Genocide

Genocide is intentional action to destroy a people (usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group) in whole or in
part. The hybrid word "genocide" is a combination of the Greek word γένος ("race, people") and the Latin suffix -caedo ("act of
killing").[1] The United Nations Genocide Convention, which was established in 1948, defines genocide as "acts committed with
[2][3]
intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group".

The term genocide was coined by Raphael Lemkin in his 1944 book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe;[4][5] it has been applied to the
Holocaust, and many other mass killings including the genocide of indigenous peoples in the Americas, the Armenian Genocide, the
Greek genocide, the Assyrian genocide, the Serbian genocide, the Holodomor, the Indonesian genocide,[6] the Guatemalan genocide,
the 1971 Bangladesh genocide, the Cambodian genocide, and after 1980 the Bosnian genocide, the Kurdish genocide, the Darfur
genocide, and the Rwandan genocide.[a]

The Political Instability Task Force estimated that, between 1956 and 2016, a total of forty-three genocides took place, causing the
death of about 50 million people. TheUNHCR estimated that a further 50 million had been displaced by such episodes of violence up
to 2008.[7]

Contents
Origin of the term
As a crime
International law
Specific provisions
"Intent to destroy"
"In part"
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) coming into force
UN Security Council on genocide
Municipal law
Criticisms of the CPPCG and other definitions of genocide
International prosecution of genocide
By ad hoc tribunals
Nuremberg Tribunal (1945–1946)
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993–2017)
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994 to present)
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2003 to present)
By the International Criminal Court
Darfur, Sudan

Genocide in history
Stages of genocide, influences leading to genocide, and efforts to prevent it
See also
Research
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Origin of the term
Before 1944, various terms, including "massacre", "crimes against humanity", and "extermination"[8] were used to describe
intentional, systematic killings. In 1941, Winston Churchill, when describing the German invasion of the Soviet Union, spoke of "a
crime without a name".[9]

In 1944, Raphael Lemkin created the term genocide in his book Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. The book describes the
implementation of Nazi policies in occupied Europe, and cites earlier mass killings.[10] The term described the systematic destruction
of a nation or people,[11] and the word was quickly adopted by many in the international community. The word genocide is the
combination of the Greek prefix geno- (γένος, meaning 'race' or 'people') and caedere (the Latin word for "to kill").[12] The word
genocide was used in indictments at the Nuremberg trials, held from 1945, but solely as a descriptive term, not yet as a formal legal
term.[13]

According to Lemkin, genocide was "a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished
through total annihilation as well as strategies that eliminate key elements of the group's basic existence, including language, culture,
and economic infrastructure". Lemkin defined genocide as follows:

Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when
accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of
different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of
annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and
social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and
the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such
groups.[12]

The preamble to the 1948 Genocide Convention (CPPCG) notes that instances of genocide have taken place throughout history.[14]
But it was not until Lemkin coined the term and the prosecution of perpetrators of the Holocaust at the Nuremberg trials that the
United Nations defined the crime of genocide underinternational law in the Genocide Convention.[15]

Lemkin's lifelong interest in the mass murder of populations in the 20th century was initially in response to the killing of Armenians
in 1915[16][4][17] and later to the mass murders in Nazi-controlled Europe.[5] He referred to the Albigensian Crusade as "one of the
most conclusive cases of genocide in religious history".[18] He dedicated his life to mobilizing the international community, to work
together to prevent the occurrence of such events.[19] In a 1949 interview, Lemkin said "I became interested in genocide because it
[20]
happened so many times. It happened to the Armenians, then after the Armenians, Hitler took action."

As a crime

International law
After the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin
successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first
session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution that "affirmed" that genocide was a crime under international
law and enumerated examples of such events (but did not provide a full legal definition of the crime). In 1948, the UN General
Assembly adopted theConvention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) which defined the crime of
genocide for the first time.[21]

Genocide is a denial of the right of existence of entire human

groups, as homicide is the denial of the right to live of
individual human beings; such denial of the right of existence
shocks the conscience of mankind, results in great losses to
 humanity in the form of cultural and other contributions
represented by these human groups, and is contrary to moral
law and the spirit and aims of the United Nations. Many
instances of such crimes of genocide have occurred when
racial, religious, political and other groups have been
destroyed, entirely or in part.

— UN Resolution 96(1), 11 December 1946

The CPPCG was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 9 December

1948[2] and came into effect on 12 January 1951 (Resolution 260 (III)). It
contains an internationally recognized definition of genocide which has been
incorporated into the national criminal legislation of many countries, and was
also adopted by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, which
established the International Criminal Court (ICC). Article II of the Members of the Sonderkommando burn
Convention defines genocide as: corpses of Jews in pits atAuschwitz II-
Birkenau, an extermination camp

... any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy,

in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious
group, as such:

(a) Killing members of the group;

(b) Causing serious bodily harm, or harm to mental
health, to members of the group;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life
calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole
or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within
the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another
group.

The first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic
compromise following objections from some countries, including theUSSR, a permanent security council member.[22][23] The USSR
argued that the Convention's definition should follow the etymology of the term,[23] and may have feared greater international
scrutiny of its own mass killings.[22][24] Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite
international intervention in domestic politics.[23] However leading genocide scholar William Schabas states: "Rigorous examination
of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to inclusion of political genocide was some
Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any
geographic or social common denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic,
Iran, Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was in fact originally promoted by a non-governmental
[25]
organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkin's vision of the nature of the crime of genocide."

