Lecture 1 Introduction To Analog and Digital Communications, S. Haykin, M. Moher, 2nd

國立台灣海洋大學
國立台灣海洋大學 National Taiwan Ocean University
National Taiwan Ocean University  2.1 The Fourier Transform

 2.2 Properties of the Fourier Transform
通訊與導航工程學系
 2.3 The Inverse Relationship Between Time and
通訊原理 Frequency
Fundamental Communications Theory  2.4 Dirac Delta Function
Fall 2018  2.5 Fourier Transforms of Periodic Signals
 2.6 Transmission of Signals Through Linear
吳家琪助理教授
Systems: Convolution Revisited
Lecture 1. Fourier Representation of Signals
國立台灣海洋大學國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University National Taiwan Ocean University
Signals: Frequency Domain

 2.7 Ideal Low – Pass Filters
 2.8 Correlation and Spectral Density: Energy Signals  An electromagnetic signal is made up of many sine
waves with various frequencies: A sin(2 ft+)
 2.9 Power Spectral Density
 It can be shown (by Fourier analysis) that any signal is
 2.10 Numerical Computation of the Transform made up of components at various frequencies, in which
 2.11 Theme Example: Twisted Pairs for Telephony each component is a sinusoid.
 2.12 Summary and Discussion  By adding together enough sinusoidal signals, each with
the appropriate amplitude, frequency, and phase, any
electromagnetic signal can be constructed.
 Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a
collection of periodic analog signals (sine waves) at
different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases.
National Taiwan Ocean University Signals: Frequency Domain 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University
 Frequency domain function of a signal: S(f) 4/π
 Specifies the peak amplitude of the constituent Frequency Domain (4/π)sin2πft

Representations
frequencies of the signal.
4/3π
This signal is the same as (4/3π)sin2π(3f)t

Addition of Frequency signal (c) in the previous
Components (T=1/f) slide
This signal has only two

frequency components: This signal has infinite
number of frequency
(1) frequency f
components: from 0 to
(2) frequency 3f infinity
National Taiwan Ocean University Definitions
Fourier Transform  Deterministic signals: A class of signals where
waveforms are defined exactly as function of time.
 The mathematical tool that relates the frequency-domain
description of the signal to its time-domain description.  Let g(t) denote a nonperiodic deterministic signal,
expressed as some function of time t.
 The continuous Fourier transform, or the Fourier  By definition, the Fourier transform of the signal g(t) is
transform (FT) for short. given by the integral
The discrete Fourier transform, or DFT for short. 
G ( f )   g (t ) exp( j 2ft )dt


where j =  1, and the variable f denotes frequency;


g (t )   G ( f ) exp( j 2ft ) d f

where the exponential exp(j2πft) is the kernel of the

P.18
formula defining the inverse Fourier transform.
National Taiwan Ocean University Dirichlet’s Conditions
 The analysis and synthesis equations enrich the  To exist FT of g(t), sufficient condition (not necessary)
representation of signals and systems by making it
 Dirichlet’s conditions:
possible to view the representation in two interactive
1. The function g(t) is single-valued, with a finite number
domains: the time domain and the frequency domain.
of maxima and minima in any finite time interval.
Analysis equation:
 2. The function g(t) has a finite number of discontinuities in
G ( f )   g (t ) exp( j 2ft )dt
 any finite time interval.
Time-domain Frequency-domain
3. The function g(t) is absolutely integral-able,
description: description: 
g(t) G(f) 
g (t ) dt  
Synthesis equation:
 Physically realizable  existence of F.T.

g (t )   G ( f ) exp( j 2ft ) d f

 All energy signal  Fourier transformable
Figure 2.1 Sketch of the interplay between the synthesis and analysis equations embodied
in Fourier transformation.
National Taiwan Ocean University Notations 國立台灣海洋大學
National Taiwan Ocean University Continuous Spectrum
 The frequency f [Hz] is related to the angular frequency  as  We may express the function g(t) in terms of the
 = 2πf [radians/sec] continuous sum of such infinitesimal components,
 A convenient shorthand notation 
g (t )   G ( f ) exp( j 2ft ) d f

