Innovation. Amplified.

Chapter 7

Speakers are
Important
In or Out of the
Circuit
by
Hartley Peavey
 Speakers are Important In or Out of a serious “mismatch.” Where power is concerned,
the Circuit. proper “matching” of “load impedances” is necessary.
Most guitar players have heard that operating a tube Solid state power amps utilize power transistors which
type guitar amp without a speaker plugged in can are high current, low voltage devices that can easily
cause problems. Few understand WHY; thus, this brief DIRECTLY drive loudspeakers, which as we now know,
discussion. are also high current, low voltage devices. The simple
fact is output transformers are not necessary (in most
In years past, most guitar amplifiers utilized vacuum cases) with solid state amplifiers.
tubes. Vacuumare
Speakers tubes (valves)Inare
Important or Outinherently high
of the Circuit.
voltage, low current devices. This simply means that Matching a loudspeaker to a vacuum tube amplifier
st guitar players
tubeshave heardoperate
typically that operating a tube
at relatively typevoltage
high guitar amp generally
at without requires the use of an output (“matching”)
a speaker
can cause problems. Few understand WHY; thus,
moderate to low current, which in turn, implies that this brief transformer
discussion. to optimize loading on the tubes, while at the
they are (in essence) “high impedance” devices. By same time,achieving optimal current and voltage drive
necessity, audio amplifiers (including guitar amps) to the loudspeaker. In a very few examples, tube amps
years past, most guitar amplifiers utilized vacuum tubes.
deliver their output power to loudspeakers which are Vacuum tubes
have (valves) are
been designed that can drive speakers directly,
high voltage, low current devices. This simply means
inherently low voltage, high current devices. One of thethat tubes typically
but operate
these at
designs have not been commercially viable
igh voltage challenges
at moderate to low current, which in turn,
for audio amp designers has always been implies that they are (in
because of their high cost and complexity. Therefore,
high impedance” devices.
the problem By necessity,
of matching audio amplifiers
high voltage, low current(including
(high guitar amps)
99.9% of all tube amps use an output (matching)
r output power to loudspeakers which are inherently low voltage, high current to properly match characteristics of the
transformer
impedance) tubes to low voltage, low impedance, high
One of the challenges for audio amp designers has always been thetubes problem of loudspeaker.
to the
current loudspeakers. The almost universal “solution”
high voltage, low current (high impedance) tubes to low voltage, low impedance, high
to this “matching” problem has been (and still is) to
dspeakers. The almost universal “solution” to this “matching” problem has been (and
Transformers are relatively efficient devices. The
tilize what isutilize
oftenwhat is often
called calledtransformer.”
an “output an “output transformer.” An
An output transformer IS a
output science of transformer design and manufacturing has
transformer,” whichtransformer
has the uniqueIS a “matching
capabilitytransformer,”
to match twowhich dissimilar devices (i.e.
has the unique capability to match two dissimilar had well over 100 years to evolve and develop. Today’s
bes and loudspeakers).
devices (i.e. vacuum tubes and loudspeakers). transformers are among the most efficient electrical
devices available. Even though transformer design and
manufacture has reached a high level of development,
transformers do exhibit inherent characteristics
that every musician should understand. In order to
appreciate the process that enables a transformer to
work, we’ll have to discuss some basics.