The convention's purpose and scope was later described by theUnited Nations Security Councilas follows:

The Convention was manifestly adopted for humanitarian and civilizing purposes. Its objectives are to safeguard the
very existence of certain human groups and to affirm and emphasize the most elementary principles of humanity and
morality. In view of the rights involved, the legal obligations to refrain from genocide are recognized as
erga omnes.

When the Convention was drafted, it was already envisaged that it would apply not only to then existing forms of
genocide, but also "to any method that might be evolved in the future with a view to destroying the physical existence
of a group".[26] As emphasized in the preamble to the Convention, genocide has marred all periods of history, and it
is this very tragic recognition that gives the concept its historical evolutionary nature.
 The Convention must be interpreted in good faith, in accordance with the ordinary meaning of its terms, in their
context, and in the light of its object and purpose. Moreover, the text of the Convention should be interpreted in such
a way that a reason and a meaning can be attributed to every word. No word or provision may be disregarded or
fect to the terms read as a whole.[27]
treated as superfluous, unless this is absolutely necessary to give ef

Genocide is a crime under international law regardless of "whether committed in time of peace or in time of war" (art.
I). Thus, irrespective of the context in which it occurs (for example, peacetime, internal strife, international armed
conflict or whatever the general overall situation) genocide is a punishable international crime.

— UN Commission of Experts that examined violations of international humanitarian law

committed in the territory of the former Yugoslavia.[28]

Specific provisions

"Intent to destroy"
In 2007, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that, in 1992, the majority
of legal scholars took the narrow view that "intent to destroy" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the
protected group, and that this was still the majority opinion. But the ECHR also noted that a minority took a broader view, and did
not consider biological-physical destruction to be necessary, as the intent to destroy a national, racial, religious or ethnic group was
enough to qualify as genocide.[29]

In the same judgement, the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts. It noted that the
International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow
interpretation (that biological-physical destruction was necessary for an act to qualify as genocide). The ECHR also noted that at the
time of its judgement, apart from courts in Germany (which had taken a broad view), that there had been few cases of genocide under
other Convention states' municipal laws, and that "There are no reported cases in which the courts of these States have defined the
[30]
type of group destruction the perpetrator must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide."

In the case of "Onesphore Rwabukombe", the German Supreme Court adhered to its previous judgement, and did not follow the
narrow interpretation of the ICTY and the ICJ.[31]

"In part"
The phrase "in whole or in part" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of
international humanitarian law.[32] The International Criminal Tribunal for the
Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I –
Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)[33] that Genocide had been
committed. In Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-
98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)[34] paragraphs 8, 9, 10, and 11 addressed the
issue of in part and found that "the part must be a substantial part of that group. The
aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the intentional destruction of entire
Armenian Genocide victims
human groups, and the part targeted must be significant enough to have an impact on
the group as a whole." The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the
opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion.

The judges continue in paragraph 12, "The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement
may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting
point, though not in all cases the ending point of the inquiry. The number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only in
absolute terms, but also in relation to the overall size of the entire group. In addition to the numeric size of the targeted portion, its
prominence within the group can be a useful consideration. If a specific part of the group is emblematic of the overall group, or is
essential to its survival, that may support a finding that the part qualifies as substantial within the meaning of Article 4 [of the
Tribunal's Statute]."[35][36]

In paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: "The historical examples of genocide also suggest
that the area of the perpetrators' activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. [...] The intent
to destroy formed by a perpetrator of genocide will always be limited by the opportunity presented to him. While this factor alone
[34]
will not indicate whether the targeted group is substantial, it can—in combination with other factors—inform the analysis."

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG)

coming into force
The Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time
however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of
China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the
Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. This long delay in support for the Convention
by the world's most powerful nations caused the Convention to languish for over four decades. Only in the 1990s did the international
law on the crime of genocide begin to be enforced.

UN Security Council on genocide

UN Security Council Resolution 1674, adopted by the United Nations Security Council on 28 April 2006, "reaffirms the provisions
of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from
genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity".[37] The resolution committed the Council to action to protect
civilians in armed conflict.[38]

In 2008 the UN Security Council adopted resolution 1820, which noted that "rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute
[39]
war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide".

Municipal law
Since the Convention came into effect in January 1951 about 80 United Nations member states have passed legislation that
incorporates the provisions of CPPCG into theirmunicipal law.[40]

Criticisms of the CPPCG and other definitions of genocide

William Schabas has suggested that a permanent body as recommended by the Whitaker Report to monitor the implementation of the
Genocide Convention, and require States to issue reports on their compliance with the convention (such as were incorporated into the
orture), would make the convention more effective.[41]
United Nations Optional Protocol to the Convention against T

Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic
compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for
this purpose, as it has an international legal credibility that others lack, other definitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn and
[42]
Björnson go on to say that none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support for various reasons.

Jonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because
academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to
help them interpret events. For example, Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn studied the whole of human history, while Leo Kuper and
R. J. Rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century, and Helen Fein, Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr have looked
at post World War II events. Jonassohn and Björnson are critical of some of these studies, arguing that they are too expansive, and
conclude that the academic discipline of genocide studies is too young to have a canon of work on which to build an academic
paradigm.[42]

The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some
historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982[43]
argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted,[44] and that it should include political groups or any group so
defined by the perpetrator and quotes Chalk and Jonassohn: "Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other
authority intends to destroy a group, as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator."[45] In turn some states such
as Ethiopia,[46] France,[47] and Spain[48][49] include political groups as legitimate genocide victims in their anti-genocide laws.

Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as "the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the
deaths of a substantial portion of a group ... [when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal
characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality".[50] Harff and Gurr also differentiate between genocides and politicides by the
characteristics by which members of a group are identified by the state. In genocides, the victimized groups are defined primarily in
terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality. In politicides the victim groups are defined primarily in
terms of their hierarchical position or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups.[51][52] Daniel D. Polsby and Don B.
Kates, Jr. state that "we follow Harff's distinction between genocides and 'pogroms', which she describes as 'short-lived outbursts by
mobs, which, although often condoned by authorities, rarely persist'. If the violence persists for long enough, however, Harff argues,
[53][54]
the distinction between condonation and complicity collapses."

According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to
their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG). This also includes non-killings that in the end
eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized
meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise
intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third
meaning.[55]

Highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as
non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power
(usually a state) intentionally uses its power base to implement a process of destruction in order to destroy a group (as defined by the
perpetrator), in whole or in substantial part, dependent upon relative group size'.[56] The definition upholds the centrality of intent,
the multidimensional understanding of destroy, broadens the definition of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues
that a substantial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide.

International prosecution of genocide

By ad hoc tribunals
All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers
make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and former Yugoslavia—signed with the proviso that no claim of
genocide could be brought against them at the International Court of Justice without their consent.[57] Despite official protests from
other signatories (notably Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution
they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by
former Yugoslavia following the 1999 Kosovo War.[58]

It is commonly accepted that, at least since World War II, genocide has been illegal under customary international law as a
peremptory norm, as well as under conventional international law. Acts of genocide are generally difficult to establish for
prosecution, because a chain of accountability must be established. International criminal courts and tribunals function primarily
because the states involved are incapable or unwilling to prosecute crimes of this
magnitude themselves.

Nuremberg Tribunal (1945–1946)

The Nazi leaders who were prosecuted shortly after World War II for taking part in the
Holocaust, and other mass murders, were charged under existing international laws, such
as crimes against humanity, as the crime of "genocide' was not formally defined until the Nuon Chea, the Khmer Rouge's
chief ideologist, before the
1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
Cambodian Genocide Tribunal on
(CPPCG). Nevertheless, the recently coined term[59] appeared in the indictment of the
5 December 2011.
Nazi leaders, Count 3, which stated that those charged had "conducted deliberate and
systematic genocide—namely, the extermination of racial and national groups—against
the civilian populations of certain occupied territories in order to destroy particular races
and classes of people, and national, racial or religious groups, particularly Jews, Poles,
Gypsies and others."[60]

International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993–2017)

The term Bosnian genocide is used to refer either to the killings committed by Serb
forces in Srebrenica in 1995,[61] or to ethnic cleansing that took place elsewhere during
the 1992–1995 Bosnian War.[62]
The Nazi leaders at thePalace of
In 2001, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judged Justice, Nuremberg

that the 1995 Srebrenica massacre was an act of genocide.[63] On 26 February 2007, the
International Court of Justice (ICJ), in the Bosnian Genocide Case upheld the ICTY's
earlier finding that the massacre in Srebrenica and Zepa constituted genocide, but found
that the Serbian government had not participated in a wider genocide on the territory of
Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war, as the Bosnian government had claimed.[64]

On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by
Nikola Jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v.
Germany) noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been The cemetery at the Srebrenica-
Potočari Memorial and Cemetery
rejected by international courts considering similar cases.[65][66][67] The ECHR also
to Genocide Victims
noted that in the 21st century "Amongst scholars, the majority have taken the view that
ethnic cleansing, in the way in which it was carried out by the Serb forces in Bosnia and
Herzegovina in order to expel Muslims and Croats from their homes, did not constitute genocide. However, there are also a
considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these acts did amount to genocide, and the ICTY has found in the Momcilo
Krajisnik case that the actus reus of genocide was met in Prijedor "With regard to the charge of genocide, the Chamber found that in
[68]
spite of evidence of acts perpetrated in the municipalities which constituted the actus reus of genocide".

About 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s in Bosnia. To date,
after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men, Vujadin Popović and Ljubiša
Beara, have been found guilty of committing genocide, Zdravko Tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and
conspiracy to commit genocide, and two others, Radislav Krstić and Drago Nikolić, have been found guilty of aiding and abetting
genocide. Three others have been found guilty of participating in genocides in Bosnia by German courts, one of whom Nikola Jorgić
lost an appeal against his conviction in the European Court of Human Rights. A further eight men, former members of the Bosnian
Serb security forces were found guilty of genocide by the State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (See List of Bosnian genocide
prosecutions).

Slobodan Milošević, as the former President of Serbia and of Yugoslavia, was the most senior political figure to stand trial at the
ICTY. He died on 11 March 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within
Bosnia and Herzegovina, so no verdict was returned. In 1995, the ICTY issued a warrant for the arrest of Bosnian Serbs Radovan
Karadžić and Ratko Mladić on several charges including genocide. On 21 July 2008, Karadžić was arrested in Belgrade, and later
tried in The Hague accused of genocide among other crimes.[69] On 24 March 2016, Karadžić was found guilty of genocide in
Srebrenica, war crimes and crimes against humanity, 10 of the 11 charges in total, and sentenced to 40 years' imprisonment.[70][71]
Mladić was arrested on 26 May 2011 in Lazarevo, Serbia,[72] and was tried in The Hague. The verdict, delivered on 22 November
2017 found Mladić guilty of 10 of the 1 charges, including genocide and he was sentenced to lifeimprisonment.[73]

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994 to present)

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the
auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda
during the genocide which occurred there during April 1994, commencing on 6
April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the Security Council of the
United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide
and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of
Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31
December 1994.
Victims of the 1994 Rwandan
genocide
So far, the ICTR has finished nineteen trials and convicted twenty seven accused
persons. On 14 December 2009 two more men were accused and convicted for their
crimes. Another twenty five persons are still on trial. Twenty-one are awaiting trial in detention, two more added on 14 December
2009. Ten are still at large.[74] The first trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, began in 1997. In October 1998, Akayesu was sentenced to life
imprisonment. Jean Kambanda, interim Prime Minister, pleaded guilty.

Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (2003 to present)

The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, Ta Mok and other leaders, organized the mass
killing of ideologically suspect groups. The total number of victims is estimated at
approximately 1.7 million Cambodians between 1975–1979, including deaths from
slave labour.[75]

On 6 June 2003 the Cambodian government and the United Nations reached an
agreement to set up the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)
which would focus exclusively on crimes committed by the most senior Khmer
Rouge officials during the period of Khmer Rouge rule of 1975–1979.[76] The
Rooms of the Tuol Sleng Genocide
judges were sworn in early July 2006.[77][78][79] Museum contain thousands of
photos taken by the Khmer Rouge of
The genocide charges related to killings of Cambodia's Vietnamese and Cham
their victims.
minorities, which is estimated to make up tens of thousand killings and possibly
more[80][81]

The investigating judges were presented with the names of five possible suspects by
the prosecution on 18 July 2007.[77][82]

Kang Kek Iew was formally charged with war crime andcrimes against
humanity and detained by the Tribunal on 31 July 2007. He was indicted
on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity on 12 August
2008.[83] His appeal against his conviction for war crimes and crimes
against humanity was rejected on 3 February 2012, and he is serving a
sentence of life imprisonment.[84]
Skulls in the Choeung Ek.
Nuon Chea, a former prime minister, who was indicted on charges of
genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity and several other crimes
under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into
[80][85] and ended on 7 August
the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial started on 27 June 2011
2014, with a life sentence imposed for crimes against humanity.[86]
 Khieu Samphan, a former head of state, who was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against
humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the
custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011. [80][85] and also ended on 7 August

2014, with a life sentence imposed for crimes against humanity .[86]
Ieng Sary, a former foreign minister, who was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity
and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the
ECCC on 12 November 2007. His trial started on 27 June 2011, and ended with his death on 14 March 2013. He
was never convicted.[80][85]
Ieng Thirith, a former minister for social affairs and wife of Ieng Sary, who was indicted on charges of genocide, war
crimes, crimes against humanity and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. She was
transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. Proceedings against her have been suspended
pending a health evaluation.[85][87]
There has been disagreement between some of the international jurists and the Cambodian government over whether any other people
should be tried by the Tribunal.[82]

By the International Criminal Court

Since 2002, the International Criminal Court can exercise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or
prosecute genocide, thus being a "court of last resort," leaving the primary responsibility to exercise jurisdiction over alleged
criminals to individual states. Due to the United States concerns over the ICC, the United States prefers to continue to use specially
[88]
convened international tribunals for such investigations and potential prosecutions.

Darfur, Sudan
There has been much debate over categorizing the situation in Darfur as genocide.[89] The
ongoing conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared a "genocide" by
United States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the
Senate Foreign Relations Committee.[90] Since that time however, no other permanent
member of the UN Security Council has done so. In fact, in January 2005, an International
Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of
2004, issued a report to the Secretary-General stating that "the Government of the Sudan has
not pursued a policy of genocide."[91] Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The
conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the
Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be
taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region.
International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been A mother with her sick baby
committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than [91]
genocide." at Abu Shouk IDP camp in
North Darfur
In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the
Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the Commission report but
without mentioning any specific crimes.[92] Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained
from the vote on the referral resolution.[93] As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor has found "reasonable
grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the UN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed crimes against
humanity and war crimes," but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.[94]

In April 2007, the Judges of the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, Ahmad Harun, and a
Militia Janjaweed leader, Ali Kushayb, for crimes against humanity and war crimes.[95]

On 14 July 2008, prosecutors at the International Criminal Court (ICC), filed ten charges of war crimes against Sudan's President
Omar al-Bashir: three counts of genocide, five of crimes against humanityand two of murder. The ICC's prosecutors claimed that al-
Bashir "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity
.
On 4 March 2009, the ICC issued a warrant of arrest for Omar Al Bashir, President of Sudan as the ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I
concluded that his position as head of state does not grant him immunity against prosecution before the ICC. The warrant was for war
crimes and crimes against humanity. It did not include the crime of genocide because the majority of the Chamber did not find that
the prosecutors had provided enough evidence to include such a charge.[96] Later the decision was changed by the Appeals Panel and
after issuing the second decision, charges against Omar al-Bashir include three counts of genocide.[97]

Genocide in history
The concept of genocide can be applied to historical events of the past. The
preamble to the CPPCG states that "at all periods of history genocide has inflicted
great losses on humanity."

