then it said to be single negative materials and when
permittivity only negative then it called epsilon negative
(ENG) and when permeability negative only then it called
mu negative materials (MNG) [7]. Besides, when
permittivity and permeability both are negative in a material
then it called double negative materials [8].
Metamaterials are used in several important applications
depending on unavailable electromagnetic properties such
as antenna designing for high gain and minimize the its size,
absorber design, filter design, increasing photonic
absorption rate of solar cell, invisible cloaking, SAR
reduction etc. Some of metamaterial unit cell structures are
proposed depending on the exceptional properties of its like
V-shape, U-shape, Z-shape, SRR, double SRR, F-shape,
triangular shape and so on. Determining low frequencies
and negative magnetic properties, split ring resonator
structure is used [9]. In 2007, for X band application E.
Ekmekci introduce an SNG matamaterial [10]. In 2012,
Benosman showed a metamateril that works in Ku band
[12].
A new unit cell structure to form metamaterial is
introduced in this paper. With this proposed design,
resonance was found in C-band (2–4 GHz) and Ku-band
(12-18GHz) of the microwave frequency region, and it
appears as a SNG metamaterial. C and Ku band has
promising applications in the satellite communications. In
addition, material substrate is replaced by Rogers RT 6006
and Polyimide instead of FR-4 to get better properties. The
proposed unit cell is compact in size as the effective
medium ratio is only 5 therefore the manufacturing cost is
also low.
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2. Structure of the Unit Cell 3. Methodology

The schematic view of the proposed modified two pair of
split ring resonator specified in Figure 1. The structure is
modified by the two pair of square split ring resonator
consist of copper with thickness (h) 0.035mm. Flame
Retardant-4 (FR-4) is used as a substrate material which has
4.3 dielectric constant and tangent loss 0.025. The length
and width of substrate are taken as 8×8 mm2 with a height of
1.6 mm. CST Microwave studio is used to design the unit
cell where incident electromagnetic wave travels along the
positive z-axis to negative z-axis. The length, width,
thickness of the substrate are a, b and h, respectively, and
unit cell metal strip length is defined by L1, L2, L3, L4 and
width as well as W1, W2, W3, W4. The overall diagram of
the modified design is illustrated in Figure1 and
Table1demonestrate the design parameters of the proposed
unit cell.
Table 1: Specification of the proposed unit cell structure
In order to simulate and determine the transmission
parameter, finite integration time domain based
electromagnetic simulator CST microwave studio is used.
The proposed design is placed between the two waveguide
ports in the direction of the positive and negative Z-axis and
energized by the electromagnetic force. For boundary
condition, perfect electric and perfect magnetic boundaries
are applied in x and y direction. Standardized impedance
and simulation frequencies are 50 ohm and 2 to 16 GHz,
respectively. The NRW (Nicolson-Ross-Weir) method is
used to find the effective parameters from the complex S 11
(refraction coefficient) and S21 (transmission coefficient).
For these square shape resonators metal strips are used for
inductance and split gap are used for capacitance. When
length of metal strip is increased then LC resonator
frequency of the unit cell decreased and when split gap
increased then capacitance can be decreased and that is
responsible for the increase in LC resonance frequency.

Parameters Dimension Parameters Dimension 4. Results and Discussion

(mm) (mm) 4.1. Analysis with FR-4 Substrate Material
a 8 L4,W4 1.06 The numerical magnitude of the transmission coefficient
(S21) which obtained from the simulation for the proposed
b 8 d1 0.50
unit cell are shown in the figure 2 (a). From the simulation,
h 1.6 d2 0.35 it demonstrate that S21 displays resonances at 7.502 GHz
under C band and 13.671 GHz under Ku band of microwave
L1,W1 7 g1 0.50
spectra respectively. From figure 2(b), the negative
L2,W2 5 g2 0.25 permittivity from 3.86 to 7.95 GHz (bandwidth of 4.09
GHz), 9.084 to 11.20 GHz (bandwidth of 2.11 GHz), and the
L3,W3 2.47 G1 0.50
negative permeability from 8.68 to 16 GHz (bandwidth of
7.32 GHz). Furthermore, the negative refractive index from
6.283 to 7.19 GHz (bandwidth .90GHz) and 8.296 to 11.21
GHz (bandwidth 2.904 GHz).
Due to the internal architecture of the materials
permittivity and permeability properties are affected by the
polarization as well as refractive index is also affected by
that. Due to the negative permittivity at 7.501 GHz (ε = -
2.154), it can be called as ENG (epsilon negative)
metamaterial where the negative permeability is positive.
Also a near-zero refractive index appears with positive
values of n = 0.092, at near resonance frequency of 13.67
GHz shown in Figure 4(B). It maintains a bandwidth of
13.25 GHz to 14.18 GHz as the value of S21 remains under -
10 dB within that range of frequency with a near zero
refractive index (NZRI).

Figure 1: Unit cell Construction

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Figure 2: For FR-4 substrate (a) Transmission coefficient S21
(b) Amplitude of permittivity, permeability and refractive
index
4.2. Analyze with Rogers RT 6006 Substrate Material
To verify the effect of other substrate material Rogers RT
6006 dielectric material is used as a substrate replaced by
the FR-4 substrate with the same dimension. The value of
dielectric loss-tangent and dielectric constant of that Rogers
RT 6006 is 0.0027 and 6.15, respectively. By the substrate
material, there are three different resonance points found in
the plot of S21 after simulation and shown in Figure 3(a).
The permittivity (ε) graph exhibits negative characteristics at
frequency range of 3.66 GHz to 7.236 GHz (bandwidth
3.576 GHz), 8.3 GHz to 10.554 (bandwidth 2.25 GHz) and
14.44 GHz to 15.418 GHz (bandwidth 0.978 GHz) that was
shown in Figure 3(b).The permeability graph also exhibits a
negative value at the frequency of 8.566 GHz to 16 GHz
(bandwidth 7.44 GHz) shown in Figure 3(b). Therefore, in
this case, we can declare the material as a DNG
metamaterial at the frequency of 15.3 GHz because of at that
point the permittivity and permeability both are negative.
Moreover, it exhibits negative permittivity at 6.63 GHz
frequency, so in this point of frequency, it acts as an ENG
(epsilon negative) metamaterial. The DNG (double
negative) property can be further justified from the
30
refractive index graph shown in Figure 3(b), as refractive
index exhibits negative value for the frequency range of
12.584 GHz to 15.496 GHz which is clearly indicate that at
frequency 15.3 GHz the modified design act like as double
negative metamaterial. Therefore, by changing the substrate
material, the property of metamaterial can be changed and it
behaves like double negative metamaterial. The dielectric
constant of a material depends on internal structure and raw
compositions of it.
Figure 3: For Rogers substrate (a) Transmission coefficient
S21 (b) Amplitude of permittivity, permeability and
refractive index
4.3. Analyze with Polyimide Substrate Material
By following a previous strategy, we carried further
investigation by replacing earlier substrate material with a
new dielectric consisting of a lossy polyimide substrate that
contains dielectric constant of 3.5 and loss-tangent of
0.0027. The dimension of this new substrate material is
considered similar as the previous substrates. By this
substrate material after simulation, two different points of
resonance are found also in the graph of S21 at 8.15 GHz and
at 14.696 GHz and are shown in Figure 4 (a).
However, in the case of FR-4 substrate material, one
resonance point shifted from C-band to X-band. The
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permittivity (ε) graph exhibits negative characteristics at a
frequency range of 4.11 GHz to 8.412 GHz, 9.742 GHz to
11.772 and 15.874 GHz to 15.918 GHz and it was shown in
Figure 4 (b). The permeability graph also exhibits a negative
value at the frequency of 8.916 GHz to 16 GHz shown in
Figure 4 (b). Therefore, in this case, we can declare the
material as a DNG metamaterial at the frequency of 15.87
GHz. Moreover, it exhibits negative permittivity at 8.15
GHz frequency, so in this point of frequency, it acts as an
ENG metamaterial where permeability is negative.
The DNG property can be further justified from the
refractive index graph shown in Figure 4(b), as it exhibits
negative value for the frequency range of 15.784 GHz to 16
GHz. Therefore, by changing the substrate material, only the
property of metamaterial can be changed. Therefore, it is a
further evidence of our previous statement that, by changing
the substrate material, only the property of metamaterial can
be changed.
Figure 4: For Polyimoid substrate (a) Transmission
coefficient S21 (b) Amplitude of permittivity, permeability
and refractive index
31
4.4. Comparative Analyze of Different Types of
Substrates
In Table 1, we see the significant comparisons due to the
effect of different substrate materials. It is seen from the
table that with increasing value of dielectric constant of
different substrates, the resonant frequency range is
decreasing without rogers last resonance frequency.
However, the proposed metamaterial structure shows double
negative properties if we use Rogers RT-6010 substrate and
lossy polyimide substrate material. Another mentionable
point is, at a frequency of 13.671 GHz for FR-4 substrate,
the material shows NZRI characteristics, whereas around
15.87 GHz polyimide substrate material shows double
negative characteristics.
In this case, the difference between the dielectric
constant of FR-4 and polymide is 0.7. So, it demonstrates
that only 20% change in dielectric constant of the substrate
has turned the ENG (or single negative) metamaterial to
double negative metamaterial. However, it is clear from
these analyses that using the above structure, we can have
different types of metamaterial by changing the substrate but
all in C and Ku band microwave spectra. Moreover, from
the analysis, it is seen that due to the change in dielectric
property (from high to low), the material shows ENG,
MNG, NZRI, and DNG characteristics shown at the
minimum points of resonance frequency.
Table 2: Comparison of the effects of substrates on the
metamaterial.
Substrate Dielectric Frequency Metamaterial
material constant type
Rogers RT 6.15 6.63,12.668,15.3 ENG,MNG,
6006 DNG
FR-4 4.3 7.50,13.671 ENG,NZRI
Polyimide 3.5 8.15,15.87 ENG,DNG
5. Conclusion
In this paper, a novel metamaterial structure is proposed that
resonates at the frequency of 7.50 GHz and 13.671 GHz,
which is in the C-band and Ku- band of microwave spectra.
It acts as a single negative metamaterial at that frequency.
For the same design on Rogers RT 6010 substrate and
polyimide substrate material, it shows double negative
characteristics. Besides, satellite application C band is used
for weather radar application, data communication like Wi-
Fi etc and Ku band is used for satellite application.
Therefore, this material can be a promising one for satellite
applications and other applications of this range.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Research -Universiti Grant,
Geran Universiti Penyelidikan (GUP), code: 2016-028.
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References
[1] Zhongya nSheng, Vasundara V. Varadan Tuning the
effective properties of metamaterials by changing the
substrate properties, Journal of Applied Physics 101,
014909, 2007.
[2] Veselago, V.G. The electrodynamics of substances
with simultaneously negative values of and m.Sov.
Phys. Uspekhi, 10, 509, 1968.
[3] J. B. Pendry, A. J. Holden, D. J. Robbins, and W. J.
Stewart,“Magnetism from conductors and enhanced
nonlinearphenomena", IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory andTechniques, Vol. 47, pp. 2075-
2084, 1999.
[4] D. R. Smith, W. J. Padilla, D. C. Vier, S. C. Nemat-
Nasser, andS. Schultz, “Composite medium with
simultaneously negative permeability and
permittivity”, Physical Review Letters, Vol.84, pp.
4184-4187, 2000.
[5] Huang, X.Q.; Lai, Y.; Hang, Z.H.; Chan, C.T. Dirac
cones induced by accidental degeneracy in
photonic crystal and zero-refractive-index materials.
Nat. Mater., 10, 582–586, 2011.
[6] Ziolkowski, R.W. Propagation in and scattering from a
matched metamaterial having a zero index of
refraction. Phys. Rev. E, 70,
doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.70.046608, 2004.
[7] Cui, T.J.; Smith, D.; Liu, R. Metamaterials: Theory,
Design, and Applications; Springer: Berlin,
Germany, 2009.
[8] Karamanos, T.D.; Dimitriadis, A.I.; Kantartzis, N.V.
Compact double-negative metamaterials
based on electric and magnetic resonators. Antennas
Wirel. Propag. Lett. IEEE, 11, 480–483, 2012.
[9] S. Linden, C. Enkrich, M. Wegener, J. Zhou, T.
Koschny, and C. M.Soukoulis, Science 306, 1351,
2004.
[10] E. Ekmekci, G. Turhan-Sayan, “Investigation of
effective permittivity and permeability for a novel V-
shaped metamaterial using S-parameters” proceedings
on 5th International Conference on Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Bursa, Turkey, 2007.
[11] H. Benosman, N. B. Hacene, “Design and Simulation
of Double “S” Shaped Metamaterial” IJCSI
International Journal of Computer Science Issues, Vol.
9, 2012.
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9th September 2011 Solar Flare to MAGDAS Reading

Norhani Muhammad Nasir Annadurai1 , Nurul Shazana Abdul Hamid1* and Akimasa Yoshikawa2,3
1
School of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi,
Selangor ,Malaysia.
2
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, 33 Kyushu University, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Higashi-ku,
Fukuoka 812-8581.
3
International Center for Space Weather Science and Education, Kyushu University 53, 6-10-1 Hakozaki, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka
812-85811.
*corresponding author, E-mail: shazana.ukm@gmail.com

Abstract 2. Methodology
Solar flare can immidietly enhance magnitude of ionosphere
current and the investigation of this phenomena using We analysed effect of solar flare for the whole year from
ground based magnetometer is generally applied in the 2005 to 2013. Only one event that catches our attention
previous study. Rather than normal disturbance, peculiar which is on 9th August 2011 at 0805UT where an intense
effect can occur in equatorial magnetometer data where the solar flare class X6.9 detected by GOES 15 X-ray flux.
magnitude of magnetic readings decreases. This study is an Magnetic component from magnetometer are taken from
observation on the effect of solar flare class X that can Magnetic Data Acqusition System/Circum-pan Pacific
cause depletion of EUEL magnitude. Readings of ground Magnetometer Network (MAGDAS/CPMN). Table 1 shows
based magnetometer at equatorial stations from MAGDAS the geographic information of MAGDAS stations used and
network is use to study this event. Results show 9th Figure 1 ilustrates the location the stations.
November X class flare 6.9 cause depletion of magnetic Table 1: Longitude and latitude information of stations.
data in all magnetometer data for stations facing the Sun.
Code Latitude Longitude
1. Introduction ANC -77.13 -11.71
An intense eastward current is confined at dip equator is
ILR 8.5 4.68
known as equatorial electrojet, EEJ. Normally the solar
flare would increase the magnitude of current as ionization TIR 8.7 77.80
increases without changing the direction of the current.
DAV 7.00 125.40
However there are some studies found the different effect in
certain location or region of solar flare such as findings by YAP 9.56 138.14
[1,4, 6] in where they observed the westward current during
solar flare event. In [6], they found two events on 18 June
2000 and 3 July 2002 that were rather shocking as depletion
was found at some dip equatorial station as a high intensity
solar flare occur at noontime. In their work, they concluded
that the solar flare effect is limited to local time and the
depression of H component magnetic field shows
occurrence of westward current. Few years later, [3]
reexamined the events using more equatorial station. Their
work uses more data from magnetometer networks. They
found out that the counter EEJ does not occur according to Figure 1: MAGDAS dip equator stations.
the intensity of the flare and the direction of magnetic field
carried by the solar wind. Latest report by [7] in their Instead of using the raw H component data, we converted
review paper stated that the cause of depletion of H- to EUEL index [5] as it is the most suitable index to
component event is still a question until today. In all observe solar activity effect to the ionosphere.
previous study, only solar flare 23 and older was
considered. As our present solar cycle 24 is special (with
3. Results and Discussion
long solar minimum), different solar flare effect might be Top panel of Figure 2 shows variation of X-ray flux from
observed. GOES 15 and bottom panel shows EUEL index on 9th
August 2011 as stated before. Immediately after the solar
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
flare, depletion of EUEL magintude was detected. This
event produces depression magnetic data to all reading of
magnetometer at equatorial stations. Enlargement of EUEL
for occurance of solar flare is plot in Figure 3.
Figure 2: Variation of X-ray flux by GOES 15 satellite (up)
and EUEL index of stations during event (bottom).
Figure 3: Enlargement of EUEL index.
Depressions can be seen clearly to all stations except station
ANC. Data at ILR experienced highest negative EUEL
followed by DAV, TIR, YAP and MUT. Data at ANC does
not have significant solar flare effect as it is located
nighttime. This is the first time for such event reported in
which all daytime equitorial stations data from different
longitude experienced depletion. This indicate that EEJ
current at all location is turning westward [3,6].
4. Conclusion
Event on 9th November 2011 is supprisingly uniqe. We can
see that solar flare effect the normal EEJ flow. Futher study
using other stations located outside EEJ band from various
network should be done. We also suggest one to plot
34
equivalent current to show the turning direction of EEJ
current.
Acknowledgements
Author thanks the MAGDAS group for all their
collaborations. Financial resource are sponsored by
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Malaysian Ministry of
Education using grant FRGS/1/2015/ST02/UKM/02/1 and
GUP-2016-016.
References
[1] Rastogi, R. G., M. R. Deshpande, and N. S. Sastri.
1975. Solar flare effect in equatorial counter electrojet
currents. Nature. 258, 218–219.
[2] Rastogi, R. G., M. R. Deshpande, and N. S. Sastri.
1975. Solar flare effect in equatorial counter electrojet
currents. Nature. 258, 218–219.
[3] Rastogi, R.G., Chandra, H. and Yumoto K. 2013.
Unique examples of solar flare effects in geomagnetic
H field during partial counter electrojet along CPMN
longitude sector. Earth Planets Space, 65, 1027-1040.
[4] Sastri, J. H. 1975. The geomagnetic solar are of 6 July
1968 and its implications. Ann. Geophys., 31, 481–
485.
[5] Uozumi, T., Yumoto, K., Kitamura, K., Abe, S.,
Kakinami, Y., Shinohara, M., Yoshikawa, A., Kawano,
H., Ueno, T., Tokunaga, T., McNamara, D., Ishituka, J.
K., Dutra, S. L. G., Damtie, B., Doumbia V., Obrou,
O., Rabiu, A. B., Adimula, I. A., Othman, M., Fairos,
M., Otadoy, R. E. S., & MAGDAS Group1. 2008. A
new index to monitor temporal and long term variation
of the equatorial. Earth Planets Space 60: 785-790.
[6] Yamazaki, Y., Yumoto, K., Yoshikawa, A., Watari, S.
and Utada, H. 2009. Characteristics of counter-Sq SFE
(SFE*) at the dip equator CPMN stations. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 114, A05306.
[7] Yamazaki Y. & A Maute. 2016. Sq and EEJ—A
Review on the Daily Variation of the Geomagnetic
Field Caused by Ionospheric Dynamo Currents. Space
Sci Rev.
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Comparison of the Neural Network and the IRI Model for

Forecasting TEC over UKM Station
Rohaida Mat Akir1, 3, Mardina Abdullah1,2, Kalaivani Chellappan1,2, Siti Aminah Bahari1,2
1
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi
2
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor
Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM), 86400 Parit Raja, Johor,
Malaysia.
*corresponding author, E-mail: rohaida@uthm.edu.my, mardina@ukm.edu.my

GISTM stations at different locations and periods with

Abstract
One of the ionospheric parameters that affects the
propagation of radio waves is total electron content (TEC).
This paper presents a study on forecasting of TEC values
using neural network (NN) model over the GPS Ionospheric
Scintillation and TEC Monitor receiver at Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) station, Malaysia. The
reliability of the NN model and the International Reference
Ionosphere, (IRI) model in comparison to the observed
GPS-TEC was measured through root mean square error
(RMSE). As a preliminary result, the maximum peaks of
the GPS–TEC were observed during the post noon time and
the minimum was observed during the early morning time.
The IRI model RMSE (25.5 TECU) was compared to the
NN model (11.5 TECU). The NN model was found to be
suitable for predicting TEC over the UKM station compared
to the IRI model.
1. Introduction
Variation in ionospheric electron density has a major effect
on propagation of radio signals through the atmospheric
layer which ranges between 60 km to 1000 km above the
Earth’s surface. One of the quantities which can describe the
ionospheric ionization content is Total Electron Content
(TEC). GPS TEC can be defined as the integral number of
electrons in one cross sectional area (1 m2) unit along the
path of the GPS satellite to the receiver on the ground. TEC
is measured in TECU, where 1 TECU=1x1016 el.m-2. TEC
can be derived from a dual frequency L1 frequency at
1575.42 MHz and L2 frequency at 1227.60 MHz from GPS
Ionospheric Scintillation and TEC Monitor (GISTM)
receivers.
TEC forecasting can be performed using neural network
(NN) model. An NN is able to learn and make
simplifications. The simplification refers to the ability of a
neural network to create acceptable outputs for a set of
inputs not used during training (learning) [1]. NN has been
applied in TEC modelling using GPS data, including for
proper outcomes [2]–[7].
The IRI model is a data driven model where the accuracy
of the model in a specific region or time period depends on
the availability of reliable data for the specific region and
time given. It is stated that IRI01-corr and NeQuick
performed well compared to IRI-2001 [8], [9]. Thus in this
paper, the IRI01-corr was selected to be compared with the
prediction result using NN.
2. Data and Methodology
Available data during medium to high solar activity for a
period of five years, namely from 2011 to 2015, were used
for this study. Data were utilized from a GISTM receiver
installed at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM (2°55' N,
101°45’ E). The GPS receiver can track up to 11 GPS
satellites at L1 and L2 simultaneously and convert these
slant TEC (STEC) to vertical TEC (VTEC) at the sub-
ionospheric pierce point (IPP) by assuming the ionosphere
to be a single layer, by using a modified single layer model
as follows [10], [11]:
VTEC = STEC cos (x′) (1)
RE
sin x′ = sin x (2)
R E + hm
where x ′ and x are the satellite’s zenith angle at the IPP and
the receiver’s position, respectively. R E is the radius of the
earth (6371 km) and hm is the height of the ionosphere (450
km).
The training data sets were the TEC data from 2011 to
2014, while the TEC data in 2015 was reserved for the
testing data sets. The input space for the neural network was
selected from the parameters that affect the TEC value such
as solar activity (sunspot number) and both seasonal
variation (day number) and diurnal variation (hour number).
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Solar activity was indicated by the mean of 81 days of
sunspot number (SSN). The seasonal and diurnal variations
were represented by four components. The hour and the day
number of the year were expressed in both cosine and sine
components to allow a continuous trend in the data [12], as
follows:
2π × DN
DNS = sin ( ) (3)
365.25
2π × DN
DNC = cos ( ) (4)
365.25
2π × HR
HRS = sin ( ) (5)
24
2π × HR
HRC = cos ( ) (6)
24
where DN and HR are the day number of the year and time
of the day in hour, respectively. The factor 0.25 stands for
leap years. Therefore, the predicted TEC by the NN model
can be stated as follows:
TECNN = f (DNS, DNC, HRS, HRC, SSN) (7)
where, TECNN is the predicted TEC data by using the NN
model, DN is day number which was split into sine and
cosine, and HR is hour number which was represented in
sine and cosine, respectively.
For the NN model development, the training data set was
used by the NN to learn the relationship between different
input and output variations and for validation to improve the
NN model generation. Data testing sets were used for
evaluation of the NN performance on patterns that were not
trained during learning and assessment of the NN final
outcome, respectively [2]. The type of NN used was a feed
forward neural networks. During training, the Leverberg-
Marquardt back propagation algorithm was used for its time
saving advantage during training [2], [6]. In order to define
the most suitable number of neurons in the hidden layer, the
root mean square error (RMSE) values between the
observed and predicted outputs were used. The smaller the
RMSE, the better the model. The RMSE was computed
using the formula:
N Figure 3 shows the monthly variation between the VTEC
1
RMSE = √ ∑(TECmod − TECobs )2 (8)
N the NN model and the IRI01-corr model. As shown in
i=1
where TECmod and TECobs represent the modelled TEC using
NN and observed TEC, respectively. Figure 1 shows the
RMSE values computed after training the NN with hidden
neurons from 6 up to 20. After considering the different
numbers of hidden neurons during the NN training, 10
hidden numbers that provided the lowest RMSE of 7.30
TECU and optimum solution for the NN model were
chosen. There is no clear and straight forward way of
36
determining the number of hidden neurons. However,
similar statistical methods have been used in determining
hidden nodes for optimization [4], [7], [12], [13].
Figure 1: RMSE values using the NN model with the
corresponding number of hidden nodes from 6 to 20
nodes.
3. Results and Discussion
Figure 2 shows the comparison between the diurnal
variations of the VTEC obtained from the observed GPS–
TEC with the NN model and the IRI01-corr for the year
2015 at UKM station during the quiet days with Kp < 3.
Local time (LT) in Malaysia is eight hours ahead of
universal time (UT). The observed minimum VTEC value
at sunrise was between 0500 LT and 0600 LT. Then it
gradually increased until it reached its maximum between
1500 LT and 1700 LT shortly in the afternoon, followed by
another decrease in TEC value at sunset, at 1800 LT. As
illustrated in Figure 2, it can be observed that the NN shows
good agreement trends with the observed GPS-TEC data
throughout the day. In the early morning from 0100 to 0400
LT, all models showed underestimation of TEC values in
comparison to the observed GPS–TEC value. Between
0900 and 2400 LT, the IRI01-corr model exhibited an
underestimation of TEC values which is in agreement with
the observed data. The IRI01-corr model underestimated
the observed TEC from the GPS-TEC data because the
GPS-TEC computed the TEC from the ground all the way
up to the plasmasphere, but the IRI model included the
ionosphere only.
from the observed GPS–TEC and the ones modelled using
Figure 3, the VTEC trend gradually increased during noon
time starting from January to April. In contrast, from May
to August, the VTEC trend gradually decreased and in June,
it attained a minimum value. Starting from September, the
VTEC began to gradually increase again until December.
For the whole year of 2015, the IRI01-corr model showed
underestimated values compared to the observed GPS-TEC
after 0900 LT, while in October, the NN model showed
overestimated values compared to the GPS-TEC.
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(March, April, September, October), summer (May, June,

Figure 2: Diurnal hourly variation of VTEC from the
observed GPS-TEC with the IRI01-corr and the NN
model
July, August) and winter (January, February, November,
December). From the observation, the best agreement from
the NN model with the observed GPS-TEC was during the
summer seasons, followed by winter and then the
equinoxes. During the equinoxes, higher RMSE values
were observed. According to [8], during the equinox
months, the sun will be directly over the equatorial region
and during the June solstice, the ionospheric plasma
densities are generally low.
Referring to Table 1, the RMSE of the NN model ranged
from 1.90 and 11.50 TECU while the RMSE for the IRI01-
corr model was from 8 to 25.50 TECU for the whole year in
2015. The NN model in February gave higher RMSE of
11.43 TECU compared to the other months. The lowest
RMSE was 1.91 TECU in June followed by August with
1.95 TECU. In contrast, for IRI01-corr the highest RMSE
occurred in April with 25.42 TECU and the lowest RMSE
was 8.15 TECU in July. During the summer months, the
IRI01-corr model showed good prediction throughout the
whole day, but in other months, it had good prediction
during the morning and night time.

Figure 3: Monthly variation of VTEC from the observed GPS–TEC in comparison to the IRI01-corr and the NN
model for the year 2015.

To investigate the VTEC seasonal variations, the seasons

were divided into three seasons, namely the equinoxes
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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[3] J. B. Habarulema, L. A. McKinnell, and B. D. L.

