1.

INTRODUCTION

Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cerealgrain which is a worldwide staple
food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus Triticum; the most widely
grown is common wheat (T. aestivum).

The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile
Crescent around 9600 BCE. Botanically, the wheat kernel is a type of fruit called a caryopsis.

Wheat is grown on more land area than any other food crop (220.4 million hectares, 2014).
World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined. In 2016, world production
of wheat was 749 million tonnes, making it the second most-produced cereal after maize.
Since 1960, world production of wheat and other grain crops has tripled and is expected to
grow further through the middle of the 21st century. Global demand for wheat is increasing
due to the unique viscoelastic and adhesive properties of gluten proteins, which facilitate the
production of processed foods, whose consumption is increasing as a result of the worldwide
industrialization process and the westernization of the diet.

As a food, wheat is the most important crop in all over the world which contains a number of
proteins, vitamins, calories and minerals. It has been a staple food for several years
(approximately 8000 years) in the whole world especially in Asian countries, Europe and
in north Africa. Wheat crop is well adapted to those climates which have latitudeof 32 and
61 degree north while 28 and 40 degree south. The optimum temperature which is required
for growth and development of wheat crop is about 25-30’C.

2. ORIGIN OF WHEAT

Wheat is believed to have originated in south-western Asia. Some of the earliest remains of
the crop have been found in Syria, Jordan, and Turkey. Primitive relatives of present day
wheat have been discovered in some of the oldest excavations of the world in eastern Iraq,
which date back 9,000 years. Other archeological findings show that bread wheat was grown
in the Nile Valley about 5,000 B.C. as well as in India, China, and even England at about the
same time. Wheat was first grown in the United States in 1602 on an island off the

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Massachusetts coast. Man has depended upon the wheat plant for himself and his beasts for
thousands of years. A global wheat failure would be a disaster that few nations could survive
for even one year.

3. DISTRIBUTION OF WHEAT

Wheat is grown on more land area worldwide than any other crop and is a close third to rice
and corn in total world production.

Wheat is world's leading cereal crop, cultivated over an area about 215 million hectares with
a production of 584 million tones of grain. Maximum area under wheat is in China followed
by India, while the production China stand first and India ranks second. As regard the
average yield per hectare, UK ranks first followed by France .The average wheat yield is only
2583 kg per hectare in India which is much lower than most of wheat growing countries of
the world.

In India is wheat is the main cereal crop in respect of area and production it occupies the
second position, being beading exceed only by rice. The area and production, along with
yield per hectare of wheat in different state viz. Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab
Rajasthan, Bihar, Haryana, Maharashtra and Gujarat are major wheat growing state in the
country. Though the maximum acreage and production of wheat is in Uttar Pradesh but
Punjab give the highest average yield per hectare (4332 Kg/ha.) followed by Haryana (3916
kg/ha.). India accounts about 12 per cent of the total wheat production of the world.

4. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT

1. Wheat is the staple food of north Inidan people.

2. Wheat grains are grounded into flour (atta) and consumed in the form of chapatee i.e. 80 -
85%.
3. Soft wheat is used for making chapatee, bread, cake, biscuits, pastry and other bakery
products.
4. Hard wheat is used for manufacturing rawa, suji and sewaya.
5. In areas where rice is a staple food grain, wheat is eaten in the form of puri and uppumav.
6. It is also used for making flakes and sweet meats like kheer, shira, etc.

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7. Wheat grain is used for preparing starch.
8. Wheat straw is used as fooder, padding material and mulching material.

5. BOTANICAL DISCRIPTION OF WHEAT

 Wheat plants have two types of root system.

1. seminal root system while other is

2. Clonal root system. The entire roots of wheat plant are adventitious and then
plants have a permanent root system. After the 28-30 days of seedling
emergence, seminal roots dry.

 The stem of wheat plant is erect, cylindrical and placed near to the ground known as
tiller or primary tiller.
 Leave of the wheat plant have two parts: one is called sheath and other is blade. The
inflorescence of wheat plant is known as spike or it is also called as ear. Each spikelet
contains stamen, pistil, and ovary. The wheat seed is called as caryopsis ( the seedcoat
fused with pericarp is known as caryopsis). The grain of wheat plant contain starch
and gluten.

6. ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENT OF WHEAT

6.1. CLIMATE REQUIREMENT

6.1.1 Temperature and relative humidity

Wheat is a temperate crop which required a normal range of heat and moisture. It is mostly
sown in end of October and mid of November for better yield. The optimum temperature
which is required between 25-30 degree C but at the harvesting stage the wheat plant requires
a high temperature that varies between 35-50 degree C. This temperature helps the plant in
ripening of grains.

6.1.2 Water requirement

For the cultivation of wheat crop, the minimum rainfall which is required during the growing
season is 20”. It should not exceed 40”. But in Pakistan the average of rainfall is less than
20” which is not sufficient for wheat crop production. Therefore, mostly irrigation method is

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used for the production of wheat crop plant. And the production of wheat crop in irrigated
area is always higher than the barani areas.

6.2 Soil requirement

Soil pH is very important for a high yielding wheat crop. Low soil pH can result in poor
growth and development. High soil pH, especially on coarse textured soils, can result in
manganese deficiencies. Wheat crop required well drained loam soil.

7 PRODUCTION PRACTICES

The following key management practices should be taken:

 Implement crop rotation.

 Bury crop residues with tillage, if possible.
 Choose varieties with resistance to disease and insect pests.
 Plant on time (not too early, not too late) in a well-prepared seedbed.
 Use correct seeding rates, drill calibration and drill operation.
 Avoid excessively high nitrogen levels (but work towards good soil fertility).
 Harvest on time. Don’t let mature grain stand in the field.

7.1 Preparation of land (Tillage)

1. Wheat crop requires well pulverized but compact seedbed for good and uniform
germination.
2. The seed bed should not be cloddy or dusty.
3. Preparatory tillage operations vary with type of cultivation i.e. whether grown as rainfed or
irrigated crop.

7.2 Seed Rate

1. Seedrate of wheat depends upon the variety, sowing method, type of cultivation and time
of sowing.
2. Seed rate of wheat varies from 44 to 132 kg/ha.
3. For Mexican variety optimum seed rate is 88 kg/ha. Under average soil conditions.
4. Higher seedrate is used in case of late sowing to reduce the loss in yield.

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7.3 Sowing Time

1. The sowing time of wheat depend upon temperature, type of cultivation i.e. dry or irrigated
and duration of wheat varieties.
2. In Maharashtra optimum sowing time is late October to early November.
3. Usually rain fed crop is sown from 15th to 30th October and irrigated crop from 1st to 15th
November.
4. Early October sowing when day temperatures are high results in mortality of seedling due
to foot rot or root rot disease.
5. While late sowing in last week of November of December give low yield.
6. However the right time of sowing of wheat is early winter when freezing of coconut oil
starts.

7.4 Sowing Depth

1. Wheat seed should be placed in a moist zone for better germination and establishment of
seedling.
2. Under rain fed condition when crop taken on residual moisture sowing is done at 8 to 10
cm depth.
3. Under irrigation condition the sowing is done at 3 to 5 cm depth after pre-sowing
irrigation.
4. Dwarf Mexican wheat varieties have a very short coleoptiles and hence sown only upto 5
cm depth.

7.5 Method of sowing

Wheat is sown by four methods:

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7.5.1 Broadcasting

In this method the seeds are broadcast and then worked in by harrowing in order to cover
them. However, the seeds are not uniformly distributed in the field. This method of sowing is
very insufficient and should not be encouraged. Germination of broadcast seeds is relatively
poor and the plant stand is often irregular. Wastage of seed also results because most of the
seed is left on the surface where they cannot germinate and may, therefore, be picked up and
eaten by birds.

7.5.2 Behind Local Plough

A majority of farmers uses this method. This method consists of dropping the seeds by hand
into the furrows that have been opened with local plough. When seed is dropped in furrows
by hand, it is called 'kera' method and when it is dropped through a Pora or Naior Hazaraa
special attachment with local plough it is called 'Pora' method. In this method seeds are
dropped of at a depth of 5-6 centimeters and germination is satisfactory.

7.5.3 Drilling

In this method seed is sown by seed drill or ferti-seed drill. With the help of this implement
seed drop at depth and results in uniform germination and regular stand. Seed bed should be
fine and well leveled free from clods and weeds for the use of seed drill or ferti-seed drill.
Seed drills are easily available in the market. They may be either bullock driven or tractor
driven. Ferti-seed drill should be used wherever possible to ensure uniform depth of sowing,
proper placement of fertilizers and good germination.