Devices that we call transformers are able to take

one form of energy and convert it into another; i.e.
they “transform” one type of electrical energy into
another…That’s WHY they are called “transformers.”
A power transformer converts the AC (alternating
current) from the mains socket into the appropriate
current and voltage required by the amplifier. In a tube
amp, this generally means a so-called “step up” power
transformer that converts the mains/line voltage to a
higher value to enable proper operation of the tubes.
The advent of solid state guitar amplifiers back in the Remember, tubes are high voltage devices (typically
e advent of solid state guitar amplifiers back in the 1960’s confused 250 the issue
volts to 500 volts) therefore the tube amp’s power
1960’s confused the issue somewhat, especially since
especially since most solid state guitar amps DO NOT have outputtransformer transformers.
has to convert the mains/line voltage into a
most solid state guitar amps DO NOT have output
simple (but little understood) reason for this. Both power transistorsHIGHER and value. Conversely, most output transformers
transformers. There’s a simple (but little understood)
ers are inherently low voltage, high current devices. Speakers, by their very nature,
reason for this. Both power transistors and convert a high voltage signal into a low voltage
coils with impedances generally between 4 and 16loudspeakers
ohms. Output tubes optimally
are inherently low voltage, high current devices. signal (albeit at a significantly higher current) in order
ee matching impedances measured in the thousands of ohms, so it’s easy to
to properly drive loudspeakers. Power and output
d that tubes Speakers, by their very
and loudspeakers nature,
represent have voice
a serious coils with Where
“mismatch.” power is
impedances
, proper “matching” generally
of “load between is
impedances” 4 and 16 ohms.Solid
necessary. Outputstate transformers
power amps exhibit certain vital characteristics that
er transistorstubes optimally
which are highexpect to low
current, see voltage
matching impedances
devices have DIRECTLY
that can easily come to be appreciated by guitar and bass
measured
peakers, which as we in theknow,
now thousands of ohms,
are also so it’s low
high current, easyvoltage
to players.
devices. The
understand are
is output transformers thatnot
tubes and loudspeakers
necessary (in most cases)represent
with solid state amplifiers.