Table 1: Comparison of RMSE between the observed Opperman, “Towards a GPS-based TEC prediction
GPS-TEC and predicted TEC (NN and IRI01-corr) model for Southern Africa with feed forward
model for the year 2015. networks,” Adv. Sp. Res., vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 82–92,
Month RMSE (TECU) between the 2009.
observed GPS-TEC and [4] J. B. Habarulema, L. A. McKinnell, P. J. Cilliers, and
NN model IRI01-corr model B. D. L. Opperman, “Application of neural networks to
South African GPS TEC modelling,” Adv. Sp. Res.,
January 5.75 22.03 vol. 43, no. 11, pp. 1711–1720, 2009.
February 11.43 25.12 [5] R. F. Leandro and M. C. Santos, “A neural network
March 8.31 25.08 approach for regional vertical total electron content
April 7.51 25.42 modelling,” Stud. Geophys. Geod, vol. 51, pp. 279–
May 6.19 19.49 292, 2007.
June 1.91 10.79 [6] M. J. Homam, “Prediction of Total Electron Content of
the Ionosphere using Neural Network,” J. Teknol., vol.
July 2.15 8.15 78, no. 5–8, pp. 53–57, 2016.
August 1.95 10.22 [7] K. Watthanasangmechai, P. Supnithi, S. Lerkvaranyu,
September 2.06 10.33 T. Tsugawa, T. Nagatsuma, and T. Maruyama, “TEC
October 4.81 11.48 prediction with neural network for equatorial latitude
November 2.47 13.55 station in Thailand,” Earth, Planets Sp., vol. 64, pp.
473–483, 2012.
December 2.03 12.68
[8] A. O. Akala, E. O. Somoye, A. O. Adewale, E. W.
4. Conclusion Ojutalayo, S. P. Karia, R. O. Idolor, D. Okoh, and P. H.
Doherty, “Comparison of GPS-TEC observations over
The results indicate that the NN model can be a good tool in Addis Ababa with IRI-2012 model predictions during
predicting TEC values. The reliability of the NN model and 2010-2013,” Adv. Sp. Res., vol. 56, no. 8, pp. 1686–
the International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) model in 1698, 2015.
predicting TEC in comparison to the observed GPS-TEC [9] N. A. Elmunim, M. Abdullah, A. M. Hasbi, and S. A.
was measured through root mean square error (RMSE). The Bahari, “Comparison of GPS TEC variations with
IRI model gave the highest value of RMSE (25.5 TECU) Holt-Winter method and IRI-2012 over Langkawi ,
compared to the NN model (11.5 TECU). From the Malaysia,” Adv. Sp. Res., vol. 60, no. 2, pp. 276–285,
averaged RMSE, the NN model provided good agreement 2017.
with the observed GPS-TEC during summer followed by
winter, and lastly, the equinox months. Future work will [10] Z. M. Radzi, M. Abdullah, A. M. Hasbi, J. S.
involve data over a longer period of time and include other Mandeep, and S. A. Bahari, “Seasonal variation of total
locations within the region of Malaysia. electron content at equatorial station, Langkawi,
Malaysia,” in International Conference on Space
Acknowledgements Science and Communication, IconSpace, 2013, no.
July, pp. 186–189.
The author would like to extend her gratitude to Universiti
[11] R. M. Akir, M. Abdullah, K. Chellappan, and A. M.
Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) for giving her study
Hasbi, “Preliminary vertical TEC prediction using
leave, enabling her to conduct this research. In addition, the
neural network: Input data selection and preparation,”
authors would like to acknowledge World Data Center
2015 Int. Conf. Sp. Sci. Commun., no. August, pp. 283–
(WDC) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric
287, 2015.
Administration (NOAA) for the solar and geomagnetic data
and express appreciation to Universiti Kebangsaan [12] L. A. McKinnell and A. W. V Poole, “The
Malaysia (UKM) for the installation and maintenance of development of a neural network based short term foF2
GISTM in UKM. This work was partially supported by forecast program,” Phys. Chem. Earth, Part C Solar,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia grant, GUP-2015-052. Terr. Planet. Sci., vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 287–290, 2000.
[13] E. O. Oyeyemi, L. A. McKinnell, and A. W. V Poole,
References “Near-real time foF2 predictions using neural
[1] S. Haykin, Neural Networks: A Comprehensive networks,” J. Atmos. Solar-Terrestrial Phys., vol. 68,
Foundation, 2nd ed. Indian: Pearson Education, 1999. no. 16, pp. 1807–1818, 2006.
[2] J. B. Habarulema, L.-A. McKinnell, and P. J. Cilliers,
“Prediction of global positioning system total electron
content using Neural Networks over South Africa,” J.
Atmos. Solar-Terrestrial Phys., vol. 69, pp. 1842–
1850, 2007.
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Variation of EEJ Longitudinal Profile during Maximum Phase of

Solar Cycle 24
Wan Nur Izzaty Ismail1, Nurul Shazana Abdul Hamid1*, Mardina Abdullah2,3,
Akimasa Yoshikawa4,5
1
School of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology
2
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change
3
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
4
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Faculty of Sciences, 33 Kyushu University
5
International Center for Space Weather Science and Education (ICSWSE), 53 Kyushu University , 6-10-1 Hakozaki,
Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan
*corresponding author, E-mail: shazana.ukm@gmail.com

Abstract 2. Method and Analysis

It has been well reported that the equatorial electrojet (EEJ) The longitudinal profile of EEJ was constructed using the
varies with longitude. This paper present the longitudinal average of normalized data from the year of 2012 until 2014.
variation of the EEJ strength based on maximum phases of The magnetometer data was taken from four longitude
solar cycle-24 (SC-24) in 2012, 2013 and 2014. This sectors. This involves fourteen station that located at South
analysis was carried using EUEL index calculated from he American sector (ANC-FUQ), African sector (ILR-TAM
northward H component of geomagnetic field. Data used in and AAB-NAB), Indian sector (TIR-ABG) and Southeast
this study were taken from ground-based magnetometer Asian (LKW-KTB and DAV-MUT) sector. Figure 1 shows
networks including MAGDAS, INTERMAGNET and IIIG. the positions of the selected magnetic observation. Each pair
The results obtained show that the EEJ varies with of the station are the combination of two stations that
longitude where is found strongest at two sector which are located at off dip and dip equator. The analysis carried out
South American sector and Southeast Asian sector. using the equatorial electrojet index, EUEL [6]. On the other
hand, Figure 2 illustrate the reading of sunspot number of
1. Introduction SC-24 from the year 2005 until 2016. The yellow box
represent the solar maximum period.
The current that flows eastward with very high intensity is
known as the equatorial electrojet, EEJ [1,2]. This EEJ
current flows at the altitude 90-120 km within the latitude
of ±3° at dip equator. Previous study have reported that the
EEJ current varies with longitude. Study by [3] using
empirical model from six longitudes sector found that the
magnitude of EEJ current were different according to the
longitude. Their results indicate that the EEJ current is the
strongest in South American sector which is between 80° to
100° west and weakest in Indian Sector at 75° east. Figure 1: Map of geomagnetic observation
However in their study, they does not emphasize the
contribution of Sq current that might influenced the EEJ
measurement.
Study by [4] agrees with previous study where the EEJ
current is higher at American sector. Their work is based on
solar minimum data. In the present study, we want to clarify
the longitudinal profile of EEJ during solar maximum in
SC-24. Hence, we adopt the method of using the average
data in order to get the longitudinal variation of the EEJ
[4,5].
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FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

Table 1: The average value of EEJ current

Station/Year 2012 2013 2014

ANC 89.81 79.98 102.55
ILR 55.5 NaN NaN
AAB 43.8 NaN NaN
TIR 25.11 26.23 44.55
LKW 83.78 101.1 104.81
DAV 53.17 55.21 70.79

Figure 2: Solar cycle-24
3. Results and Discussion
In this study we are covering the maximum phases of SC-24
which is in 2012, 2013 and 2014 as illustrated in Figure 3.
The blue line represent the linear interpolation while the
dotted red line shows the spline interpolation. EEJ is
represent by the average data. Results show that the EEJ was
strongest at South American sector which is in ANC-FUQ
station and Southeast Asian Sector which located at LKW-
KTB. Furthermore, trend of EEJ longitudinal profile shows
the same pattern through all year of solar maximum. On top
of that, in 2012, the lowest value of EEJ was recorded at
AAB-NAB stations that located in African sector. Since
there is no data available at ILR-TAM and AAB-NAB
stations in 2013 and 2014, we cannot compare the lowest
value of EEJ at particular year. Table 1 shows the average of
EEJ magnitude from the year of 2012 until 2014.
4. Conclusion
We investigate the longitudinal profile of EEJ using the
average yearly data from year 2012 until 2014. During
maximum phase, the EEJ value was stronger at South
American sector and Southeast Asian sector. This is
different with previous study which reported that EEJ
current calculated from ground based data is highest at
South American sector. Furthermore, in 2012, lowest value
of EEJ strength was located at AAB station. Future work is
necessary to compare the variability of EEJ current between
ground and satellite based.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank all the member of the
MAGDAS project for their cooperation and contribution to
this study. We thank the national institutes that support them
and INTERMAGNET for promoting high standards of
magnetic observatory practices (www.intermagnet.org).
Financial support was provided by Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia and Ministry of Education, Malaysia, using grants
FRGS/1/2015/ST02/UKM/02/1A and GUP-2016-016.
Yoshikawa were supported in part by JSPS Core-to-Core
Program (B. Asia-Africa Science Platforms), Formation of
Preliminary Center for Capacity Building for Space Weather
Research, and JSPS KAKENHI grants 15H05815. We also
acknowledge the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) for providing Kp index data,
Goddard Space Flight Center/Space Physics Data Facility
(GSFC/SPDF) OMNIWeb at http://omniweb.gsfc.nasa.gov
for providing F10.7 data, and the National Geophysical Data
Center (NGDC) for the estimated values of the magnetic
inclination component.

References
[1] S., Chapman, & K. S. Raja Rao, The H and Z
variations along and near the equatorial electrojet in
India, Africa and the Pacific. Journal of Atmospheric
and Terrestrial Physics, 27(4), 559–
581.https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9169(65)90020-6,
1965
[2] C. A. Onwumechili . Study of the Return Current of
the Equatorial Electrojet On the other hand , the
continuous distribution of current density model fitted
Figure 3: Longitudinal profile of EEJ for solar very well the horizontal field of the equatorial
maximum (2012, 2013 and 2014) electrojet observed on the ground in its entire range ,
the altitude. J. Geomag. Geoelectr, 44, 1–42 , 1992.
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FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

[3] V. Doumouya, B.R. Arora, Y. Cohen, and K. Yumoto,

Local time and longitude dependence of the equatorial
electrojet magnetic effects, Journal of Atmospheric and
Terrestrial. 65 (2003), 1265-1285.
[4] N. S. A. Hamid, W. N. I. Ismail, & A. Yoshikawa,
Longitudinal Profile of the Equatorial Electrojet
Current and Its Dependence on Solar Activity. Adv.
Sci Lett 23,1357-1360, 2017
[5] W. N. I. Ismail, N. S. A.Hamid, M. Abdullah,
A.Yoshikawa, & T. Uozumi, Longitudinal Variation of
EEJ Current during Different Phases of Solar Cycle.
Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 852(1).
https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/852/1/012019, 2017
[6] T., Uozumi, K. Yumoto, K. Kitamura, S. Abe, Y.
Kakinami, M. Shinohara, and the MAGDAS group. A
new index to monitor temporal and long-term
variations of the equatorial electrojet by MAGDAS /
CPMN real-time data : EE -Index. Earth, Planets and
Space, 60(7),785–790.
https://doi.org/10.1186/BF03352828, 2008.
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The Impact of High Environmental Temperature on Branchial

Ammonia Excretion Efficiency between Euryhaline and Stenohaline
Teleosts
Hon Jung Liew*1, Yusnita A Thalib1, 2, Ros Suhaida Razali1, Sharifah Rahmah2, Mazlan Abd.
Ghaffar2, 3, Gudrun De Boeck4
1
Institute of Tropical Aquaculture
2
School of Fisheries and Aquaculture Sciences
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
3
School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
4
Systemic Physiological and Ecotoxicological Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp,
Groenenborgerlaan 107, BE-2020, Antwerp, Belgium
*corresponding author, E-mail: honjung@umt.edu.my

physiological responses of fishes (Dalvi et al., 2009; Singh et

Abstract
As fish is ectotherms where their body temperature depend on
ambient temperature limit, which made them vulnerable to
the changes of surrounding environment. Temperature
beyond physiological tolerance limit is known to alter
biological processes disturbance that affect species survival
and ultimately cause imbalance ecosystem, which have been
widely studies in temperate region and oceanic. But, lack of
attention being focus on the comparative species in tropical
species. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the
impact of temperature on physiological response of
stenohaline-freshwater (ST-FW), stenohaline-seawater (ST-
SW) and euryhaline (EU). The main focus in the present study
was to elucidate the impact of temperature on branchial
osmorespiration efficiency on different categories of fishes
which were ST-FW (Hoven’s carp), ST-SW (Grouper) and
EU (Tilapia). Experimental specimens were exposed to
temperature at between 28oC and 32oC for two weeks before
the measurements. Our results showed that ammonia
excretion (Tamm) increased significantly in Tilapia but not in
Hoven carp and Grouper in high temperature. While
metabolic oxygen intake (MO2) in Hoven’s carp and Grouper
increased significantly with temperature. While, Tilapia
shows no significant difference in MO2 when expose to high
temperature. Through this study, it revealed a new insight of
understanding the effect of high temperature on three
different habitats of teleost.
1. Introduction
Rising of atmosphere temperature pose a direct impact to
aquatic animals. As fish is ectotherms organisms, their body
temperature depend on ambient temperature limit, which
made them vulnerable to the changes of surrounding
environment (Pang et al., 2011). Temperatures beyond the
optimal limit of a particular species adversely influence
al., 2013), subsequently threatened aquatic ecosystem
balancing (Dallas and Rivers-Moore, 2014). The effects of
high environmental temperature (HET) on biological
metabolism in fish has been well documented (Das et al.,
2005; Manush et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2005; Zheng et al.,
2008). But most of previous studies were focused on
temperate species, not much attention being highlighted on
tropical species. Different species at different geographical
region would have different tolerance strategy towards
changing environment in order to survive. Thus, pose
necessary gate to investigate this impact on tropical or warm
water species at different level such as stenohaline-freshwater
(ST-FW), stenohaline-seawater (ST-SW) and euryhaline
(EU). With all this information, we hypothesized that at HET,
the excretion of branchial ammonia by fish increases as their
metabolic rate increase due to HET exposure provoke high
metabolic rate, thus induce high ammonia production.
Therefore, high excretion rate was expected in line with
respiration rate. In order to understand the impact of HET on
metabolic responses of teleost, this study was designed with
objective to investigate the effect of HET (28 oC vs. 32oC) on
osmorespiration and branchial ammonia excretion efficiency
between stenohaline and euryhaline teleost.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Fish and Maintenance
Hoven carp (21.7 ± 1.9 g), Grouper (29.0 ± 1.7 g) and Tilapia
(40.8 ± 3.3 g) were purchased from the commercial fish farm.
Fish were transferred and kept in Hatchery facilities of the
Institute of Tropical Aquaculture at the Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu. Fish were maintained in plastic tanks equipped
with aeration and biological filters. The experimental fish
were fed thrice a day until satiation with commercial pellets.
The water parameter in the tank was monitored regularly
where the temperature is within 27-28 °C (for maintenance
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purpose), pH range at 6-8 and DO2 > 5 mg/L. The water in
the tank was replaced once a week at about 40% to maintain
the water quality.
2.2 Metabolic Oxygen Intake (MO2)
For MO2 measurements, 10 fish were randomly selected from
each of acclimation temperature. Fish were allowed to
acclimatize to the respirometers 2 h prior experimentation.
During acclimation period, each respirometry chamber were
supplied with continuous influx of oxygenate water and
gentle aeration. After acclimation period, 1 ml of initial water
sample was sampled from all chambers in triplicate and
calibrated oxygen electrodes (CyberScan DO 300, Portable
Dissolved Oxygen Meter, USA) was inserted to record initial
dissolve oxygen reading. After that, the aeration in
respirometry chambers was removed. Without stressing the
fish, the lid of the chamber was sealed to prevent water and
gas exchange. The respirometry assay was performed for 1 h.
After that, the final oxygen concentration (mg/L) was
recorded and the final water samples were sampled to
measure the excretion rate of ammonia. MO2 were calculated
as MO2=(ΔO2i−O2f)×V×1000× (1/O2MW)×(1/BW)×T, where
O2i is first oxygen concentration (mg/L) and O2f is second
oxygen concentration (mg/L); V is total water volume in
respirometer; O2MW is molecular weight of oxygen; BW is
body weight (g) and T is time (h); and expressed as μmol/g/h
[9] .
2.3 Total Ammonia Excretion (Tamm)
The ammonia assay was prepared according to phenol–
nitroprusside method [9]. The ammonia excretion was
calculated by following formula as Tamm excretion =
(ΔNH4+f – NH4+i) × V (1/NH4+MW) × (1/BW) × (1/T). Where,
NH4+i and NH4+f referred as initial and final ammonia
concentration (μg/L); V = the total water volume in
respirometer (L); NH4+MW = the molecular weight of
ammonia; BW = body weight (g); T = time (h). The ammonia
excretion is expressed as μmol/g/h.
2.4 Statistical Analysis
All data are expressed as means ± SEM (n = number of fish
tested) and significance was accepted at P<0.05. Significant
differences within temperature 32oC vs. 28oC on each
stenohaline and euryhaline species on ammonia excretion
(Tamm) and metabolic oxygen intake (MO2). Data normality
were checked with Shapiro-Wilk test. The significant
differences between temperature on each species of
Euryhaline (EU), Stenohaline freshwater (ST-FW) and
Stenohaline seawater (ST-SW) were assessed by unpaired
two-tail student t-test. Significance within temperature
acclimations among species-specific were analyzed using
One-way ANOVA. If the ANOVA indicated a significance
level at P<0.05, a Tukey multiple post-hoc test were done.
3. Results
Total ammonia excretion (Tamm) exposed at temperature
between 28oC and 32oC on Hoven carp, Grouper and Tilapia
is presented in Table 1. The current findings showed Tilapia
43
had significantly increased (P<0.05) the ammonia excretion
in both acclimation temperature which higher than in Grouper
and Hoven carp. While, the lowest trend of ammonia
excretion was observed in Grouper when conjugate in both
acclimation temperatures where the values ranging from 0.05
to 0.08 μmol/g/h. Contrastly, the reversal of ammonia
excretion pattern was displayed in Hoven carp, where low
excretion rate was noticed with elevated temperature, but no
significant difference was found within the temperature
exposure. Hence, this difference reflecting the temperature
had significantly (P<0.05) affected the ammonia excretion.
Table 1. MO2 and Tamm pattern of ST-FW Hoven carp (n=10),
EU Tilapia (n=10) and ST-SW Grouper (n=10) exposed to
temperature at 28oC and 32oC. Value are expressed as
mean±SEM. An asterisk (*) indicates a significant difference
between temperature. Lower case letter denote significant
differences on species-specific within temperature.
MO2 (µmol/g/h) Tamm (µmol/g/h)
Species
28oC 32oC 28oC 32oC
a*7.21± a0.53± a0.48±
Hoven 10.47±
carp 1.43 0.67 0.05 0.03
a11.82± 12.29± b*0.52± a0.95±
Tilapia
1.04 1.01 0.03 0.13
b*7.77± c0.05± b0.08±
9.99±
Grouper
0.49 0.51 0.01 0.01
The Metabolic oxygen intake (MO2) of Hoven carp,
Grouper and Tilapia that exposed to temperature at 28 oC and
32 oC is shown in Table 1. In the present study, it was found
that exposure of HET had significantly increased (P<0.05)
the oxygen consumption in both Hoven’s carp (10.47
μmol/g/h) and Grouper (9.99 μmol/g/h). As compared to
28oC, Hoven carp and Grouper only consume 7.21 and 7.77
μmol/g/hr. However, no significant difference (P>0.05) was
observed in Tilapia in both acclimation temperature.
Although it was clearly seen that Tilapia consumed more
oxygen (11.82 to 12.29 μmol/g/h) compared to the other two
species. In contrast, at ambient temperature (28 oC), all three
teleost exhibited difference oxygen consumption needs
(P<0.05) which not found in HET.
4. Discussion
The results obtained showed that acclimation in HET has
induced MO2 differently in Hoven carp, Grouper and Tilapia.
MO2 in Hoven’s carp and Grouper increased significantly
with increment of temperature as expected (Table 1). High
temperature provokes high metabolic rate in fish have
reported previously in fish Common carp [10], Pacific cod
[11], Asian catfish [3], Guppies [12] and Nurse Shark [13]. In
contrast, Tilapia in HET was able to maintain MO2 within
acclimated temperature. Tilapia is euryhaline which also a
osmoregulator, capable to maintain homeostasis without
much effort in different environments [10, 14]. It may explain
that Tilapia can modify metabolism needs and conserve their
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
energy during HET. The previous study revealed Tilapia able
to adjust their mechanisms to cope with temperature changes
[15, 16].
Reviewing the current study results, the differential
response of ammonia excretion (Table 1) were observed in all
three teleost under high environmental temperature (HET).
The ability of Tilapia to excrete more ammonia in HET was
strongly believed because the adaptability of the species to
modify gills mechanisms in different environment as they are
osmoregulator fish. It has been suggested that mitochondrian-
rich cells (MRCs) in the gill epithelium play a pivotal role in
enabling Tilapia to adapt to the changing environment [10,
17]. In the previous study, it has been found that MRCs in the
euryhaline fish have a capacity to adjust the branchial ion
ultrastructure and ion-transporting cells, such as Na+/K+-
ATPase [18]. Therefore, Tilapia can minimize the retention
of endogenous ammonia during HET by excreting the large
volume of ammonia in the external environment which was
in parallel with the current study. To counteract with
ammonia toxicant, various methods of uptake, elimination
and detoxification was deployed in order to survive in harsh
environments [20].
Contradictory, the present study found that rates of
ammonia excretion in Grouper were lower than in Hoven carp
and Tilapia. This difference could be due to the species-
specific excretory mechanism. Sayer and Davenport [21]
reported that marine fish only excrete 50-70% of nitrogen
across the gills compared to 90% in freshwater fish. This an
in agreement with the results obtained in Grouper, where
ammonia excretion rate was less than Hoven carp.
Additionally, the lower excretion rates of ammonia in
Grouper might be due to interference with electron potential
gradient in water chemistry in combination with temperature
stress. Goldstein et al. [22] and Ip and Chew [23] that
ammonia excretion efficiency in marine fish is lower than
freshwater fish due to the leaky tight junctions between
mitochondrion-rich cells that increase permeability for Na+
secretion. Thus, only small portion ammonia can be excreted
through Na+ diffusion. Further, this may lead to elevated
ammonia accumulation that might disturb the ionoregulatory
function [24, 25].
Surprisingly, present study shown the reversal of
ammonia excretion pattern in Hoven carp when conjugate in
HET which was unexpected, a low ammonia excretion rate
was found (Table 1). This strategy illustrates that Hoven carp
able to cope with the changes of temperature by lower down
the metabolic rate to avoid nitrogen metabolic waste
production. According to Randall and Tsui [26] under HET
condition, in order to avoid endogenous ammonia production,
fish reduce feed intake was reported. The similar findings also
seen in black bullheads where the reduction of feeding intake
was observed to compensate with the increased water
temperature and reduced metabolic rate [27]. Thus, in the
present study, it was found that Hoven carp able to re-
strategies basal metabolic needs to cope with HET by
reducing the feed intake to avoid ammonia accumulation.
44
5. Conclusion
High environmental temperature has induced differential
physiological responses among three teleost. It was found
that, Tilapia is the species to compromise with HET exposure.
In ST-FW (Hoven carp), metabolic rate has been minimized
to prevent ammonia toxication. While the ST-SW (Grouper)
is among the sensitive species that affected under HET
exposure with high metabolic rate. Overall, EU (Tilapia) has
the higher capability to cope with the warming environment
stress. Thus, through the findings, our hypotheses are
accepted where excretion of branchial ammonia increased
with increasing temperature in response of high metabolic
demand was seen in investigated species. We suggest a need
for future studies on ion-transporter, ion ventilation, blood
properties and the structure of gill morphology to investigate
the overall impact of HET on teleost. It will be interesting to
compare the most and less sensitive species when exposed to
HET.
Acknowledgement
This study was supported by the UKM-YSD Chair in Climate
Change Research Grant (Project Code ZF-2016-012) and
Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (Vot. No. FRGS-
59386). Authors also would to thank to Institute of Tropical
Aquaculture AKUATROP, UMT and staffs who help during
conducting this experiment.
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Effects of temperature changes on the endogenous
rhythm of oxygen consumption in the Japanese flounder
Paralichthys olivaceus. Fish. Sci., 71: 471-478, 2005.
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[8] Z. Zheng, C. Jin, M. Li, P. Bai, S. Dong. Effects of [22] L. Goldstein, J.B. Claiborne, D.E. Evans. Ammonia
temperature and salinity on oxygen consumption and excretion by the gills of two marine teleost fish: the
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G. De Boeck,. Fasting goldfish, Carassius auratus, and toxicity, and defense in fish: a review, Frontiers in
common carp, Cyprinus carpio, use different metabolic Physiology, 1: 134p, 2010.
strategies when swimming. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., [24] D.H. Evans, P.M. Piermarini, K.P. Choe. The
163: 327-335, 2012. multifunctional fish gill: dominant site of gas exchange,
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Size-dependent effects of daily thermal fluctuations on
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strains cultivated at different temperatures. Acta Scient.
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[17] A. Van Der Heijden, P.M. Verbost, J. Eygensteyn, J. Li,
S.E.W. Bonga, G. Flik. Mitochondria-Rich cells in gills
of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) adapted to fresh
water or sea water: quantification by confocal laser
scanning microscopy. J. Exp. Biol., 200: 55-64, 1997.
[18] C.M. Wood. Influence of feeding exercise and
temperature on nitrogen metabolism and excretion. In:
Nitrogen excretion. Wright P.A., Anderson P.M. (eds.),
Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 201-218, 2001.
[19] C.M. Nawata, S. Hirose, T. Nakada, C.M. Wood, A.
Kato. Rh glycoprotein expression is modulated in puffer
fish (Takifugu rubripes) during high environmental
ammonia exposure. J. Exp. Biol., 213: 3150-3160, 2010.
[20] N. Romano, C. Zeng. Toxic effects of ammonia, nitrite,
and nitrate to decapod crustaceans: A review on factors
influencing their toxicity, physiological consequences,
and coping mechanisms. Rev. Fish. Sci., 21: 1-21, 2013.
[21] M.D. Sayer, J. Davenport. The relative importance of
the gills to ammonia and urea excretion in five seawater
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561–570, 1987.
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Large Scale Wave Structure Prior to the Developmet of Equatorial