 G(f) = F[g(t)]
 g(t) = F-1[G(f)]  The Fourier transform G(f) is a complex function of
 where F[ ] and F-1[ ] play the roles of linear operators, frequency f,
 g(t)  G(f) G(f) = |G(f)| exp[j(f)]
where |G(f)| is called the continuous amplitude spectrum of
g(t), and (f) is called the continuous phase spectrum of
g(t).
National Taiwan Ocean University Continuous Spectrum 國立台灣海洋大學
Example 2.1 Rectangular Pulse
AT
 The spectrum is referred to as a continuous spectrum A
because both the amplitude and phase of G(f) are

uniquely defined for all frequencies. -1/T 1/T
-T/2 T/2 0
 Conjugate symmetry
1 1
t 1
1. The amplitude spectrum of the signal is an even function Define rect( t )   2 2
of the frequency; that is ,the amplitude spectrum is 0 |t|  1

2
symmetric with respect to the origin f = 0.  sin(fT ) 

Let g(t) = A rect (t/T)  G ( f )  AT  fT 
2. The phase spectrum of the signal is an odd function of  
the frequency; that is, the phase spectrum is sin( )
antisymmetric with respect to the origin f = 0. where sinc function, sinc(  ) 

Therefore, G(f) = AT sinc (fT)
G(f) = G*(f) = |G(-f)| = |G(f)|, symmetric
(-f) = -(f), anti-symmetric  A rect(t/T)  AT sinc (fT)
 Real Symmetric  Real Symmetric
FT
Figure 2.2 (a) Rectangular pulse. (b) Amplitude spectrum.

Figure 2.3 The sinc function.
National Taiwan Ocean University Example 2.2 Exponential Pulse 國立台灣海洋大學
 1, t  0

u ( t )   12 , t  0
 0, t  0

1
exp(–at) u(t) 
a  j 2f
1
exp(at) u(–t) 
a  j 2f
Figure 2.4 (a) Decaying exponential pulse. (b) Rising

exponential pulse.
Properties of the Fourier Transform

Property 1 Linearity (Superposition)
 Let g1(t)  G1(f) and g2(t)  G2(f). Then for all
constants c1 and c2, we have

c1g1(t) + c2g2(t)  c1G1(f)+ c2G2(f)
Example 2.3 Combinations of Exponential Pulse
 exp(  at ), t  0

g (t )   1, t  0  exp(  a | t |)
 exp( at ), t  0
Figure 2.5 Frequency function G(f ) for Problem 2.2 
2a
exp(–a|t|) 
a  ( 2f ) 2
2
Example
 exp(  at ), t  0   1, t  0
 
g (t )   1, t0 s gn( t )   0 , t  0
  exp( at ), t  0   1, t  0
 
 j 4f
exp(–a|t|) sgn(t) 
a  (2f ) 2
2
Figure 2.6 (a) Double-exponential pulse (symmetric). (b)

Another double-exponential pulse (odd-symmetric).
Figure 2.7 Signum function
Property 2 Time Scaling; Dilation Property 4 Duality

 If g(t)  G(f), then
 Let g(t)  G(f). Then, the dilation property of similarity
property states that G(t)  g(–f),

g(at)  1/|a| G(f/a), when a = –1, g(–t)  G(–f) Property 5 Time Shifting
where the dilation factor, namely, a, is a real number.  If g(t)  G(f), then
Property 3 Conjugation Rule g(t–t0)  G(f) exp(–j2ft0)

 Let g(f)  G(f). Then for a complex-valued time function where t0 a real constant time shift.
g(t), we have
g*(t)  G*(–f),
where the asterisk denotes the complex-conjugate operation.
<Corollary> g*(–t)  G*(f)
Example 2.4 Sinc Pulse Property 6 Frequency Shifting

A  f 
Asinc(2Wt )  rect   exp(j2fct) g(t)  G(f – fc)
2W  2W 
where fc is a real constant frequency.
 This property is a special case of the modulation
theorem discussed later under Property 11.