2
tching a loudspeaker to a vacuum tube amplifier generally requires the use of an
oansformer to work, we’ll
the loudspeaker. havefew
In a very
characteristics
to discuss
examples,
that
some
have come tubebasics.
to be appreciated by guitar and bass players.
akers directly, but these designs have not been
st and complexity. Therefore, 99.9% of all tube
ces
o that wematch
properly call transformers
characteristics areofable theto taketo
tubes onetheform of energy and convert it into
they “transform” one type ofpower
A typical electrical energy into another…That’s
transformer. WHY they components
the associated are in the power supply.
sformers.” A power transformer converts the AC (alternating current) from the mains
he appropriate current and voltage required by the amplifier. InMuch a tube theamp,
samethis situation exists with output transformers.
eans a so-called “step up” power
evices. The science of transformer design and transformer that converts the mains/line
Amp designers voltage to 50’s and 60’s never envisioned
in the
ue to enable proper operation of
o evolve and develop. Today’s transformers are the tubes. Remember, tubes are high voltage
that their amps would be used “wide open,” and the
ically 250Even
vailable. volts though
to 500 volts) therefore
transformer designthe tube
and amp’s power transformer same thought has toprocesses re: economics were used
mains/line transformers
elopment, voltage into ado HIGHER value. Conversely, most output
exhibit inherent transformers
in regard to output transformers. The low E on a
gh voltage signal into a low voltage
derstand. In order to appreciate the process that signal (albeit at a significantly higher current) in
guitar is approximately 80Hz, so that was generally
perly drive loudspeakers. Power and output transformers transformers (and certain
exhibit the associated
vital rectifiers and filter capacitors) would suffer some amoun
discuss some basics. the lowest frequency of interest in Today,
many (guitar) amp actually se
cs that have come to be appreciated by guitar andvoltage bass drop (sag) under maximum output conditions.
players. many musicians
amps whose power output transformer
supply designs.(meaning
is poorly regulated Becausethat maximum
the voltage output
drops or “sags” u
full load conditions).conditions were expected,
Many players believe thatonly this ismomentarily, by most that they fe
a form of “compression”
able to take one form of energy and convert it intodesirable. In truth, this amp
guitar kind ofdesigners,
voltage “sag” theirwasoutput
not thetransformers
result of “intelligent
were design,” but w
ctrical energy into another…That’s WHY they are attempt to economize on the power transformer and the associated components in the po
designed with minimal amounts of steel and copper
onverts the AC (alternating current) from the mains supply.
which produced some interesting and still rarely
ge required by the amplifier. In a tube amp, this understood results regarding MI amplification.
transformer that converts the mains/line voltage to Much the same situation exists with output transformers. Amp designers in the 50
the tubes. Remember, tubes Back in arethehigh1940’s and 50’s, guitar amp designers never ever thought that their
voltage 60’s never envisioned Before thatgoing
their amps further,woulda beshort used “wide open,” and
discussion on thethe same thought
efore the tube amp’s “creations”
power would ever be
transformer hasplayed
to “wide open.”
processes As
re: economicsa result, werethey usedtypically
in regarddesigned both power
to output transformers. The low E on a gui
and output transformers to be as approximately
economical as way
possibletransformers
so that(while
work
still would probably
performing
the lowestthe task be helpful.
R value. Conversely, most output transformers 80Hz, was generally frequency of interest in many (guita
intended by the designers). Economics Transformers
dictated that both Because used
the power in guitar
and output amplifiers
outputtransformers are typically
beexpected, only
ge signal (albeit at a significantly higher current) inoutput transformer designs. maximum conditions were
as small as reasonably
and output transformers exhibit certain vital possible so as to
momentarily,minimize
by divided
most the into
amount
guitar amp two of basic
steel
designers, categories,
andtheir copper
output i.e.
used. either
transformers They “power
were designed with
were NOT designing for “continuous minimal amountstransformers”
maximum of steel and
output,” so they or
copper “output
which produced
accepted transformers.”
that some
their power There
interesting is astill rarely
and
ated by guitar and bass players. understood results regarding
third type ofMI amplification.like” device utilized in many
“transformer
audio amplifiers called a “filter choke.” However, 3 | P a g ethis  
  Before device
going is
further, an a inductor
short that
discussion physically
on the wayappears
transformerssimilarworkto would proba
helpful. Transformers a transformer
used in guitar but isamplifiers
actuallyare an typically
inductordividedthat converts
into two basic categor
i.e. either “powerelectricity
transformers” into or “output transformers.”
“stored” magnetic energy There inisitsa third
coretypeto of “transform
like” device utilized help “smooth” the “pulsating direct current” delivered this device i
in many audio amplifiers called a “filter choke.” However,
inductor that physically appears similar to a transformer but is actually an inductor that co
k in the 1940’s and 50’s, guitar amp designers never ever thought
electricity from
into “stored”thatthe theirrectifiers
magnetic energy and in itsfilter
corecapacitors.
to help “smooth” Although a
the “pulsating direct cu
would ever be played “wide open.” As a result, they delivered
typicallyfrom “filter choke”
the rectifiers
designed both and looks similar to a transformer, it has only
filter capacitors. Although a “filter choke” looks similar to
power
ransformers to be as economical as possible (while transformer,
still performing one
it has winding,
only
the one
task as opposed
winding, as opposed to the twotwo
to the or more
or more windings
windings present in p
and output transformers.
present in power and output transformers.
the designers). Economics dictated that both the power and output transformers be
reasonably possible so as to minimize the amount of steel and copper used. They
esigning for “continuous maximum output,” so they accepted that their power
Back in the 1940’s and 50’s, guitar amp designers
never ever thought that their “creations” would ever 3 | P a g e  
be played “wide open.” As a result, they typically
designed both power and output transformers to be as
economical as possible (while still performing the task
intended by the designers). Economics dictated that
mp designers both the power
never everand outputthat
thought transformers
their be as small as
reasonably
” As a result, they possible so as to minimize
typically designed both power the amount of
steel (while
as possible and copper used. They
still performing thewere
taskNOT designing for
ted that“continuous
both the power maximum output,”
and output so they accepted
transformers be that
imize the amount
their poweroftransformers
steel and copper(and the used. They rectifiers
associated
m output,” andsofilter
theycapacitors)
accepted that would theirsuffer
power some amount of
Choke
voltage drop (sag) under maximum output conditions. Choke
Today, many musicians actually seek 3 | P aamps
g e   whose
power supply is poorly regulated (meaning that Athe A transformer
transformer works by utilizingworks current
by utilizing currentitsflow
flow through primarythrough
winding to magnet
voltage drops or “sags” under full load conditions). steel “core.” These its primary
cores are winding
almost alwaysto magnetizecomposed a steel
of thin“core.”
strips of These
special steel whos
Many players believe that this is a form of “compression” characteristics are
cores are almost always composed of thin stripsthrough
optimized for use in this application. As current flows of the prim
that they feel is desirable. In truth, this kind of voltage special steel whose characteristics are optimized for
4 | 
“sag” was not the result of “intelligent design,”   but was use in this application. As current flows through the
an attempt to economize on the power transformer and primary coil, a magnetic field is created around the core