Plasma Bubbles

Suhaila M Buhari1,3, Mardina Abdullah2, Tajul Ariffin Musa,3

1
Scientific Computing and Instrumentation, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
2
Space Science Centre, Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Geomatic Innovation, Faculty of Geoinformation and Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: suhailamb@utm.my

geostationary satellite such as the GPS, where the signal is

Abstract
The large scale wave structure (LSWS) is believed to seed
equatorial plasma bubble (EPB) through Rayleigh-Taylor
instability process. The onset time and location of successive
EPBs during post sunset hours was successfully observed
using high-density GPS receivers in Malaysia. This study
aims to detect the LSWS using GNU Radio Beacon
Receiver (GRBR) at Kuala Lumpur (KLP). The GRBR
receives beacon data from low Earth orbit satellite (LEOS)
such as Communications/Navigation Outage Forecasting
System (C/NOFS). C/NOFS transmits beacon data at 150
and 400 MHz from 400 – 800 km altitude. TEC can be
derived from phase difference between the transmitted
frequencies. The LSWS at the bottomside of the F layer is
detected from large TEC perturbation. The results show that
the GRBR is capable of detecting LSWS before sunset
hours. Further study on the spatial relation between the
LSWS and EPB will be carried out in the near future.
integrated from the satellites at 22,200 km altitude. In this
study, the existence of the wavelike structures prior to the
development of the EPBs will be investigated using radio
beacon data from low earth orbit satellite (LEOS).
2. Data Observation
In this study, the properties at the bottomside of the F layer
is investigated using GNU Radio Beacon Receiver (GRBR)
installed at Kuala Lumpur (KLP) (2.92oN, 101.77oE; dip
latitude 6.86oS) as shown in Figure 1. The GRBR receives
beacon data from low earth orbit satellite (LEOS) such as
Communications/Navigation Outage Forecasting System
(C/NOFS) which orbits at 400 - 800 km altitude. The
GRBR receives beacon data from C/NOFS at 150 and 400
MHz frequencies. The total electron content (TEC) at the
bottom-side of the F layer can be derived from phase
different between both frequencies as equation below [2]:

1. Introduction
, (1)
The equatorial ionosphere most often shows a nighttime
plasma irregularity that is commonly referred as equatorial Where Ψ1 and Ψ2 are phase at both frequencies, 150 MHz
plasma bubble (EPB). The occurrence of EPB could cause and 140 MHz. Next, p = 3, q = 8, fr = 50 Mhz, A = 80.6 m3
rapid fluctuations in the amplitude and phase of the s-2, c is speed of light, η’ is system phase bias and ∫ N dx =
propagation radio signals and crucial to communication and TEC.
navigation systems. The EPBs normally occur successively The GRBR data was collected from KLP station on 18
where one structure rising after another during the sunset March 2013. TEC was calculated from GRBR data using
time. However, the onset time and location of the EPBs are equation (1). Then, the LSWS was determined by
ubiquitous because the seed of the initial perturbation is not subtracting the TEC with 2.5 minutes running average. The
completely understood. large perturbation inside the TEC could cause the
The horizontal modulation in a form of wavelike development of EPBs. The probability of EPB occurrence
structures along the observed longitudes might be becomes 100% when the LSWS amplitude is more than 3
responsible for the development of successive EPBs [1]. The TECu at Southeast Asian and African sectors [3].
wavelike structures at the bottom-side of ionospheric layer
could be easily amplified into successive EPBs due to high
growth rate of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability (RTI) during
high solar activity. The wavelike structures in the zonal
direction could be present in the late evening plays an
important role in the development of successive EPBs
during sunset time.
The wavelike structures that appear at the bottom-side of
the ionospheric layer could not be detected from
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
GRBR station (KLP)
Figure 1: The location of GRBR at Kuala Lumpur
(KLP) (2.92oN, 101.77oE; dip latitude 6.86oS).
3. Results and Discussion
For the first time, TEC and LSWS from GRBR data at KLP
station on 17 April 2017 are shown in Figure 2 (a), (b) and
(c). Each figure depicted TEC and LSWS from three
C/NOFS orbits at approximately 0921 UT (1st orbit), 1104
UT (2nd orbit) and 1247 UT (3rd orbit). The red and blue
lines in the upper panel for each Figure 2 shows TEC and
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2: TEC and LSWS from three C/NOFS orbit at (a)
0921 UT, (b) 1104 UT and (c) 1247 UT.
47
2.5 minutes running average of TEC, respectively. The blue
lines in the bottom panel for each Figure 2 depicted the
LSWS, where the TEC is substracted by 2.5 minutes
running average.
The upper panel of Figure 2 (a) shows the decreasing of
TEC from 50 TECu 30 TECu for the 1st C/NOFS orbit. The
LSWSs from the 1st C/NOFS orbit are shown in the bottom
panel of Figure 2(a), where the small depletions of the TEC
can be clearly seen around 95o East and 102o East. Noted
that the vertical axis of the LSWS is between -2 to 2 TECu.
Two LSWSs can be seen as early as 0921 UT at 95 o East,
which is 3 hours before sunset.
Figure 2 (b) illustrates TEC and LSWS for the 2nd
C/NOFS orbit at 1104 UT. The green and red lines denote E
and F region sunset, respectively. The upper panel shows
TEC decreasing from 40 TECu to 10 TECu. Lower TEC
around the sunset hours is due to low recombination rate at
the bottomside of F layer. At the same time, we can see that
LSWSs at the bottom panel of Figure 2 (b) have different
shape as compared to LSWSs in the 1st C/NOFS orbit.
Furthermore, both LSWSs in Figure 2 (b) are slightly
shifted to the East.
Figure 2 (c) presents TEC and LSWSs from the 3 rd
C/NOFS orbit at 1247 UT. TEC is plotted in upper panel is
decreases from slightly more than 20 TECu to around 20
TECu. The E and F region sunset are located at 90o East and
94o East. Interestingly, the two LSWS structures are behind
the F region sunset. Noted that the vertical axis of LSWS is
from 5 to –5 TECu. The amplitude of both LSWS depleted
rapidly from around 1 TECu in the 2nd C/NOFS orbit to
approximately 5 TECu in the 3rd orbit. The larger depletion
after F region sunset hout might be associated with the
occurrence of EPB. However, the observation of the EPB
using radar, imager or GPS receiver should be carried out in
the future.
4. Conclusion
The TEC and LSWS have been successfully derived from
the GRBR data at KLP station on 18 March 2017. The
results show that the LSWS exist 3 hour ahead of E-region
sunset. This showed that the GRBR system is capable of
detecting the existence of LSWS prior to the occurrence of
EPB. The GRBR would be beneficial to predict the
occurrence of EPB in the future.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Roland Tsunoda, Mamoru
Yamamoto and Tulasi Ram Sundarsanam for the GRBR
data. The data can be obtained from Space Science Centre,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and SRI International. We
are grateful for the funding that supported this work;
Fundamental Research Grant Scheme -
FRGS/1/2016/WAB08/UKM/01/1 from Ministry of Higher
Education and Potential Academic Staff – PY/2017/00125
from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
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References
[1] S. M. Buhari, M. Abdullah, T. Yokoyama, Y. Otsuka,
M. Nishioka, A. M. Hasbi, S. A. Bahari and T.
Tsugawa, Climatology od successive equatorial plasma
bubbles observed by GPS ROTI over Malaysia, J.
Geophys. Res. Space Physics, 122, 2174-2184, 2017.
[2] S. V. Thampi, M. Yamamoto, R. T. Tsunoda, Y.
Otsuka, T. Tsugawa, J. Uemoto, and M. Ishii, First
observations of large-scale wave structure and
equatorial spread F using CERTO radio beacon on the
C/NOFS satellite, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L18111,
2009.
[3] S. Tulasi Ram, M. Yamamoto, R. T. Tsunoda, H. D.
Chau, T. L. Hoang, B. Damtie, M. Wassaie, C. Y.
Yatini, T. Manik, and T. Tsugawa, Characteristics of
large-scale wave structure observed from African and
Southeast Asian longitudinal sectors, J. Geophys. Res.
Space Physics, 119, 2288–2297, 2014.
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Determining the Probability of Sediment Resuspension in the East

Coast of Peninsular Malaysia through Wind Analysis
Shahirah Hayati Mohd Salleh1, Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar1, 2, Khairul Nizam Abdul
Maulud1,2, Nor Aslinda Awang3
1
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
2
Earth Observation Centre (EOC), Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
3
Coastal Management and Oceanography Research Centre, National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia, NAHRIM
*corresponding author, E-mail: shahirahhayati@siswa.ukm.edu.my

speed distribution and its impact on sediment transport.

Abstract
Hence, this study aims to gain a better understanding of
This paper discusses the possibility of sediment wind speed characteristics and its variations along the
resuspension events due to variation in wind speed along Pahang shoreline, and their associated effects on sediment
the Pahang Shoreline. The data for observed mean wind transport. Statistical analysis was done by using the Weibull
speed for a period of four years and 3 months from 2011 till distribution to analyze wind speed. In general, Weibull
2015 was statistically analysed. Two probability density distribution is the best method for describing coastal wind
functions were fitted to the measured probability speed analysis and is widely used for analyzing wind power
distributions on a yearly basis. The mean wind speed for the energy [8-9].
entire data set was found to be 5.92 m/s with a standard
deviation of 2.71. The monthly variation in wind speed 2. Study Area
determined by using the Weibull power density and
Rayleigh distribution is presented. They show that the wind
speed along the Pahang shoreline is 5 m/s 40% of the time
and 7.5 m/s for the remaining 70% of the time. Wind
direction is predominantly determined by the Northeast
monsoon and ranges between 10ο to 80ο, and it brings with
it more than 150 W/m2 wind energy.

1. Introduction
The Pahang shoreline is very susceptible to global climate
change and the challenges in sustaining the natural
resources along this shoreline for future generation is real.
Wind speed associated with climate change plays a major
role in inducing wave and tidal current which mobilize
sediment [1-2]. The East coast of Peninsular Malaysia is
subject to the hydrodynamics and wind from the South
China Sea. The North East Monsoon season (between
November and March) has a profound impact on the east Figure 1: Peninsular Malaysia
coast of peninsular Malaysia and can often cause severe
flooding [3]. Additionally, the South west Monsoon season The east coast of peninsular Malaysia comprises of four
(between May and September) also plays a significant role states, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang and Johor (as shown
in changing the morphology of the east coast shoreline [4] in Figure 1). Two major rivers (i.e. Sungai Pahang and
through the accumulation and deposition of sediment via Sungai Kelantan) along this coast, which have the widest
littoral transport [5]. Booth et al. (2000) has shown that an coastal plain, mobilized high sediment yield from the river
average critical wind speed of 4 m/s may induce a discharge to the shore [5]. For instance, Kuala Pahang
suspension of up to approximately 50% of the bottom received 1755.242 tons/km2/year of suspended sediment
sediment. Shi (2002) studied sediment behavior in Tampa load from the Pahang River. Dawi et al. (2013) have
Bay and found that a maximum of 3.21 x 10-3 kg/m/s determined that, in the months of November and December,
sediment had been transported by a wind speed of 20 m/s. wind magnitude and direction exert a significant influence
It is cruical to have an in-depth understanding of wind on the river plume of the Pahang River. A Coastal Wind
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

(U10) data along the Pahang shoreline for the period from
October 2011 to December 2015 was compiled using the
data provided by Jabatan Meteorologi Malaysia. The data
was gathered through ship observation at latitude longitude
between 2.5N 103E - 4.2N 105E. The wind speed in East
coast of Peninsular Malaysia is higher than 5 m/s during the
Northeast monsoon [11].
3. Methodology
Weibull and Rayleigh Distribution Analysis
Two important parameters for analysing wind speed by
using the Weibull distribution function are shape and scale
factors, which is expressed mathematically as [12]
to 10 m/s between the periods from December to February.
The velocity of wind speed is much lower between Jun and
August and ranges between 5 m/s and 8 m/s. Wind speed is
relatively lower in April and May and is typically less than 5
m/s. Wind speed from September to October is almost
consistent every year, hence indicating no significant impact
of climate change (at least for the years being studied).
Moreover, the variation in wind speed for each month
differs, particularly for the year 2013, where the mean wind
speed is much lower than all the other years with the
exception of during the Northeast Monsoon season. The
mean wind speed is higher for the year 2014 and decreased
slightly in 2015.

𝑘 𝑣 𝑣 𝑘
𝑓(𝑣) = ( )𝑘−1 exp(− ( ) ), (1)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

where,
ν = wind speed (m/s)
k = shape factor (dimensionless)
c = scale factor (m/s)

Rayleigh distribution is categorised when the k value of the

Weibull distribution is 2 [13]. The cumulative probability
function of the Weibull distribution is given by
Figure 2: Wind speed distribution frequency based on wind
direction
𝑣 𝑘
𝑓(𝑣) = 1 − exp[− ( ) ]. (2)
𝑐

Wind Power Density Analysis Table 1: Wind direction range based on months
Wind direction, degree Months
A wind power density analysis was done to determine the k
value for the best fit of the Weibull distribution with the 0-80 Oct, Nov, Dec, Jan, Feb,
observed data. The Weibull power density analysis of time Mar
series was used to calculate wind energy from wind speed 90-260 Apr, May, Jun, Jul, Aug,
data by using the following equation [12] Sep
270-350 Oct, Nov, Dec, Jan, Feb,
1 1
𝑃= 𝜌 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑣 3 = 𝜌𝑣𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 3
(3) Mar
2𝑛 2

where,
ρ = air density 1.225 kg/m3
vmean = mean wind speed (m/s)
n = number of time series wind speed data

4. Results and Discussion

In this study, the probability of wind speed influence
towards sediment resuspension had analysed. Figure 2
shows the wind speed distribution for the period from 2011
to 2015 along the Pahang shoreline based on wind direction.
The histogram shows that the highest wind speed occurs
from the 20ο direction with a frequency higher than 0.09. Figure 3: Mean wind speed by month and year
The frequency pattern of wind speed is higher between the
directions of 0ο to 80ο which occurs between October and Table 2 shows the mean wind speed, standard deviation
March (northeast monsoon season). The wind during the and Weibull parameters for each month for the period from
Southwest monsoon (April to September) comes from the 2011 to 2015. The highest mean wind speed of 7.75 m/s
direction of between 90ο to 260ο, as shown in Table 1. occurs in January and the minimum mean wind speed of
From figure 3, the variation in wind speed clearly shows 4.00m/s occurs in April. As the mean speed is typically
a diurnal pattern, with a high wind speed of between 5 m/s higher than 4 m/s, there is a high possibility of the wind
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FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

speed mobilizing sediment, either from the coast to the high based on the Weibull and Rayleigh lines (red lines in
shore or vice versa. However, the probability of sediment Figure 4). It can be inferred, based on the study conducted
mobility via wind speed is lower in April, as indicated by by Booth et al. (2000), that the bottom sediment in shallow
the lowest shape factor (k = 1.46). areas will be resuspended by wind speed of 4 m/s. It can be
seen from Figures 4 and 5 that higher wind speed will result
Table 2: Mean wind speed, standard deviation, and in increased suspended sediment in water column, especially
Weibull parameters during the Northeast monsoon. Figure 5 shows that 40 and
Month ν (m/s) σ k c (m/s) 70% of the cumulative distribution frequency have wind
speeds of 5 and 7.5 m/s, respectively.
Jan 7.75 3.41 2.59 8.39
Feb 6.50 2.32 3.14 7.24 Table 3: Weibull and Rayleigh parameters and
Mar 5.75 2.95 2.32 6.06 root mean squared error
Apr 4.00 2.90 1.46 4.39 Weibull Rayleigh
May 4.25 2.47 2.15 4.91 RMSE 0.02 0.02
Jun 6.50 3.11 2.22 7.18 2
R 0.9996 0.9998
Jul 6.50 2.30 3.13 7.16 k 1.99 2.00
Aug 6.50 2.38 3.13 6.93 c 6.77 6.77
Sep 6.25 2.88 2.56 6.93
Oct 5.00 2.42 2.44 5.49
Nov 4.60 2.26 2.22 5.16
Dec 7.40 3.07 3.40 8.15
Total 71.00 32.47 30.74 77.98
Mean/year 5.92 2.71 2.56 6.50

Wind speed analysis based on both Weibull and

Rayleigh distribution functions were examined by
comparing the probabilities predicted by both models to the
actual frequencies of measured data. Figures 4 and 5 present
the annual observed wind speed data, Weibull power
Figure 5: Cumulative distribution frequency of observed
density, and Rayleigh distribution, as well as the cumulative
data (dashed line) and Weibull analysis (solid line)
distribution of the observed wind speed and the Weibull
analysis. Analysis shows that the mode of frequency for the
Figure 6 illustrates the monthly variation in wind speed
wind speed to reach a velocity of 5 m/s is 0.12. Both the
and wind power density for the years 2011 to 2015. The
Weibull and Rayleigh distributions analysis show a well-fit
maximum energy of wind speed occurs in December and
distribution with an RMSE value of 0.02 and R2 of 0.9996
January with energy greater than 200 W/m2. On the other
for Weibull and 0.9998 for Rayleigh distributions, as shown
hand, the months of April and May have the lowest energy,
in Table 3.
which is well below 50 W/m2. Wind energy analysis could
potentially be used to describe the possibility of harvesting
wind energy for use as green energy. Further exploration
and analysis, including numerical model, need to be done in
this area.

Figure 4: Comparative histogram of observed wind speed

distribution, Weibull distribution analysis, (solid line), and
Rayleigh distribution (dotted green line).

Furthermore, the probability of the wind speed in the Figure 6: Variation of mean wind speed and wind power
East coast of Malaysia reaching between 4 m/s and 8 m/s is density for the period from 2011 to2015
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

5. Conclusion Schoellhamer 1995, pp. 865–871, 2002.

This study presents the results of a statistical analysis of [8] Y. M. Kantar and I. Usta, “Analysis of wind speed
wind speed data for the period from 2011 to 2015 for the distributions: Wind distribution function derived from
region along the Pahang shoreline. The results of the minimum cross entropy principles as better alternative
analysis show that the Weibull power density distribution to Weibull function,” Energy Convers. Manag., vol.
and Rayleigh distribution are able to describe wind speed 49, no. 5, pp. 962–973, 2008.
distribution very well. There is a high probability of wind [9] C. Ozay and M. S. Celiktas, “Statistical analysis of
speed reaching a velocity of between 4 m/s and 8 m/s which wind speed using two-parameter Weibull distribution
will promote sediment transport along the Pahang shoreline. in Alaçatı region,” Energy Convers. Manag., vol. 121,
Statistical analysis is a cost effective method for determining pp. 49–54, 2016.
the probability of wind energy in coastals area in [10] A. Dawi, L. Tukimat, A. R. Sahibin, and A. R.
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to gain a better understanding of the dynamic process of in AIP Conference Proceedings, 2013, vol. 1571, pp.
wind speed on sediment transport since tidal and wave 596–601.
influences can also be included in the model. [11] S. K. Najid, A. Zaharim, A. M. Razali, M. S. Zainol,
K. Ibrahim, and K. Sopian, “Analyzing the East Coast
Acknowledgements
Malaysia Wind Speed Data,” Int. J. Energy Environ.,
The authors wish to thank Jabatan Meteorologi Malaysia for vol. 3, no. 2, p. 8, 2009.
providing the wind data for the state of Pahang. [12] K. Mohammadi, O. Alavi, A. Mostafaeipour, N.
Goudarzi, and M. Jalilvand, “Assessing different
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[3] A. R. MatAmin, F. Ahmad, M. Mamat, M. Rivaie, and
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[4] M. E. Toriman, M. B. Gasim, Z. Yusop, I. Shahid, S.
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A Review on Forest Carbon Sequestration as a Cost-effective Way to

Mitigate Global Climate Change
Asif Raihan1, Rawshan Ara Begum1, Mohd Nizam Mohd Said1, 2, Sharifah Mastura Syed Abdullah1
1
Institute of Climate Change (IPI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
2
School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: asifraihan666@gmail.com

such as afforestation, reduced deforestation, regeneration,

Abstract
This article provides a review on forest carbon sequestration
as a low-cost option for climate change mitigation strategy.
Several studies have analyzed the costs of forest carbon sink
programs by estimating their cost effectiveness and carbon
sequestration capacity in a variety of settings. Increasing of
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has led to climate change
which is dominated by carbon dioxide (CO2). Forestry
sector has a huge potential in reducing carbon emissions,
atmospheric accumulation of GHGs as well as the negative
impacts of climate change. Forests absorb a huge amount of
atmospheric CO2 in the process of photosynthesis and
carbon remains stored as biomass in trees for a long periods.
Because of such capacity to store carbon which is called
carbon sequestration, interest in using forests for climate
change mitigation has been growing. The question is
whether the carbon sequestration process is a cost effective
way to mitigate climate change or not. However, it is found
that carbon sequestration through various forestry activities
can be a cost-effective way to mitigate climate change.
1. Introduction
Over the past few decades, rising atmospheric accumulation
of GHGs causes global warming and changes in all
components of the climate system. CO2 is the major GHG
which is the main reason for rising global average surface
temperature. Deforestation and burning of fossil fuels are
the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide emission
that increase the negative effects of climate change. Thus,
limiting climate change will require substantial and
sustained reduction of CO2.
However, the world’s forests play a critical role in the
global carbon cycle [1] by fixing, storing, and emitting vast
quantities of atmospheric carbon. Terrestrial ecosystems
store approximately 1 trillion tons of CO2 in the biomass of
living trees and plants [2]. Reducing forest carbon
emissions and increasing forest carbon stocks (carbon
sequestration) are potentially important elements of a global
climate change mitigation strategy [3]. It would be possible
to increase this carbon efficiently to reduce the future
damages of climate change by different mitigation options
agroforestry and sustainable forest management [4].
Sequestering carbon in the forests will allow the
implementation of more permanent options for the
avoidance of greenhouse gas emissions, and stabilization of
climate change.
Concern about rising carbon emission and atmospheric
concentrations of greenhouse gases [5] has inspired the
search for tactics of sequestering carbon in plant biomass.
The economics of carbon sequestration have been analyzing
for approximately two eras and proved that carbon
sequestration can play a substantial economic role in
climate change mitigation through reducing the greenhouse
gas emissions. Thus, this article provides a review on forest
carbon sequestration as a low-cost option for climate
change mitigation strategy.
2. Forest Carbon Sequestration and Carbon
Stocks
Forests draw carbon from the atmosphere in the process of
photosynthesis, and the carbon may remain stored for long
periods in trees and other forest vegetation (in above and
below ground biomass and in forest soils). This process of
absorbing atmospheric CO2 by trees and storing as carbon
biomass is called carbon sequestration. For the past dozen
years there has been a growing interest in the possibility of
mitigating the global warming effects of carbon dioxide by
increasing the carbon stocks in biomass and soils. Deveny
et al. [6] reviewed six studies on global estimates of forest
carbon stokes to compare the global forest carbon stock
estimates. IPCC (2006) showed that maximum 1,145,348
MtCO2eq can be sequestered globally by the forests (Table
1). On an average this amount is 837,206 MtCO2eq where
Forest carbon index (2009) found it 762,634 MtCO2eq.
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Table 1: Global Estimates of Forest Carbon Stocks [6] production, and urban forestry. The cost estimates vary
within and between forests in tropical, temperate and boreal
Global Forest zones. Table 2 shows that the marginal cost ranges from 1.5
Carbon Stocks References US$/tonC to 133 US$/tonC which represents the cost of
(MtCO2-eq) reducing 1 ton carbon emission through forest carbon
762,634 Forest carbon index (2009) sequestration. Richards and Stokes [17] make a
856,511 Kindermann et al. (2008) comprehensive and thorough review of 36 studies on carbon
373,838 Gibbs and Brown (2007) sequestration in forests at different geographical scales
1,145,348 IPCC (2006) (global, regional, national, and subnational). They find that
726,483 Olson et al. (1983); Gibbs (2006) the cost per ton carbon sequestration varies between 13 and
983,747 Houghton (1999); DeFries et al. (2002) 188 US$ per ton carbon.
777,834 Brown (1997); Achard et al. (2002,
2004) Table 2: Marginal cost ranges of forest carbon
693,815 FAO (2006) sequestration, in 2011 prices [adapted from 18]
837,206 Average
Marginal cost range References
Malaysia has a large forested area, estimated at 17.7 M ha US$/ton C
which offers an opportunity for carbon sequestration. The 1.5 – 133 Sedjo et al. (1995)
forest ecosystem of Peninsular Malaysia alone is reported to 13 – 188 Richards and Stokes (2004)
contain 23.48 Million tons of Carbon (or 86.17M to CO2 4.5 – 24 Van Kooten et al. (2004)
equivalent) and a carbon sequestration potential of 4 tons of 0 – 60 Van Kooten et al. (2009)
carbon ha-1year-1 [7]. Both aboveground and belowground 0.4 – 171 Phan et al. (2014)
carbon density in the forests of Malaysia was decreased
from the year 2000 to 2010 (Figure 1) while a little bit of Van Kooten et al. [19] include 55 studies, and
carbon biomass has recovered in 2015 [8]. investigate the impact of forest activity (tree planting and
agroforestry) and the use of forest product (wood and
Carbon in aboveground biomass bioenergy). They obtain a baseline estimate that varies
Carbon in belowground biomass between approximately 4.5 and 24 US$/ton C. Van Kooten
et al. [20] is a follow up meta-analysis where the number of
4,000 studies have been increased to 68, and the results are used
Carbon (Million metric

3,000 to predict carbon sequestration costs in different countries

and for different forest sink activities. The marginal cost
2,000 ranges from near zero to 60 US$/ton C. Locations in
tons)