Revisionist attempts to challenge or affirm claims of genocide are illegal in some

countries. For example, several European countries ban the denial of the Holocaust
or the Armenian Genocide, while in Turkey referring to the mass killings of
Armenians, Greeks, Assyrians and Maronites as genocides may be prosecuted under
Article 301.[99] Naked Soviet POWs held by the
Nazis in Mauthausen concentration
William Rubinstein argues that the origin of 20th century genocides can be traced camp. "[T]he murder of at least 3.3
million Soviet POWs is one of the
back to the collapse of the elite structure and normal modes of government in parts
least-known of modern genocides;
of Europe following the First World War:
there is still no full-length book on the
subject in English." —Adam
The 'Age of Totalitarianism' included nearly all of the infamous Jones[98]
examples of genocide in modern history, headed by the Jewish
Holocaust, but also comprising the mass murders and purges of the
Communist world, other mass killings carried out by Nazi Germany
and its allies, and also the Armenian genocide of 1915. All these
slaughters, it is argued here, had a common origin, the collapse of
the elite structure and normal modes of government of much of
central, eastern and southern Europe as a result of the First World
War, without which surely neither Communism nor Fascism would
have existed except in the minds of unknown agitators and
crackpots.

— William Rubinstein, Genocide: a history[100]

Stages of genocide, influences leading to genocide, and efforts to

prevent it
For genocide to happen, there must be certain preconditions. Foremost among them is a national culture that does not
place a high value on human life. A totalitarian society, with its assumed superior ideology, is also a precondition for
genocidal acts.[101] In addition, members of the dominant society must perceive their potential victims as less than
fully human: as "pagans," "savages," "uncouth barbarians," "unbelievers," "effete degenerates," "ritual outlaws,"
[102] In themselves, these conditions are not
"racial inferiors," "class antagonists," "counterrevolutionaries," and so on.
enough for the perpetrators to commit genocide. To do that—that is, to commit genocide—the perpetrators need a
strong, centralized authority and bureaucratic organization as well as pathological individuals and criminals. Also
required is a campaign of vilification and dehumanization of the victims by the perpetrators, who are usually new
.[101]
states or new regimes attempting to impose conformity to a new ideology and its model of society

[103]
 — M. Hassan Kakar[103]

In 1996 Gregory Stanton, the president of Genocide Watch, presented a briefing paper called "The 8 Stages of Genocide" at the
United States Department of State.[104] In it he suggested that genocide develops in eight stages that are "predictable but not
inexorable".[104][105]

The Stanton paper was presented to the State Department, shortly after the Rwandan Genocide and much of its analysis is based on
why that genocide occurred. The preventative measures suggested, given the briefing paper's original target audience, were those that
the United States could implement directly or indirectly by using its influence on other governments.

Stage Characteristics Preventive measures

"The main preventive measure at this early
1.
People are divided into "us and them". stage is to develop universalistic institutions
Classification
that transcend... divisions."
"When combined with hatred, symbols may be
2. "To combat symbolization, hate symbols can
forced upon unwilling members of pariah
Symbolization be legally forbidden as canhate speech".
groups..."
"Local and international leaders should
"One group denies the humanity of the other condemn the use of hate speech and make it
3.
group. Members of it are equated with animals, culturally unacceptable. Leaders who incite
Dehumanization
vermin, insects, or diseases." genocide should be banned from international
travel and have their foreign finances frozen."
"The U.N. should impose arms embargoes on
4. "Genocide is always organized... Special army governments and citizens of countries involved
Organization units or militias are often trained and armed..." in genocidal massacres, and create
commissions to investigate violations"
"Prevention may mean security protection for
5. "Hate groups broadcast polarizing moderate leaders or assistance to human
Polarization propaganda..." rights groups...Coups d'état by extremists
should be opposed by international sanctions."
6. "Victims are identified and separated out "At this stage, a Genocide Emergency must be
Preparation because of their ethnic or religious identity
..." declared. ..."
"At this stage, only rapid and overwhelming
armed intervention can stop genocide. Real
7. "It is 'extermination' to the killers because they
safe areas or refugee escape corridors should
Extermination do not believe their victims to be fully human".
be established with heavily armed international
protection."
8. "The perpetrators... deny that they committed "The response to denial is punishment by an
Denial any crimes..." international tribunal or national courts"

In April 2012, it was reported that Stanton would soon be officially adding two new stages, Discrimination and Persecution, to his
[106]
original theory, which would make for a 10-stage theory of genocide.

In a paper for the Social Science Research CouncilDirk Moses criticises the Stanton approach, concluding:

In view of this rather poor record of ending genocide, the question needs to be asked why the "genocide studies"
paradigm cannot predict and prevent genocides with any accuracy and reliability. The paradigm of "genocide
studies," as currently constituted in North America in particular, has both strengths and limitations. While the moral
fervor and public activism is admirable and salutary, the paradigm appears blind to its own implication in imperial
projects that are themselves as much part of the problem as they are part of the solution. The US government called
Darfur a genocide to appease domestic lobbies, and because the statement cost it nothing. Darfur will end when it
suits the great powers that have a stake in the region.

— Dirk Moses[107]
Other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological and social processes that create
an evolution toward genocide. Ervin Staub showed that economic deterioration and political confusion and disorganization were
starting points of increasing discrimination and violence in many instances of genocides and mass killing. They lead to scapegoating
a group and ideologies that identified that group as an enemy. A history of devaluation of the group that becomes the victim, past
violence against the group that becomes the perpetrator leading to psychological wounds, authoritarian cultures and political systems,
and the passivity of internal and external witnesses (bystanders) all contribute to the probability that the violence develops into
genocide.[108] Intense conflict between groups that is unresolved, becomes intractable and violent can also lead to genocide. The
conditions that lead to genocide provide guidance to early prevention, such as humanizing a devalued group, creating ideologies that
embrace all groups, and activating bystander responses. There is substantial research to indicate how this can be done, but
[109]
information is only slowly transformed into action.