Property 7 Area Under g(t)

 g (t )dt  G (0)
 That is, the area under a function g(t) is equal to
Figure 2.8 (a) Sinc pulse g(t). (b) Fourier transform G(f ).
the value of its Fourier transform G(f) at f = 0.
National Taiwan Ocean University Example 2.5 Radio Frequency (RF) Pulse National Taiwan Ocean University
g(t) =A rect(t/T)cos(2fct) Property 8 Area Under G(f )

G(f) = AT/2 {sinc[T(f – fc)] + sinc[T(f+fc)]}

g (0)  

G ( f )df
 That is, the value of a function g(t) at t = 0 is equal

to the area under its Fourier transform G(f).
Figure 2.9 (a) RF pulse of unit amplitude

and duration T. (b) Amplitude spectrum.
Property 9 Differentiation in the Time Domain Example 2.6 Unit Gaussian Pulse
 Let g(t)  G(f), and assume that the first
d
derivative of g(t) with respect to time t is Fourier 2tg (t )  j G( f )
df
transformable. Then
d
d g (t )  2tg (t )
g (t )  j 2fG ( f ) dt
dt d
G ( f )  2fG ( f )
df
 That is differentiation of the time function g(t) has
the effect of multiplying its Fourier transform G(f) If g (t )  exp( t 2 )
by the purely imaginary factor j2πf. 
Since 

exp( t 2 )dt  1
dn
g (t )  ( j 2f ) n G ( f )
dt n Therefore, g(t) = exp(–t2)  exp(–f2)
Property 10 Integration in the Time Domain

 Let g(t)  G(f). Then provided that G(0) = 0, we
have 1
  g ( ) d  
t
G( f )
j 2 f
 That is, integration of a time function g(t) has the

effect of dividing its Fourier transform G(f) by the
factor j2πf, provided that G(0) is zero.
Figure 2.10 Gussian pulse.

Example 2.7 Triangular Pulse

G1(f) = AT/2 sinc(fT)[exp(jfT) – exp(-jfT)]
= 2jAT sinc(fT) sin(fT)
1 sin( fT )
G2 ( f )  G1 ( f )  AT sinc ( fT )
j 2f f
 AT 2sinc 2 ( fT )
Figure 2.11 (a) Doublet pulse

g1(t). (b) Triangular pulse g2(t)
obtained by integrating g1(t) with
respect to time t.
Example 2.8 Real and Imaginary Parts of a Time Function Property 11 Modulation Theorem
 Let g1(t)  G1(f) and g2(t)  G2(f).
g (t) = Re[g(t)] + jIm[g(t)]

g* (t) = Re[g(t)] – jIm[g(t)] g1 (t ) g 2 (t )  

G1 ( )G2 ( f   )d  G1 ( f )  G2 ( f )
Re[g(t)] = ½[g (t) + g* (t)]
Im[g(t)] = ½[g (t) – g* (t)] Property 12 Convolution Theorem
 Let g1(t)  G1(f) and g2(t)  G2(f)

Re[g(t)]  ½[G (f) + G* (-f)]  g1 ( ) g 2 (t   ) d  G1 ( f )G2 ( f )

Im[g(t)]  ½[G (f) – G* (-f)]
 g1(t)  g2(t)  G1(f)G2(f)
Property 13 Correlation Theorem Example 2.9 Sine Pulse (continued)

 Let g1(t)  G1(f) and g2(t)  G2(f). Then,
A  f 
assuming that g1(t) and g2(t) are complex valued, A sin c(2Wt )  rect  
2W  2W 


g1 (t ) g 2* (t   ) dt  G1 ( f )G2* ( f ) 
E  A2  sinc 2 ( 2Wt )dt  (
A 2 
)  rect 2 (
f
) df
 2W   2W
where G*2(f) is the complex conjugate of G2(f), and A 2 W
 is the time variable involved in defining the (

2W
) 
W
df
inverse Fourier transform of the product G1(f)G*2(f). A2

Property 14 Rayleigh’s Energy Theorem 2W
 Let g(t)  G(f). Then
 g (t ) dt   G ( f ) df linear transform
 2  2
 
