CONTENT STANDARD

Content Standards The learners demonstrate an understanding of

¾ Current, resistivity, and resistance
¾ /HMÆSÙ,AWÙ
¾ Resistors in series and parallel
¾ +IRCHHOFFÆSÙ2ULE

PERFORMANCE STANDARD

The learners shall be able to use theoretical and experimental approaches to solve
- mul
concept and rich
-context problems involving electricity and magnetism.

LEARNING COMPETENCIES

The learners are able to:

¾ SolvePROBLEMSÙ INVOLVINGÙ CURRENTÙ RESI

contexts such as, but not limited to, batteries and bulbs, household wiring,
selection of fuses, and accumulation of surface charge in the junction between
wires made of different mater
ials. (STEM_GP12EM -III -e44)
¾ Draw circuit diagrams with power sources (cell or battery), switches, lamps,
resistors (fixed and variable)fuses, ammeters and voltmeters.
(STEM_GP12EM -IIIf -47)
¾ Evaluate the equivalent resistance, current, and voltage inena network
giv of
resistors connected in series and/or parallel. (STEM_GP12EM
-IIIg-48)
¾ Calculate the current and voltage through and across circuit elements using
+IRCHHOFFÆSÙ LOOPÙ ANDÙ JUNCTIONÙ RULES -
IIIg-49)
 Electric Current

Most practical applications of electricity deal with electric currents.

ƒ The electric charges move through some region of space.

The resistor is a new element added to circuits.

Energy can be transferred to a device in an electric circuit.

The energy transfer mechanism is electrical transmission,

TET.

The SI unit of current is the

ampere (A).

ƒ 1A=1C/s

The symbol for electric current I.is

Average Electric Current

Assume charges are moving perpendicular to a surface ofA.areaIf ǻQ is the

amount of charge that passes through
A in time ǻt, then the average current is
∆𝑸
𝑰𝒂𝒗𝒆 = ∆𝒕

Instantaneous Electric Current

If the rate at which the charge flows varies with time, the instantaneous current,
I, is defined as the
differential limit of average current as
ǻWĺ

𝒅𝑸
𝑰=
𝒅𝒕
Direction of Current

ƒ The charged particles passing through the surface could be positive, negative or both.
ƒ It is conventional to assign to the current the same direction as
flow
the
of positive charges.
ƒ In an ordinary conductor, the direction of current flow is opposite the direction of the flow of
electrons.
ƒ It is common to refer to any moving charge as charge
a carrier.

Charge Carrier Motion in a Conductor

When a potentialdifference is applied across the conductor, an electric field is set up in the
conductor which exerts an electric force on the electrons.
The motion of the electrons is no longer random.
The zigzag black lines represent the motion of a charge carrier
conductor
in a in the presence of an
electric field.
ƒ The net drift speed is small.
The sharp changes in direction are due to collisions.
 The net motion of electrons is opposite the direction of the electric field.
In the presence of an electric field, in spite
of all the collisions, the charge carriers slowly move
along the conductor with a drift velocity,

The electric field exerts forces on the conduction electrons in the wire.
These forces cause the electrons to move in the wire and create a current.
The electrons are already in the wire.
They respond to the electric field set up by the battery.
The battery does not supply the electrons, it only establishes the electric
field.

Conductivity

A current density and an electric field are establishedconductor

in a whenever a potential
difference is maintained across the conductor.

For some materials, the current density is directly proportional to the field.

The constant of proportionality,

ı, is called theconductivityof the conductor.

OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s law states that for many materials, the ratio of the current density to the electric field is a
constantı that is independent of the electric field producing the current.

1. 0RVWPHWDOVREH\2KP¶VODZ

2. Mathematically,- ı(

3. 0DWHULDOVWKDWREH\2KP¶VO
aw are said to be
ohmic

4. 1RWDOOPDWHULDOVIROORZ2KP¶VODZ0DWHU
nonohmic.

2KP¶VODZLVQRWDIXQGDPHQWDOODZRIQDWXUH

2KP¶VODZLVDQHPSLULFDOUHODWLRQVKLSYDOLG

Resistance

In a conductor, the voltage applied across the ends of the conductor is proportional to the current
through the conductor.

The constant of proportionality is called the

resistanceof the conductor.

SI units of resistance are

ohms ȍ

ƒ ȍ 9$
 Resistancein a circuit arises due to collisions between the electrons carrying the current with the
fixed atoms inside the conductor.

Electrical Power

Assume a circuit as shown

The entire circuit is the system.

As a charge moves from

a to b, the electric potential energy of the system
increases byQDV.

ƒ The chemical energy in the battery must decrease by this

same amount.

This electric potential energy is transformed into internal energy in the

resistor.

ƒ Corresponds to increased vibrational

otion
m of the atoms in the resistor

The resistor is normally in contact with the air, so its increased temperature will result in a transfer of energ
by heat into the air.

The resistor also emits thermal radiation.

After some time interval, the resistoraches

re a constant temperature.

ƒ The input of energy from the battery is balanced by the output of energy by heat and
radiation.

