CHAPTER 01

BASIC CONCEPT OF PROPOSED SYSTEM

1.1 PROPOSED SYSTEM

The PWM fed speed control of Induction Motor using PC is discussed in detailed manner
in this section. The block diagram consists of power supply circuit, Microcontroller, optocoupler,
MAX232, Triac & LCD to display the output.

1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 1.1: Block diagram of the proposed system

1
1.3 HARDWARE USED

 Induction Motor

 Microcontroller

 Power Supply Unit

 Opto coupler

 LCD

 Triac

 UART

2
1.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 1.2 : Circuit Diagram of Proposed system

3
 CHAPTER 02
POWER SUPPLY UNIT
2.1 POWER SUPPLY
Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or system that
supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a power
supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often
to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.

Fig 2.1: Circuit Diagram of Power Supply Unit

A 230V, 50Hz Single phase AC power supply is given to a step down transformer to get
12V supply. This voltage is converted to DC voltage using a Bridge Rectifier. The converted
pulsating DC voltage is filtered by a 2200uf capacitor and then given to LM7805 voltage
regulator to obtain constant 5v supply. This 5v supply is given to all the components in the
circuit. A RC time constant circuit is added to discharge all the capacitors quickly. To ensure the
power supply a LED is connected for indication purpose.

4
2.2 STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a static device by which electric power in one circuit is transformed into
electric power of same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the voltage in the
circuit, but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It works on the principle of
mutual induction in our project here we are using a step down transformer for providing a
necessary supply to the electronic circuit (230-12V AC)

2.3 RECTIFIER UNIT

A DC level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process
called full wave rectification. Here in our project for full wave rectification we use bridge
rectifier. From the basic bridge configuration we see that two diodes (say D2 and D3) are
conducting while the other two diodes (D1 and D4) are in off state during the period t=0 to T/2
accordingly for the negative cycle of the input the conducting diodes are D1 and D4. Thus the
polarity across the load is the same.

Fig 2.2 : Waveforms of bridge rectifier

5
2.4 FILTER

In order to obtain a DC voltage of 0 Hz, we have to use a low pass filter. So that a
capacitive filter circuit is used where a capacitor is connected at the rectifier output and a DC is
obtained across it. The filter wavelength is essentially a DC voltage with negligible ripples and
it’s ultimately fed to the load.

2.5 REGULATORS

The output voltage from the capacitor is more filtered and finally regulated. The voltage
regulator is a device, which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of the change in
supply variation, load variation and temperature changes. Here we use fix voltage regulator
namely LM7805. The IC LM7805 is a+5V regulator which is used for the microcontroller.

The LM7805A series of three terminal positive regulators are available in the T0/220/D-
PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of
applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe operating
area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they
can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators,
these devices can be used with external components to obtained adjustable voltages and currents.

2.5.1 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERSTICS OF LM7805A

Load and line regulation are specified at constant junction temperature. Change in V0 due
to heating effects must be taking into account separately; pulse testing with low duty cycle is
used.

6
2.5.2 DESCRIPTION

The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are available in the

TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is
provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and
currents.

Fig 2.3 : Voltage Regulator

2.5.3 FEATURES

• Output Current up to 1A
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
• Thermal Overload Protection
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

7
2.5.4 INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 2.4: Block Diagram of IC LM7805 (Voltage Regulator)

8
 CHAPTER 03

PULSE GENERATING UNIT

3.1 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM):

PWM is a powerful technique for controlling analog circuits with a processor's digital
outputs. PWM is employed in a wide variety of applications, ranging from measurement and
communications to power control and conversion.

Fig.3.1: Pulse width modulation

In a nutshell, PWM is a way of digitally encoding analog signal levels. Through the use of high-
resolution counters, the duty cycle of a square wave is modulated to encode a specific analog
signal level. The PWM signal is still digital because, at any given instant of time, the full DC
supply is either fully on or fully off.

9
 The voltage or current source is supplied to the analog load by means of a repeating
series of on and off pulses. The on-time is the time during which the DC supply is applied to the
load, and the off-time is the periods during which that supply is switched off.