1,000
0 plantation and use of harvested biomass for energy seem to
1990 2000 2005 2010
Figure 1: Trend of forest carbon sequestration in Malaysia
3. Cost of Forest Carbon Sequestration
Several studies over the past two decades have analyzed the
costs of forest carbon sequestration. The studies vary
according to geographic scope. For example, Nordhaus [9]
and, Sedjo and Solomon [10] provided global analyses,
Dixon et al. [11] analyzed costs of sequestration on three
continents, Alig et al. [12], van Kooten et al. [13], and
Masera et al. [14] considered sequestration costs in the
United States, Canada, and Mexico, respectively. Lubowski
et al. [15] reported that almost 1/3 of the US carbon
reduction commitment would be achieved in a cost-
effective solution by forest carbon sequestration.
The estimation of carbon sequestration cost is a
necessary input for determining its potential in relation to
other climate change mitigation measures. Sedjo et al. [16]
carry out a review of a handful studies which consider
conversion of land into forests, long-rotation periods, forest
management, long-lived wood products, biomass for energy
tropical regions are found in the lower range, and the higher
range costs are found for activities in Europe. Tree
2015 be the least costly forest project. Phan et al. [21] make a
meta-analysis on 32 studies on avoidance of deforestation in
developing countries. They found that the avoidance cost
ranges between 0.4 and 171 US$/ton C with an average of
10.3.
A study by Michetti and Rosa [22] presented that, the
inclusion of carbon sink could reduce the cost of meeting
European Union (EU) 2020 carbon dioxide (CO 2)
mitigation commitment in an emission trading system
(ETS) by at least 25%. Vass et al. [23] used a non-linear
programming model to calculate the net cost of emission
reduction for 27 EU member countries with and without
forest carbon sequestration, and emissions when EU targets
are met in a cost-efficient manner. France, Germany, Italy
and Spain have the highest net cost in both scenarios (Table
3). These are also the countries with the highest GDP and
therefore have a larger national abatement burden as well as
fewer emission allowances. The EU countries that
experience the highest cost saving by including forest
carbon sequestration are Austria, Estonia, Latvia, Slovenia
and Sweden. Table 3 also shows cost-efficient emissions in
2020 with and without sequestration. Altogether, the total
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FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

emission level is reduced by 11.4% when including forest offsetting carbon emissions. Malaysia is one of the tropical
carbon sequestration. countries with a huge percentage of forest land. Malaysia's
Table 3. Net costs and net emissions in the cost-efficient Second National Communication (NC2) assumed the
solutions with and without forest carbon sequestration in carbon price RM 16 (US$ 3.68) per ton CO2eq [1]. Thus,
some of the EU Countries [23] carbon sequestration cost in Malaysia can be cheaper than
Europe or North American countries. Forestry sectors in
Net cost Net cost Emission Emissio Malaysia could play a key role in enhancing cost-effective
EU of of s 2020 ns 2020 carbon sequestration and sinks while reducing global
Countries emission emission without with greenhouse gas emissions and thereby mitigate climate
reduction reduction sequestra sequestr change.
without with tion ation
sequestra sequestra (Thousan (Thousa 4. Discussion and Conclusion
tion tion d ton nd ton
(Million (Million CO2) CO2) Due to the increase of carbon emission, current impacts and
Euro) Euro) future risks of climate change become more apparent.
Austria 989 128 64172 51572 Forests act both as sources and sinks of greenhouse gases
(GHG), through which they have significant influence on
Estonia 42 -3 11668 8300
the climate on earth. Approximately 17.4 percent of annual
Finland 399 211 43840 13949 global carbon dioxide emissions are caused by deforestation
France 2813 1098 330060 264670 and forest degradation and it will be impossible to solve the
climate change problem without addressing these emissions.
Germany 7224 2752 626800 609300
Forests and other terrestrial systems annually absorb
Greece 367 364 82790 80185 approximately 2.6 GtC (9.53 GtCO2eq), while deforestation
Hungary 580 170 49121 47232 and degradation of forests emit approximately 1.6GtC (5.87
Ireland 622 609 39403 38451 GtCO2eq), for net absorption of 1GtC (3.67 GtCO2eq) [24].
Thus, reducing emissions from deforestation by forest
Italy 6346 4054 417980 329000 carbon sequestration could be one of the most cost-effective
Latvia 366 -30 7224 -13260 tools for reducing GHG emissions as well as climate change
Lithuania -82 -66 10589 3305 mitigation.
Forests are at the heart of the transition to low-carbon
Netherlands 1505 1460 155840 155280
economies. Forests and forest products have a key role to
Poland 991 562 230650 191440 play in mitigation and adaptation, not only because of their
Portugal 318 127 59808 55784 double role as sink and source of emissions, but also
Slovakia 413 98 31931 30620 through the potential for wider use of wood products to
displace more fossil fuel intense products. Forests have
Slovenia 227 41 13000 9547 potential for climate change mitigation in both developed
Spain 3503 1350 303970 288050 and developing countries, through a range of activities.
Sweden 2290 9 45360 25362 While mitigation potential and costs of forest carbon
sequestration differ greatly by activity, region, system
boundaries and time horizon, FAO [25] indicate that the
Therefore, it is crucial that forests play a duel role by total economic mitigation potential of afforestation,
acting as both sink and source of carbon emission. reducing deforestation and forest management could range
Reducing carbon emission by both decreasing deforestation from 1.9 to 5.5 Gt CO2eq per year in 2040 at a carbon value
and storing carbon as biomass are possible only through of less than US$20 per ton CO2eq.
forest carbon sequestration. Thinking about reducing carbon Establishment of carbon prices can accelerate the
emission without forest carbon sequestration is so expensive transition to low-carbon economies and would incentivize
that it’s almost impossible for most of the countries over the increases in forest area and use of wood products. At the
world. Compare to other mitigation options, carbon moment, market incentives for forest mitigation are almost
emission can be reduced by increasing carbon sink through non-existent. The Kyoto Protocol has fostered a carbon
forest carbon sequestration within short time duration with market; its accounting rules and project guidelines for
the lowest cost. generation of carbon credits defined the activities eligible
Tree growth rate in the tropical and sub-tropical areas is for mitigation and hence shaped the main investments in
faster than the other regions. Moreover, most of the tropical mitigation in developed and developing countries. Globally,
and sub-tropical countries are developing countries and tree however, the combined value of the regional, national and
planting cost along with the land cost on that areas are subnational carbon pricing instruments was less than US$50
cheaper than temperate or boreal region. Due to cost billion in 2015, of which almost 70 percent was attributed to
effectiveness, high potential rates of carbon uptake, and emission trading systems and the rest to carbon taxes.
associated environmental and social benefits, much Carbon prices vary significantly, from less than US$1 to
attention has focused on promoting tropical forestry for US$130 per ton CO2eq. About 85 percent of emissions are
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
priced at less than US$10 per ton CO2eq. This is
considerably lower than the price estimated as needed to
meet the recommended 2°C climate stabilization goal.
From the last several decades, there has been a growing
interest to mitigate global warming and climate change by
increasing the carbon stocks in tree biomass and soils. The
literature reviewed demonstrated the differences on the
costs of capturing and storing carbon in forest ecosystems
among the global, national and regional level. It becomes
apparent that the cost of emission reduction with forest
carbon sequestration is much lesser compared to the cost of
emission reduction without forest carbon sequestration. The
emission reduction rate is also higher for the forest carbon
sequestration. Therefore, forest carbon sequestration can be
the most cost-effective way to mitigate climate change
which provides an indication for further studies in relation
to climate change mitigation cost and carbon sequestration
through various forestry activities in Malaysia.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful for the research grants from the
project ‘Assessing Coastal Vulnerability due to Climate
Change towards Sustainable Community in Malaysia’
(Project Code: AP-2015-009) and Trans Disciplinary
Research Grant Scheme (TRGS/1/2015/UKM/02/5/3).
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Winnett, Assessing Effects of Mitigation Strategies for
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Environmental & Resource Economics 9: 259–274,
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Kinsman, The economics of managing carbon via
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Review of Methodology on Source Apportionment of PM2.5 near a

Coal-fired Power Plant using Multivariate Receptor Modelling
Ahmad Hazuwan Hamid1,*, Md Firoz Khan1, Mohd Talib Latif2
1
Centre for Tropical Climate Change System, Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
2
School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
*Corresponding author, Email: p92987@siswa.ukm.edu.my

Abstract 2. Application of Methodology

Coal-fired power plant releases various hazardous pollutants
into the atmosphere. This study reviews various
methodologies to examine the composition of PM 2.5 near a
coal-fired power plant which includes trace metals, ionic
compositions, elemental carbon and organic carbon. The
possible sources of the PM2.5 can be predicted using positive
matrix factorization (PMF) model and validated using
trajectory based modelling. A health risk assessment can also
be performed to know the health impact towards the
population living near the power plant.
1. Introduction
The increasing global temperature and climate change
coincide with the rise of the industrial era. The demand and
consumption of energy have been increasing to satisfy the
growing demand for the rapid development. Therefore, the
number of power stations has also increased. In Malaysia,
coal accounts for 43% of the total energy input in power
stations or 13,591.44 ktoe in 2014 [1]. However, coal is not a
completely clean fuel as it produces various pollutants such
as ash, carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and other particulate matter (PM) mixed with
hazardous elements during the combustion process at the
power plants [2].
Among the pollutants, PM2.5 (less than or equal to 2.5 μm
in aerodynamic diameter) can cause damage towards the
respiratory and cardiovascular systems, particularly to the
elderly and sensitive groups of population [2]. Moreover,
recent studies discovered that PM2.5 can also damage the
nervous system [3]. Thus, further studies and baseline data
are required to identify the toxic chemical profiles and their
related emission sources.
Multivariate receptors modelling have been well known
used to separate the potential sources of the observable air
pollutant. It is a tool that is able identifies the source of the
pollution by separating each component and associated them
with each potential sources of pollution [4]. Therefore, this
article aims to review the method of analysing, and
determining the source apportionment and health risk
assessment from PM2.5 dust collected near a coal-fired power
plant.
2.1 Chemical Analysis
2.1.1 Trace Metals Composition
In order to analyse the chemical composition of PM2.5, a
portion of the filter samples can be cut into smaller pieces and
placed inside a Teflon vessel. The reagent, 12 mL of nitric
acid (65% Merck KGaA, Germany) and 3 mL of hydrogen
peroxide (40% Merck KGaA, Germany) can be used which
was also mentioned by Khan et al. [5]. The Teflon vessel,
containing the reagent and portion of the sample can be
placed inside a microwave and operates in two stages: (1) 180
°C for 20 min and (2) 220 °C for 15 min. If the samples are
less than three, the power can be set at 500 watts and 1000
watts for more than three. Upon completion, the Teflon vessel
can be left to cool down at room temperature before filtered
using a syringe filter and transferred into a 50 mL centrifuge
tube. The sample solution can be diluted with ultrapure water
(UPW; 8.2 M Ωcm, Easypure® II, Thermo Scientific,
Canada). The sample usually needs to be preserved in a
refrigerator at 4 °C if further chemical analysis is delayed. A
study by Khan et al. [5] and Ali et al. [6], also preserved the
prepared samples at a similar temperature. The trace metals
including the rare earth element (REE) (Al, Ba, Ca, Fe, Mg,
Pb, Zn, Ag, As, Cd, Cr, Li, Be, Bi, Co, Cu, Mn, Ni, Rb, Se,
Sr, V, In, Tl, U, Ce, Dy, Er, Eu, Gd, Ho, La, Lu, Nd, Pr, Sc,
Sm, Tb, Th, Tm, Y, and Yb) are required to be determine
using an inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS; PerkinElmer ELAN 9000, USA). In order to rely
on the quality of the data, detection limit (DL) of the
instrument is required. The convenient procedure as reported
widely in the literatures to determine the DL was three times
of the standard deviation of the trace elements in the filter
blanks. Several researchers introduced an analytical step to
produce an accurate result [4, 7]. As part of the procedures,
two (2) sets of analysis can be applied: (a) a set of high metal
concentration (Al, Ca, Fe, Mg, Zn, and Mn), and (b) a set of
low metal concentration (Ba, Pb, Ag, As, Cd, Cr, Li, Be, Bi,
Co, Cu, Ni, Rb, Se, Sr, and V). For the construction of
external calibration lines, Multi-Element Calibration
Standards 2 and 3 (PerkinElmer Pure Plus; PerkinElmer,
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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USA) are commonly used as calibration standards [4]. It was
found in the literatures that the calibration concentration was
chosen as 10 ppb to 100 ppb in the ambient samples collected
in Malaysia based on the above group of the elements.
2.1.2 Ionic Compositions
The water-soluble ionic (Na+, NH4+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, NO3-
, and SO42-) (WSI) compositions are significant to describe
mainly the secondary inorganic and marine borne
compositions. An ion chromatograph (IC) (Metrohm 850
model 881 Compact IC Pro, Switzerland) is widely proposed
in the literatures to determine their concentration level. The
following cationic and anionic columns were seen in the
published articles to the above IC analysis [8, 9]. Metrosep
A-Supp 5–150/4.0 and C4–100/4.0 columns can be used to
determine cations and anions, respectively. The 1.7
mmol L-1 nitric and 0.7 mmol L-1 dipicolinic acids can be
prepared for use as eluents for cations. Eluents of 6.4 mmol
L-1 sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) (Merck, Germany) and 2.0
mmol L-1 sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) (Merck, Germany)
can be prepared and used to measure anions (Cl-, NO3-, and
SO42-) with a flow rate of 0.7 mL min-1. The 100 mmol L-
1
Suprapur® sulfuric acid (H2SO4) (Merck, Germany) can
also be prepared to use as a suppressor regenerant, and ions
can be detected by a conductivity detector. The detailed of the
analysis procedure was described by Khan et al. [4].
2.1.3 Elemental Carbon and Organic Carbon
This analysis can determine the EC and OC fractions from the
PM2.5 samples. The ratio of EC/OC can then determine the
source of pollutant where a high OC can indicate the source
is from biomass burning. The OC and EC concentration can
also be correlated with the trace metals or ionic compositions
to further classify the sources [4].
2.2 Health Risk Assessment
Health risk assessment (HRA) usually involves four steps
which are, hazard identification, estimation of dose response,
exposure assessment and risk characterization. We can follow
the methods introduced by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (US EPA).
The hazardous air pollutants emitted from sources are As,
Cr, Cd, Hg and Pb, which can cause dangerous health
problems. The hazardous elements are also further grouped
into carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic elements for better
classification of the health threats. The estimation of the dose
response can identify the relationship of exposure amount and
the adverse health effect. Reference dose (RfD) and reference
concentration (RfC) are used to determine the toxicological
risk. The common acceptable cancer risk threshold is one in
a million (10-6) but it still varies among different countries
[10].
2.3 Receptor Modelling
Multivariate receptor modelling can help to identify the
potential sources of PM2.5. The commonly used receptor
models are principal component analysis (PCA), absolute
principal component analysis (APCS), positive matrix
59
factorization (PMF), chemical mass balance (CMB),
UNMIX and other statistical modelling approaches. There
have been several studies reviewed by Park and Oh [11] that
compare the performance of the different receptor models.
However, each of the study has its own context and purpose
as well as advantages/disadvantages. Pant and Harrison [12]
mentioned that the use of PCA, CMB and PMF alone produce
a high correlation for source identification with overall
similar consistency but different in the percentage of the
contribution of sources. It is suggested that the combined
approach could possibly increase the robustness of the results.
Thus, a comparative source apportionment can be considered
using PMF, PCA/APCS and CMB to produce a trusted result.
2.4 Trajectory Modelling
The calculation of the backward trajectories (BTs) is an
important tool to discover the transport pathway of the air to
the sampling site. The trajectory path can be used to further
justify the source apportionment from the receptor modelling
and highlight the any influence of the meteorology factors
towards the pollution concentration on a site. The Hybrid
Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory Model
(HYSPLIT) was used by several researchers [4, 13-16]. To
increase the visualization of the illustrations, IGOR PRO, a
graphical software can also be used to modify or add
additional information to the trajectories as suggested by
Khan et al. [4, 17].
3. Discussion
Coal has been formed from plant life after millions of years
under high pressure and heat. During the process, it absorbs
impurities from the surrounding. Some of these impurities are
Hg, Ni, As, and Pb which are recognized as hazardous
elements. Coal can be classified into four types based on their
heating value, ash content and moisture. This characteristic
can also reflect on the amount of impurities present in the
coal. The most common type of coals is bituminous and sub-
bituminous due to their abundance. Thus, the major
hazardous pollutants are present in the coal material, which
can pose human, and ecosystem damage [18]. Medina et al.
[19] described the level of elements (ppm) released from coal-
fired power plant as Cs (5), Mn (153), Tl (5), Sc (14), Ga (39),
Y (29), Zr (236), Nb (26), Sn (5), La (40), Ce (79), Pr (10),
Nd (37), Sm (5), Eu (1), Gd (6), Tb (1), Dy (6), Ho (1), Er (3),
Yb (4), Hf (5), Ta (7), W (5), and Bi (1). The hazardous
elements determined in PM2.5 can be used as input parameters
to estimate the non-cancer and cancer risk.
The composition profiles of PM2.5 are essential to conduct
source apportionment of the hazardous pollutants. A study by
Yang et al. [20] have identified the coal combustion sources
based on the high concentration of Cl, Br, Pb, As, Mn, and Cu
mixed with moderate concentration of OC, SOx, and NOx and
Fe [20]. Song et al. [16] reported that the high concentration
of OC, EC and Cl can also be an indication of coal
combustion. As, Se and Cs are also indicators to identify a
coal combustion sources as reported widely in the literatures.
Khan et al. [4] and Moreno et al. [21] identified coal
combustion sources referring As a tracer. The ratio of OC/EC
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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has also widely used to classify the coal combustion source
as suggested by Watson and Chow [22].
4. Conclusion
By applying several receptor modelling techniques, a robust
and reliable result can be obtained. The use of the multivariate
techniques can help to identify and pinpoint the source of
PM2.5. A comparison of the several receptor models can
produce an appropriate result. Source apportionment is not
only able to pin point the main source of pollution of an area,
but also help to plan for any countermeasure to stop or reduce
the negative impact towards the human health and ecosystem
around it.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia for Research University Grant GGPM-2016-034
and FRGS/1/2017/WAB05/UKM/02/6.
References
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(Energy Commision), 2014.
[2] S.A.M. Din, N.N.-H.N. Yahya, and A. Abdullah, Fine
Particulates Matter (PM2.5) from Coal-fired Power Plant
in Manjung and its Health Impacts, Procedia - Social
and Behavioral Sciences 85(Supplement C): 92-99,
2013.
[3] E. Underwood, Brain pollution: Evidence builds that
dirty air causes Alzheimer’s, dementia. 2017.
[4] M.F. Khan, N.A. Sulong, M.T. Latif, M.S.M. Nadzir, N.
Amil, D.F.M. Hussain, V. Lee, P.N. Hosaini, S.
Shaharom, N.A.Y.M. Yusoff, H.M.S. Hoque, J.X.
Chung, M. Sahani, N. Mohd Tahir, L. Juneng, K.N.A.
Maulud, S.M.S. Abdullah, Y. Fujii, S. Tohno, and A.
Mizohata, Comprehensive assessment of PM2.5
physicochemical properties during the Southeast Asia
dry season (southwest monsoon), Journal of
Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 121(24): 14,589-
14,611, 2016.
[5] M.F. Khan, M.T. Latif, W.H. Saw, N. Amil, M.S.M.
Nadzir, M. Sahani, N.M. Tahir, and J.X. Chung, Fine
particulate matter in the tropical environment:
monsoonal effects, source apportionment, and health
risk assessment, Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
16(2): 597-617, 2016.
[6] M.Y. Ali, M.M. Hanafiah, M.F. Khan, and M.T. Latif,
Quantitative source apportionment and human toxicity
of indoor trace metals at university buildings, Building
and Environment 121: 238-246, 2017.
[7] N. Amil, M.T. Latif, M.F. Khan, and M. Mohamad,
Seasonal variability of PM2.5 composition and sources
in the Klang Valley urban-industrial environment,
Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16(8): 5357-5381, 2016.
[8] N.A. Sulong, M.T. Latif, M.F. Khan, N. Amil, M.J.
Ashfold, M.I.A. Wahab, K.M. Chan, and M. Sahani,
Source apportionment and health risk assessment
among specific age groups during haze and non-haze
60
episodes in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Science of The
Total Environment 601-602(Supplement C): 556-570,
2017.
[9] M.F. Khan, S.W. Hwa, L.C. Hou, N.I.H. Mustaffa, N.
Amil, N. Mohamad, M. Sahani, S.A. Jaafar, M.S.M.
Nadzir, and M.T. Latif, Influences of inorganic and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on the sources of
PM2.5 in the Southeast Asian urban sites, Air Quality,
Atmosphere & Health 10(8): 999-1013, 2017.
[10] M.M. Mokhtar, M.H. Hassim, and R.M. Taib, Health
risk assessment of emissions from a coal-fired power
plant using AERMOD modelling, Process Safety and
Environmental Protection 92(5): 476-485, 2014.
[11] E.S. Park and M.-S. Oh, Bayesian quantile multivariate
receptor modeling, Chemometrics and Intelligent
Laboratory Systems 159: 174-180, 2016.
[12] P. Pant and R.M. Harrison, Critical review of receptor
modelling for particulate matter: A case study of India,
Atmospheric Environment 49: 1-12, 2012.
[13] L.A. Chen, J.G. Watson, J.C. Chow, D.W. DuBois, and
L. Herschberger, PM2.5 Source Apportionment:
Reconciling Receptor Models for U.S. Nonurban and
Urban Long-Term Networks, J Air Waste Manag Assoc
61(11): 1204-1217, 2011.
[14] J.K. Choi, J.B. Heo, S.J. Ban, S.M. Yi, and K.D. Zoh,
Source apportionment of PM2.5 at the coastal area in
Korea, Sci Total Environ 447: 370-80, 2013.
[15] C.H. Jeong, M.L. McGuire, D. Herod, T. Dann, E.
Dabek–Zlotorzynska, D. Wang, L. Ding, V. Celo, D.
Mathieu, and G. Evans, Receptor model based
identification of PM2.5 sources in Canadian cities,
Atmospheric Pollution Research 2(2): 158-171, 2011.
[16] Y. Song, Y. Zhang, S. Xie, L. Zeng, M. Zheng, L.G.
Salmon, M. Shao, and S. Slanina, Source apportionment
of PM2.5 in Beijing by positive matrix factorization,
Atmospheric Environment 40(8): 1526-1537, 2006.
[17] M.F. Khan, M.T. Latif, C.H. Lim, N. Amil, S.A. Jaafar,
D. Dominick, M.S. Mohd Nadzir, M. Sahani, and N.M.
Tahir, Seasonal effect and source apportionment of
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2.5,
Atmospheric Environment 106: 178-190, 2015.
[18] E. Burt, P. Orris, and S. Buchanan, Scientific Evidence
of Health Effects from Coal Use in Energy Generatio.
University of Illinois at Chicago School of Public
Health, 2013.
[19] A. Medina, P. Gamero, X. Querol, N. Moreno, B. De
León, M. Almanza, G. Vargas, M. Izquierdo, and O.
Font, Fly ash from a Mexican mineral coal I:
Mineralogical and chemical characterization, Journal of
Hazardous Materials 181(1): 82-90, 2010.
[20] L. Yang, S. Cheng, X. Wang, W. Nie, P. Xu, X. Gao, C.
Yuan, and W. Wang, Source identification and health
impact of PM2.5 in a heavily polluted urban atmosphere
in China, Atmospheric Environment 75: 265-269, 2013.
[21] T. Moreno, A. Karanasiou, F. Amato, F. Lucarelli, S.
Nava, G. Calzolai, M. Chiari, E. Coz, B. Artíñano, J.
Lumbreras, R. Borge, E. Boldo, C. Linares, A. Alastuey,
X. Querol, and W. Gibbons, Daily and hourly sourcing
of metallic and mineral dust in urban air contaminated
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by traffic and coal-burning emissions, Atmospheric

Environment 68(Supplement C): 33-44, 2013.
[22] J.G. Watson and J.C. Chow, Source characterization of
major emission sources in the Imperial and Mexicali
Valleys along the US/Mexico border, Science of The
Total Environment 276(1): 33-47, 2001.
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Study of Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) for High Frequency

(HF) Band at Equatorial Region in Malaysia
Johari Talib1,*, Sabirin Abdullah1
1
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
*corresponding author, E-mail: P92949@ukm.edu.my

ionosphere and HF frequencies in the equatorial region [4].

Abstract
In this paper, the study of maximum usable frequency (MUF)
has been conducted for high frequency (HF) band at the
equatorial region in Malaysia. HF propagate through
skywave and reflected by the ionosphere. However, the HF
communication facing the issue as the user unable to
determine the right frequency to use in the HF radio
according to the time of day, year and location. The highest
possible frequency that can be used to transmit over a
particular path under given ionospheric conditions is called
the Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF). The aim of this
research is to develop the MUF model base on Malaysian
region and subsequently to improve HF communication. The
research refers to the appropriateness of HF frequency that
can be an account by the users according to the time of day,
year, sunspot cycle and location. An approach to study using
theoretical and data collecting to determine MUF models has
been performed using DXLab and MATLAB software,
modeling and simulation MUF model and validation of MUF
model.
1. Introduction
The process of selecting the best frequency according to the
prevailing conditions is known as frequency management.
Successful frequency management depends upon the ability
to predict, measure and react to a range of parameters that
characterize both the propagation path and the noise [1]. The
need for frequency management as an aid to improve radio-
circuit operations has been pointed out by King and Slater
(1973) and the implications of the daily variations of HF
communications circuits has been studied by Rush et al.
(1974). There are several methods of frequency
management, i.e. by computer prediction, experience,
ionospheric sounders and others. A computer prediction is
very popular amongst the other. In the USA has an
ionospheric prediction program called the Ionospheric
Communications Enhanced Profile Analysis and Circuit
(ICEPAC) [3]. This program is a full system performance
model for HF communications circuits. This program has
been chosen by many researchers as an ionospheric model.
Malaysia is located in the equatorial region (2° 30' North
latitude and 112° 30' East longitude), which the diurnal and
monthly variations may perform differently in the mid-
latitude region. Therefore, there is the need to predict
The aim of this research is to build MUF model based on
Malaysian environment and used the model to predict the
MUF. The parameters of MUF equations will be obtained
from generated frequency, experimental setup and
International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) model, a standard
empirical model that was developed based on all the
available data sources from various measurement location in
Malaysia. The MUF results from the models can be
compared with MUF data obtain from actual transmission
between HF base station (ANGKASA) and selected mobile
station. The minimum error model will be selected as a MUF
model for Malaysian.
HF communication in Malaysian environment is not fully
explored compared to other Asian regions such as China,
Australia, Indonesia and Thailand, and another part of the
world. However, there are a few type of researches on HF
communications in Malaysia, focusing on HF data
communication [5], on automatic link establishment (ALE)
capability of HF radio [6] and secured HF image
transmission [7]. The study of HF communication on the
Malaysian ionosphere would help in the improvement of the
prediction of the HF frequencies at Malaysian region and
obtain better quality HF communication links.
HF radio waves reflected by the ionosphere can provide
a relevant amount of information with the composite
received signal. The ionospheric layer can be measured
through the technique known as Vertical Sounding
Technique [8]. This technique able to evaluate the positions
of the ionospheric layer resulted in the height and electron
density of ionosphere. Furthermore, the virtual height in
kilometer KM (PVH) and power observation of the small-
scale disturbance (SD) effect on signal fading at ionospheric
region also can be determined using Vertical Ionospheric
Sounding (VIS) technique [9]. The massive issue in HF radio
is the brisk change in the ionospheric characteristic, resulting
in the need for operating frequencies to be transposed from
time to time to get decent performance. Hence, MUF is
imperative for HF radio users to obtain good frequency
management. Solar phenomenon such as solar flares, solar
wind and coronal mass ejection (CMEs) can give a massive
impact towards the HF communication [10]. Based on
Kennedy and Davis (1983), it reported that immense increase
of MUF variability is checked after unusual solar
phenomenon. The sunlight intensity also effect towards the
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FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

HF communication as the electron in the ionosphere change

prior to solar intensity, while the layer of ionosphere also
changes from day and night.

2. Methodology
The methodology for this research is divided into two ways.

2.1. Data Collection

For the data collection, a transceiver is applied which consist
a mobile manpack RF radio transceiver and receiving station
which located at rooftop UKM building. The manpack will be
carry to the designated area around Peninsular Malaysia and
certain HF frequencies will be used in order to communicate
with the receiving station.

Figure 3: Yagi Uda antenna for RF ground station

2.2. Simulation
The simulation will be executed using DXLab Launcher.
DXLab Launcher is a freeware that able to simulate the HF
signal that being used for Amateur Radio. By simulate using
this software, it can be compared to signal that obtain from
the transceiver.