3
(which itself absorbs the electrical energy as magnetic
energy). This magnetized core alternates up and down
in intensity in direct proportion to the amplitude and
frequency of the voltage and current in the primary.
The changing magnetic field (flux) in the core creates
(by induction) voltage and current in the secondary.
The voltage and current created in the secondary is
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL to the voltage current in
the primary in a specific “ratio” which is determined
by the number of turns of wire in the primary and the
number of turns of wire in the secondary.
Simply put, an output transformer operates by utilizing
electrical energy supplied by an amp’s output tubes,
to magnetize the core at the “rate” of the input. As
the core’s magnetic strength varies up and down, it
transfers energy to the secondary by “induction” in the
necessary ratio. Ideally, the output transformer primary
coil is optimized to “match” the tubes being used, and
the secondary (which has NO “direct connection” to
the primary) is “matched” to the speaker used. As
referenced above, there is NO “direct connection”
between the primary and secondary, except by the
“magnetic action” of the transformer’s core. Simply put,
a transformer operates by converting electrical energy
into magnetic energy and then back into electrical
energy.
fi amplifiers usually try to operate over extremely wide
frequency ranges (usually from lower than 20Hz to
well above 20kHz) Hi-fi designers have to design tube
amps with power and output transformers significantly
larger than the equivalent guitar amp. The open low
E on a six-string guitar is approximately 80Hz. Most
guitar speakers rarely have significant response above
about 8kHz, so that is the approximate bandwidth that
most guitar amp output transformers are designed to
handle. Because 20Hz is four times lower than 80Hz,
tube hi-fi output transformers tend to be significantly
larger than guitar amp transformers of equivalent
power, i.e. a 100 watt hi-fi amp output transformer
would be typically several times larger (and more
expensive) than a 100 watt guitar amp transformer.
Given this, it should be apparent that a guitar amp’s
output transformer has less “iron” in the core than a
hi-fi amp, and as a result will “saturate” much quicker
than the hi-fi amp’s transformer. “Technically speaking,”
operating a transformer close to its “saturation point” is
a questionable practice. The truth is, much of a tube
guitar amp’s sound has a great deal to do with the
characteristics of the guitar amp’s output transformer!

Generally speaking, one of the greatest limitations of

transformers is the ability of the core to create enough
magnetic energy to produce the desired effect in the
secondary. This is true of both power transformers
and output transformers. A minimally designed power
transformer exhibits a pronounced voltage drop (sag)
when called on for maximum output because the
primary is unable to sufficiently magnetize the core with
enough energy to transfer to the secondary. Typically,
this occurs because the core was “minimized” by
design. Hi-Fi Output Transformer Guitar Amp Outp

Magnetic cores in transformers have a “threshold,”

beyond which, further magnetization is impossible. This Because modern output transformers are usually well designe
realize that they have such a profound effect on the frequency respon
is generally referred to as “core saturation.” Magnetic
saturation is determined by a number of factors, known aspect of output transformers is that their frequency response
both the high and the low frequency EXTREMES as the signal level a
including size, design, type of materials, etc, etc. Once
the core. This is a “dynamic process” which means that it is CONSTA
the magnetic core of a transformer is “saturated,” no
the frequency and amplitude of the driving signal supplied by the valv
more energy transfer is possible…even if you could
frequency response is usually reasonably flat, but as the signal appro
connect the entire output of Hoover Dam to it! Simply
(maximum output) the extreme ends of the transformer’s bandpass te
put, when a transformer core but in a “dynamic fashion” (meaning that the transformer’s “bandpass
“saturates,” that’s it! CONSTANTLY CHANGING!).