Given a sufficient bandwidth, any analog value can be encoded with PWM loads,
inductive and capacitive alike, require a much higher modulating frequency than 10 Hz.

The duty cycle would still be 50%, but the bulb would appear brightly lit for the first five
seconds and off for the next. In order to see a voltage of 4.5 volts in the bulb, the cycle period
must be short relative to the load's response time to a change in the switch state.

3.2 OBJECTIVE OF PWM

 Control of output voltage
 Reduction of harmonics

3.3 WAVEFORM OF PWM

10
 Fig 3.2 Typical waveform of PWM

3.4 DISADVANTAGES OF PWM

 Increase of switching losses due to high PWM frequency
 Reduction of available voltage
 EMI problems due to high-order harmonics

11
 CHAPTER 04

MICROCONTROLLER

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The main controlling unit of proposed system is Microcontroller the main features of
microcontroller that is particularly PIC (16F877A) is discussed here.

A microcontroller consist of a powerful CPU tightly coupled with memory (RAM, ROM or
EPROM), various I/O features such as serial port, parallel ports, Timer/Counter, interrupt
controller, data requisition interface, analog to digital converter, digital to analog converter
everything integrated into a single silicon chip.

It does not mean that any microcontroller should have all the above said features on a single
chip, depending on the need and area of application for which it is designed, the on chip features
present in it may or may not include all the individual section said above.

Any microcontroller system requires memory to store sequence of instructions making a

program, parallel port or a serial port for communicating with an external system timer/counter
for control purpose like generating time delay.

4.2 ADVANTAGE

If a system is develop with microprocessor the designer has to go with external memory such as
RAM, ROM or EPROM and peripherals and hence the size of the unit will be large enough to
hold all the required peripherals but the microcontroller has got all three peripheral facilities on a
single chip. So the development of the similar system with a microcontroller releases the size and
cost of the design.

12
One of the major difference between a microcontroller and a microprocessor is that a controller,
often deals with bits not bytes as in the real world application for example Swicth contact can
only be open or closed, indicator should be light or dark and motors can be either turn on or off.

The microcontroller has two 16 bit timer/counter built within it which makes it more suitable for
this application since we need to produce some accurate time delay

PORTB is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISB.
Setting a TRISB bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an input (i.e., put the
corresponding output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a TRISB bit (= 0) will make
the corresponding PORTB pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected
pin). Three pins of PORTB are multiplexed with the In-Circuit Debugger and Low-Voltage
Programming function: RB3/PGM, RB6/PGC and RB7/PGD. The alternate functions of these
pins are described in “Special Features of the CPU”. Each of the PORTB pins has a weak
internal pull-up. A single control bit can turn on all the pull-ups. This is performed by clearing
bit RBPU (OPTION_REG<7>). The weak pull-up is automatically turned off when the port pin
is configured as an output. The pull-ups are disabled on a Power-on Reset. 4.3 PIN
DIAGRAM

13
 CHAPTER 05
INDUCTION MOTOR

5.1 INTRODUCTION

AC induction motors are the most common motors used in industrial motion control
systems, as well as in main powered home appliances. Simple and rugged design, low-cost, low
maintenance and direct connection to an AC power source are the main advantages of AC
induction motors.

Various types of AC induction motors are available in the market. Different motors are
suitable for different applications. Although AC induction motors are easier to design than DC
motors, the speed and the torque control in various types of AC induction motors require a
greater understanding of the design and the characteristics of these motors.

Induction motor design has a major effect on the behavior and performance of an
induction motor. Very often the details or class of design of a motor are not well understood or
promoted.