Figure 1: Mobile manpack RF transceiver

Figure 4: DXLab Launcher software interface

2.3. Preliminary Results

The preliminary results of this study are:

1. Able to determine MUF model in Malaysian

environment because until now there is no MUF
Figure 2: RF Ground Station
model based on Malaysia environment.
2. Knowledge of the ionospheric parameters to be used
in the MUF model which is not being fully
explored. The parameters are as follows:
a. Critical frequency (foE, foF2)
b. Height of ionosphere (hmE, hmF2)
c. Propagation / M factor (M(3000)F2)
d. MUF (MUF(3000)F2)
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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Figure 5: Example of hourly and monthly median of
MUF for (a) 2009, (b) 2010 and (c) 2011 [10]
3. Discussion
HF that raging between 3-30 MHz is imposed in this analysis,
whereas certain desired frequency will be selected, from
lowest to highest value in HF band. The frequency also needs
to be determined before using it to prevent using the
frequency that already using either by Amateur Radio or air
force. The simulation will be executed upon the selected
frequency from the fieldwork.
4. Conclusion
The research may be able to help HF user to plan their HF
frequencies, and then to ensure the readiness of HF
communication in disaster events. Thus, the research will
have a big impact on HF user, especially government
agencies, i.e. can improve HF links and make the
communications possible all the time.
HF Communication System using the ionosphere is still
widely used as a form of radio communications technology.
Although not reliable as satellite communications, it is
inexpensive and can provide a useful back-up in case the
Satcom is failing. Moreover, research and development on
the HF communication base on the Malaysian environment
should be more explored due to unique equator region.
Acknowledgements
The authors express gratitude to ANGKASA grant
FRGS/1/2016/TK04/UKM/02/4 for funding and supporting
this research.
.
64
References
[1] Maslin, N. M. 2004. HF communications: A Systems
Approach. CRC Press.
[2] King, J. W. & Slater, A. J. 1973. Errors in predicted
values of foF2 and hmF2 compared with the observed
day-to-day variability. ITU Telecommunication Journal,
40, 766 – 770.
[3] Li, W., Su, D., Wang, J. & Liu, Y. 2013. Prediction of
Short-wave Communication Effects based on ICEPAC
Model. Proceedings of the 2013 2nd International
Conference on Intelligent System and Applied Material,
295–298. doi:10.12696/gsam.2013.1018
[4] Liu, L., Yang, J., Le, H., Chen, Y., Wan, W. & Lee, C.
C. 2012. Comparative study of the equatorial ionosphere
over Jicamarca during recent two solar minima. Journal
of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, 117(A1),
1978–2012.
[5] Hassan, N., Sha’ameri, A. Z., Sidek, A. R. M. & Sarif,
N. M. 2009. HF radio communication with automatic
link establishment capability at Universiti Malaysia
Pahang. Malaysian Technical Universities Conference
on Engineering and Technology (MUCEET), Universiti
Malaysia Pahang.
[6] Sha’ameri, A. Z. 2010. ALE Radio Technology For
Public Protection And Disaster Relief Operations. .my
Convergence, 04, 34–42.
[7] Sha’ameri, A. Z. 2006. Secured HF Image Transmission
System pp.1–201.
[8] Baskaradas, James Arokiasami, et al. "Description of
ionospheric disturbances observed by Vertical
Ionospheric Sounding at 3MHz." Annals of Geophysics
57.1, 2014
[9] G. Vertogradov and E. Vertogradova, "The investigation
of ionospheric response to total eclipses on 29th March
2006 and on 20th March 2015
based on HF oblique sounding data", Journal of
Atmospheric and SolarTerrestrial Physics, vol. 147, pp.
28-36, 2016.
[10] Malik, R. A., Abdullah, M., Abdullah, S., & Homam, M.
J. (2016). Comparison of maximum usable frequency
(MUF) variability over Peninsular Malaysia with IRI
model during the rise of solar cycle 24. Journal of
Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 138, 87-92.
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Performance Analysis of a Negative-permeability Metamaterial

Inspired Antenna with 1U Cubesat
Touhidul Alam1, 2, Farhad Bin Ashraf1, Mohammed Shamsul Alam2, Mohammad Tariqul Islam1,3,
Mengu Cho3
1
Dept. of Electrical, Electronic & Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
2
International Islamic University Chittagong (IIUC), Bangladesh
3
Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu, Japan
* corresponding author, E-mail: touhid13@siswa.ukm.edu.my

having relative permittivity of 2.2, height of 0.58mm and

Abstract
Nano-satellite offers an accessible and effective platform for
a wide diversity of space-based applications. The
nanosatellite components need to be miniaturized due to
limited volume and power. There is great need for compact,
lightweight and stable performing antenna is a requirement
for smooth operation of the nanosatellite mission. In this
paper, high realized gain antenna is proposed for 1U
nanosatellite communication system. The antenna achieves
impedance bandwidth of 1.1 GHz (7.7 GHz to 8.8 GHz) with
overall dimension of 29.80×30.30×2.66 mm3. The antenna
has been integrated with 1U satellite body and investigated
antenna performances.
1.575 mm respectively. Four spacers are used to separate the
two layers. The conventional ground plane of the 2nd layer
is replaced by metamaterial ground plane. The overall
antenna dimension is 29.80×30.30×2.66 mm3. Metamaterial
ground plane is shown 1(c). The metamaterial characteristics
characterization has been performed using CST microwave
studio. Perfect electric conductor (PEC) and perfect magnetic
conductor (PMC) boundary conditions are applied in x and y
plane respectively. Two electromagnetic waveguide port is
placed between unit-cell, propagating direction k is along the
z-plane.

1. Introduction
Nano-satellite are revolutionizing in the modern satellite
industry because of their size and cost minimization with
shorter development time features. 1U nanosatellite is one of
the smallest form of the satellites with size of 10×10×10cm3
having multiple subsystems. Several types of antenna are
studied for satellite application. Deployable antenna is one of
the widely-used antenna in nanosatellite [1-2]. The adverse (a) (b)
fact of using deployable antennas in nanosatellite is, they are
required to be deployed mechanically. This might increase
the chance of mission failure. To avoid the deployment
complexity patch antennas were used in many satellite
missions[3].Metamaterials are artificially formed structures
which have shown great potential to engineer the
unconventional properties of the material. The unit cell forms
a two-layer metamaterial structure used as a substrate for
gain enhancement of a stacked antenna at 8.55 GHz [4].
This paper presents a metamaterial based high gain
antenna for 1U CubeSat transmission system. The antenna
operates at 7.7 to 8.8 GHz with 11.3dB of maximum realized
gain. (c) (d)
Fig. 1: Schematic layout of the proposed antenna (a) Top view
2. Antenna Design and Methodology (b) Bottom view (c) Ground plane and (d) Side view
The geometry of the proposed stacked antenna is presented
in Fig. 1. The 1st layer and 2nd layer of the proposed stacked
antenna is designed using Rogers RT5880 substrate material
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
3. Results and Discussion
The metamaterial characterization has been retrieved using
constitutive parameters retrieval method [5], shown in Fig. 2.
The proposed stacked antenna exhibits relative permeability
(µ) from 5.78 GHz to 11.4 GHz, shown in fig. 3. The feeding
potential difference between patch and ground is considered
caused by electric field in-stead of magnetic field. The
reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna has been
shown is shown in Fig. 3. Moreover, the antenna reflection
coefficient with satellite body is also investigated to ensure
compatibility of the antenna for nanosatellite application.
The metamaterial antenna achieves -10dB reflection
bandwidth of 1.1 GHz (7.7 GHz to 8.8 GHz).
Fig. 2: Permeability of the proposed metamaterial unit-cell
Fig. 3: Reflection coefficient of the proposed antenna
The realized gain with and without metamaterial ground
plane has been analyzed, shown in Fig. 4. From Fig 4, it is
noticed that realized gain has increased by 37.13% using
metamaterial ground plane at 8.2 GHz. The radiation
efficiency with and without satellite body has also been
investigated, presented in Fig. 5. It is shown from Fig. 5 that
the antenna shows about 60% radiation efficiency at center
frequency, which can ensure the feasibility of the antenna
with 1U satellite body.
66
(a) (b)
Fig. 4: 3D realized gain of the proposed stacked antenna at
8.2 GHz (a) without metamaterial and (b) with metamaterial
Fig. 5: Radiation efficiency of the proposed stacked antenna
4. Conclusion
In this paper, a negative indexed metamaterial inspired
stacked antenna is proposed for 1U nanosatellite application.
The antenna achieves fractional bandwidth of 13.33% with
overall antenna dimension of 0.78λ×0.76λ×0.067λ at lower
end frequency of 7.7 GHz. The Antenna has been integrated
with 1U nanosatellite structure and analyzed the antenna
performances. The simulation results show that the antenna
might a good candidate for communication engineering X-
band 1U nanosatellite.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Ministry of Education
Malaysia (MOE) under grant no.
PRGS/2/2015/TK04/UKM/01/1 and Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia (UKM) under grant no. GP- K016889.
References
[1] Y. Rahmat-Samii, "Special Issue on Antenna
Innovations for CubeSats and SmallSats [Guest
Editorial]," IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine,
vol. 59, pp. 16-127, 2017.
[2] J. S. Silva, M. GarcÍa-viGueraS, T. Debogović, J. R.
Costa, C. A. Fernandes, and J. R. Mosig,
"Stereolithography-Based Antennas for Satellite
Communications in Ka-Band," Proceedings of the IEEE,
vol. 105, pp. 655-667, 2017.
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
67
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA

[3] M. T. Islam, M. Cho, M. Samsuzzaman, and S. Kibria,

"Compact Antenna for Small Satellite Applications
[Antenna Applications Corner]," IEEE Antennas and
Propagation Magazine, vol. 57, pp. 30-36, 2015.
[4] D. Li, Z. Szabo, X. Qing, E.-P. Li, and Z. N. Chen, "A
high gain antenna with an optimized metamaterial
inspired superstrate," IEEE transactions on antennas and
propagation, vol. 60, pp. 6018-6023, 2012.
[5] U. C. Hasar, A. Muratoglu, M. Bute, J. J. Barroso, and
M. Ertugrul, "Effective Constitutive Parameters
Retrieval Method for Bianisotropic Metamaterials Using
Waveguide Measurements," IEEE Transactions on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, 2017.
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Zonal Velocity Drift of Equatorial Plasma Bubbles Calculated over Southeast Asia
Idahwati Sarudin1, Nurul Shazana Abdul Hamid1, Mardina Abdullah2, 3*, and Suhaila M Buhari4
1
School of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology,
2
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change,
3
Department of Electrical, Electronics and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia.
4
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia.
*corresponding author, E-mail: mardina@ukm.edu.my

Abstract 2. Methodology
The zonal velocity of equatorial plasma bubbles (EPBs) have
2.1. Data Collection
been studied using various techniques in the past few years.
However, the derivation of the zonal drift of EPBs using GPS
In this study the zonal velocity of EPBs were calculated using
ROTI have not been studied before. This study aims to
rate of TEC change index (ROTI) derived from high density
investigate the zonal velocity drifts of EPBs using GPS ROTI
GPS data in Southeast Asia sector [2]. The GPS data was
keogram. The Malaysia Real–Time Kinematic GNSS obtained from Malaysia Real-Time Kinematics GNSS
Network (MyRTKnet) which consists of 78 GPS receivers Network (MyRTKnet) that was installed by Department of
were used to study the occurrence of EPBs along 96°E -
Survey and Mapping Malaysia (JUPEM).
120°E longitude. The EPBs are detected from daily ROTI
keogram that derived from east-west cross section of two
dimension of ROTI maps at 5°N for every 5 minutes. On the
night of 10 April 2013, EPBs with periodic spacing between
50 km to 100 km were recorded by MyRTKnet. In this study,
we obtained that the highest drift velocity is about 194.4 m s-
1
at 1430 UT to 1500 UT whereas the lowest drift velocity is
111.1 m s-1 at 1330 UT to 1400 UT. Besides, the EPBs are
propagated towards the east from 200 km to 2800 km.

1. Introduction
The equatorial plasma bubbles (EPBs) is defined as depletion
of total electron content (TEC) in the ionosphere. The
observation of the EPBs have been carried out using ground
and space based instruments. The first observation of EPBs
over Southeast Asia by using GPS data was made by Buhari
et al in 2014 [1]. The zonal velocity drift is one of the
characteristics of EPBs which have been studied using
various techniques in the past few years. Most of the previous
study observed velocities of EPBs using imaging techniques
[2]. They observed that the velocity of EPBs decreased as Figure 1: Distribution of GPS receivers from MyRTKnet,
time passed. Unlike these ground based techniques, the SuGAr, and IGS networks in Southeast Asia.
manipulation of space based data such as satellite and GPS
data is very limited. The previous studies made through these Since 2003, about 78 GPS receiver stations over Malaysia
space based instrument is the zonal plasma drift speeds of called MyRTKnet has been installed by JUPEM. Also, we
EPBs observed using the imager aboard high apogee IMAGE have 49 GPS receivers used from IGS and SuGAr networks
satellite during March-May 2002 and it had a strong through the Scripps Orbit and Permanent Array Center
longitudinal dependence and with a maximum over the website (sopac.ucsd.edu/dataArchive) which covered
Indian sector [3]. In this paper, we present the zonal drift Indonesia, Singapore and Thailand. The black circle in
velocity of EPBs calculated from high-density GPS receivers Figure 1 represent the distribution of GPS receivers in SEA.
in Southeast Asia (SEA) on night of 10 April 2013. These In order to show the longitudinal and temporal variations in
drift velocities are calculated from longitudinal change at the EPBs structure, the keogram was created by taking an
significant time that can be seen from plotted ROTI keogram. east-west cross-section of ROTI at 5°N for every 5 minutes.
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2.2. Analysis
The present study examined one day ROTI keogram derived
from the MyRTKnet in order to identify the occurrence of
EPBs in Malaysia area. The occurrence of EPBs was verified
if ROTI is larger than 0.1 TECU/min at a location on the
keogram. High threshold value (0.06 TECU/ min) was taken
into account to confirm the EPBs are truly present in the
observational area. Then, the zonal drift velocity of EPBs can
be calculated from its spatial displacement divided by time
[5]. The zonal drift velocity is calculated for each EPBs from
the onset highest ROTI values to the final highest ROTI
values as can be seen from the keogram.
3. Results and Discussion
Based on the method described earlier, we have calculated
zonal velocity drift on the night of 10 April 2013. By using
GPS ROTI measurement in SEA, we can be observe the
temporal and spatial variations of EPBs.
Figure 1 shows a keogram generated from the two-
dimensional maps of ROTI and their longitudinal variations.
The figure shows a clear overview of the characteristics of the
EPBs, which is a cross section of ROTI by choosing the
horizontal profiles of the ROTI at 5°N latitude with several
times and longitudes. The white gap in Figure 1 shows the
missing data during certain period.
Figure 1: ROTI keogram at 5°N latitude obtained from GPS
networks in SEA from 1000 UT to 2230 UT on night of 10
April 2013.
Figure 2: The zonal velocity drift calculated of EPB for red
error shown in Figure 1.
We further select one striations of EPBs from the keogram
to calculate the drift velocities that denoted by red error in
69
Figure 1. This EPB is choosen based on it striation that can
be seen fully from the ROTI keogram.
Figure 2 shows plots of the zonal velocity drift from GPS
ROTI keogram. Based on Figure 2, we can see roughly the
pattern of the graph were decrease from 1230 UT to almost
1350 UT and suddenly increase until 1500 UT but then, the
drift velocity were decrease to 1530 UT. Our results agreed
with the some of the previous studies [2],[3], and [4,5] where
drift velocity of EPBs gradually decrease with time. The
zonal drift of the EPBs shows significant difference during
1300 UT to 1500 UT. The highest drift velocity is about 194.4
m s-1 at 1430 UT to 1500 UT whereas the lowest drift velocity
is 111.1 m s-1 at 1330 UT to 1400 UT.
4. Conclusion
In this work, we have presented zonal drift of EPBs from
high-density GPS receivers in SEA on 10 April 2013. In
general, the EPBs propagated towards the east from 200 km
to 2800 km. Our results agreed with previous study that
shows the drift velocity of EPB gradually decrease with time.
Besides, we found that the highest drift velocity is about
194.4 m s-1 at 1430 UT to 1500 UT whereas the lowest drift
velocity is 111.1 m s-1 at 1330 UT to 1400 UT.
Acknowledgements
The GPS data was collected from Department of Survey and
Mapping Malaysia (JUPEM) and downloaded from SOPAC
via (http://sopac.ucsd.edu/). This work was supported by
Fundamental Research Grant Scheme-
FRGS/1/2016/WAB08/UKM/01/1 from Ministry of
Education Malaysia, and GUP-2016-016 from Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia.
References
[1] S.M. Buhari, M. Abdullah, A.M. Hasbi, Y. Osuka, T.
Yokoyama, M. Nishioka., T. Tsugawa, Continuous
generation and two-dimensional structure of equatorial
plasma bubbles observed by high-density GPS receivers
in Southeast Asia, Journal of Geophysical
Research:Space Physics, 2014.
[2] D. Fukushima, K. Shiokawa, Y. Otsuka, M. Kubota, T.
Tsugawa, T. Nagatsuma, Geomagnetically conjugate
observation of plasma bubbles and thermosheric neutral
winds at low latitudes, Journal of Geophysical
Research:Space Physics, 2015.
[3] T.J. Immel, H.U. Frey, S.B. Mende, E. Sagawa, Global
observations of the zonal drift speed of equatorial
ionospheric plasma bubbles, Annales Geophysicae 22
3099-3107 doi: 10.5194/angeo-22-3099-2004.
[4] I. Sarudin, N.S.A. Hamid, M. Abdullah, S.M. Buhari,
Investigation of Zonal Velocity of Equatorial Plasma
Bubbles (EPBs) by using GPS data, Journal of Physics:
Conference series, 2017.
[5] D.P. Nade, A.K. Sharma, S.S. Nikte, P.T. Patil, R.N.
Ghodpage, M.V. Rokade, S. Gurubaran, A. Taori, Y.
Sahai, Zonal velocity of the equatorial plasma bubbles
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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over Kolhapur, India, Annales Geophysicae 31 doi:

10.5194/angeo-31-2077-2013.
[6] Igo Paulino, Amauri Fragoso de Medeiros, Ricardo Arlen
Buriti, Hisao Takahashi, Jose Humberto Andrade Sobral,
Delano Gobbi, Plasma bubble zonal drift characteristics
observed by airglow images over Brazilian tropical
region Brazilian, Journal of Geophysics 29(2) 239-246,
2011.
[7] T. Yokoyama, S. Fukao, Upwelling backscatter plumes in
growth phase of equatorial spread F observed with the
Equatorial Atmosphere Radar, Journal of Geophysical
Research 33, 2006.
[8] N.P. Chapagain, M.J. Taylor, K. Nielsen, M. Jarvis,
Airglow observations and modelling of F region
depletion zonal velocities over Christmas Island, Journal
of Geophysical Research 116 A02301
doi:10.1029/2010JA015958, 2011.
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Effect of Elevated Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide on

Mangrove Growth in Controlled Conditions
Baseem M. Tamimi1, Wan Juliana Wan Ahmad1, Mohd. Nizam Mohd. Said1, Che Radziah
Che Mohd. Zain2
1
School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
2
School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600
Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: baseemtamimi@siswa.ukm.edu.my

Today, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 stands at 400

Abstract
The objective of this research study is to determine the
effects of the occurrence of expected elevated carbon
dioxide on the growth of mangroves by the end of the
century. This study focuses on two mangrove species
(Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata) that
were planted in a controlled open roof green house for two
months in two groups (monoculture and mixed-culture). The
CO2 injection ratio fixed at 600 ppm was applied from 9-11
am daily. Meanwhile, the plants were watered with two
liters of tap water every 48 hours. The morphology
measurements include the height of the plant, number of
leaves and size of the leaf. The height of plants and number
of leaves were measured weekly. However, the size of
leaves was only measured at the beginning and at the end of
the study. The results showed the rapid growth of both
groups of R. apiculata. After one month, the monoculture of
R. apiculata recorded positive results, while the mixed-
culture of R. apiculata recorded higher growth rate.
However, at the end of the study, the plants in both the
cultures showed a decline in growth with extensive
yellowing of the leaves followed by defoliation. As for the
R. mucronata species, the growth rate was very slow. The
results showed that the mixed-culture of the species
recorded the most unfavorable growth rate. The results
imply that the growth of mangrove plants may face tough
challenges ahead.
1. Introduction
One significant topic in ecological research is the biological
effects of worldwide climate change, while one of the
greatest challenges currently faced is the impact of the
occurrence of elevated CO2 on climate change[1]. The
atmospheric concentration of CO2 was recorded at 270 parts
per million (ppm). This has remained almost constant for at
least 1000 years. However, the advent of the Industrial
Revolution has brought change to the atmospheric
concentration of CO2 whereby accumulation of CO2 in the
global atmosphere has accelerated to an alarming rate.
parts per million (ppm), which is 40% higher than any time
in the last 20 million years [2]. The current annual rate of
CO2 is expected to increase yearly by 0.5%. So the
atmospheric concentration of CO2 would exceed 600 parts
per million (ppm) by the end of this century [3]. The
recently observed global CO2 increase has been significantly
faster than the increase anticipated by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change [4] Fourth Assessment Report
(AR4) [5]. It is widely known that carbon dioxide (CO2) is
one of the main greenhouse gases that has contributed to
global warming. In addition to having an influence on the
climate, CO2 has a direct, measurable effect on the growth
of plants. There is a tendency to plants grow better in
conditions whereby the level of CO2 is high. However,
plants are facing a future that portrays uncertain
consequences of ever-increasing concentration of CO2 [6].
Plants have shown considerable abilities to acclimatize to
long term increase in temperature as well as CO2. Therefore,
these two changes in the atmospheric composition and
climate are very likely to cause significant effects on
planetary ecosystems, because both CO2 and temperature are
vital determinants of the rate of photosynthetic in the plants
[6].
The conservation and restoration of mangroves and
associated coastal ecosystems play important roles in
climate change adaptation strategies. Mangroves are not
only valuable in climate change mitigation efforts, but they
are also influential in adaptation to changing climates. As
climate change adaptation is becoming an increasingly
important part of international development agenda [7], it
will require a lot more investment than the present
development plans for mangrove wetland. Thus, the
objective of this study is to determine the effects of different
concentrations of CO2 on the growth of two most dominant
and commonly distributed mangrove species from the
Rhizophoraceae family found in Malaysia[8].
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2. Materials and Methods place in the growth of the mangrove plants during the eight
periods.
Growth Facility: This research study was conducted at the (Parameter week 8−Parameter week 1)
“Kompleks Rumah Tumbuhan”, in UKM, Bangi, Malaysia RGR= ⁄Time
Parameter week 1
(2° 55' 12.03"N, 101° 47' 2.99 E). The facility consists of However, the RGR (Relative Growth Rate) in the presented
greenhouses of sizes 4 m x 8 m, a gutter height of 2.5 meters in cm -1 (within 8 weeks)
and a control room that houses CO2 control panels. The Rate = consider the time factor in the calculation[9].
mangrove plant seedlings with soil were collected at the age
of three months with four leaves from Kuala Gula in Perak 2.1. Data Analysis
(4.924012, 100.459581). These mangrove seedlings were Data were collected and were subjected to normality test
transplanted in box size containers (42-62cm) in a shaded prior to data analysis for all three independent variables,
house at UKM. The mangrove seedlings were then planted including the height of the plant, leaf number and leaf size.
in two groups (monoculture and mixed-culture) with five To analysis, the data a two way analysis of variance was
samples in each box. Two weeks later, the samples were used following mean comparison by Duncan multiple range
checked in terms of physical growth. All the plants that were tests (DMRT) at 0.05 levels. Descriptive statistics such as
rated as in good health were transferred to the greenhouse. mean and standard error were applied. All statistical analysis
The first group was put in a shaded house, where, the was done using SPSS ver. 19[15].
mangrove plants were subjected to the natural environment.
Meanwhile, the second group was exposed to levels of 2.2. Results
elevated carbon dioxide at 600 ppm.
2.2.1. Growth Response to CO2 by species
Experimental Design and Growth Measurement: This
The propagules of the mangrove plants of species
research study examines two species of mangrove plants,
Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata that were
namely Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata.
sown into mesocosms became rooted and upright within 5
Later, two cultures, namely monoculture and mixed-culture
months. The mangrove seedlings in the monoculture showed
were assembled from each of the species to obtain
the most rapid growth. The observation showed a marked
monoculture for Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora
increase in the height, the number of leaves, branching and
mucronata besides mixed cultures for R. mucronata and R.
as well as the diameter of the stem over a period of two
apiculata. These cultures were placed at two different
months (Fig. 1). All mangroves seedling grew in
locations in a shaded house with ambient levels of CO 2 and
monoculture and mixed-culture (Fig. 1) showed extensive
inside a greenhouse of elevated levels of CO 2. The rate of
branching and canopy development, particularly for seedling
elevated carbon dioxide was approximately 600 ppm inside
in the greenhouse with elevated CO2. By the end of the
the greenhouse. The first injection of CO2 was carried out on
experiment, the plants almost exceeded 30 cm tall with over
the 4th of November. This was followed by subsequent
10 leaves.
injection of CO2 until the 9th of November (6 days). Due to a
technical failure, the injection of CO2 was stopped after the
9th of November. The injection continued on the 19 th of
November after the problem was rectified and the injection
was carried on until 6th of December. Every day, the
injection of CO2 was performed from 9.30 am to 11.30 am at
600 ppm. The plants were watered with two liters tap water
every 48 hours and the plants were not given any fertilizer.
The morphology measurements (height of plants and the
number of leaves) were measured weekly. Only the size of A Species
the leaves was measured at the beginning and at the end of
the study.
The growth parameters of the plants were measured in
order to study the response of the mangrove plants to
exposure to elevated concentrations of carbon dioxide. Each
mangrove seedling was labeled according to groups and
treatment. All the changes that took place in the health of the
seedlings were recorded qualitatively. The first quantitative
measurement was made on the 17th of October and the
second on the 24th of October. Weekly measurements were
conducted until the final measurement on the 6 th of Species
December. All the morphological parameters were done
manually using the graphical method with tools such as the Figure 1: Effect of elevated CO2 on (A) height of plant (B)
foot rule and Log rule caliper. Then an analysis was the number of leaves for both monoculture and mixed-
performed on the data of examining the changes that took culture conditions of mangrove species seedlings compared
to ambient.
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The growth of both species was evident after the second
and third week. The growth continued in terms of the height
of the plants for the subsequent weeks. It was clear that the
growth of R. mucronata species was superior in terms of
height. As for the growth of R. mucronata species cultured
in elevated CO2, it was found that the R. apiculata species in
elevated conditions outperformed the R. apiculata in
ambient conditions. Also, the performance of mixed culture
of R. apiculata in both elevated and ambient conditions was
better than the performance of monoculture of R. apiculata
in both elevated and ambient conditions. The comparison
between the performance of monoculture of R. mucronata
showed that the culture in ambient condition
outperformance the culture in an elevated condition. As for
the comparison between performance of monoculture and
mixed culture of R. mucronata in both ambient and elevated
conditions, it was found that the latter was better the former.
interactions bear a significant impact on the size of the
leaves with noticeable wilting and yellowing of leaves. As
for the mixed culture of the R. apiculata species, the plants
were not affected significantly. This indicated the adaptation
of plants in their resistance to changing weather conditions.
As for the R. mucronata species, the response of growth of
the leaves of the monoculture was very slow with no
evidence of the effects of interactions among elevated CO2,
low salinity and humidity. On the contrary, the R.
mucronata of mixed culture showed significant effects in
elevated CO2 levels where by the interactions affected the
size of the leaves. Therefore, it is apparent (Fig. 2) that
elevated CO2 levels and low salinity of (0-5 ppt) effects to
the growth mangrove species.
elevated l. size ambient l. size

Relative Growth Rate (RGR)