Kjell Anderson uses a dichotomistic classification of genocides: "hot genocides, motivated by hate and the victims' threatening
."[110]
nature, with low-intensity cold genocides, rooted in victims' supposed inferiority

See also
Countervalue Institutional racism
Crimes against humanity Involuntary euthanasia
Cultural genocide Local extinction
Death squad Mass Atrocity crimes
Dehumanization Mass murder
Democide Omnicide
Effects of genocide on youth Policide
Ethnic cleansing Political cleansing of population
Ethnic hatred Population growth#Human population growth rate
Ethnocide Religious cleansing
Extrajudicial killing Ritualcide
Forced displacement Social cleansing
Forensic anthropology Utilitarian genocide
Gendercide
Genocidal rape
Genocide education Research
Homicide Center for the Study of Genocide, Conflict Resolution,
Infanticide and Human Rights
International Association of Genocide Scholars

Notes
a. For more complete lists, seeList of genocides by death tollor Genocides in history.

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72. Staff (26 May 2011). "Q&A: Ratko Mladic arrested: Bosnia war crimes suspect held"(https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/wo
rld-europe-13561407). BBC News. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
73. Bowcott, Owen; Borger, Julian (22 November 2017). "Ratko Mladić convicted of war crimes and genocide at UN
tribunal" (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/nov/22/ratko-mladic-convicted-of-genocide-and-war-crimes-at-un-
tribunal). The Guardian. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
74. These figures need revising they are from theICTR page which says see www.ictr.org (http://www.ictr.org/)
75. Cambodian Genocide Program(http://www.yale.edu/cgp/index.html), Yale University's MacMillan Center for
International and Area Studies
76. "A/RES/57/228B: Khmer Rouge trials"(https://web.archive.org/web/20070703061139/http://www.unakrt-online.org/D
ocs/GA%20Documents/A-Res-57-228B.pdf)(PDF). United Nations Assistance to the Khmer Rouge T rials
(UNAKRT). 22 May 2003. Archived fromthe original (http://unakrt-online.org/Docs/GA%20Documents/A-Res-57-228
B.pdf) (PDF) on 3 July 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
77. Doyle, Kevin. "Putting the Khmer Rouge on Trial" (http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1647257,00.html),
Time, 26 July 2007
78. MacKinnon, Ian "Crisis talks to save Khmer Rouge trial"(https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,202842
1,00.html), The Guardian, 7 March 2007
79. The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Force (http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20090317105511/http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/) 17 March 2009 at theWayback Machine., Royal
Cambodian Government
80. "Case 002" (https://web.archive.org/web/20161223002710/https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/case/topic/2). The
Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. 2014. Archived fromthe original (https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/ca
se/topic/2) on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
81. "Former Khmer Rouge leaders begin genocide trial"(https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-28558098). BBC News.
30 July 2014. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
82. Buncombe, Andrew (11 October 2011)."Judge quits Cambodia genocide tribunal"(https://www.independent.co.uk/n
ews/world/asia/judge-quits-cambodia-genocide-tribunal-2368644.html) . The Independent. London. Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20111014122215/http://www .independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/judge-quits-cambodia-genocid
e-tribunal-2368644.html)from the original on 14 October 2011.
83. Munthit, Ker (12 August 2008)."Cambodian tribunal indicts Khmer Rouge jailer"(https://www.usatoday.com/news/wo
rld/2008-08-12-1013612312_x.htm). USA Today. Associated Press. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20100530
115628/https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-08-12-1013612312_x.htm)from the original on 30 May 2010.
 84. "Kaing Guek Eav alias Duch Sentenced to Life Imprisonment by the Supreme Court Chamber" (https://www.eccc.go
v.kh/en/articles/kaing-guek-eav-alias-duch-sentenced-life-imprisonment-supreme-court-chamber-0)
. Extraordinary
Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. 3 February 2012 . Retrieved 6 February 2017.
85. "Case File No.: 002/19-09-2007-ECCC-OCIJ: Closing Order"(http://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/c
ourtdoc/D427Eng.pdf)(PDF). Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. 15 September 2010 . Retrieved
6 February 2017.
86. McKirdy, Euan (9 August 2014)."Top Khmer Rouge leaders found guilty of crimes against humanity, sentenced to
life in prison" (http://edition.cnn.com/2014/08/07/world/asia/khmer-rouge-trial-verdict/)
. CNN. Retrieved 6 February
2017.
87. "002/19-09-2007: Decision on immediate appeal against rTial Chamber's order to release the accused Ieng Thirith"
(http://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/E138_1_7_EN-1.PDF)(PDF). Extraordinary
Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. 13 December 2011 . Retrieved 16 February 2017.
88. "Statement by Carolyn Willson, Minister Counselor for International Legal Af
fairs, on the Report of the ICC, in the UN
General Assembly" (http://www.amicc.org/docs/U.S.%20statement%20on%20ICC%20draft%20resolution_23Nov05