Tube Hi-fi audio amplifier designers are certainly

familiar with the realities of transformer design.
Hi-Fi Since
Output hi- Actually, the
Transformer Guitar
aboveAmp Output Transformer
referenced “dynamic frequency response”
transformer are vital and incredibly helpful characteristics. Most peop
tubes/valves
4 “clip” with rounded edges on clipped output waveforms.
Because modern output transformers are usually as
clip just as “squarely” well designed,albeit
transistors, most usually
people asymmetrically
don’t (wit
Because modern output transformers are usually well
designed, most people don’t realize that they have
such a profound effect on the frequency response of
amplifiers. A little known aspect of output transformers
is that their frequency response tends to drop off rapidly
at both the high and the low frequency EXTREMES as
the signal level approaches “saturation” of the core.
This is a “dynamic process” which means that it is
CONSTANTLY CHANGING with the frequency and
amplitude of the driving signal supplied by the valves.
In normal operation, frequency response is usually
reasonably flat, but as the signal approaches saturation
(maximum output) the extreme ends of the transformer’s
bandpass tend to drop considerably, but in a “dynamic
fashion” (meaning that the transformer’s “bandpass
characteristics” are CONSTANTLY CHANGING!).
Actually, the above referenced “dynamic frequency
response” changes of the output transformer are vital
and incredibly helpful characteristics. Most people
believe (wrongly) that tubes/valves “clip” with rounded
edges on clipped output waveforms. This is NOT true!
Tubes clip just as “squarely” as transistors, albeit usually
asymmetrically (with one side clipping before the other).
What causes the “rounded edges” is the action of the
output transformer as it approaches saturation. Happily,
this rapidly changing frequency response of the output
transformer has the overall effect of “rounding off”
square waves generated by the tubes, while at the
same time, it LIMITS the lower end frequency response
coupled to the speaker. This happy and “accidental”
tonal enhancement is caused by the output transformers
unique “dynamic” tone shaping capability. A tube
guitar amplifier’s performance and operation is greatly
enhanced by these characteristics, which only occur at
(or near) maximum output. As the signal approaches
the point of saturation of the output transformer, these
desirable effects are created that play such a vital role in
creating the “sound” of a tube amp.
The fact that solid state amps almost never use output
transformers allows clipping to blast DIRECTLY into the
loudspeaker. This can often result in the characteristic
“rasp” of overdriven solid state amplifiers, unless
special precautions and designs are utilized, such as
with Peavey’s patented TransTube® technology (which
emulates the output transformers unique bandpass
capability as well as other characteristics of overdriven
vacuum tubes, such as asymmetrical clipping, bias
shift, etc, etc.). Overall, much of the “sound” of a tube
amp is attributable to the unique output characteristics
of its output transformer.
5
There have been many attempts over the years, by
many companies, to design “proper” transformers for
guitar amps. This usually means larger, more expensive
transformers that are (from a technical standpoint)
“better;” i.e, better steel, more laminations, larger size,
etc, etc. Almost every one of these attempts to fit “proper
transformers” to guitar amplifiers has failed because
adding a “proper” (i.e. a hi-fi) transformer often destroys
“the sound.” While it might be argued that many bass
players prefer a hi-fi type of sound (even in valve amps)
guitar players certainly don’t. This is easily proven by
plugging your guitar into a hi-fi amp (which almost
always sounds bad and doesn’t have the “dynamics”
and “feel” of a guitar amp). Unfortunately, guitar amps
are one of the few areas of audio where bigger is NOT
necessarily “better.” If you don’t believe this, I invite you
to plug your guitar into a tube hi-fi amp and draw your
own conclusions.
The above discussion relates to saturation (or near
saturation) and its effect on the output characteristics
of a tube output transformer. Power transformers
encounter many of the same limitations re: the ability of
the magnetic core to transfer energy from the primary
to the secondary. As the core approaches saturation,
the transformer’s ability to transfer additional energy
becomes marginal. Thus, the output voltage tends to
“sag,” which is a characteristic that lots of guitar players
find desirable, seeing this as a sort of “compression.”
This is another area where “bigger is NOT better.”
Larger and more robust power transformers result in
what is TECHNICALLY a “better” unit, having better
regulation, less sag/compression effect, and therefore,
is not necessarily a “better” guitar amp “soundwise” (as
far as most guitar players are concerned).
Tube/valve amps sound like they do for a number of
reasons, which include asymmetrical clipping, which
is mostly because tubes use a “single ended power
supply,” i.e. a high voltage (B+) and ground. Most
high gain amps have the ability to drive the tube’s grids
positive with respect to the cathode, which causes “grid
current” to flow, which in turn creates an effect called
“bias shift.” As the output transformer nears its maximum
design limits, the frequency response at the extremes
vary “dynamically” with significant “rolloffs” at both the
low end and high end. Lastly, some amount of “sag”
in the power supply creates a kind of “compression
effect” familiar to guitarists. These effects work together
in a rather fortunate “choreography” to produce what
we today recognize as a “good” guitar sound.
 the loudspeaker.