From these findings, it can be concluded that the
60
performance of mixed culture for both species (R. apiculata
& R. mucronata) in both conditions (ambient &elevated) 40
bear positive responses to growth rate due to interactions of
the species in the culture. The results also showed that the 20
two mangrove species were able to adapt to elevated levels
0
of carbon dioxide after a duration of a few months.
R.A. mon R.M. mon R.A MIX R.M MIX
Table 1: Effect of elevated CO2 on height, leaf number and Species
leaf size of mangrove species seedlings in the elevated and
ambient greenhouse. Figure 2: Effect of elevated CO2 shows the relative growth
Species Location Height Leaf Leafsize rate (RGR) on leaf size of mangrove species seedlings
(cm) number (cm2) elevated (600 ppm) and ambient.
R. apiculata Elevated 31.98 ± 12.96 ± 8.01 ±
Monoculture 0.22d 0.14a 0.23f 3. Discussion
Ambient 29.40 ± 11.60 ± 17.00 ±
0.22e 0.14b 0.23d This research study aims to compare the growth traits of two
R.mucronata Elevated 52.68 ± 12.02 ± 22.68 ± species of mangroves, R. apiculata and R. mucronata. The
Monoculture 0.22d 0.14b 0.23c outcomes of the findings would be utilized for identification
Ambient 55.34 ± 14.02 ± 25.33 ± and recommendation of the better species. In this research
0.22b 0.14a 0.23b study, the following results were obtained. First, the
R. apiculata Elevated 33.52 ± 13.73 ± 9.50 ± monocultures for R. apiculata and R. mucronata were
Mixculture 0.22c 0.14a 0.23f affected by the increase of CO2. It was noted that the growth
Ambient 31.06 ± 11.63 ± 12.05 ± rate of the R. apiculata showed a positive increase. On the
0.22d 0.14b 0.23e
R. Elevated 55.07 ± 12.00 ± 19.73 ±
other hand, the growth rate of the R.mucronata showed a
mucronata 0.22b 0.14b 0.23b negative outcome. Secondly, the mixed-culture was affected
Mixculture Ambient 58.66 ± 14.03 ± 41.42 ± by the increase of CO2, with a positive outcome for the
0.22a 0.14a 0.23a mixed-culture of the R. apiculata species. It was noted that
Note: Different alphabet in each column denotes a significant the R. apiculata species grow better in a mixed situation.
difference using t-test at (p< 0.05). Third, by comparing elevated and ambient location, it was
noted that the R. apiculata species grown in the greenhouse
2.2.2. Growth Pattern showed a faster growth rate than the R. apiculata species
grown outside the greenhouse. In the case of R. mucronata
In the statistical analysis of the average leaf area, the results species, the results showed that the R. mucronata species
showed two different significant interactions (Table 1.) First, grown outside the greenhouse (without CO2 enrichment)
there were interspecific differences in the ratio of the showed a higher growth rate than the species grown inside
average leaf area. The results pointed out that the R. the greenhouse (with CO2 enrichment).
mucronata typically had a greater average leaf area than the Like many halophytes, the growth of mangroves is
R. apiculata. Secondly, there were interactive effects of enhanced under moderate saline conditions. However, the
salinity and humidity in the average leaf area. The leaves of dominant mangrove species, R. apiculata is found in
the R. apiculata monoculture grown in the greenhouse with abundance in fewer saline sites along estuarine floodplains.
elevated CO2 were affected largely through interactions With an increasing aridity in the seasonally dry tropics, the
between elevated CO2, low salinity and humidity. These
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growth of R.apiculata has become increasingly restricted to

habitats where salinities are relatively low throughout the
year[11]. The findings of that both agree the growth of the
mangrove species R. apiculata is favorable in low salinity.
The findings in this study showed that the growth rate for R.
apiculata inside the greenhouse is better than that of the R.
mucronata species. The results of these two studies clearly
showed these are inter-specific differences in terms of
changes in the leaf area and/or net assimilation rate that
brings about changes the relative growth rates with
decreasing salinity levels. However, the similarity of these
studies is that a decrease in the rate of net assimilation
accounted for much of the decrease in the growth rate with
decreasing salinity levels. Hence, the implication of a strong
correlation between the rates of net assimilation and growth
is that the levels of carbon restrict the growth of mangrove
species in saline conditions. If limited growth is due to the
effects of reduced stomata conductance on carbon
assimilation, then the enhancement of growth can be
expected under an elevated CO2 [11]. However, plants that
grow slowly due to salinity stress may be inherently slow to
respond to elevated CO2 levels. This is in line with findings
by Farnsworth [12] who stated that the effects of elevated
CO2 on the growth of R. mucronata species in 100%
seawater only became evident 8 months after the planting of
the species. These results were consistent with the findings
in other studies that compared the growth of closely related
species, i.e. Ceriops australis and C. tagal [11]. Clearly, the
increasing tolerance for salt occurred at the expense of
growth. Therefore, most species grow best under low
salinity conditions. Another finding pointed out that under
the most favorable growth conditions, the less salt-tolerant
species, R. apiculata, had a greater number of branches and
leaves in comparison to the more salt-tolerant species, R.
mucronata. Finally, the results demonstrated differences in
the behavior of some plants in the face of environmental
challenges and changes depending on other species in
nature. It is rather common to see the same species
coexisting with other species in nature as they adapt to each
other for survival.
4. Conclusion
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledged the Sime Darby Foundation for
greenhouse facility, research fund from
FRGS/1/2014/STWN10/UKM/02/1 to fund this project. The
authors also thank staffs of PPSSSA, FST, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia for their contributions in completing
this project.
References
[1] T. R., Cavagnaro, R. M. Gleadow, and R. E.. Miller,
Functional Plant Biology, 38, 87–96, 2011.
[2] D. B.,Andrew, A.A.,Elizabeth, C. J., Bernacchi, R.,
Alistair, P.L. Stephen, and R.O.Donald,. Journal of
Experimental Botany. 60, 2859– 2876, 2009.
[3] D., Schimel, D., Alves, I., Enting, M., Heimann, F.,
Joos, D.Raynaud, and Wigley, T.. IPCC, 65-86, New
York, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
[4] R.K.Pachauri,A. Reisinger,IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland,
2007.
[5] P. J., Hanson, A.Classen, and L. Kueppers,. Biological
and Environmental Research, 2008.
[6] R.F.Sage, and D.S.Kubien,..Plant,Celland
Environment, 30, 1086–1106, 2007.
[7] S. Crooks, D. Herr, J. Tamelander, D.Laffoley, and
J.Vandever. World Bank, 2011.
[8] W.A.Wan Juliana, M. S. Razali. and A. Latiff,
Springer, 23-36, 2014.
[9] W.A. Hoffmann, and H. Poorter,. Annals of Botany, ,
90 (1): 37. 2002.
[10] A. Bryman, and D.Cramer.: A guide for social
scientists: Rout ledge, 2012.
[11] M.C., Ball, M.J. Cochrane, and H.M. Rawson,. Plant,
Cell and Environment, , 20, 1158–1166.8,1997.
[12] E.J., Farnsworth, A.M. Ellison, and W.K. Gong,. Oecologia, ,
108, 599–609, 1996.

Generally, this research study showed that the rising CO 2

levels have a great impact on the growth rate. This is
because different species of mangrove respond differently to
varying levels of CO2. The differences in the growth rate in
elevated conditions in CO2 may further increase disparities
in the forest structure and productivity of mangrove species
found in low and high salinity sites. It is evident that the
varying growth rate of mangrove species that may occur at
salinities near the limits of tolerance of a particular species
is unlikely to have a significant effect on the ecological
patterns. Nevertheless, the rapid responses to elevated
carbon dioxide levels during the early phases of growth as in
seedling establishment may be important determinants in
competition between species, as well as regeneration of
species.
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Observations of Lightning and Background Electric Field in Antarctica Peninsula

Norbayah Yusop1, 2, Mardina Abdullah1, 3, Mohd Riduan Ahmad2,
1
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600, Bangi, Selangor
2
Atmospheric and Lightning Research Lab, Centre for Telecommunication Research and Innovation, Faculty of Electronics
and Computer Engineering, Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka, Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian Tunggal, Melaka
3
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia
*corresponding authors, E-mail: norbayah@utem.edu.my, mardina@ukm.edu.my, riduan@utem.edu.my

regions for conducting research due to the geographical

Abstract
This paper presents observations of lightning occurrence and
the associated atmospheric electric field mill in Antarctic
Peninsula. The measurement was conducted at Carlini Base,
Argentina (CARL: 62o 24''S, 58o 54"W) between February
and April 2017 using Boltek LD-350 lightning detector and
EFM-100 electric field mill. A total of 109,072,753
individual lightning pulses have been detected within three
months measurement campaign. Cloud lightning pulses were
counted to be around 98% from the total lightning pulses
detected while only 2% were cloud-to-ground (CGs)
lightning pulses. The electric field record has peaked 4 times
at around –20.480 kV/m on the 9th, 11th, 12th and 26th
February 2017.
1. Introduction
Lightning is an electrical discharge that occurs during a
thunderstorm. It can occur within a cloud called intra-cloud
(ICs), between two clouds called cloud-to-cloud (CCs) but
this is less and most common is between cloud-to-ground
(CGs) lightning. In general, the thundercloud charge
structure contains of two main charge center positive on top
of negative charge and one pocket positive charge located at
the base of the cloud [1]. Cloud-to-ground (CG) lightning
lowered down electrical charges from thundercloud to the
surface of the Earth. It can be categorized to four major types
of CG lightning known as downward negative, downward
positive, upward negative and upward positive lightning. But
the most common type of the CG lightning is downward
negative accounting for 90% and less than 10% is downward
positive lightning [2,3]. On average, the negative CG
lightning produces a sequence of three to five return strokes
and sometimes the return strokes occurred as short as 1 ms
or less in the same lightning channel [4]. While the cloud
lightning is a lightning discharge developed inside the
confines of the cloud and never hits direct to the Earth
surface. Two types of cloud lightning are intra-cloud (IC) and
cloud-to-cloud (CC) discharge.
In Antarctica, more than 70% of the Earth’s freshwater
are configuring by ice sheet and due to thick of ice sheet
make only small moisture falls from the sky over Antarctica
[5]. This makes polar region becomes one of the challenging
remoteness and climate extremes different from other
regions in the world. One of the continental Antarctica which
frequent receive rainfall in summer is Antarctic Peninsula.
The coastal area of the peninsula receives an average
precipitation of 203 mm per year [6]. It has experienced rapid
climate warming during last 50 years with the atmospheric
temperature increases considerably greater than others
continent [7]. The factor involves on the warming is due to a
local strengthening of circumpolar westerly winds driven by
changes in the summer Southern Hemisphere Annular Mode
(SAM) in response to anthropogenic forcing [8]. This makes
lightning phenomena interesting topic to be studied in
Antarctica.
In this work, we report for the first time the observations
of lightning occurrence and background electric field
between February and April 2017 in Antarctica Peninsula.
The location of the lightning occurrences and types of
lightning have been observed using the lightning detector
(LD-350) and the background electric field has been
recorded by using atmospheric electric field monitoring
system (EFM-100).
2. Methodology
2.1. Instrument Setup
The lightning detector (LD-350) and atmospheric electric
field monitor (EFM-100) installed at Carlini Base Station in
mid of January 2017. Both devices used for long and short
range detection of storm respectively. The LD-350 detects
strikes up to 300 miles (480 km) away and sometimes it can
go broad as far as 600 miles (960 km) cause by the strong
storm. It also able to plot the location of strikes occurs from
the station and provide a relevant strikes information such as
time, bearing, distance and coordinate. The capability to
capture the exact time of receives lightning with the accuracy
of 100 ns by using the combination of the LTS-3 timestamp
card (installed) and GPS receiver. While the EFM-100 used
to monitor and alert for weather conditions that precede
lightning. The high accuracy of lightning detection is 0.1 s
and able to detect strikes from 0 to 24 miles (0 to 38 km)
away.
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2.2. Data Processing precipitation and winds make it falls in summer season
compared to other seasons in polar region.
In this study, we used two types of LD and EFM data. Data
was collected from February until April 2017 for analysis.
Both data need to be converted before it can be interpreted Table 1: The data on the pulses and electric field.
using MATLAB software while the LD data need to be Month Total of pulses Electric Field
converted using the windows command line (DOS) before it (kV/m)
can be read in MATLAB. One minute average was used for
the EFM data to closely study the variation of electric field. February 28,940,762 - 0.249 to -20.480
The process flow to analyse the data has shown in Figure 1.
March 34,671,872 - 0.055 to -19.654
April 45,460,119 - 0.013 to -16.575

Figure 2(a) shows the LD screen display majority of the

strikes was come from three different location at northwest
(top left), centre and southeast (bottom right) of the station on
16 February 2017. The types of lightning detected from the
pulses was 3% for the cloud-to-ground (CG) discharge and
the rest of 97% was cloud lightning discharge. All the
distance of the strikes was detected from 0 to 920 miles. From
the screen captured by the EFM-100 show that lightning was
detected nearby the station as shown in Figure 2(b).

(a) (b)
Figure 1: The process flow of data analysis.
Figure 2: The screenshot of (a) LD-350 and (b) EFM-100
displayed on 16 February 2017.
3. Preliminary Result and Discussion
In this study, we observed the individual radiated impulse The electric field recorded on 16 February 2017 were
from the lightning discharge which is only the maximum analysed and illustrated in Figure 3 which is similar to the
pulses will be detected by lightning detector (LD-350) and signal captured by EFM-100 in Figure 2(b). It was clearly
electric field produced by the atmospheric electric field mill shown that there was lightning occurs below 30 km with
(EFM-100) installed at Carlini Base station in Antarctic intense electric field from the station. We found a total of
Peninsula. 364,479 pulses recorded by the lightning detector (LD-350)
Table 1 show the number of pulses and electric field between 06:00 LT to 14:00 LT and the distance of the pulses
recorded from both equipment’s within three months travel as far as 908 miles. Most of the bearing of the pulses
observation. The total number of pulses detected increase detected origin from centre of the station. Two electric field
significantly around 16,519,357 from February to April 2017 found around -4.289 kV/m at 09:00 LT and -8.605 kV/m at
and the maximum vertical electric field observed from -0.013 12:00 LT pointing downward.
to -20.480 kV/m. The atmospheric electric field was found
higher in February around -20.48 kV/m during the summer
season compared to March and April in autumn season
around -19.654 kV/m and -16.575 kV/m respectively. It was
expected that the value maximum due to the intense of
lightning activity occurred nearby the station. In Antarctica
Peninsula, rainfall was more frequent to be received due to
the depressions come in from the west bringing cloud
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Figure 3: Electric field recorded on 16 February 2017.
Figure 4 show the total number of pulses, type of lightning
and electric field observed from February to April 2017. It
was found that the number of pulses gradually increased in
February 2017 before going down on 22 February 2017 and
keep increasing back until decrease end on 28 February 2017
during summer season. While the pulses was consistent on
March and April 2017 except on 12 March, 13, 20, 28, 29 and
30 April 2017 during autumn season. There have a missing
for the LD data from 1st to 11th March 2017 which not
displayed any values in Figure 4(a) and (b). The cloud
lightning (CF) discharges was dominated compare to CGs
along the observation in the percentage of 98% and 2%
respectively. From Figure 4(c) show that the electric field was
much more closely disturbed by lightning activity at mid of
February 2017.
Figure 4: The (a) total number of pulses, (b) type of lightning
and (c) electric field from February to April 2017.
4. Conclusion
Almost 2 million of lightning pulses have been recorded by
the lightning detector (LD-350) per day at Carlini Base in
Antarctic Peninsula. This made a total of 109,072,753
lightning pulses have been observed within three months
observation. The atmospheric electric field monitor (EFM-
100) produced higher electric field reading up to -20.480
77
kV/m when there a lightning occurred especially during
summer season on February 2017 compare to March and
April 2017. Lightning was detected by the LD-350 occur
below 30 km from the station on 16 February 2017 and this
is first time lightning was discovered which clearly refutes
the classical hypothesis that lightning flashes are rare
phenomena in Antarctica. Most of the lightning strikes
detected was mainly occurs from northwest, centre and
southeast from the Carlini Base station. Classifying on the
cloud to ground (CG) lightning flash and cloud flash from
the lightning pulses will be analysed for future research.
Acknowledgements
This research is funded by the Ministry of Science,
Technology and Innovation Malaysia (MOSTI) through the
Flagship Program under ZF-2014-016 grant. The authors
would like to thank to Dr. Wayan Suparta and the Instituto
Antartico Argentino (IAA) for the expedition to Antarctica
at Carlini Base during the summer campaign 2016/2017,
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka and the Ministry of
Higher Education for their moral, operational and financial
support.
References
[1] Joseph R. D. and Martin A. U, The physics of lightning,
Physics Reports 534 (2014) 147–241, 2014.
[2] Rakov, V.A., Uman, M.A., 2003. Lightning: Physics and
Effects. Cambridge University Press.
[3] Akinyemi M. L., Boyo A. O., Emetere M. E., Usikalu M.
R. and Olawole F. O., Lightning a Fundamental of
Atmospheric Electricity, International Conference on
Environment Systems Science and Engineering, 2014.
[4] Rakov VA. Lightning phenomenology and parameters
important for lightning protection, 9th International
Symposium on Lightning Protection, 2007.
[5] Alvarinho J. L., Past, present and future climate of
Antarctica, International Journal of Geosciences, 2013.
[6] P. Uotila, Lynch A. H., Cassano J. J. and Cullather R. I.,
“Changes in Antarctic Net Precipitation in the 21st
Century Based on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) Model Scenarios,” Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol. 112, No. D10, 2007.
[7] Steig, E., D. Schneider, S. Rutherford, M. Mann, J.
Comiso, and D. Shindell, Warming of the Antarctic ice-
sheet surface since the 1957 International Geophysical
Year, Nature, 457, 2009.
[8] Marshall, G., Orr A., Van Lipzig N., and King J., The
impact of a changing Southern Hemisphere Annular
Mode on Antarctic Peninsula summer temperatures, J.
Clim., 19, 5388–5404, 2006.
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Determination of the GPS Satellite Elevation Mask Angle for

Ionospheric Modeling the Ionosphere over Malaysia
Siti Aminah Bahari1, 2, Mardina Abdullah1,2, Zahra Bouya3,
Tajul Ariffin Musa4
1
Department of Electrical, Electronic & Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Space Weather Services, Australian Bureau of Meteorology, Sydney, Australia
4
Department of Geoinformation, Faculty Geoinformation & Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor, Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: sitiaminahbahari@ukm.edu.my

determination of TEC also depends on the elevation mask

Abstract
Signals from Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites at
low elevation masks angle are often excluded from a GPS
solution because they experience considerable ionospheric
delays and multipath effects. Their exclusion can degrade
the overall satellite geometry for calculations, resulting in
large error. This paper presents the effects of choice of
elevation mask angle in modeling the regional ionosphere
over Malaysia. Spherical cap harmonic analysis (SCHA)
was used for modeling and mapping of the regional
ionospheric TEC over Malaysia. Ionospheric pierce point
(IPP) of satellite was converted into spherical coordinate
system. The Vertical Total Electron Content (VTEC) was
calculated and mapped based on the SCHA. Utilizing the
myRTK network over Malaysia, GPS data owned by
JUPEM was processed and used to map the TEC. The result
shows that the elevation mask angle of 30° is suitable to be
used as a cut off elevation mask angle for regional
ionospheric modeling over Malaysia.
angle.
Different elevation mask angles have been used in a
number of studies such as:DasGupta et.al.(2006) and
Noguiera et al.(2015) used 30° elevation mask angle in his
analysis [1-2]. Seif et al. (2015) using 15° of elevation mask
angle [3]. While Buhari et al. (2017) and Idrus et. al. (2013)
is using 35° of elevation mask angle in order to reduce the
multipath error [4-5]. Elmunim et al. (2017) and Akir et. al.
(2017) used 20°, while Hussein et. al. (2011) used 40° of
elevation mask angle [6-8]. Based on the previous studies,
the range of elevation mask angle is between 15° – 40°.
The aim of this paper is to discuss the choice of
elevation mask angle by comparing the VTEC for different
elevation mask angle and their root mean square error.
Ionosphere over equatorial are more affected directly by the
solar activity. In order to avoid the impact of solar activity
on the ionosphere, low solar activity was considered. This
study uses the data of 1 January 2010, where the Sun is
considered in its low activity.

1. Introduction 2. Data and Methodology

The ionosphere affects modern technologies such as civilian In this study, 78 GPS receiver stations owned by the
and military communications, navigation systems and Department of Mapping and Surveying Malaysia (JUPEM)
surveillance system. For many communication and were used. Figure 1 shows the MyRTKnet network over
navigation systems, this increases because the systems use Malaysia.
signals transmitted to and from satellites, which must pass
through the ionosphere. For the most reliable
communication and navigation, it is necessary to correct the
signals for effects imposed by the ionosphere.
It is difficult to model the TEC with high precision
because it depends on the sunspot activity, seasonal, diurnal
and spatial variations and the line of sight which includes
knowledge of the elevation mask and azimuth of the
satellite etc. Furthermore, horizontal gradients of electron
density make TEC modelling and prediction more difficult.
Slant TEC is measured at different elevation mask
angles, usually, the vertical TEC (VTEC) or simply the
TEC is modeled. The choice of elevation mask angle in Figure 1:MyRTKnet network over Malaysia [10].
modeling the ionosphere plays an important role since the
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2.1. Total Electron Content
GPS signals are broadcast on two L-band frequencies, f1 =
1575.42 MHz and f2 = 1227.60 MHz. The signals
transmitted from satellites to the receivers on Earth
experience a phase delay and pseudorange advanced when
propagated through the ionosphere. The effect on
pseudorange and carrier phase is the same but opposite in
sign. The ionospheric delay in the GPS signals is
proportional to the total number of electrons along the
signal path and is known as TEC. The TEC can be tracked
by differencing the phase delays Lt = L1-L2 [11].
TEC can be defined as equation 1 below:
TEC (1)
where is the electron density along the signal path,
while a minus sign is used for calculating the range error
using pseudorange (code) data. TEC is often expressed in
units of TEC units (TECU), where 1 TECU equals to 10 16
electrons/m2. Equation 1 represents the slant TEC. To
achieve independence from the elevation mask angle, slant
measurements have to be projected to the VTEC and vice
versa using a mapping function. This is commonly done by
assuming a spherically stratified single layer ionosphere.
This simple assumption provides the possibility of locating
the measurement at the IPP of the radio link with the
ionospheric layer. The slant TEC at a given point in the
ionospheric shell is related to the equivalent vertical TEC at
that point by
: is the Earth’s mean radius, 6371 km,
: is the height of maximum electron density,
: zenith angles at the receiver site, and
: zenith angles at the IPP.
Based on previous research, the value of at the
equatorial region ranges from 300 – 450 km. In this study,
the value of was set to 350 km.
Assuming that the geographic latitude and longitude of
the receiver are known, the coordinate of the IPP
can be obtained based on the observed azimuth and
elevation mask angle to the tracked satellite and the single
layer model. The latitude of the IPP can be calculated using
equation 5 below:
(5)
where
: is the latitude of the GPS receiver (radian),
: angle subtended at the center of the Earth
between the user position vector, and
: azimuth angle of the satellite at the user’s
position (radian).
angle is calculated as follows:
(6)

Longitude of IPP, can be calculated using equation 7

TEC (t) = (2)
below:
where

is the slant factor at satellite i,

(7)
is the elevation mask angle of the GPS The latitude and longitude of the IPP were then converted
satellite, into the spherical coordinate for further analysis.

is the vertical TEC, and 2.2. Spherical Cap Harmonic Analysis

is the receiver and satellite bias. of colatitude and longitude of IPP defined
over a sphere can be represented as an expansion of
The inversion from slant TEC to vertical TEC is spherical harmonics:
available when the satellites are at zenith, = 0. The zenith
angle of the satellite must be taken into account since the
path length in the ionosphere varies with changing zenith (8)
angle. The slant factor or also known as model mapping where
function can be written as : associated Legendre function of non-

integer degree and integer order

(3) ,
with : is the maximum degree-index,
: are the constant fitting coefficients
for each degree-index/order pair.
(4)
where Details on SCHA can be found in Haines (1988), and Fiori
et al. (2010) [12-13].
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3. Results and Discussion where is number of measurements used in this study,

is the actual measurement of VTEC and

For the Malaysian region, equal to 3 was used. In the
spherical cap harmonic model, the coefficient
represents the average of the regional TEC [9]. In order to
evaluate the performance of the elevation mask angle,
for different elevation mask angles were plotted and
compared. Two types of analysis were carried out where (1)
the location of IPP at the same point were averaged and (2)
the location of IPP at the same point was not averaged.
Analysis based on different elevation mask angles ranging
from 20° to 40° was used. Figure 2 (a-b) shows an example
is the VTEC from the model.
The result is presented in Table 1. Based on the RMSE,
the elevation mask angle of 40° has the lowest error;
however, the average graph is not well presented for the
regional TEC compared to other elevation mask angles.
Based on Figure 2 and Table 1, the result whereby the data
have been averaged is more likely to represent the variation
of TEC over Malaysia compared to method (2).
Table 1: Root mean square error for different elevation
mask angles

No Elevation Average No Average

of for the elevation mask angle of 30° for 1st January mask Data Data
2010. angle
1 20 0.58 0.70
2 25 0.53 0.59
3 30 0.48 0.51
4 35 0.44 0.46
5 40 0.44 0.44

Based on the result above and also the analysis carried

(a) Averaged data at the same point with elevation mask
angle of 30°
out by Otsuka et al. [11], elevation mask angle of 30° with
slant factor of 1.73 is suitable for modeling the ionosphere.
High elevation masks can typically reduce the multipath
and ionospheric delay, in addition to reducing the number
of satellites in view. Relying on too few satellites can make
it difficult to model and map the regional ionosphere [14].
Due to that, average data with elevation mask angle of 30°
was chosen for modeling the regional ionosphere over
Malaysia.

(b) Non-averaged data at the same point with elevation
mask angle of 30°
4. Conclusion
This paper has investigated the elevation mask angle that is
suitable for modeling the regional ionosphere over
Malaysia. Based on the result, an elevation mask angle of
30° with averaged data produced the smallest RMSE and
similar pattern of VTEC variation of Malaysia. Further
analysis using data from different solar activities should be
performed.