7.5.4 Dibbling

This method is used in case where supply of seed is limited. Sowing is done with the help of
a small implement known as 'Dibbler'. It is a wooden or iron frame with pegs. The frame is
pressed in the field and lifted and then one or two seeds are dropped by hand in each of the
hole. It is not a common method because it is a very time consuming process.

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7.6 Fertilizer application type and rate

Proper fertilization is a critical factor in producing optimum and profitable wheat yields.
Proper fertilization is not only a matter of applying the correct amount of the right product,
but at the right time. Fertilizer rate decisions are best based on representative soil tests.

All fertilizers are characterized by their grade. The grade provides information relative to the
Percentage of N, P2O5, and K2O (shorthand for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
fertilizers) Contained in the material (Table 10.1). Liquid fertilizers are also characterized by
their density, or concentration (lbs/gal).
All fertilizers should be applied following protocols that minimize losses. For example,
N can be lost through a variety of mechanisms including volatilization, leaching, and
denitrification. Volatilization is the gaseous loss of ammonia to the atmosphere which occurs
when ammonia-based fertilizers, such as urea, are left on the soil surface

7.7 Irrigation for Wheat Cultivation

1. Rain fed wheat crop is grown on residual moisture in soil and dew formed during
winter.
2. In this case according to availability of water on to two irrigation at crown root
initiation and flowering stage may be given to obtain good yield.
3. For irrigated wheat crop five to six irrigations are given at 20-21 days interval
4. First presoaking irrigation is given before preparing the final seedbed get better crop
stand.
5. Other irrigations are given at critical stages of growth. These stages are-

i) C.R.I. stage (Crown root initiation) after 20 to 25 days of sowing to promote

tillering.
ii) Late tillering stage.
iii) Earring or heading stage.
iv) Flowering stage.
v) Milk or Dough or grain formation stage.
6. Out of these CRI stage is the most critical stage for irrigation in wheat, because any
shortage of moisture at this stage results in less tillering, formation of small eartheads
and great reduction in yield.

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 7. Last irrigation is helping full only for dwarf wheat but for tall growing wheat it may
result in lodging of the crop.

8 Disease, insect pests, weeds and their control measure

8.1 Wheat disease

8.1.1 Wheat Leaf Rust /Brown Rust: Puccinia recondita

Symptom: Infection sites primarily are found on the upper surfaces of leaves and leaf sheaths
and occasionally on the neck and awns
Survival: Both survive on stubbles and volunteer crops
Alternate host: Thalictrum sp.

Spread: uredospores from hills.

Control measure

 Mixed cropping with suitable crops.

 Avoid excess dose of nitrogenous fertilizers.
 Spray Zineb at 2.5 kg/ha or Propioconazole @ 0.1 %.
 Grow resistant varieties like PBW 343, PBW 550, PBW 17.

8.1.2 Wheat Stem Rust: Puccinia graminis tritici

Symptom:
 Pustules (containing masses of urediospores) are dark reddish brown – occur on both
sides of the leaves, on the stems, and on the spikes.
 Pustules are usually separate and scattered, heavy infections –coalesce.
 Prior to pustule formation, “flecks” may appear. Before the spore masses break
through the epidermis, the infection sites feel rough to the touch.
 As the spore masses break through, the surface tissues take on a ragged and torn
appearance.
 Survival: Both survive on stubbles and volunteer crops.
 Alternate host: Berberis spp.
 Spread: uredospores from hills.

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Control measure:
 Mixed cropping and crop rotation
 Avoid excess nitrogen
 Sulphur dusting @ 35-40 kg/ha
 Mancozeb @ 2g/lit
 Resistant varieties
Lerma Rojo, Safed Lerma,
Sonalika and Chotil

8.1.3 Wheat Loose Smut: Ustilago tritici

Symptom:
 The entire inflorescence, except the rachis, is replaced by masses of smut spores.
 These black teliospores often are blown away by the wind, leaving only the bare
rachis and remnants of other floral structures.

Control measure:
 Treat the seed with Vitavax @ 2g/kg seed before sowing.
 Burry the infected ear heads in the soil so that secondary spread is avoided.