If (for whatever reason) the SECONDARY of the transformer has no “load,” the magne
energy created by the primary (and “stored” in the core) has NO place to GO! As the alternat
Since solid state amplifiers generallysignal havein no output the tube sockets and the associated wiring.
the primary goes down, the magnetic field built up in the core “collapses,” thus induc
transformers, they usually do not clip asymmetrically,
an extremely high voltage “spike” back into the transformer’s primary windings. Because this
have no grids, and therefore no gridenergy current and the and
is substantial, Remember
because the that we learned
primary coils haveinmany
highturns
school physics
of wire, an extremely hi
resulting “bias shift.” It’s certainly not voltage
any “news” that a
“transient” about
(often 3000 the
volts“law of conservation
or more) of energy.”
can be developed. This taught
The primary of the output
transformer
solid state amp’s distortion characteristics is directly connected
are usually to the tubes
us that energy can’tand tube “disappear,”
simply sockets of the itamp,
hasandto neither
“go the
tubes nor the sockets (and associated wiring) are designed for that kind of voltage. These
much different from the distortion of electrical
a tube amp.“spikes”Only somewhere.”
can (and When
often do) cause a tubeinside
“arcing” output
the transformer doesn’t
transformer and/or the tube
by a thorough understanding of what goes on
elements, inside between
especially have athe
place for the
terminals onenergy
the tubeto go (i.e.
sockets anda the
speaker or itswiring.
associated
a tube amp, was Peavey able to emulate all these equivalent) the energy developed in the magnetic core
phenomena with our patented TransTube® technology. “flashes back” into the amplifier, often destroying the
Remember that we learned in high school physics about the “law of conservation of
One might wonder why Peavey still makes tube amps if output transformer, the tubes, the tube sockets, and/or
energy.” This taught us that energy can’t simply “disappear,” it has to “go somewhere.” Whe
we have achieved such a close replica. That answer is the
tube output transformer associated
doesn’t wiring.
have a place for the energy to go (i.e. a speaker or its
simple! Many of our customers WANTequivalent)
tube amps! If that
the energy developed in the magnetic core “flashes back” into the amplifier, often
is what our customer wants, then that’s what we’ll
destroying the build This is WHY
output transformer, you should
the tubes, the tube NOT operate
sockets, a tube
and/or the amp wiring.
associated
This is WHY you should NOT operate
as long as decent tubes are available. Unfortunately, without a “load!” a tube amp without a “load!”
that will probably not always be the case.