Figure 2: SCHA coefficient, for 1st January 2010 Acknowledgements

In order to identify which elevation mask angle is suitable The GPS data were collected from the Department of
for ionospheric modeling over Malaysia, the accuracy of the Survey and Mapping Malaysia (JUPEM). This work was
method was compared using root mean square error supported by GUP-2015-052 University Grant (GUP) made
(RMSE) as shown in equation 9 below: available through Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

References
[1] A. DasGupta, A. Paul, S. Ray, A. Das, S.
Ananthakrishnan, Equatorial bubbles as observed with
(9)
GPS measurements over Pune, India, Radio Science
41: RS5S28, 2006.
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[5] I.I. Idrus, M. Abdullah, A.M. Hasbi, A. Husin, B.
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Terrestrial Physics, 102 : 321-328, 2013.
[6] N.A. Elmunim, M. Abdullah, A.M. Hasbi, S.A. Bahari,
Investigation on the implementation of the Holt-Winter
method for ionospheric delay forecasting, Advanced
Science Letters 23 : 1325 – 1328, 2017.
[7] R.M. Akir, M. Abdullah, K. Chellapan, A.M. Hasbi,
S.A. Bahari, Comparative study of TEC for GISTM
stations in the Peninsular Malaysia region for the
period of January 2011 to December 2012, Advanced
Science Letters 23 : 1304 – 1309, 2017.
[8] A. Husin, M. Abdullah, M.A. Momani, Observation of
medium-scale traveling ionospheric disturbances over
Peninsular Malaysia based on IPP trajectories, Radio
Science, 46: RS2018, 2011.
[9] J. Liu, R. Chen, J. An, Z. Wang, J. Hyyppa, Spherical
cap harmonic analysis of the Arctic ionospheric TEC
for one solar cycle, Journal of Geophysical Research :
Space Physics, 119 : 601 – 619.
[10] Jabatan Ukur dan Pemetaan Malaysia (JUPEM),
www.jupem.gov.my, [access : 14 September 2017].
[11] Y. Otsuka, T. Ogawa, A.Saito, T. Tsugawa, S. Fukao,
S. Miyazaki, A new technique for mapping of total
electron content using GPS network in Japan, Earth,
Planets and Space 54 : 63-70, 2002.
[12] G.V. Haines, Computer programs for Spherical Cap
Harmonic Analysis of potential and general fields,
Computer and Geosciences, 14(4) : 413-447, 1988.
[13] R.A.D. Fiori, D.H. Boteler, A.V. Koustov, G.V.
Haines, J.M. Ruohoniemi, Spherical cap harmonic
analysis of Super Dual Auroral Radar Network
(SuperDARN) observations for generating maps of
ionospheric convection, Journal of Geophysical
Research, 115 : A07307, 2010.
[14] J.A.R. Rose, J.R. Tong, D.J. Allain, C.N. Mitchell, The
use of ionospheric tomography and elevation mask to
reduce the overall error in single-frequency GPS
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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A New Wide Negative Refractive Index Meta-atom for Satellite

Communications
Mohammad Jakir Hossain1, Mohammad Rashed Iqbal Faruque1, Mohammad Tariqul Islam2
1
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change (IPI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi,
Selangor, Malaysia
2
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: jakir@siswa.ukm.edu.my

termed as EMR which is important to design miniaturized

Abstract
In this paper, a new wideband negative refractive index
meta-atom structure was designed and simulated. The
suggested structure displays epsilon-negative, mu-negative
and wide refractive index negative at the resonant frequency
that was indicated X-band microwave regime. An analysis
and comparison of the different structures were performed
that follows better effective medium ratio (EMR) for multi
band operations in microwave regime. The FDTD based
commercially available CST microwave studio was adopted
to investigate the design scattering parameters. The results
demonstrate the double negative characteristics and wide
negative refractive index (7.26-14.33) GHz of the unit-cell
and arrays over X- and Ku-band application which leads the
long-distance radio telecommunication like satellite
communications.
Keywords: Effective medium ratio; Meta-atom;
Miniaturized; satellite communications;
1. Introduction
Metamaterials are attractive engineered composite materials
that can manipulate the electromagnetic wave at surprising
manners. Negative permittivity properties of the materials
could be found, but to make engineered material with
negative permeability is still a challenging work. US
physicists D. R. Smith et al. achieved success to develop a
new man-made meta-atom with peculiar characteristics,
namely negative permeability and permittivity practically in
2000 [1]. Composite material can be mentioned double
negative (DNG) and negative index metamaterial (NIM)
when the electric permittivity (ε) and magnetic permeability
(μ) of both of them show negative properties that are not
naturally available. This kind of negative characteristic
materials is called left-handed media (LHM), backed wave
media (BW media) and negative index media (NIM) [2].
Metamaterial structures of different types such as U-shape
and ∆-shape etc. suggested to different applications. On the
other hand, some of them are applicable for X-band
microwave regime namely, satellite communications [3-4].
The ratio between the wavelengths to unit-cell dimension is
meta-atom. Discovering the practical meta-atom, researchers
are paying more attention at the multi-band meta-atoms and
arrays of the meta-atoms with high effective medium ratio
and wide negative index bandwidth. On the other hand, few
structures have been focused on constructing such
metamaterials [5-7]. In long distance radio
telecommunication like satellite communications, a new
double negative metamaterial unit-cell structure analysed
whereas the design structure of unit-cell was very big [8].
Hossain et al. recommended a design structure of 12×12
mm2 “double C-shape” metamaterial for multi-band
operation and reported EMR was 7.44 with negative
refractive index from 11.304 to 13.796 GHz [9]. The
proposed new wideband negative refractive index meta-
atom dimension is 10 mm × 10 mm × 1.6 mm which
includes all structural parameters to fit the design inside the
substrate area. In this paper, the circular shape meta-atom
exhibits, multi resonance at L-, S-, C-, X-, and Ku-bands
with wider bandwidth 1.96-2.01 GHz, 3.73-4.16 GHz, 6.45-
7.13 GHz, 8.77-10.77 GHz, and 13.03-13.83 GHz
respectively. The negative indices of the proposed meta-
atom are 5.64-7.36 GHz (1.72 GHz bandwidth), 7.9-13.44
GHz (5.54 GHz bandwidth), and 14.09-15.65 GHz (1.56
GHz bandwidth), that are a larger from [10, 11]. To compute
the scattering parameters, namely the reflection coefficient
(S11) and transmission coefficient (S21), the commercially
available CST electromagnetic simulator 2014 was used.
The effective medium parameters, namely effective
permittivity, permeability and refractive index were also
retrieved using well-established Nicolson-Ross-Weir
method.
2. Methodology
2.1. Design of Negative Refractive Index Meta-atom
A combination of multiple concentric split ring resonators
was utilized to achieve unconventional characteristics of
metamaterials that were usually not found in nature. The
proposed meta-atom unit cell and structural parameters are
shown in Fig 1(a). The dimension of the substrate is
10×10×1.6 mm3 where the substrate material is low cost
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FR4 lossy material. All elements of the resonators are made
of copper with conductivity of 5.8×10 7 S/m and the
thickness of copper resonators are 0.035 mm that is printed
on a substrate with standard effective permittivity ɛ= 4.3 as
well as loss tangent δ = 0.025. The width of each ring is 0.7
mm and the split of each ring is 0.4 mm. The inner radius of
the each CSRR along the x-direction are 4.2 mm (outer one),
3.2 mm (middle one), and 2.2 mm (inner one), respectively.
In this paper, the finite-difference time-domain method
based CST simulator is adopted to examine this design
structure. The electric field and magnetic field have been
polarized along the x-axis and the y-axis, respectively,
whereas z-axis has been utilized for electromagnetic wave
travelling. The boundary conditions of perfect magnetic
conductor (PEC) and the perfect electric conductor (PMC)
are utilized along the x-axis and y-axis, individually, and
two waveguide ports are placed on the positive and negative
z-axis. The simulation setup and schematic diagram of the
proposed design is illustrated in Fig 1(a) and (b). To
determine the transmission coefficient and the reflection
coefficient in simulation a frequency domain solver is
utilized. The impedance matching was set to fifty ohms. The
frequency range 1-15 GHz was used to simulate the design
of meta-atom.
(a)
port2
PMC
PEC
port1
(b)
Figure 1:(a) Simulation setup, (b)Boundary condition of
proposed structure.
2.2. Effective Scattering and Medium Parameters
Calculation
The Nicolson-Rose-Weir (NRW) method is utilized to
determine the medium parameters like effective
permeability (µeff) and permittivity (εeff) from simulated
83
scattering parameters such as transmission coefficient (S21)
and reflection coefficient (S11). The direct refractive index
method is applied to calculate the effective refractive index
(n) from the simulated complex S-parameters [12].
3. Results and Discussion
There are many methods that are used to extract effective
parameters, namely Nicolson-Rose-Weir (NRW) method,
Direct-Retrieval method, Transmission–Reflection (TR)
method, and Direct Refractive Index, etc. The real and
imaginary both values of the refractive index are justified to
characterize the proposed meta-atom. In this paper, meta-
atom structure and various elevation angles (00, 900, and
1800) of different split rings, for instance, inner, middle and
outer rings of meta-atom have been analyzed.
3.1. Meta-atom Structure Analysis
The simulation result of multiple concentric miniaturized
meta-atom has been offered. The simulated reflection
coefficient (S11), and transmission coefficient (S21) of the
unit-cells are demonstrated in Fig2. Fig2illustrates the
numerical values of the five frequency ranges of resonance
frequencies such as 1.96-2.01 GHz, 3.73-4.16 GHz, 6.45-
7.13 GHz, 8.77-10.77 GHz, and 13.03-13.83 GHz that
designates L-, S-, C-, X-, and Ku-bands applications.
Figure 2: Simulated S-parameters curve of meta-
atom structure.
Figure 3: Effective Refractive index values of real
and imaginary curves of meta-atom.
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Fig. 3 reports the effective negative refractive index 2.96-
3.674 (0.714 GHz bandwidth), and7.258-14.328 (7.07 GHz
bandwidth) of design structure of meta-atom. The curves of
the effective refractive index become negative when the
curves of the permittivity and permeability are negative,
simultaneously. The design structure of meta-atom has
shown negative-index properties above frequencies because
the permittivity, permeability and refractive index were
negative at that point simultaneously.
of the negative index are 7.356-8.616 GHz and 11.318-
12.018 GHz for 00 elevation angles; 7.146-8.546GHz, and
10.352-10.926GHzfor 900 elevation angle; 7.118-8.476GHz,
and 11.36-12.284GHzfor 1800 elevation angle of inner ring
of design structure. The design structure of meta-atom has
shown negative-index properties above frequencies because
the permittivity, permeability and refractive index were
negative at that point simultaneously.

3.2. Meta-atom Parametric Analysis

There are three types of elevation angle of inner, middle and

outer rings such as, 00, 900, and 1800 that have been
investigated. The scattering parameters, effective medium
parameters and effective medium ratio of elevated meta-
atoms are observed for 00 elevation angles, 900 elevation
angles, and 1800 elevations angle of the rings of design
structure. The meta-atom structure has capacitive and
inductive elements that increase the response of the material
to the incident electromagnetic wave. The splits of the ring
make capacitance that prevents current flow around the
rings, however, the mutual capacitance between the two Figure 5: Simulated S-parameters curve of meta-atom
structure.
rings enables the flow of the current through the structure.
Total capacitance depends on the splits of the individual 3.2.2. Effect of the Elevation Angle of Middle Ring of
rings and gap between the concentric rings, whereas, the Design Structure
total inductance is created by conducting rings and gap
between the rings. In this section, various elevation angles The amplitudes of transmission parameters for an elevation
(00, 900, and 1800) of the concentric rings (inner, middle, angle of 00, 900 and 1800 of middle ring are shown in Fig 6.
and outer) of meta-atom structure have been investigated.

3.2.1. Effect of the Elevation Angle of Inner Ring of

Design Structure
The magnitudes of transmission parameters for an elevation
angle of 00, 900 and 1800 of the inner ring are shown in Fig
4.

0 0
Figure 6: Simulated S-parameters curve for 0 , 90
0
and 180 elevation angle of middle ring meta-atom
structure.

By keeping other rings constant, only altered the middle ring

0 0
Figure 4: Simulated S-parameters curve for 0 , 90
0
and180 elevation angle of inner ring meta-atom
structure.
Fig. 5 describes the effective negative refractive index 2.96-
3.674GHz, and7.258-14.328GHz for 00 elevation angles;
2.96-3.982 GHz, 5.424-5.55GHz, 6.502-8.546GHz,9.428-
11.192GHz, and 14.72-14.93GHzfor 900 elevation angle;
2.96-4.57GHz, 6.67-8.476GHz, and 9.54-14.44GHzfor 1800
elevation angle of inner ring of design structure. The values
at different elevation angle like 00, 900, and 1800.Figure 6
displays the numerical of transmission spectra of ring
elevated meta-atom. The position with a dip of resonance
frequency in the transmission spectra has been observed for
elevation angle of middle ring of meta-atom. The numerical
values of the resonance frequencies with dip are 1.994 GHz
at -12.869 dB, 4.004 GHz at -22.776 dB, 6.911GHz at -
21.451 dB, 10.002 GHz at -29.224 dB, and 13.447 GHz at -
18.081 dB for 00elevation angles of middle ring; 2.159 GHz
at -16.948 dB,3.889 GHz at -18.24 dB, and 9.939 GHz at -
31.671 dB for 900elevation angle of middle ring; and 2.904
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GHz at -26.106 dB,10.064 GHz at -22.233 dB, and 12.76
GHz at -23.006 dB for 1800 elevation angle of middle ring of
meta-atom. The scattering parameters of meta-atom with
elevated angle of middle ring have been marginally shifted
towards the higher frequency and little bit fluctuation of dip.
The little bit difference has been occurred for altering the
middle ring at different elevation angle that causes
polarization effects on the interior construction.
Figure 7: Effective Refractive index values of real
curves of middle ring elevated meta-atom.
Fig. 7 designates the effective negative refractive index
2.96-3.674GHz, and7.258-14.328GHz for 00 elevation
angles; 3.296-3.492GHz, 4.724-8.196GHz, and 9.708-
14.552GHzfor 900 elevation angles; 5.074-5.228GHz,
5.634-8.574GHz, 9.82-11.234 GHz, and 12.55-
14.496GHzfor 1800 elevation angle of middle ring of design
structure. The values of the negative index are 7.356-8.616
GHz and 11.318-12.018 GHz for 00 elevation angles; 7.342-
8.196 GHz, and 12.984-13.6GHzfor 900 elevation angle;
7.188-8.574GHz, 10.632-10.926GHz, and 13.712-14.076
GHz for 1800 elevation angle of middle ring of design
structure. The design structure of meta-atom has shown
negative-index properties above frequencies because the
permittivity, permeability and refractive index were negative
at that point simultaneously.
3.2.3. Effect of the Elevation Angle of Outer Ring of
Design Structure
0 0
Figure 8: Simulated S-parameters curve for 0 , 90
0
and 180 elevation angle of outer ring meta-atom
structure.
85
The amplitudes of transmission parameters for an elevation
angle of 00, 900 and 1800 of the outer ring are shown in Fig
8. By retaining other rings constant, only changed the outer
ring at different elevation angle like 00, 900, and 1800.Figure
8 presents the numerical values of transmission spectra of
ring elevated meta-atom. The location with a dip of
resonance frequency in the transmission spectra has been
detected for elevation angle of the outer ring of meta-atom.
The numerical values of the resonance frequencies with dip
are 1.994 GHz at -12.869 dB, 4.004 GHz at -22.776 dB,
6.911GHz at -21.451 dB, 10.002 GHz at -29.224 dB, and
13.447 GHz at -18.081 dB for 00elevation angle of outer
ring; 5.712 GHz at -24.162 dB,7.496 GHz at –32.613 dB,
13.15 GHz at -18.519 dB, and 12.743 GHz at -16.06 dB for
900elevation angle of outer ring; and 2.554 GHz at -22.853
dB,3.379 GHz at –12.271 dB,6.861 GHz at -21.289 dB,
10.034 GHz at -23.197 dB, and 13.148 GHz at -25.903 dB
for 1800 elevation angle of outer ring of meta-atom. The
scattering parameters of meta-atom with elevated angle of
outer ring have been slightly lifted towards the higher
frequency and small part fluctuation of dip. The small part
difference has been happened for altering the outer ring at
different elevation angle that causes polarization effect on
the interior structure.
Figure 9: Effective Refractive index values of real
curves of outer ring elevated meta-atom.
Fig. 9 labels the effective negative refractive index 2.96-
3.674GHz, and7.258-14.328GHz for 00 elevation angles;
2.722-5.508GHz, 6.25-7.342GHz, 7.482-11.374GHz, and
12.648-14.356GHzfor 900 elevation angles; 4.332-
6.684GHz, 7.146-8.742GHz, 9.764-11.276 GHz, and
12.914-14.342GHzfor 1800 elevation angle of outer ring of
design structure. The values of the negative index are 7.356-
8.616 GHz and 11.318-12.018 GHz for 00 elevation angles;
7.482-7.496 GHz, 9.624-11.108 GHz, and 13.628-13.936
GHz for 900 elevation angles; 7.328-8.742GHz, 10.632-
10.982GHz, and 13.936-14.342 GHz for 1800 elevation
angle of the outer ring of design structure. The design
structure of meta-atom has shown negative-index properties
above frequencies because the permittivity, permeability and
refractive index were negative at that point simultaneously.
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
Table 1: The values of transmission parameters with dip at
different resonance frequencies, number of resonance
frequency, and EMR for meta-atom and different structure
with angle elevated rings.
Number of
Elevation angle of rings resonance EMR
frequency
Meta-atom 5 15.05
5 14.84
900 Elevation of the
inner ring
5 14.83
1800 Elevation of the
inner ring
900 Elevation of the 3 13.89
middle ring
1800 Elevation of the
3 10.33
middle ring
900 Elevation of the
4 5.25
outer ring
1800 Elevation of the
5 11.75
outer ring
The number of resonance frequency and EMR of meta-atom
and different structure with elevated rings are observed from
Table 1. It is seen from the table 1, the little bit differences
of the parameters have been changed for different elevation
angles. However, Meta-atom without elevation angle of any
concentric rings has achieved higher EMR which indicates
the compactness of meta-atom, and more cover band.
Finally, in this paper, the circular meta-atom has been
analysed with elevation of the different individual ring and
achieved higher EMR (15.05). It is seen from the new
analysis, the effect of the rotation of the different individual
ring alters the miniaturized factor and cover band of the
metamaterials. The proposed meta-atom has attained simple,
miniaturized and negative-index comparing all mentioned
references that are suitable for microwave regime.
4. Conclusion
A new design of circular miniaturized negative-index meta-
atom structure is proposed for satellite communications,
namely, X-, and Ku-band applications in this paper. These
designs exhibited higher EMR such as 15.05, and negative-
index characteristics. The CST electromagnetic simulator
was utilized to determine the metamaterials properties. The
proposed meta-atom is applicable for amateur radio, space
communication, radar, terrestrial broadband for X-band and
satellite communications for Ku-band. A comparative
analysis also carried out for 00 to 1800 elevation angles of
individual ring of the incident electromagnetic waves
consistent with applicable band, the size of the unit cell,
metamaterials characteristics and effective medium ratio for
dual-band applications. Hence, the meta-atom structure is
miniaturized in size, negative-index and follows better
EMR which is more suitable in microwave spectra.
86
References
[1] P. T. Bowen, A. Baron, and D. R. Smith, Theory of
patch-antenna metamaterial perfect absorbers, Phys.
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[2] N.Engheta, and R. W. Ziolkowski, Metamaterials:
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Chapter 1, New York, 2006.
[3] B.Gallas, K. Robbie, M. Abdeddaim, G. Guida, J.
Yang, J. Rivory and A. Priou, Silver square nanospirals
mimic optical properties of U shaped metamaterials,
Opt. express, 18:16335–16340, 2010.
[4] M. R. I.Faruque, and M. T. Islam, “Novel design of
triangular metamaterial for electromagnetic
absorptionin human head,” Progress In
Electromagnetics Research, Vol 141, 463–478, 2013.
[5] J. Pendry, Perfect cylindrical lenses, Opt. Express, 11:
755-760, 2003.
[6] S. il Kwak, D.-U. Sim, J. H. Kwon, and Y. J. Yoon,
Design of PIFA with metamaterials for body-SAR
reduction in wearable applications, IEEE Trans.
Electromagn. Comp., 59: 297-300, 2017.
[7] D. R.Smith, W. J. Padilla, D. C. Vier, S. C.Nemat-
Nasser, and S.Schultz, Composite medium with
simultaneously negative permeability and permittivity,
Phys. Rev. Lett., 84:4184–4187, 2000.
[8] Islam, S. S., M. R. I. Faruque and M. T. Islam, “design
and analysis of a new double negative metamaterial,”
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and Materials, 44:218–223, 2014.
[9] M. J.Hossain, M. R. I.Faruque, S. S.Islam, and M.
T.Islam, Design and analysis of a new composite
double negative metamaterial for multi-band
communication, Curr. appl phys., 17:931-939, 2017.
[10] M. J.Hossain, M. R. I.Faruque, S. S.Islam, and M.
T.Islam, An effective medium ratio following
miniaturized concentric meta-atom for S- and C-band
applications,Microw. Opt. Tech. Lett., 59:1233-1240,
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[11] M. J.Hossain, M. R. I.Faruque, S. S.Islam, and M. T.
Islam, A new double T-U-shaped biaxial compact
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Ionospheric Bottomside Electron Density Thickness Parameter over

Southeast Asian Sector
Saeed Abioye Bello1, 2, Mardina Abdullah1,3, Nurul Shazana Abdul Hamid4,*
1
Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
2
Faculty of Physical Sciences, Department of Physics, University of Ilorin, Nigeria.
3
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia.
4
School of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi,
Selangor, Malaysia.
*corresponding author, E-mail: shazana.ukm@gmail.com

automatically scaling digitized ionogram trace by assigning

Abstract
The thickness of the electron density profile below the
ionospheric F2-layer peak (B2bot) was study over the Chiang
Mai (CMI; 98.9°E, 18.8°N, dip latitude: 13.2°N), in the
Southeast Asian sector. To estimate the values B2bot, the
experimental F2-layer peak values were used as an input into
the NeQuick 2 bottomside thickness model during maximum
solar cycle of the year 2014. The NeQuick model is one of
the widely use empirical model for estimating ionospheric
electron density over a region. The experimental ionospheric
peak parameters used for this study are measurement data
obtained from FM-CW (Frequency-Modulated Continuous
Wave) ionosonde at CMI station. Result from our analysis
shows that B2bot exhibit diurnal variation. Furthermore, the
B2bot is highest in the daytime than at night time. This implies
that the ionospheric electron density during the daytime is
thicker than the rest of the day.
1. Introduction
The ionospheric B2bot is a term used to describe the
bottomside thickness of the electron density of the
ionosphere below the F2-layer peak height. The values of
B2bot can directly be estimated from the bottomside electron
density profile Ne(h) by calculating the difference between
the peak height of the F2 layer (hmF2) to the height (h0.24)
where the electron density is 0.24 x NmF2 (peak electron
density of F2-layer) if F1-layer does not exist or to the peak
height of F1-layer (hmF1). This techniques requires scaling
the ionogram trace (or electron density) and inverting the
h’(F) curve into the true height profile. However, the
ionogram record of the FM-CW ionosonde at CMI station is
an analogue data that is somewhat difficult to scale using
manual method. This is because some of the ionogram can
present complex instances and might introduce possible
systematic error during scaling procedure. The success rate
of scaling a more complicated ionograms may likely not
exceed 70% in spite of ever increasing coding efforts [1].
Currently, the modern ionosonde are fully becoming digital
(e.g. digisonde portable sounder, DPS) [2] and capable of
a confidence score to each trace in order to determine
attributed uncertainty of each profile points. The ARTIST
auto-scaling ionogram software [2] is an example of this
advancement in ionospheric sounding procedure. Though,
the software mainly works for digitized ionogram.
The development of the NeQuick model [3] provides the
opportunity to study the electron density profile of the
ionosphere. The NeQuick model is one of the widely use
empirical model for estimating ionospheric electron density
over a region [3]. The model was developed at two
laboratories; namely Aeronomy and Radio Propagation
Laboratory (ARPL) of the Abdus Salam International Centre
for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Trieste, Italy and Institute for
Geophysics, Astrophysics and Meteorology (IGAM) of the
University of Graz, Austria [4]. To estimate the thickness of
the ionospheric electron density (B2bot) above 90 km and up
to the peak height of ionospheric F2 layer, we used the
improved version of the NeQuick model (NeQuick 2) which
is a modified version of ‘Di Giovanni and Radicella’ (DGR)
formulation [5]. We compute the B2bot parameter using the
ionospheric peak parameters: peak frequency of F2-layer
(foF2) and peak height of F2-layer (hmF2) as an anchor point
for the estimate. The ionospheric peak parameters used for
this study are measurement data obtained from FM-CW
(frequency-modulated continuous wave) ionosonde at
Chiang Mai (CMI) station. The ionosonde send sweep of
frequency in the range of 2-30 MHz with maximum power
of 150 W [6].
This study is a preliminary result over the CMI station
and aimed to contribute for further understanding of the
ionospheric electron density thickness parameter at the
Southeast Asian region. The process of the NeQuick 2 model
used for estimating B2bot in this present study is described in
detail in the data and methodology section (Section 2). The
results and discussions are given in Section 3. Finally, in
Section 4, the conclusions are made.
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2. Data and Methodology The B2bot is calculated using the expression given in equation
(1)
The study focuses on an equatorial station located at Chiang
Mai (CMI; 98.9°E, 18.8°N, dip latitude: 13.2°N), in the 0.385 𝑥 𝑁𝑚𝐹2
South-East Asia sector. The ionospheric dataset are obtained 𝐵2𝑏𝑜𝑡 = (1)
(𝑑𝑁⁄𝑑ℎ)𝑚𝑎𝑥
from the FM-CW ionosonde installed at CMI station which is 10 -3
where NmF2 (10 el.m )is the peak electron density of
one of the three South East Asia Low-latitude Ionospheric
ionospheric F2-layer and can be calculated from experimental
Network (SEALION) along the 100°E meridian [6]. The
foF2 (MHz) using;
location of the station is given in Fig. 1. The CMI station and
𝑁𝑚𝐹2(= 1.24 × 1010 (𝑓𝑜𝐹2)2 (2)
Kotatobang (KTB) station are nearly magnetic conjugate [7].
ln((𝑑𝑁 ⁄𝑑ℎ)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −3.4567 + 1.714𝑙𝑛(𝑁𝑚𝐹2) + (3)
2.02𝑙𝑛(𝑀(3000)𝐹2)
(𝑑𝑁⁄𝑑ℎ)𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum gradient inflection point of
ionospheric electron density Ne(h) below the F2 layer.
M(3000)F2 is the propagation factor:
𝑀𝑈𝐹(3000)𝐹2 (4)
𝑀(3000)𝐹2 =
𝑓𝑜𝐹2

Figure 1: SEALION- The South East Asia Low-latitude

Ionospheric Network [7].

The peak frequency (foF2) and maximum usable

frequency refracted from the ionospheric F2-layer that can be
received at a distance of 3000 km (MUF(3000)) were Figure 2: Bar chart showing the number of days in each month
experimental measurement from the ionosonde dataset with available data at CMI station in the year 2014.
(ionogram) used in the present study. These parameters is
analyse for the year 2014 which is a period of high solar 3. Results and Discussion
activity. The 27-day averaged solar index F10.7 of ~146(sfu
The diurnal variation of bottomside thickness parameter
= 10-22x m-2x Hz-1) and average sunspot number (avg_R) of
(B2bot) for the ionospheric F2-layer for the ten (10) quietest
~113. Table 1 provides the summary of the monthly daily
days in each month of the year 2014 is shown in Fig.3. The
averages of F10.7 for the year 2014. The bar chart in Fig. 2
quietest days are defines as period with no geomagnetic
shows the number of days in the month of 2014 for which
disturbances and are obtained from the catalogue of the World
data are available in the CMI station.
Data Center (WDC) for geomagnetism, Kyoto, Japan
(http://wdc.kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp/). There is no data for the
Table 1: Monthly daily averages of F10.7 for the year 2014.
months of March to July and this is largely due to technical
Months F10.7 (sfu)
failure of the measuring instrument. For this reason, the
January 155
periods of the month without data are the white empty space
February 172
in Fig. 3. The magnitude of B2bot estimated by NeQuick 2
March 148
model typically shows a maximum value during the day time
April 145
and lowest during the night time. The model reproduces the
May 133
September equinox peak with values reaching 60 km during
June 126
the daytime.
July 142
The diurnal hourly monthly averages of B2bot over CMI
August 128
station for the year 2010 is given Fig. 4. The figure gives the
September 149
scatter plot of the hourly values of the ten quietest days in the
October 154
months of January to April and August to December and their
November 151
averages in orange line plot. The hourly data points for the
December 154
month of April are few during the selected quiet days. The
daily values of the B2bot are represented by the circle marker
The bottomside thickness parameter (B2bot) for the and their monthly averages (B2bot_avg) is the orange bold line
ionospheric F2-layer is estimated using NeQuick 2 model. (error bar is calculated from the standard deviation) in Fig.
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4(a-h). It can be observed that the B2 botshows both diurnal

variations. The values of B2bot are found to be at maximum
during the daytime and lowest at night time towards the pre-
sunrise period. In all the observed month, the values of B2bot
gradually increase from 0800h LT towards the midday. The
value thereafter reduces towards the night time from 1600h
LT. The deviation of the values of B2bot is greatly spread out
around 1200h to 1600h LT. This suggests the variability of
B2bot is largely related to the daytime photoionization and
daytime plasma drift. The mechanism that controls the peak
height of F2-layer (hmF2) equally contributes to the observed
behaviour of B2bot [8]. It is seen from Fig. 4 that the highest
midday value B2bot is found during the equinoctial months
(February, April, and August to October). The magnitude of
B2bot during equinoctial months was found to be similar with
the values of B2bot during winter months (December to
January). Largely due to paucity of data, a complete
Figure 5: Seasonal variation of B2bot during the month of
description of B2bot seasonal variation cannot be concluded
equinox and winter of the year 2014.
using the current data. A more simplify description between
the values of B2bot during the equinox and winter seasons are 4. Conclusion
given in Fig. 5. The observed morphology of B2bot is similar
to the results of previous findings [4, 7]. The experimental data obtained at Chiang Mai during a period
of high solar activity have been used to study the behaviour
of the ionospheric electron density thickness parameter below
the F2-layer. The thickness parameter was estimated using the
NeQuick bottomside thickness model. The experimental
values of foF2 and M(3000)F2 have been used as an input
into the model. The conclusion can be drawn as follows:
1) B2bot was found to exhibit diurnal variation.
2) The magnitude of B2bot during the daytime is highest
than at night time.
3) The value of B2bot during the equinoctial month is
almost similar to that of winter season.