8.1.4 Wheat Powdery mildew: Erysiphe graminis var. tritici

Symptom:
 Greyish white powdery growth appears on the leaf, sheath, stem and floral parts.
 Powdery growth later become black lesion and cause drying of leaves and
other parts.

Control measure:
 Spray Wettable sulphur 0.2% or Carbendazim @ 500 g/ha.

8.2 Weeds
Weeds do enormous damage to the wheat crop. They directly deplete the soil nutrients and
moisture and compete with crop plants for light and space thus, reduce the crop
yields. Indirectly, they cause damage to the crops harbouring pests and disease agents.
Because their management involves costs therefore, reduction in the net returns make
harvesting and threshing of crop costly and laborious and lower the quality and reducing the
value of produce. It has been estimated that by weeds losses cause ranging from 10 to 40 per
cent in wheat crop depending upon their intensity.
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The major weeds prevalent in wheat fields are dicot and monocot weeds grown in Rabi
season viz. Bathua (Chenopodium album), Gazari (Fumariaparviflora), Katili
(Cersiumarvensis), Krishnneel (Anagallisarvensis), Akari (Viciahirsuta), Sengi
(Melilotusalva/Meliotusindica), Chatarimatari (Lathyrusaphaca), Satyanashi
(Argemonemaxicana) etc. Like wise monocot weeds viz., Gehusa/Gullidanda / Gehunka
mama (Phalaris minor), wild oats (Avenafatua), Piazi (Asphodelustenuifolius) etc. impose
serious problem in wheat fields. In addition to these, doob (Cynodondectylon) is a
major perennial weed.

Weed control measure:

 Essentially all weed control in organic wheat must be achieved in seedbed preparation
before planting.
 Little to no cultivation is used in wheat after planting to kill emerging weeds, but a
rotary hoe or tine weeder can be used before the crop emerges and again at the one-to-
three-leaf stage. However, weeds usually cause fewer problems in wheat than in corn
or soybeans because wheat is a strong competitor against weeds and is drilled in
narrow rows that quickly shade the soil.
 Organic producers may want to take advantage of row spacing as narrow as 4 inches
to help the wheat outcompete winter annual weeds.
 Avoid planting organic wheat in fields with Italian ryegrass or wild garlic problems as
these weeds can lead to quality problems in the harvested grain. Also, use caution
with hairy vetch as a cover crop in fields where wheat will be planted because hairy
vetch that reseeds can contaminate wheat grain with seeds that are similar in size and
weight and that are difficult to separate.

8.3 Insects

 There are a number of insects affecting wheat production and they can serious
damage these high yields of wheat and have led to massive crop failures in the past.
Modern commercial farmers however, have access to a wide array of pesticides that
can keep insects, fungi and other pests at bay. Some are:

8.3.1 Aphids
These insects can literally suck the life out of a fruitful wheat harvest. Aphids can live in

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wheat, sucking the sap from the plant, North Carolina State University explained. The
damage of taking this sap is two-fold. First, it directly damages the plant’s livelihood by
interfering with its ability to get sustenance. Secondly, aphids can also pass the barley yellow
dwarf virus to the plant.

8.3.2 Armyworms Affect Wheat Production

Armyworms are among the most common and damaging insects to wheat. While they don’t
infect the plant like aphids can, they do feed on a significant amount of wheat during their life
times. According to Kansas State University, an average armyworm will eat about 43 linear
inches of wheat leaves while in its larval stage.

7.8.3.3 Stink bugs Affect Wheat Production

These pests’ saliva is actually toxic to the plant itself. According to the USDA, if a stink bug
creates only one puncture on a wheat stalk, it could kill the entire plant. Stink bugs are less
interested in the stalk however, and favor eating the wheat kernels and head of the wheat.
This can cause the crop to whither and die.

8.3.4 Grasshoppers Affect Wheat Production

Grasshoppers are unique among potential pests in that not all will cause harm to a crop,
Kansas State reminded. It takes a larger number of certain breeds to impact wheat, but when
that occurs it can be damaging. Farmers should keep an eye out for grasshoppers before ever
planting the crop.