5.2 BASIC CONSTRUCTION AND

OPERATING PRINCIPLE

Like most motors, an AC induction motor has a fixed outer portion, called the stator and
a rotor that spins inside with a carefully engineered air gap between the two. Virtually all
electrical motors use magnetic field rotation to spin their rotors. A three-phase AC induction
motor is the only type where the rotating magnetic field is created naturally in the stator because
of the nature of the supply. DC motors depend either on mechanical or electronic commutation to

14
create rotating magnetic fields. A single-phase AC induction motor depends on extra electrical
components to produce this rotating magnetic field.
Two sets of electromagnets are formed inside any motor. In an AC induction motor, one
set of electromagnets is formed in the stator because of the AC supply connected to the stator
windings. The alternating nature of the supply voltage induces an Electromagnetic Force (EMF)
in the rotor (just like the voltage is induced in the transformer secondary) as per Lenz’s law, thus
generating another set of electromagnets; hence the name – induction motor. Interaction between
the magnetic field of these electromagnets generates twisting force, or torque. As a result, the
motor rotates in the direction of the resultant torque.

5.2.1 STATOR

The stator is made up of several thin laminations of luminum or cast iron. They are
punched and clamped together to form a hollow cylinder (stator core) with slots as shown in
Figure 1. Coils of insulated wires are inserted into these slots. Each grouping of coils, together
with the core it surrounds, forms an electromagnet (a pair of poles) on the application of AC
upply. The number of poles of an AC induction motor depends on the internal connection of the
stator windings. The stator windings are connected directly to the power source. Internally they
are connected in such a way, that on applying AC supply, a rotating magnetic field is created.

Fig5.1:Stator of the induction motor

15
5.2.2 ROTOR
The rotor is made up of several thin steel laminations with evenly spaced bars, which are
made up of aluminum or copper, along the periphery. In the most popular type of rotor (squirrel
cage rotor), these bars are connected at ends mechanically and electrically by the use of rings.
Almost 90% of induction motors have squirrel cage rotors. This is because the squirrel cage rotor
has a simple and rugged construction. The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated core with
axially placed parallel slots for carrying the conductors. Each slot carries a copper, aluminum, or
alloy bar. These
rotor bars are permanently short-circuited at both ends by means of the end rings, as shown in
Figure 2. This total assembly resembles the look of a squirrel cage, which gives the rotor its
name. The rotor slots are not exactly parallel to the shaft. Instead, they are given a skew for two
main reasons. The first reason is to make the motor run quietly by reducing magnetic hum and to
decrease slot harmonics. The second reason is to help reduce the locking tendency of the rotor.
The rotor teeth tend to remain locked
under the stator teeth due to direct magnetic attraction between the two. This happens when the
number of stator teeth are equal to the number of rotor teeth. The rotor is mounted on the shaft
using bearings on each end; one end of the shaft is normally kept longer than the other for
driving the load. Some motors may have an accessory shaft on the non-driving end for mounting
speed or position sensing devices. Between
the stator and the rotor, there exists an air gap, through which due to induction, the energy is
transferred from the stator to the rotor. The generated torque forces the
rotor and then the load to rotate. Regardless of the type of rotor used, the principle employed for
rotation remains the same.

16
 Fig5.2 :Rotor of the induction motor

5.3 SPEED OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR

The magnetic field created in the stator rotates at a synchronous speed (NS).

EQUATION 1:

NS =120 x f/p

where:
NS = the synchronous speed of the stator
magnetic field in RPM
P = the number of poles on the stator
f = the supply frequency in Hertz

17
The magnetic field produced in the rotor because of the induced voltage is alternating in nature.
To reduce the relative speed, with respect to the stator, the rotor starts running in the same
direction as that of the stator flux and tries to catch up with the rotating flux.
However, in practice, the rotor never succeeds in “catching up” to the stator field. The rotor runs
slower than the speed of the stator field. This speed is called the Base Speed (Nb). The difference
between NS and Nb is called the slip. The slip varies with the load. An increase in load will cause
the rotor to slow down or increase slip. A decrease in
load will cause the rotor to speed up or decrease slip. The slip is expressed as a percentage and
can be determined with the following formula:

EQUATION 2:

% slip = NS – Nb x 100
NS
where:
NS = the synchronous speed in RPM
Nb = the base speed in RPM

5.4 TYPES OF AC INDUCTION MOTORS

Generally, induction motors are categorized based on the number of stator windings. They are:

• Single-phase induction motor

• Three-phase induction motor

5.4.1 SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

There are probably more single-phase AC induction motors in use today than the total of all the
other types put together. It is logical that the least expensive, lowest maintenance type motor
should be used most often. The single-phase AC induction motor best fits this description.