1.pdf) (PDF). (123 KB) 23 November 2005
89. Jafari, Jamal and Paul Williams (2005) "Word Games: The UN and Genocide in Darfur" (http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/foru
my/2005/03/word-games-un-and-genocide-in-darfur .php) Jurist
90. Powell Declares Killing innn Dafur 'Genocide'(https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/sudan_09-09-04.html), The
NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, 9 September 2004
91. "Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General"
(https://www.u
n.org/News/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf) (PDF). (1.14 MB), 25 January 2005, at 4
92. "Security Council Resolution 1593 (2005)"(https://web.archive.org/web/20050529082238/http://www .icc-cpi.int/librar
y/cases/N0529273.darfureferral.eng.pdf)(PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/cases/N0529
273.darfureferral.eng.pdf)(PDF) on 29 May 2005. (24.8 KB)
93. Security Council Refers Situation in Dafur
, Sudan, to Prosecutor of International Criminal Court(https://www.un.org/
News/Press/docs/2005/sc8351.doc.htm), UN Press Release SC/8351, 31 March 2005
94. "Fourth Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the Security Council pursuant to UNSC 1593
(2005)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070614011746/http://www .icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_ReportUNSC4-
Darfur_English.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_ReportUNSC4-D
arfur_English.pdf) (PDF) on 14 June 2007. (597 KB), Office of the Prosecutor of the InternationalCriminal Court, 14
December 2006.
95. Statement by Mr. Luis Moreno Ocampo, Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the United Nations
Security Council pursuant to UNSCR 1593 (2005)(http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-ST20080605-E
NG.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080813022926/http://www .icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-S
T20080605-ENG.pdf) 13 August 2008 at theWayback Machine., International Criminal Court(http://www.icc-cpi.int/),
5 June 2008
96. ICC issues a warrant of arrest for Omar Al Bashir
, President of Sudan (http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/exeres/0EF62173-0
5ED-403A-80C8-F15EE1D25BB3.htm)Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090327105217/http://www .icc-cpi.in
t/NR/exeres/0EF62173-05ED-403A-80C8-F15EE1D25BB3.htm)27 March 2009 at theWayback Machine. (ICC-CPI-
20090304-PR394), ICC press release, 4 March 2009
97. https://www.icc-cpi.int/CourtRecords/CR2010_04826.PDF
98. Adam Jones (2010), Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction(2nd ed.), p. 271. – " ' " Next to the Jews in Europe,"
wrote Alexander Werth', "the biggest single German crime was undoubtedly the extermination by hunger , exposure
and in other ways of [...] Russian war prisoners." Y
et the murder of at least 3.3 million Soviet POWs is one of the
least-known of modern genocides; there is still no full-length book on the subject in English. It also stands as one of
the most intensive genocides of all time: "a holocaust that devoured millions," asCatherine Merridale acknowledges.
The large majority of POWs, some 2.8 million, were killed in just eight months of 1941–42, a rate of slaughter
matched (to my knowledge) only by the 1994 Rwanda genocide."
99. Pair guilty of 'insulting Turkey' (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7040171.stm)
, BBC News, 11 October 2007.
100. Rubinstein, W.D. (2004). Genocide: a history (https://books.google.com/books?id=nMMAk4VwLLwC#v=onepage&f)
.
Pearson Education. p. 7.ISBN 0582506018
101. M. Hassan Kakar Chapter 4. The Story of Genocide in Afghanistan(http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId
=ft7b69p12h&chunk.id=d0e5195&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e5195&brand=eschol) Footnote 9. Citing Horowitz, quoted
in Chalk and Jonassohn, Genocide, 14.
102. M. Hassan Kakar Chapter 4. The Story of Genocide in Afghanistan(http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId
=ft7b69p12h&chunk.id=d0e5195&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e5195&brand=eschol) Footnote 10. Citing For details, see
Carlton, War and Ideology.
103. M. Hassan Kakar, Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 (http://www.escholarship.
org/editions/view?docId=ft7b69p12h&brand=eschol) , University of CaliforniaPress, 1995.
104. Gregory Stanton. The 8 Stages of Genocide
(http://www.genocidewatch.org/aboutgenocide/8stagesofgenocide.html), Genocide Watch, 1996
105. The FBI has found somewhat similar stages forhate groups.
106. "GenPrev in the News [19 April 2012]"(http://aipr.wordpress.com/2012/04/19/genprev-in-the-news-19-april-2012/).
wordpress.com. 19 April 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
107. Moses, Dirk (22 December 2006)."Why the Discipline of “Genocide Studies” Has T
rouble Explaining How
Genocides End?" (http://howgenocidesend.ssrc.org/Moses/). Social Science Research Council.
108. Staub, Ervin (1989). The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group iVolence. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
109. Staub, Ervin (2011). Overcoming Evil: Genocide, Violent Conflict, and Terrorism (http://www.ervinstaub.com). New
York: Oxford University Press.
110. p. 9. Anderson, Kjell. (2015) Colonialism and Cold Genocide: The Case of W
est Papua. Genocide Studies and
Prevention: An International JournalVol. 9: Iss. 2: 9–25.