The Inverse Relationship Between Time and Frequency Bandwidth

 The time-domain and frequency-domain descriptions  When the spectrum of a signal is symmetric with a main
of a signal are inversely related to each other. lobe bounded by well-defined nulls (i.e., frequencies at
 A signal cannot be strictly limited in both time and
which the spectrum is zero).
frequency.  A rectangular pulse of duration T seconds has a main
Bandwidth spectral lobe of total width (2/T) hertz centered at the
origin, as depicted in Fig. 2.2(b).
 The bandwidth of a signal provides a measure of the
extent of the significant spectral content of the signal  The bandwidth of this rectangular pulse is (1/T) hertz.
for positive frequencies.  The definition of bandwidth is called the null-to-null
bandwidth.
Bandwidth Bandwidth
 Another popular definition of bandwidth is the 3-db Time-Bandwidth Product
bandwidth. (duration) × (bandwidth) = constant
 Yet another measure for the bandwidth of a signal is the
root mean-square (rms) bandwidth.  The rms duration of the signal g(t) is
 The rms bandwidth of a low-pass signal g(t) with 1/ 2
Fourier transform G(f)   t 2 g (t ) 2 dt 
 

1/ 2
Trms    
  g (t ) dt 
2
  f 2 G ( f ) 2 df 
 
   
Wrms    
  G ( f ) df
2
 1
   TrmsWrms 
4
Dirac Delta Function Dirac Delta Function

 The theory of the Fourier transform, is applicable only 
to time functions that satisfy the Dirichlet conditions. 

 (t )dt 1
 Both of these objectives are met through the “proper  An implication of this pair of relations is that the delta
use” of the Dirac delta function or unit impulse. function δ(t) must be an even function of time t.
 The Dirac delta function, denoted by δ(t),is defined as 
having zero amplitude everywhere except at t = 0, 


g (t ) (t  t0 )dt g (t0 )

δ(t) = 0, t  0,  g ( ) (t   )d g (t )

δ(t)  1
g(t) G(f)
 We may view the delta function as the limiting form of
1.0
a pulse of unit area as the duration of the pulse
approaches zero.
t f
0 0
(a) (b)
Figure 2.12 (a) The Dirac delta function δ(t). (b) Spectrum of δ(t).
The delta Function as a Limiting Form of the Gaussian Pulse Applications of the Delta Function
1  t 2  1. dc signal.
g (t )  exp   2 
    1 δ(f)


cos(2ft )dt  δ ( f )
2. Complex Exponential Function.
exp(j2fct)  δ(f – fc)
Figure 2.13 (a) Gaussian pulses of varying duration.

(b) Corresponding spectra.
g(t) G(f)
1.0
t f
0 0
(a) (b)
Figure 2.14 (a) de signal. (b) Spectrum.

Figure 2.15 (a) Cosine function. (b) Spectrum.
3. Sinusoidal Functions.
 Use Euler’s formula
1
cos(2f ct )  [exp( j 2f ct )  exp( j 2f c t )]
2
1
cos(2f ct )  [δ ( f  f c )  δ ( f  f c )]
2
1
sin(2f c t )  [δ ( f  f c )  δ ( f  f c )]
2j
Figure 2.16 (a) Sine function. (b) Spectrum.

4. Signum Function.
 The signum function sgn(t) equals + 1 for positive time
and – 1 for negative time, as shown by the solid curve in

Fig. 2.17(a).
exp( at ), t  0 Figure 2.17 (a) Signum

g (t )  0, t 0 function (continuous curve),
  exp(at ), t  0 and double-exponential pulse

(dashed curve). (b) Amplitude
spectrum of signum function
(continuous curve), and that
of double-exponential pulse
(dashed curve).
5. Unit Step Function.

 The amplitude spectrum |G(f)| is shown as the dashed  The unit step function u(t) equals + 1 for positive time
curve in Fig. 2.17(b). and zero for negative time.
1  The waveform of the unit step function is shown is
sgn(t )  Fig. 2.18(a).
jf
1 1 1
The amplitude spectrum of the signum function is u (t )  [sgn(t )  1]   ( f )
j 2f 2

2
shown as the continuous curve in Fig. 2.17(b).
6. Integration in the Time Domain (Revisited).

t
y (t ))   g ( ) d

 1 1 
Y ( f )  G( f )   ( f )
 j 2f 2 
t 1 1
 g ( )d  j 2f G ( f )  2 G (0) ( f )
Figure 2.18 (a) Unit step function. (b) Amplitude

spectrum.
Fourier Transforms of Periodic signals  g (t ),  T20  t  T20

g (t )   T0
 Complex exponential Fourier series as  0, elsewhere

gT0 (t ) 

c n exp( j 2nf 0t )
gT0 (t )   g (t  mT )
m  
0
n  

cn  f 0  g (t ) exp( j 2nf 0t )dt  f 0G (nf 0 )
where cn is the complex Fourier coefficient, 