18
As the name suggests, this type of motor has only one stator winding (main winding) and
operates with a single-phase power supply. In all single-phase induction motors, the rotor is the
squirrel cage type. The single-phase induction motor is not self-starting. When the motor is
connected to a single-phase power supply, the main winding carries an alternating current. This
current produces a pulsating magnetic field. Due to induction, the rotor is energized. As the main
magnetic field is pulsating, the torque necessary for the motor rotation is not generated. This will
cause the rotor to vibrate, but not to rotate. Hence, the single phase induction motor is required to
have a starting
mechanism that can provide the starting kick for the motor to rotate. The starting mechanism of
the single-phase induction motor is mainly an additional stator winding (start/auxiliary winding)
as shown in Figure 3. The start winding
can have a series capacitor and/or a centrifugal switch. When the supply voltage is applied,
current in the main winding lags the supply voltage due to the main winding impedance. At the
same time, current in the start winding leads/lags the supply voltage depending on the starting
mechanism impedance. Interaction between magnetic fields generated by the main winding and
the starting mechanism generates a resultant magnetic field rotating in one direction. The motor
starts rotating in the direction of the resultant magnetic field.

Once the motor reaches about 75% of its rated speed, a centrifugal switch disconnects the start
winding. From this point on, the single-phase motor can maintain sufficient torque to operate on
its own. Except for special capacitor start/capacitor run types,
all single-phase motors are generally used for applications up to 3/4 hp only.
Depending on the various start techniques, single phase AC induction motors are further
classified as described in the following sections.

19
 Fig5.3 : Single phase AC motor with and without start mechanism

5.4.1.1 SPLIT-PHASE AC INDUCTION MOTOR

The split-phase motor is also known as an induction start/induction run motor. It has two
windings: a start and a main winding. The start winding is made with smaller gauge wire and
fewer turns, relative to the main winding to create more resistance, thus putting the start
winding’s field at a different angle than that of the main winding which causes the motor to start
rotating. The main winding, which is of a heavier wire, keeps the motor running the rest of the
time.

Fig5.4 : Single phase induction motor

20
The starting torque is low, typically 100% to 175% of the rated torque. The motor draws high
starting current, approximately 700% to 1,000% of the rated current. The maximum generated
torque ranges from 250% to 350% of the rated torque (see Figure 9 for torque-speed curve).

Good applications for split-phase motors include small grinders, small fans and blowers and
other low starting torque applications with power needs from 1/20 to 1/3 hp. Avoid using this
type of motor in any applications requiring high on/off cycle rates or high torque.

5.4.1.2 CAPACITOR START AC INDUCTION MOTOR

This is a modified split-phase motor with a capacitor in series with the start winding to provide a
start “boost.” Like the split-phase motor, the capacitor start motor also has a centrifugal switch
which disconnects the start winding and the capacitor when the motor reaches about 75% of the
rated speed.

Since the capacitor is in series with the start circuit, it creates more starting torque, typically
200% to 400% of the rated torque. And the starting current, usually 450%
to 575% of the rated current, is much lower than the split-phase due to the larger wire in the start
circuit.
The resistance start motor is used in applications where the starting torque requirement is less
than that provided by the capacitor start motor. Apart from the cost, this motor does not offer any
major advantage over the capacitor start motor.
They are used in a wide range of belt-drive applications like small conveyors, large blowers and
pumps, as well as many direct-drive or geared applications.

21
 Fig5.5 : Capacitor start AC single phase induction motor

5.4.1.3 PERMANENT SPLIT CAPACITOR (CAPACITOR RUN)

AC INDUCTION MOTOR

A permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor has a run type capacitor permanently connected in
series with the start winding. This makes the start winding an auxiliary winding once the motor
reaches the running speed. Since the run capacitor must be designed for continuous use, it cannot
provide the starting boost of a starting capacitor. The typical starting torque of the PSC motor is
low, from 30% to 150% of the rated torque. PSC motors have low starting current, usually less
than 200% of the rated current, making them excellent for applications with high on/off cycle
rates. The PSC motors have several advantages. The motor design can easily be altered for use
with speed controllers. They can also be designed for optimum efficiency and High-Power
Factor (PF) at the rated load. They’re considered to be the most reliable of the single-phase
motors, mainly because no centrifugal starting switch is required. Permanent split-capacitor
motors have a wide variety of applications depending on the design. These include fans, blowers
with low starting torque needs and intermittent cycling uses, such as adjusting mechanisms, gate
operators and garage door openers.