Figure 3: Diurnal monthly variation of B2 bot Chiang Mai

(CMI) for the year 2014.

Figure 4: The diurnal monthly averages of B2bot at Chiang Mai (CMI) station for the year 2014.
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Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to National Institute of Information
and Communications Technology (NICT), Japan for the
ionosonde data used in this study. This work is supported by
the grants FRGS/1/2015/ ST02/UKM/02/1 of Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia.

References
[1] B. Nava, P. Coisson, S. Radicella, A new version of the
NeQuick ionosphere electron density model, J. Atmos.
Sol.-Terr. Phys., 70(15): 1856-1862, 2008.
[2] S. Wang, J. Shi, X. Wang, G. Wang, Validation of B2 bot
in the NeQuick model during high solar activity at
Hainan station, Adv. Space Res., 46(9): 1094-1101, 2010.
[3] G. Di Giovanni, S. Radicella, An analytical model of the
electron density profile in the ionosphere Adv. Space
Res., 10(11): 27-30, 1990.
[4] T. Maruyama, M. Kawamura, S. Saito, K. Nozaki, H.
Kato, N. Hemmakorn, T. Boonchuk, T. Komolmis, C. H.
Duyen, Low latitude ionosphere-thermosphere dynamics
studies with ionosonde chain in Southeast Asia, Ann.
Geophys., 25: 1569-1577, 2007.
[5] T. Maruyama, J. Uemoto, M. Ishii, T. Tsugawa, P.
Supnithi, T. Komolmis, Low‐ latitude ionospheric
height variation as observed by meridional ionosonde
chain: Formation of ionospheric ceiling over the
magnetic equator, J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys.,
119(12): 10595-10607, 2014.
[6] C.-C. Lee, B.W. Reinisch. Variations in equatorial F2-
layer parameters and comparison with IRI-2007 during a
deep solar minimum, J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys., 74: 217-
223, 2012.
[7] P. Coïsson, B. Nava, S. Radicella, O. Oladipo, J.
Adeniyi, S. G. Krishna, P.V.S. Rama Rao, S. Ravindran,
NeQuick bottomside analysis at low latitudes. J. Atmos.
Sol.-Terr. Phys., 70(15): 1911-1918, 2008.
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Assessing the Accuracy of Hydrodynamic Parameters using

Statistical Approaches

Fazly Amri Mohd1, Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud1&2, Othman A.Karim1, Rawshan Ara Begum3
1
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
2
Earth Observation Centre, Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia.
3
Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
*corresponding author, Email: fazlyamri28@gmail.com

To understand coastal hydrodynamics over geographic

Abstract
This study simulates the hydrodynamic characteristics at
Pahang coastal area which is located at the South China Sea
by using MIKE 21 Hydrodynamic FM. The numerical
modelling normally applies complicated mathematical
equations, which have coefficients that are site specific.
Therefore, the model simulations are important to calibrate
and validate against measured conditions by collecting in-
situ data such as water level, current direction and current
speed within two weeks period at the study area. In this
study, the device used to record the tidal reading at Kuantan
and Kuala Pahang Jetty is tide gauge, meanwhile Acoustic
Wave and Current Profiler (AWAC) are used to record the
current direction and current speed at two stations nearshore
at Pahang shoreline. This objective of this paper is to verify
the statistical methods used to assess the accuracy of the
simulation models by comparison between calibrated and
validated model results using RMSE and Brier Skill Score
(BSS). BSS for the water level at Kuantan and Kuala
Pahang Jetty are 0.90 and 0.97 respectively while current
speed and current direction are approximately around 0.86
to 0.98. These values show that the simulation model results
can be accepted.
Keywords: Hydrodynamic, RMSE, BSS, MIKE 21,
simulation model
1. Introduction
Coastal zone is one of the most vital zones for human
activities and infrastructure development [1]. Nevertheless,
this system is dynamic and must to be studied widely before
any infrastructure is planned to avoid damage caused by
natural processes such as erosion. The main natural
elements responsible for coastal hydrodynamics are waves,
currents and tides [2,3,4]. This information is very
significant for various coastal engineering designs and
applications for new modifications to coastal protection
structures.
areas, many numerical modelling has been shown to be the
best method. These models are recently being used as a
prediction tool to help in decision making. MIKE21 is such
an interconnected modelling module, commercially
presented by DHI (known as Danish Hydraulic Institute)
[5]. It includes modules that represent various processes in
coastal dynamics. The output of numerical hydrodynamic
model are used to study complex systems of various
processes in coastal areas that may occur simultaneously.
The main objective of the study was to assess the
accuracy of the simulation models of water level, current
speeds and current directions data at the Balok to Kuala
Pahang coastal using different of statistical methods. These
simulations have been carried out using the software MIKE
21, which includes module of Hydrodynamic FM [5].
2. Methods
2.1 Numerical Model
MIKE 21 Flow Model FM is a modelling system for 2D free
surface flows based on a flexible mesh approach. The
modelling system has been developed for applications
within oceanographic, coastal and estuarine environments.
The Hydrodynamic module is one of the basic
computational components of the entire MIKE 21 Flow
Model modelling system [5]. This module is applicable for
the simulation of hydraulic and environmental phenomena
in lakes, estuaries, bays, coastal areas and seas.
2.2 Model Input
By using MIKE 21 Hydrodynamic FM, the data required for
the modelling consists of bathymetry data from the
computational domain, wind speeds and wind directions,
significant wave heights, mean wave directions and bed
resistance. The input data for this model has been simulated
with the current condition during inter monsoon as well as
wind speed and wind direction data with 8 m/s and 2400
respectively. This model also used 14 days tidal data and
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hydrographic data that was obtained from The Department
of Survey and Mapping Malaysia (JUPEM).
2.3 Bathymetry
Bathymetry survey with the fine resolution was conducted
along Beserah to Kg. Tanjung Agas in Pekan covering an
area approximately 48 km x 5 km. The interval between
sounding lines is within 500 m of each line. The bathymetric
survey was carried out during the spring tide. The data
observation recorded includes depth from -0.01m to -
19.77m from the average sea level (MSL). In addition,
bathymetry data of the ocean region was generated using C-
MAP 2014.
3. Results and Discussion
The in-situ measurement consists of the water level, current
speed and current direction at the Pahang coastal was
collected during spring tide and neap tide period on 24th
May 2014 until 7th June 2014. On Figure 2, the pattern of
water levels obtained from hydrodynamic simulations for
the Kuantan Jetty and Kuala Pahang Jetty have a good
agreement with the field measurements. The water level
range at both jetty are approximately – 1.5 to 1.5 meter.

2.4 Boundary Condition

The purpose of boundary condition is used to allow energy
of the water level through into and out of the model domain.
The specification of boundary information for each code is
made subsequently. When mesh was generated using the
MIKE Zero Mesh Generator, a code value for open water
boundaries can be defined. In this study, the mesh file
specified in the domain parameters: code 2 (South), code 3
(East) and code 4 (North).
(a)
2.5 Model Calibration and Validation
Two units of Acoustic Wave and Current Profiler (AWAC)
were installed at two locations at Pahang Coastal which
located the South China Sea coast within spring tide and
neap tide period as shown in Figure 1. The device was
utilised to measure the current characteristics including
current speeds and current directions. For the water level
reading at Kuantan and Kuala Pahang jetties were deployed
and recorded using Tide Gauge with 10 minute intervals in
the project site.
Table 1: Locations of Tide gauge, AWAC 2 and AWAC 3
devices at Pahang Coastal
Latitude Longitude
No Station
(Y) (X)
(b)
1 Kuantan Jetty 3.809889 103.336056
Figure 2: Pattern of water level at Kuantan Jetty and Kuala
2 Kuala Pahang Jetty 3.530073 103.462840 Pahang Jetty

3 Station B 3.673722 103.480896

4 Station C 3.601107 103.480896
The result of this simulation model was determined using a
statistical method based on the standard error allowed for
hydraulic study by Department of Irrigation and Drainage
(DID) guidelines on year the 2013 (JPS, 2001). The quality
of the simulation modelling was evaluated the performance
of the numerical modelling systems using Brier Skill Score
(BSS) [6].
Based on Figure 3 and Figure 4, it is evident that the
current speeds and current directions for the Station B and
Point C at the Balok to Kuala Pahang area during spring tide
and neap tide conditions were approximately 0 to 0.40 m /s
and 0 to 0.44 m /s, respectively which located at southwest
direction with ranges between 1800 - 2000.Thus, the current
speeds, current directions and water levels obtained from
hydrodynamic simulations have a good agreement with the
field measurement.
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hydrodynamic parameters using statistical method is 0.89 to

0.97.
Based on standard error allowed for hydraulic study by
Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) guidelines on
the year 2013, the RSME of current speed should be not
more than 20% and the current direction is not more than
200. For the water level, the tolerance of JPS requirement
for RMSE is not more than 10%. Therefore, most of these
statistical methods from this study prove that the model is
well calibrated and validated and accepted.

Table 2: The types of Statistical Method for hydrodynamic

parameters

Statistical Method
No Hydrodynamic RMSE Brier Skill
Figure 3: The pattern of Current Speed result at Station B Parameters Score (BSS)
and C near Pahang Coastal.
1 Water Level (m)
1.Kuantan Jetty 7.90 0.97
2.Kuala Pahang Jetty 7.86 0.90
2. Current Speed (m/s)
1.Station B 18.5 0.98
2.Station C 14.06 0.89

3. Current Direction
(Degree, 0 )
1.Station B 17.59 0.92
2.Station C 18.83 0.95

Figure 4: Pattern of Current Direction result at Station B
and C near Pahang Coastal.
Table 2 summarises the minimum values of RMSE and
Brier Skill Score (BSS) in model calibration and validation
process. The minimum values of Root Mean Squared Error
(RMSE) for calibration and validation of water level at
Kuantan Jetty and Kuala Pahang Jetty are 7.92 and 7.86.
The value of current speeds and current direction by RSME
method for Station B and Station C is representing 18.5 m/s
and 17.590, and 14.06 m/s and 18.830 respectively.
Regarding Brier Skill Score (BSS) method, the values of
water level, current speed and current direction are
approximately 1, which means this simulation model gives
good result of the prediction. The range of these
4. Conclusion
The statistical analysis applied in the numerical model for
this study gave a high agreement between the model results
and the measured data. The BSS method had been
successfully applied in the numerical model for identifying
the accuracy data of the hydrodynamic parameters at
Pahang Coastal. The result shows that the numerical model
is in good performances as the BSS ranged from 0.90 to 0.97
for the water level, meanwhile the value ranging from 0.89
to 0.98 are representing the current speed and current
direction for Station B and Station C at the Pahang Coastal
respectively. Based on the simulation results, the current
speed and current directions at the Balok to Kuala Pahang
coastal between 24th May 2014 until 7th June 2014 are an
approximately 0 – 0.44 m/s and 1800 - 2000.
Acknowledgement
The authors greatly acknowledge Earth Observation Centre,
Institute of Climate Change, UKM and relevant agency
such as NAHRIM in providing the information and field
data. This work was supported by Research Fund (AP-
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2015-009, TRGS/1/2015/UKM/5/1 and

TRGS/1/2015/UKM/5/3) by Research University Grants
from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Ministry of
Higher Education, Malaysia

References
[1] Kulkarni, R. R. Numerical Modelling of Coastal
Erosion using MIKE21. Master Dissertation,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology,
(2013).
[2] Fitri, A., Hashim, R. and Motamedi, S.. Estimation and
Validation of Nearshore Current at the Coast of Carey
Island, Malysia. Science and Technology, 25(3),
1009–1018, (2017)
[3] Jabatan Pengairan & Saliran (JPS). Guidelines for
Preparation Of Coastal Engineering Hydraulic Study
And Impact Evaluation Malaysia, December 2001,
(2001)
[4] V, Noujas. Coastal Hydrodynamics and Sediment
Transport Regime of the Central Kerala Coast in
Comparison to Southern Kerala. Ph.D. Dissertation,
Cochin University of Science and Technology, (2015).
[5] DHI (Danish Hydraulic Institute). MIKE 21 FLOW
MODEL FM. User Guide, (2011)
[6] Sutherland, J., Walstra, D. J. R., Chesher, T. J., Rijn,
L. C. Van, & Southgate, H. N.. Evaluation of coastal
area modelling systems at an estuary mouth. Coastal
Engineering, 51, 119–142, (2004)
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Socio-economic Impacts of Climate Change in the Coastal Areas of

Malaysia
Mohd Khairul Zainal 1, Rawshan Ara Begum 1, Khairul Nizam Abdul Maulud 1&2,
Norlida Hanim Mohd Salleh 3
1
Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
3
Faculty of Economic and Management, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
*corresponding author, E-mail: khairulzainal.kz@gmail.com

Abstract
This paper provides an overview of the socio-economic
impacts of climate change in the coastal areas of Malaysia.
Malaysia has a 4,800 kilometre coastline which rich in
natural resources that provide opportunities for socio-
economic activities. Sectors in coastal areas such as
agriculture, fisheries, and oil and gas contribute 8%, 1% and
20% of GDP in Malaysia. However, the impacts of climate
change such as sea level rise, flooding, erosion, inundation,
and salt water instrusion bring problems and vulnerability to
coastal areas and communities. These include decreasing
crop yields by as much as 80%, mangrove forest loss about
0.8% per year, decreasing in fisheries industries production,
declining tourism and recreation activities, loss of land,
infrastructure damages, affected health and life, loss of
physical properties and livelihood damages. Furthermore, it
has been estimated that 30% of the coastline is subject to
varying degrees of erosion that affected to the socio-
economic along the coastal areas. For example, if the flood
frequency is doubled, the annual flood damage would
increase by 1.67 times which might cost RM1.3 billion per
year for mitigating floods. Therefore, socio-economic
assessment on the adaptation measures is crucial in order to
reduce the damages of climate change impacts and identify
the efficient adaptation measures in the coastal areas of
Malaysia.
1. Introduction
Malaysia is located in Southeast Asia and situated in the
equatorial region. It is divided into two similarly sized
region which consists of Peninsular Malaysia and East
Malaysia where Peninsular Malaysia lies between latitudes
1.5°N and 7°N and longitudes 99.5°E and 104°E.
Meanwhile, East Malaysia is located between latitudes 1°N
and 6.5°N, and longitudes 108.5°E and 120°E [1]. Malaysia
is a coastal nation with a 4,800 kilometre coastline [2],[3]
which is rich in natural resources that provide opportunities
for socio-economic activities such as agriculture, fisheries,
mangrove, oil and gas, seaports and marine transport,
tourism, recreation, etc. Moreover, there are a lot of people
living around the coastal area due the various resources and
biodiversity which attract large number of immigrants, and
hence increasing the demand for housing, energy, goods and
services.
Most of the population in Malaysia is located in the
coastal areas and support a major portion (about 60%) [2]-
[4] of the total population. However, coastal areas are
constantly facing tremendous development pressures both
from natural and anthropogenic factors. Demands on coastal
and marine resources such as urbanization process, primary
sector, good and services sectors are rapidly increasing.
Hence, those activities are intrinsically linked to climate
change especially in sea level rise events. Consequently,
these situations could create problems to coastal areas and
the vulnerability of human settlements to erosion,
inundation, storm surges, and flooding events also increases.
As a consequence, it will affect the socio-economic
activities around the coastal areas. Therefore, this paper
provides an overview of the socio-economic impacts of
climate change in the coastal areas of Malaysia.
2. Sectoral and Socio-economic Contribution of
the Coastal Area
Coastal area is an important interface between land and sea
with rich potential for biodiversity and natural resources.
Malaysian coastal areas include Peninsular (West and East
Coast) and East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak). Demands
on coastal resources have resulted in coastal development
and brings the socio-economic activities around the
coastline including primary sector such as agriculture and
fisheries, secondary sector like ports and marine transport,
and tertiary sectors as well like tourism activities. About
21% of the coastal areas have been developed for
residential, housing, transportation and tourism purposes [2].
Malaysian economy have become highly dependent on
revenues generated from coastal activities such as
agriculture, oil and gas, tourism and recreational. Thus,
coastal areas is an important resource that contribute to the
economy such as national income, employment, trade, and
business. There are several socio-economic activities around
the coastal areas that contributed to Malaysian economy
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
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such as oil palm, oil and gas and etc. Table 1 shows the
contribution of socio-economic activities around the coastal
areas in Malaysia.
Table 1: Summaries of Sectoral and Socio-economic
contribution of the Coastal Area
Sectoral Socio-economic Contribution
Agriculture Agriculture industries contribute about 8%
plantation to Malaysian GDP [2].There are a lot of
agriculture activities including oil palm,
coconut, mangrove along the coastal areas
such as in Johor,[5,6] and rice cultivation in
the coastal areas of the northwestern states
of Perak, Penang, Kedah and Perlis.
Fisheries Fisheries production has peaked at around
industry one million tones [5] for more than a
decade that contribute in 1% of Malaysia
GDP. Landings of marine fish (including
shellfish collection) were 1.483 million
tonnes in 2013, compared with 1.286
million tonnes in 2000 [6].
Mangrove Mangrove forest provided about 1,400
forest activity workers and 1,000 indirect employment in
Matang and total value of mangrove forest
about $20.7 million. Besides, mangrove in
Sabah contribute $11 million from 260,000
tonnes wood chips and created 3,000
employment. [7].
Oil and gas The discovery of oil and gas in Johor,
Kelantan, Terengganu, Sarawak and
Labuan has resulted in the development of
a significant component of the Malaysian
economy that contribute in 20% of national
income. [7,8].
Seaports and Important to transportation for the export
marine and import goods to distribute around
transport Malaysia, for instance, Klang Port
(Selangor) and Port Tanjung Pelepas
(Johor).In year 2004, Malaysia have
exported various types of fish equivalent to
RM1.293 billion ringgit to Singapore,
Japan and Europe. At the same time, it
imported up to RM1.217 billion ringgit for
own consumption. [2,4].
Maritime Coastline as major training bases for ships
activity and submarines such as in Malacca and
Perak to protect the Malaysian coastline
could contribute in security and safety for
country [9].
Urban There are about 22 urban settlements along
development the coastline of Malaysia consists of some
96
Sectoral Socio-economic Contribution
major towns such as Georgetown, Malacca,
Johor Bharu, Kuantan, Kuala Terengganu
etc. that create employment and jobs that
reducing about 3% of unemployment rate
[1,2].
Culture and There are various cultural , historical
Historical coastal areas such as Lembah bujang,
place Kuala Kedah, Kuala Muda, Malacca, Kota
Tinggi andJohore Lama that are significant
in Malaysian history [2]. A portion of the
coast has also been gazetted as a Ramsar
site like Tanjung Piai [10].
Tourism and In year 2004, about 4.07million tourist
recreational visited Malaysia compared to 8.1 million in
year 2003 and this expected to increase in
coming years [2]. Meanwhile, in 2009
tourist arrivals was over 23.6 million
people in which their presence contributes
to the economy [11].
Table 1 shows that coastal areas are importantant to the
socio-economic activities and development in Malaysia.
Nevertheless, the coastal areas are vulnerable due to the
impacts of climate change and accelerated sea level rise such
as shoreline erosion, saltwater intrusion, flooding,
inundation, and affects to communities, cultural and historic
resources as well as infrastructure which might jeopardise
the socio-economic development in Malaysia.
3. Socio-economic Impacts of Climate Change
Malaysia is experiencing changing climates for the past few
decades. Most of the coastal areas in Malaysia are low-lying
areas less than 0.5 m above the highest tide or are within 100
m inland of the high-water mark. Hence, these areas are
vulnerable to sea level rise [9]. It has been proven that
Malaysian coastal areas will face the rise in sea level of
about 13-94 cm in 100 years [1]. In Perak and Pulau Penang,
sea-level rise of 6.45 mm per year; 4.26 mm at Perhentian
Island, Terengganu; and 2.73 mm at Mersing water was
identified [12]. Sea level rise is one of the major problem to
coastal erosion and the destruction of mangrove forests in
Malaysia [13]. It has been estimated that some 30% of the
coastline is subject to varying degrees of erosion [2] where
about 288 km of coastline is subject to erosion, which
indicates that the areas are facing erosion which poses
immediate danger of collapse or damage to shore-based
facilities and infrastructure, [14] plus, 65 coastal areas in
Malaysia are also facing serious coastal erosion [13].
As a consequence, climate change has the potential to
increase the intensity and severity of extreme coastal
impacts such as sea level rise, shoreline erosion, salt water
intrusion, inundation of wetlands and estuaries, high tides,
strong storms, and coastal flooding [9] and even worst is
tsunami event. Next, it will be a threat to socio-economy
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FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
such as agriculture, cultural and historic resources as well as
infrastructure. Table 2 shows the impact of climate change
on socio-economy in Malaysia.
Table 2: Socio-economic impacts due to Climate Change
Climate Sectoral impacts
Change
phenomena
Coastal Agriculture loss:
Flooding and  Floods and droughts during the early
Sea level rise stage of the growing season decrease
yields by as much as 80% [12].
 RM46 million for Western Johor
Agricultural Development Project
area. The West Johor Project area
accounts for about 25% of the national
drainage areas [3].
Coastal Mangrove loss:
Erosion  Food and Agricultural Organization
(FOA) (2007) mentioned that the
destruction of mangrove forests in
Malaysia has been occurring at a rate
of 0.8% per year [12].
 About 25% of mudflats and
mangroves under threat of erosion and
flooding in north west of Tanjung Piai,
Johor [10].
 It will cost US$9,990 (RM37,962) per
hectare per year to use technology to
replace the naturally available
mangroves [2].
Coastal Loss of fisheries production :
Erosion  RM300 million loss based on 20% loss
of mangrove resulting in a loss of
about 70,000 tonnes of prawn
production valued at RM4,500/tonne
[15,16].
Coastal Land loss:
Erosion  Batu Pahat Johor, it has been reported
that the coast has eroded by 2 m every
year, and this affects local agriculture
activities and causes a loss of
investment to farmers [12].
 Land loss varies from 3% to 19% due
to flooding and river bank overtopping
at Kg. Lubok Buaya, Kedah [17].
Coastal Residential/ Housing loss :
Erosion  Pengkalan Atap village, which is
located in Kuala Besut, Terengganu; in
2011, a total of 41 families from the
village were
relocated, as their houses were
destroyed by coastal erosion and
97
Climate Sectoral impacts
Change
phenomena
extreme waves [13].
 More 2000 families along coastal areas
in west coast of Malaysia lost their
home and properties [2].
Coastal Insfrastructure loss :
Erosion and  About 7 – 8km of coastal road under
Sea level rise threat of erosion and flooding between
Tanjung Piai and Tanjung Bin [18];
[19].
 Overtopping of coastal bund south of
airport runway is predicted in
Kampung Kuala Muda Airport to
Kampung Chenang, Kedah [3,15].
 Number of infrastructure facilities
were destroyed due to extreme waves
and coastal erosion in Malacca [12].
Sea level rise Health and life affected :
 In the extreme flood of 2014, 25 lives
were lost, half a million people were
affected and damage to public
infrastructure amounted to RM2.9
billion [20].
 It is also in line with Malaysian
government’s call for preservation of
mangrove swamps following the
tsunami disaster in 26 December 2004
which caused 69 death and more than
RM200 million ringgit losses to the
country [2].
Coastal Cultural and Heritage loss :
Erosion and  28.5% potential loss of the world
Sea level rise heritage in Tanjung Piai, Johor [23].
Table 2 clearly shows that climate change could bring
negative impacts on the socio-economy around the coastal
areas and could affect income of households,
unemployment, properties damages and will increase cost
and public expenditure. The average cost by the Government
to mitigate floods over the past 40 years has risen from
about RM3 million per year during the Second Malaysia
Plan period (1971-1975) to RM1.3 billion per year during
the Tenth Malaysia Plan period (2011-2015) [24]. Thus, it is
recommend that adaptation measures is needed to prevent
the more damages in future.
4. Concluding Remarks
A large number of human population is living along the
coastlines because coastal areas in Malaysia are rich in
resources and biodiversity that contributes to the socio-
economic activities. Most of coastal region countries earn
 PROCEEDINGS OF IPI RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM 2017, 1 – 3 OCTOBER 2017,
FELDA RESIDENCE TROLAK, PERAK, MALAYSIA
their revenue from the coast resources such as primary
sectors; agriculture, fisheries, secondary sector; oil and gas
and tertiary sector; tourism and recreation that could
contribute in national income, unemployment rate and
trading[2,6,24,25].
Nevertheless, the impacts of climate change could
jeopardise economic growth and affect social activities in
Malaysia. Consequently, coastal areas are sensitive areas
and tend to be vulnerable to various threats such as erosion,
sea level rise, salt water intrusion, flooding and inundation
[12,26].
The impacts of climate change pose a direct threat to the
vulnerable communities and people. As a result, other
sectors are also affected by climate change including
agriculture and mangrove forest loss, fisheries industries
production reduction, tourism and recreation industries
declining, land loss, infrastructure damages, affected health
and life, loss of physical properties and livelihood damages
[1,15]. These impacts could increase the cost of public and
private expenditures.
However, there is a lack of comprehensive studies in
socio-economic impacts of climate change in Malaysia.
Therefore, socio-economic assessment on the adaptation
measures is crucial in order to reduce the damages of
climate change impacts and identify the efficient adaptation
measures in the coastal areas of Malaysia.
Acknowledgement
In arranging this research, the author intended to express
gratitude and appreciation to Ministry of Higher Education
Malaysia through its projects Transdisciplinary Research
Grant Scheme TRGS/1/2015/UKM/02/5/3 and The National
University of Malaysia (UKM) for Arus Perdana Grant
Scheme AP-2015-009 that has been funded the research
project.
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