1 T0 / 2
gT0 (t )  f 0  G(nf 0 ) exp( j 2nf 0t )
 gT0 (t ) exp( j 2nf 0t )dt n  
cn 
T0 T0 / 2
 
f0 
1  g (t  mT0 )  f 0
m  
 G(nf
n  
0 ) exp( j 2nf 0t )
T0
 
 g (t  mT )  f  G(nf
m  
0 0
n  
0 ) ( f  nf 0 )
Example 2.11 Ideal Sampling Function

 The pulse like function g(t), has a continuous spectrum
defined by G(f). 
 T (t )    (t  mT ) 0
 The periodic signal gT0(t), has a discrete spectrum. 0
m  
 
 Periodicity in the time domain has the effect of   (t  mT )  f   ( f  nf
0 0 0 )
changing the spectrum of a pulse-like signal into a m  

n  

discrete form defined at integer multiples of the   (t  mT0 )  f 0  exp( j 2nf 0t )
m   n  
fundamental frequency, and vice versa.  
T0  exp( j 2mfT )    ( f  nf
m  
0
n  
0 )
Figure 2.19 (a) Dirac comb. (b) Spectrum.

Lecture 1 Introduction To Analog and Digital Communications, S. Haykin, M. Moher, 2nd

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國立台灣海洋大學

國立台灣海洋大學 National Taiwan Ocean University

National Taiwan Ocean University  2.1 The Fourier Transform

Signals: Frequency Domain

 Frequency domain function of a signal: S(f) 4/π

 Specifies the peak amplitude of the constituent Frequency Domain (4/π)sin2πft

This signal is the same as (4/3π)sin2π(3f)t

This signal has only two

where j =  1, and the variable f denotes frequency;

where the exponential exp(j2πft) is the kernel of the

because both the amplitude and phase of G(f) are

of the frequency; that is ,the amplitude spectrum is 0 |t|  1

symmetric with respect to the origin f = 0.  sin(fT ) 

Figure 2.2 (a) Rectangular pulse. (b) Amplitude spectrum.

Figure 2.4 (a) Decaying exponential pulse. (b) Rising

Properties of the Fourier Transform

constants c1 and c2, we have

Figure 2.6 (a) Double-exponential pulse (symmetric). (b)

Property 2 Time Scaling; Dilation Property 4 Duality

property states that G(t)  g(–f),

Property 3 Conjugation Rule g(t–t0)  G(f) exp(–j2ft0)

Example 2.4 Sinc Pulse Property 6 Frequency Shifting

theorem discussed later under Property 11.

g(t) =A rect(t/T)cos(2fct) Property 8 Area Under G(f )

 That is, the value of a function g(t) at t = 0 is equal

Figure 2.9 (a) RF pulse of unit amplitude

Property 10 Integration in the Time Domain

 That is, integration of a time function g(t) has the

Figure 2.10 Gussian pulse.

Example 2.7 Triangular Pulse

Figure 2.11 (a) Doublet pulse

Property 13 Correlation Theorem Example 2.9 Sine Pulse (continued)

 is the time variable involved in defining the (

The Inverse Relationship Between Time and Frequency Bandwidth

Dirac Delta Function Dirac Delta Function

to time functions that satisfy the Dirichlet conditions. 

having zero amplitude everywhere except at t = 0, 

2. Complex Exponential Function.

exp(j2fct)  δ(f – fc)

Figure 2.13 (a) Gaussian pulses of varying duration.

Figure 2.14 (a) de signal. (b) Spectrum.

Figure 2.16 (a) Sine function. (b) Spectrum.

and – 1 for negative time, as shown by the solid curve in

5. Unit Step Function.

6. Integration in the Time Domain (Revisited).

Figure 2.18 (a) Unit step function. (b) Amplitude

Fourier Transforms of Periodic signals  g (t ),  T20  t  T20

Example 2.11 Ideal Sampling Function

Figure 2.19 (a) Dirac comb. (b) Spectrum.

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