22
 Fig5.6 : Capacitor run permanent slip induction motor

5.4.1.4 CAPACITOR START/CAPACITOR RUN AC INDUCTION MOTOR

This motor has a start type capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding like the capacitor start
motor for high starting torque. Like a PSC motor, it also has a run type capacitor that is in series
with the auxiliary winding after the start capacitor is switched out of the circuit. This allows high
overload torque.

Fig5.7 : Capacitor start single phase induction motor

23
This type of motor can be designed for lower full-load currents and higher efficiency. This motor
is costly due to start and run capacitors and centrifugal switch. It is able to handle applications
too demanding for any other kind of single-phase motor. These include woodworking machinery,
air compressors, high-pressure water pumps, vacuum pumps and other high torque applications
requiring 1 to 10 hp.

5.4.1.5 SHADED-POLE AC INDUCTION MOTOR

Shaded-pole motors have only one main winding and no start winding. Starting is by means of a
design that rings a continuous copper loop around a small portion of each of the motor poles.
This “shades” that portion of the pole, causing the magnetic field in the shaded area to lag behind
the field in the unshaded area. The reaction of the two fields gets the shaft rotating. Because the
shaded-pole motor lacks a start winding, starting switch or capacitor, it is electrically simple and
inexpensive. Also, the speed can be controlled merely by varying voltage, or through a multi-tap
winding. Mechanically, the shaded-pole motor construction allows high-volume production. In
fact, these are usually considered as “disposable” motors, meaning they are much cheaper to
replace than to repair.

Fig5.8 : Shaded pole induction motor

24
The shaded-pole motor has many positive features but it also has several disadvantages. Its low
starting torque is typically 25% to 75% of the rated torque. It is a high slip motor with a running
speed 7% to 10% below the synchronous speed. Generally, efficiency of this motor type is very
low (below 20%). The low initial cost suits the shaded-pole motors to low horsepower or light
duty applications. Perhaps their largest use is in multi-speed fans for household use. But the low
torque, low efficiency and less sturdy mechanical features make shaded-pole motors impractical
for most Industrial or commercial use, where higher cycle rates or continuous duty are the
normal.
Figure shows the torque-speed curves of various kinds of single-phase AC induction motors.

5.5 TORQUE-SPEED CURVES OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF SINGLE-

PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

Fig 5.9 : Torque speed curves of different types of induction motor

25
 CHAPTER 06

UART

6.1 INTRODUCTION

A universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter is a type of "asynchronous

receiver/transmitter", a piece of computer hardware that translates data between parallel and
serial forms. UARTs are commonly used in conjunction with other communication standards
such as EIA RS-232.

A UART is usually an individual (or part of an) integrated circuit used for serial communications
over a computer or peripheral device serial port. UARTs are now commonly included in
microcontrollers. A dual UART or DUART combines two UARTs into a single chip. Many
modern ICs now come with a UART that can also communicate synchronously; these devices
are called USARTs.

The Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) controller is the key component of

the serial communications subsystem of a computer. The UART takes bytes of data and
transmits the individual bits in a sequential fashion. At the destination, a second UART re-
assembles the bits into complete bytes. Serial transmission of digital information (bits) through a
single wire or other medium is much more cost effective than parallel transmission through
multiple wires. A UART is used to convert the transmitted information between its sequential
and parallel form at each end of the link. Each UART contains a shift register which is the
fundamental method of conversion between serial and parallel forms.

26
6.2 MAX232

The MAX232 is an integrated circuit that converts signals from an RS-232 serial port to signals
suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver
and typically converts the RX, TX, CTS and RTS signals.