The above is a rambling discussion about transformers

(both power an output) and their effect on the sound of
a tube guitar amp. I felt it was important to understand
what transformers do (and generally how they do it)
before getting to the final point of this discussion. As
mentioned above, a transformer works by converting
one form of electrical energy into another. In the case of
a tube amp, to achieve the matching, we “trade” high
voltage in the primary, for high current in the secondary
to properly drive the speaker. This is a “two step” process Ignition Coils
where electrical energy from the tubes magnetize the
core of the transformer at the audio rate.IgnitionThen,coils
the for gasoline engines work essentially the same way. There’s a “seconda
varying magnetic field in the corecoil of wire with
induces many “turns”
voltage of wire
Ignition coilswrapped aroundengines
for gasoline a steel core.
workInessentially
operation, athe
connection
(and current) into the secondary suitable to drive the same way. There’s a “secondary” coil of wire with many 8 | P a
speaker. The important point here is  the energy is put “turns” of wire wrapped around a steel core. In operation,
into the transformer through the primary, which converts a connection is made to a power source (battery) then
current flows though the primary coil and magnetizes
that energy into magnetic energy (i.e. it magnetizes the
the iron core. The contacts (points) then open and the
core) and then that energy is reconverted into electrical magnetic field is allowed to “collapse,” which results in a
energy in the secondary windings, which drives the huge “pulse of energy” being inducted into the secondary
loudspeaker. coil (which is what produces the electrical “pulse” that is
fed to the spark plug). This is also a two step process
If (for whatever reason) the SECONDARY of the where basically the primary coil is energized, producing
transformer has no “load,” the magnetic energy created a magnetic field, then “de-energized.” As the magnetic
by the primary (and “stored” in the core) has NO place to field “collapses” the magnetic energy stored in the core
GO! As the alternating signal in the primary goes down, induces a high voltage into the secondary coil which is
the magnetic field built up in the core “collapses,” thus then fed to the spark plug, thus firing the air/fuel mixture.
inducing an extremely high voltage “spike” back into the
An “UNLOADED” tube output transformer produces
transformer’s primary windings. Because this energy is high voltage “spikes” in EXACTLY the same manner as
substantial, and because the primary coils have many an “ignition coil” does. The difference being that a tube
turns of wire, an extremely high voltage “transient” (often amp output transformer is NOT designed to operate that
3000 volts or more) can be developed. The primary of way, but an ignition coil IS! Operating a tube amp with
the output transformer is directly connected to the tubes its transformer unloaded can easily damage or destroy
and tube sockets of the amp, and neither the tubes nor a perfectly good tube amplifier by the “flyback” action
the sockets (and associated wiring) are designed for described above. Hopefully, the above will provide a
that kind of voltage. These electrical “spikes” can (and little background as to exactly WHY it’s important NOT
often do) cause “arcing” inside the transformer and/or to operate an amplifier WITHOUT a proper “load” for the
output transformer’s secondary output terminals.
the tube elements, especially between the terminals on

6
Peavey (recognizing that accidental operation of its
tube amps without a proper load is a possibility) has
endeavored to try to protect the output tubes, sockets,
wiring, and the output transformer against damaging
voltage spikes as described above. Although there is no
100% “fool proof” method to protect an amplifier against
the spikes generated by an unloaded output transformer,
the most effective protection is by use of so-called “flyback
diodes.” “Flyback” is an old term applied to high voltage
systems in tube type TV sets, but it has come to be applied
to any high voltage transient (spike) in electronics. Silicon
diodes have certain characteristics that engineers find
very useful. At a certain voltages, silicon diodes encounter
a “threshold” and conduct energy in the reverse direction
to their normal operation. This “avalanche effect” occurs
at very high voltages and thus inclusion of these into the
output circuit allows some measure of protection for the
tubes, output transformers, sockets, and wiring. If voltages
occur above their “avalanche” level, the diodes conduct
in the “reverse direction,” thus the destructive voltage
transient generated by the unloaded output transformer
is shorted to ground. Although this method has proven
very effective, it should be noted that super high voltage
transients can cause arcing either inside the output
transformer, the output tubes themselves, and especially
between the terminals of the tube sockets. Cheaper plastic
or phenolic output tube sockets are especially prone to
this and can be easily identified because they are usually
BLACK or BROWN. If a voltage transient “arcs” between
the two socket terminals, it usually leaves a “carbonized
path” between the terminals that REMAIN CONDUCTIVE
which can (and often does) render the amp unserviceable.
This is WHY Peavey now utilizes white GLAZED CERAMIC
sockets for our output tubes, since these white ceramic
sockets are MUCH more resistant to arcing between
terminals and the “carbonized path” problem is totally
eliminated.

Hopefully, the above will give players a better idea why

tube amps should never be played or operated without a
speaker load, or a proper termination by a load resistance
of some kind.

7
 Innovation. Amplified.

Peavey Electronics Corporation • 5022 Hartley Peavey Drive • Meridian, MS 39305

Phone: (601) 483-5365 • Fax: (601) 486-1278 • www.peavey.com • ©2006 Printed in the U.S.A.