7KHUDWHDWZKLFKWKHV\VWHP¶VSRWHQWLDOHQHUJ\
to the rate at which
the system gains internal energy in the resistor.

The poweris the rate at which the energy is delivered to the resistor.

The power is given by the equation P ǻ

=V.
I

$SSO\LQJ2KP¶V/DZDOWHUQDWLYHH[SUHVVLRQVFDQ

Units: I is in A, R LVLQȍ
ǻV is in V, and P is in W
Sample Problem: Complete the table below.

CURRENT VOLTAGE RESISTANCE POWER

3.5 A ȍ
9V 2W
2.9 V ȍ
23.9 A 3.7 W
7.12 A 6.1 V
ȍ 4.8 W
36 V 2W
1.9 A ȍ
5.9 V ȍ
8.2 A 7.9 W

Circuit Analysis

Simple electric circuits may contain batteries, resistors, and capacitors in various combinations.

For some circuits, analysis may consist of combining resistors.

,QPRUHFRPSOH[FRPSOLFDWHGFLUFXLWV.LUFKKRII

ƒ These Rules are based on conservation of energy and conservation of electric charge for
isolated systems.

Circuits may involve direct current or alternating current.

Direct Current

When the current in a circuit has a constant direction, the current is direct
calledcurrent.

ƒ Most of the circuits analyzed will be assumed to be

steady
in state, with constant magnitude
and direction.

Because the potential difference between the terminals of a battery is constant, the battery produces direct
current.

The battery is known as a source of emf.

Electromotive Force

The electromotive force (emf), e, of a battery is the maximum possible voltage that the battery can provide
between its terminals.

ƒ The emf supplies energy, it does not apply a force.

The batterywill normally be the source of energy in the circuit.

The positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential than the negative terminal.
Load Resistance

The terminal voltage also equals the voltage across the external resistance.

ƒ This external resi

stor is called theload resistance.

ƒ In the previous circuit, the load resistance is just the external resistor.

ƒ In general, the load resistance could be any electrical device.

ƒ These resistances represent

loads on the battery since it supplies the energy
to operate
the device containing the resistance.

Internal Battery Resistance

If the internal resistance is zero, the terminal voltage equals the emf.

In a real battery, there is internal resistance,

r.

The terminal voltage, V

D = e ±Ir

The emf is equiva

lent to theopen-circuit voltage.

ƒ This is the terminal voltage when no current is in the circuit.

ƒ This is the voltage labeled on the battery.

The actual potential difference between the terminals of the battery depends on the current in the circuit.

Power

The total power output of the battery is

P = I ǻV = I İ

I 2 R)
This power is delivered to the external resistor I2 (r).
( and to the internal resistor

P = I2 R + I2 r

The battery is a supply of constant emf.

ƒ The battery does not supply a constant

current since the current in the circuit depends on the
resistance connected to the battery.

ƒ The battery does not supply a constant terminal voltage.

Resistors in Series

When two or more resistors are connected-to-end,

end they are said to be in
series.

For a series combination of resistors, the currents are the same in all the
resistors because the amount of charge that passes through one resistor must
also pass through the other resistors in the same time interval.

The potential difference will divide

among the resistors such that the sum of
the potential differences across the resistors is equal to the total potential
difference across the combination.

Currents are the same

I = I1 = I2

3RWHQWLDOVDGGǻ
V = V1 + V2 = IR1 + IR2 = I (R1+R2)

ƒ Consequence of Conservation of Energy

The equivalent resistance has the same effect on the circuit as the original combination of resistors.

Equivalent Resistance – Series

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 «

The equivalent resistance of a series combination of resistor

s is the algebraic sum of the individual
resistances and is always greater than any individual resistance.

If one device in the series circuit creates an open circuit, all devices are inoperative.
Resistors in Parallel

The potentialdifference across each resistor is the same because each is

connected directly across the battery terminals.

ǻV = ǻV1 = ǻV2

A junction is a point where the current can split.

The current,I, that enters junction must be equal to the total current
leaving

that junction.

ƒ I = I 1 + I 2 = (ǻV1 / R1) + (ǻV2 / R2)

ƒ The currents are generally not the same.

ƒ Consequence of conservation of electric charge

Equivalent Resistance – Parallel

The inverse of the equivalent resistance of two or more resistors connected

in parallel is the algebraic sum
of the inverses of the individual resistance.

ƒ The equivalent is always less than the smallest resistor in the group.

In parallel, each device operates independently of the others so that if one is switchedothers
off, the
remain
on.

In parallel, all of the devices operate on the same voltage.

The current takes all the paths.

ƒ The lower resistance will have higher currents.

ƒ Even very high resistances will have some currents.

Combinations of Resistors

Sample Problem

1. Four resistors are connected as shown in the figure (right). Find the
equivalent resistance between points a and c.

2. Combinational/Complex Circuit Sample Problems

a. What is the equivalent resistance?

b. Suppose the potential difference (voltage) is equal to 120V. What is the total current?
c. What is the voltage drop across each resistor?
d. :KDWLVWKHFXUUHQWDFURVVWKHȍDQGȍUH
Kirchhoff’s Rules

There are ways in which resistors can be connected so that

circuits
the formed cannot be reduced to a single
equivalent resistor.