The drivers provide RS-232 voltage level outputs (approx. ± 7.5 V) from a single + 5 V supply
via on-chip charge pumps and external capacitors. This makes it useful for implementing RS-232
in devices that otherwise do not need any voltages outside the 0 V to + 5 V range, as power
supply design does not need to be made more complicated just for driving the RS-232 in this
case.

The receivers reduce RS-232 inputs (which may be as high as ± 25 V), to standard 5 V TTL
levels. These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 V, and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V.

The later MAX232A is backwards compatible with the original MAX232 but may operate at
higher baud rates and can use smaller external capacitors – 0.1 μF in place of the 1.0 μF
capacitors used with the original device.

27
6.2.1 Pin Diagram

Fig 6.1: Pin diagram of UART

28
 CHAPTER 07

DRIVER CIRCUIT

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The Driver Circuit consists of a Optocoupler and Triac. Figure 7.1 demonstrate the driver
circuitry arrangement in the proposed system. Optocoupler and the Triac are described in this
chapter in detail.

Fig 7.1: Driver Circuit

29
7.2 OPTO-COUPLER

An opto-isolator (optical isolator, optical coupling device, opto- coupler, photo

coupler, or photo MOS) is a device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer
an electronic signal between elements of a circuit, typically a transmitter and a receiver, while
keeping them electrically isolated since the electrical signal is converted to a light beam,
transferred, then converted back to an electrical signal, there is no need for electrical connection
between the source and destination circuits.

The opto-isolator is simply a package that contains both an infrared light-emitting

diode (LED) and a photo detector such as a photosensitive silicon diode, transistor Darlington
pair, or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). The wave-length responses of the two devices are
tailored to be as identical as possible to permit the highest measure of coupling possible. Other
circuitry—for example an output amplifier—may be integrated into the package. An opto-
isolator is usually thought of as a single integrated package, but opto-isolation can also be
achieved by using separate devices

30
Fig7.2:Schematic and actual diagram of opto-coupler

31
7.2.1 MAXIMUM RATINGS

Fig7.3: Maximum rating of opto-coupler

32
7.2.2 TYPICAL ELCTRICAL CHARACTERSTIC

Fig7.4: Graphs of electrical characteristics of opto -coupler

33
7.3 TRIAC

7.3.1 INTRODUCTION

A TRIAC or Triode for Alternating Current is an electronic component approximately

equivalent to two silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs/thyristors) joined in inverse
parallel (paralleled but with the polarity reversed) and with their gates connected together. The
formal name for a TRIAC is bidirectional triode thyristor. This results in a bidirectional
electronic switch which can conduct current in either direction when it is triggered (turned on)
and thus doesn't have any polarity. It can be triggered by either a positive or a
negative voltage being applied to its gate electrode (with respect to A1, otherwise known as
MT1). Once triggered, the device continues to conduct until the current through it drops below a
certain threshold value, the holding current, such as at the end of a half-cycle of alternating
current (AC) mains power. This makes the TRIAC a very convenient switch for AC circuits,
allowing the control of very large power flows with milli ampere-scale control currents. In
addition, applying a trigger pulse at a controllable point in an AC cycle allows one to control the
percentage of current that flows through the TRIAC to the load (phase control).

34
7.3.2 SCHEMATIC AND ACTUAL DIAGRAM OF TRIAC

Fig7.5 : Schematic diagram of TRIAC

35
7.3.3 BT136 SERIES E

Fig7.6: Schematic and actual diagram of TRIAC

7.3.4 TRIGGERING METHODS

T he triggering circuit with synchronization across the TRIAC (See Figure 7.7 and Figure 7.8)

Fig7.7 : Triggering circuit of TRIAC

36
 Fig7.8: Waveform of TRIAC

7.3.4.1 TRIGGERING WITH SYNCHRONIZATION BY THE MAINS

VOLTAGE

This triggering circuit of Figure 7.9, 7.10 is synchronized by the mains voltage. The pulses are
always shifted by 180° with respect to each other, whatever the type of load.