Cultural control of insect

 Cultural controls include all management activities that can contribute to better pest
control.
 A key cultural control for cereal aphids is to avoid planting at high risk times by
sowing later in the autumn (i.e. after May) to avoid aphid flights. This option is
becoming less common due to concerns about yield loss with current cultivars. If the
decision is made to sow later, monitoring is still essential until the crop is past GS31
as some winters are mild enough for secondary spread of BYDV and selective
chemical applications may still be necessary (see BYDV and aphid control sections).

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  Soil preparation and good quality seed and weed management are also important
cultural controls. If the crop can be established quickly and the plants are growing
well, problems with establishment pests will reduce.

Chemical control of insect

 IPM involves using pesticides only after monitoring indicates that they are needed
and, where possible, only selective chemicals are used.
 Avoid synthetic pyrethroids such as lambda cyhalothrin or organophosphates because
their broad spectrum effect means they will kill beneficial predators as well as target
pests.
 When choosing chemicals:

a) Make sure the pest is correctly identified

b) Avoid broad spectrum insecticides

c) Avoid routine use of insecticides, there must be a pest in sufficient numbers

at critical time.

. d) Consider the effect of selected pesticides on beneficial predators (resident

and transient).

9 Harvesting, threshing and storing of wheat (grain)

9.1 Harvesting grain

 The color of the grain gradually changes from green to golden brown. Grain ripens in
three stages and you can monitor this by checking a piece of grain.

1) Milky: press on a grain and see milky liquid ooze out.

2) Dough: liquid hardens inside the grain and the grain will show a dent when pinched.
3) Mature: grain is hard and the heavy heads often bend forward.

 Harvest a plot in the way that is easiest for you. Use your hands to snap off the seed
heads, or cut the seed heads off with pruners, a sickle, or a scythe.

 Dry the heads or sheaves in your wheat plot for 7 to 10 days before threshing.

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9.2 Threshing grain
 Threshing: means separating the heads from the stalks.

Chaff: The seed heads and straw from the plant.

Winnowing: Separating the grain from the chaff.
There are many ways to thresh: Rubbing with your hand.

Flailing with a wooden stick or bat.

Banging seed heads inside a clean metal trash can.
Treading with your feet.

After threshing you will winnow:

Winnow by pouring from one container to another, in front of a fan for best results.

9.3 Storing grain

Keep your grain fresh when you store it below 60F, free from oxygen, moisture, and pests.
You can do this by bagging and freezing it, or putting it in food-safe, airtight buckets along
with oxygen-absorber packets.

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Summary

Wheat, any of several species of cereal grasses of the genus Triticum (family Poaceae) and
their edible grains. Wheat is one of the oldest and most important of the cereal crops. Of the
thousands of varieties known, the most important are common wheat (Triticum aestivum),
used to make bread; durum wheat (T. durum), used in making pasta (alimentary pastes) such
as spaghetti and macaroni; and club wheat (T. compactum), a softer type, used for cake,
crackers, cookies, pastries, and flours. Additionally, some wheat is used by industry for the
production of starch, paste, malt, dextrose, gluten, alcohol, and other products.

A cereal grain that yields a fine white flour used chiefly in breads, baked goods (such as
cakes and crackers), and pastas (such as macaroni or spaghetti), and is important in
animal feeds.

References

1. ^ Jump up to:a b Shewry, Peter R (2009), "Wheat", Journal of Experimental

Botany, 60 (6): 1537–1553, doi:10.1093/jxb/erp058, PMID 19386614
2. Jump up^ James D. Mauseth (2014). Botany. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
p. 223. ISBN 978-1-4496-4884-8. Perhaps the simplest of fruits are those of grasses
(all cereals such as corn and wheat)...These fruits are caryopses.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b Belderok, Robert 'Bob'; Mesdag, Hans; Donner, Dingena A
(2000), Bread-Making Quality of Wheat, Springer, p. 3, ISBN 0-7923-6383-3
4. Jump up^ "Crops/World Total/Wheat/Area Harvested/2014 (pick list)". United
Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2014.
Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2016.
5. Chalkley, D. (2010). "Invasive Fungi: Alternaria leaf blight of wheat - Alternaria
triticina". Systematic Mycology and Microbiology Laboratory, Agricultural Research
Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on 29
October 2014.
6. Jump up^ Watkins, John E. "Black Point Disease of Wheat" (PDF). Institute of
Agriculture and Natural Resources at the University of Nebraska–
Lincoln. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 October 2014.

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