Two rules, called.LUFKKRII¶VUXOHV

, can be used instead.

Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule

ƒ The sum of the currents at any junction must equal zero.

ƒ Currents directed into the junction are

entered into the
equation as +I and those leaving-I.as

ƒ A statement of Conservation of Charge

ƒ Mathematically,


junction
I 0

I1 - I2 - I3 = 0

Required by Conservation of Charge

Diagram (b) shows mechanical

a analog

Sample Problem
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule

ƒ The sum of the potential differences across all elements around any closed circuit loop must be zero.

ƒ A statement of Conservation of Energy

Mathematically,

 V  0
closed
loop

Sample Problem

Traveling around the loop from

a to b

In (a), the resistor is traversed in the direction of the current, the potential

across the resistor ±

isIR.

In (b), the resistor is traversed in the direction opposite of the current, the potential across the resistor
IR. is is +

In (c), the source of emf is traversed in the direction of the emf (from
±to +),

and the change in the potential differenceİ

is +

In (d), the source of emf is traversed in the direction opposite of the emf (from
-), +and
to the change in the potential
difference is-İ
Use the junction rule as often as needed, so long as each time you write an equation, you include
rrent
in itthat
a cu
has not been used in a previous junction rule equation.

ƒ In general, the number of times the junction rule can be used is one fewer than the number of junction
points in the circuit.

The loop rule can be used as often as needed so long as ircuit

a newelement
c (resistor or battery) or a new current
appears in each new equation.

In order to solve a particular circuit problem, the number of independent equations you need to obtain from the two
rules equals the number of unknown currents.
LABORATORY
TITLE: DECODING A CARBON RESISTOR
EXPERIMENT #: 1
LEADER
DATE:

RATING:
MEMBERS
Data and Result :10
Discussion/Conclusion : 15
Questions and Answers : 20

Total : 45

I. TASK

a. Study and understand resistor color code.

b. Interpret accurately the value of resistors from their color code.
c. &RPSDUHWKHUHVLVWDQFHFRGHGYDOXHWR

II. MATERIALS
Provided by the Physics Stockroom
1 set of resistors
1 piece ohmmeter or Multitester

III. SETUP
1. Determine the coded and tolerance values of each resistor, based on its color
bands using the table below.

COLOR 1ST 2ND SIG. MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE

Black 0
SIG.FIG. 0
FIG. 100 -
1
Brown 1 1 10 ±1%
Red 2 2 102 ±2%
3
Orange 3 3 10 ±3%
4
Yellow 4 4 10 ±4%
Green 5 5 105 -
6
Blue 6 6 10 -
Violet 7 7 107 -
8
Gray 8 8 10 -
9
White 9 9 10 -
Gold - - 10-1 ±5%
Silver - - 10-2 ±10%
None - - - ±20%
 2. Measure the resistance of each resistor with the use of an ohmmeter or
Multitester. Record your PHDVXUHPHQWLQWKHFROXPQ³
3. The coded value and measured value should agree within the tolerance range of
the resistor. Indicate the difference between the measured and coded value.

IV. DATA AND RESULTS

Resistor 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Coded Measured Tolerance Difference

No. color color color color Value Value
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

V. DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION
VI. QUESTION AND ANSWER

a. What single resistor can replace the three resistors in each diagram below?

25Ω

50Ω

100Ω

(a)

50Ω 300Ω 550Ω

(b)

b. Which from your set of resistors can possibly replace the resistors in (a) and (b)?
LABORAORY
TITLE: BREADBOARDING
EXPERIMENT #: 2
LEADER
DATE:

RATING:
MEMBERS
Correct Setup: 35
Discussion/Conclusion:10
Total: 45

I. TASK
To be familiar in using the breadboard and use this in performing an equivalent schematic
diagram.

II. MATERIALS
Note: all materials must be provided by the students
1 Bread Board
1 2n222 Transistor
1 330ohms Resistor (1/2 watt)
1 100Kohms Resistor (1/2 watt)
1 9V Battery
1 Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
1 LED (any color)
1m Solid wire #22

III. DISCUSSION

1. Breadboards contain a matrix of contact points, which look like holes in the board. The wire
µOHJV¶RIWKHFRPSRQHQWVDUHLQVHUWHGLQW desired contact points on the board

2. Circuits are constructed by referring to a schematic diagram, then creating an electrically

equivalent circuit on the breadboard

3. All breadboards have columns of contact points which are connected together, usually in
groups of five or six (Refer to the figure below)

4. Adjacent columns of contact points are not connected together

5. All breadboards have two or more rows of contact points running the length of the board, and
often have blue or red stripes next to the rows. These rows are usually used for power supply
FRQQHFWLRQVDQGDUHFDOOHG³EXVHV´
IV. SETUP/S
On a breadboard, perform the given schematic diagram. This is an Automatic Dark Detector
circuit which only light up when darkness is present as what you see on street lamps. Correct
Setup will yield correct result.

LED

(DRAW YOUR SETUP HERE)