Fig7.9: Triggering with synchronization with mains voltage

37
Fig7.10: Waveform triggering circuit of mains TRIAC

38
 CHAPTER 08

LCD

8.1 INTRODUCTION
This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will start with something simple.
This example doesn't use the Bi-directional feature found on newer ports, thus it should work
with most, if no all Parallel Ports. It however doesn't show the use of the Status Port as an input.
So what are we interfacing? A 16 Character x 2 Line LCD Module to the Parallel Port. These
LCD Modules are very common these days, and are quite simple to work with, as all the logic
required to run them is on board.

8.2 SCHEMATIC

Fig8.1 : Schematic diagram of LED

39
8.3 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel's Enable and Register Select is connected
to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open collector / open drain output. While most
Parallel Ports have internal pull-up resistors, there are a few which don't. Therefore by
incorporating the two 10K external pull up resistors, the circuit is more portable for a wider
range of computers, some of which may have no internal pull up resistors.

We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we hard wire the R/W
line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the data lines. As a
result we cannot read back the LCD's internal Busy Flag which tells us if the LCD has accepted
and finished processing the last instruction. This problem is overcome by inserting known delays
into our program.

The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing fancy here. As with all
the examples, I've left the power supply out. You can use a bench power supply set to 5v or use a
onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling capacitors, especially if you have trouble
with the circuit working properly.

Fig 8.2 : Actual Diagram of LCD

40
The 2 line x 16 character LCD modules are available from a wide range of manufacturers and
should all be compatible with the HD44780. The one I used to test this circuit was a Powertip
PC-1602F and an old Philips LTN211F-10 which was extracted from a Poker Machine! The
diagram to the right, shows the pin numbers for these devices. When viewed from the front, the
left pin is pin 14 and the right pin is pin 1.

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 CHAPTER 09

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT SENSING UNIT

9.1 CURRENT SENSOR

A current sensor is a device that detects electrical current (AC or DC) in a wire, and
generates a signal proportional to it.

The sensed current and the output signal can be:

 AC current input,
o analog output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current
o unipolar output, which is proportional to the average or RMS value of the sensed
current
 DC current input,
o unipolar, with a unipolar output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed
current
o bipolar output, which duplicates the wave shape of the sensed current
o digital output, which switches when the sensed current exceeds a certain threshold

We are using Current Transformer to sense the current of the Induction Motor of our proposed
system.

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 Fig 9.1: Circuit diagram of current sensing unit

9.2 VOLTAGE SENSING

A Voltage sensing is a device that detects electrical Voltage across two terminal of a wire, and
generates a signal proportional to it.

We are using Potential Transformer to sense the voltage across the Induction Motor of our
proposed system.

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Fig 9.2 : Circuit diagram of voltage sensing unit

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 CHAPTER 10

APPLICATIONS

The various applications of the proposed system are given as following

 The proposed system is of low cost

 It can be used in household appliances as well as in Industrial purpose due to monitoring
by PC
 User friendly
 More efficiency of controlling
 Convenience to operate

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 CONCLUSION

This paper deals with the design and analysis of PWM fed speed control of induction motor
using PC. An analysis of control of the speed of induction motor is established by a equivalent
model circuit. The project has been successfully completed with the main aim of controlling the
speed of Induction motor with PWM technique using PIC microcontroller.

The project has been designed using visual basic, MPLAB for PIC microcontroller and LCD
with the added advantages of flexibility and ease in working. The implementation of project is
also very easy and understandable. This is a user friendly project in which proper care has been
taken to keep the circuit arrangement as required by the user.

We hereby conclude that our project will prove to be a very effective in customer satisfaction
and flexibility. It will run to its maximum base to meet user requirements and provide ease of
using along with careful handling of errors if any.

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 BIBILOGRAPHY

1. Badriram and viswakarma “power protection and switchgear”.

2. Electrical machines 1 & 2 by U.A. bakshi.
3. A basic guide to electronics by Albert kloss.
4. Tim wilmshurt “designing embedded systems with PIC microcontroller”.

WEB REFERENCES

 www.google.co.in
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.howstuffswork.com
 www.motorola.com
 www.bing.com

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