Further reading
Articles
Christopher R. Browning, "The Two Different Ways of
Looking at Nazi Murder" (review ofPhilippe Sands,
East West Street: On the Origins of "Genocide" and
"Crimes Against Humanity", Knopf, 425 pp., $32.50;
and Christian Gerlach, The Extermination of the
European Jews, Cambridge University Press, 508 pp.,
The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIII, no. 18
(November 24, 2016), pp. 56–58.Discusses Hersch
Lauterpacht's legal concept of "crimes against
humanity", contrasted with Rafael Lemkin's legal
concept of "genocide".All genocides are crimes
against humanity, but not all crimes against humanity
are genocides; genocides require a higher standard of
proof, as they entail intent to destroy a particular
group.
The Genocide in Darfur is Not What It Seems
Christian Science Monitor
Suharto's Purge, Indonesia's Silence. Joshua
Oppenheimer for The New York Times, September 29,
2015.
(in Spanish) Aizenstatd, Najman Alexander . "Origen y
Evolución del Concepto de Genocidio". V ol. 25
Revista de Derecho de la Universidad Francisco
Marroquín 11 (2007). ISSN 1562-2576 [1]
No Lessons Learned from the Holocaust? Assessing
Risks of Genocide and Political Mass Murder since
1955 American Political Science Review. Vol. 97, No.
1. February 2003.
(in Spanish) Marco, Jorge. "Genocidio y Genocide
Studies: Definiciones y debates", en: Aróstegui, Julio,
Marco, Jorge y Gómez Bravo, Gutmaro (coord.): "De
Genocidios, Holocaustos, Exterminios...",Hispania
Nova, 10 (2012). Véase [2]
What Really Happened in Rwanda?Christian
Davenport and Allan C. Stam.
Reyntjens, F. (2004). "Rwanda, Ten Years On: From
Genocide to Dictatorship." African Affairs 103(411):
177–210.
Brysk, Alison. 1994. "The Politics of Measurement:
The Contested Count of the Disappeared in
Argentina." Human Rights Quarterly 16: 676–92.
Davenport, C. and P. Ball (2002). "Views to a Kill:
Exploring the Implications of Source Selection in the
Case of Guatemalan State Terror, 1977–1996."
Journal of Conflict Resolution 46(3): 427–450.
Krain, M. (1997). "State-Sponsored Mass Murder: A
Study of the Onset and Severity of Genocides and
Politicides." Journal of Conflict Resolution 41(3): 331–
360.
McCormick, Rob (2008)."The United States'
Response to Genocide in the Independent State of
Croatia, 1941–1945". Genocide Studies and
Prevention. 3 (1): 75–98.
Books
Andreopoulos, George J., ed. (1994).Genocide:
Conceptual and Historical Dimensions. University of
Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812232496.
Ball, P., P. Kobrak, and H. Spirer (1999).State
Violence in Guatemala, 1960–1996: A Quantitative
Reflection. Washington, D.: American Association for
the Advancement of Science.
Bloxham, Donald & Moses, A. Dirk [editors]:The
Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies.
[Interdisciplinary Contributions about Past & Present
Genocides]. Oxford University Press, second edition
2013. ISBN 978-0199677917
Chalk, Frank; Kurt Jonassohn (1990).The History and
Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies .
Yale University Press. ISBN 0300044461.
Charny, Israel W. (1999). Encyclopedia of Genocide.
ABC-Clio Inc. ISBN 0874369282.
Conversi, Daniele (2005). "Genocide, ethnic
cleansing, and nationalism".In Delanty, Gerard;
Kumar, Krishan. Handbook of Nations and
Nationalism. 1. London: Sage Publications. pp. 319–
33. ISBN 1412901014.
Corradi, Juan, Patricia Weiss Fagen, and Manuel
Antonio Garreton, eds.1992. Fear at the Edge: State
Terror and Resistance in Latin America. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
Elliot, G. (1972). Twentieth Century Book of the Dead.
New York, C. Scribner.
Esparza, Marcia; Henry R. Huttenbach; Daniel
Feierstein, eds. (2011).State Violence and Genocide
in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical
Terrorism Studies). Routledge. ISBN 0415664578.
Gellately, Robert; Kiernan, Ben (July 2003). The
Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical
Perspective. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0521527503.
Goldhagen, Daniel (2009). Worse Than War:
Genocide, Eliminationism, and the Ongoing Assault on
Humanity. PublicAffairs. p. 672. ISBN 1586487698.
Harff, Barbara (August 2003).Early Warning of
Communal Conflict and Genocide: Linking Empirical
Research to International Responses. Westview
Press. ISBN 0813398401.
Hochschild, Adam (1998). King Leopold's Ghost: A
Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0395759242.
Horowitz, Irving (2001). Taking Lives: Genocide and
State Power (5th ed.). Transaction Publishers.
ISBN 0765800942.
Horvitz, Leslie Alan; Catherwood, Christopher (2011).
Encyclopedia of War Crimes & Genocide (Hardcover).
2 (Revised ed.). New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-
0816080830. ISBN 0816080836
Jonassohn, Kurt; Karin Björnson (1998).Genocide
and Gross Human Rights Violations. Transaction
Publishers. ISBN 1560003146.
Jones, Adam (2010). Genocide: A Comprehensive
Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 041548619X.
Kelly, Michael J. (2005). Nowhere to Hide: Defeat of
the Sovereign Immunity Defense for Crimes of
Genocide & the Trials of Slobodan Milosevicand
Saddam Hussein. Peter Lang. ISBN 0820478350.
Kiernan, Ben (2007). Blood and Soil: A World History
of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur .
Yale University Press. ISBN 0300100981.
Laban, Alexander (2002).Genocide: An
Anthropological Reader. Blackwell Publishing.
ISBN 063122355X.
Lemarchand, René (1996). Burundi: Ethnic Conflict
and Genocide. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0521566231.
Lemkin, Raphael (2008).Axis rule in occupied
Europe : laws of occupation, analysis of government,
proposals for redress. Clark, NJ: Lawbook Exchange.
ISBN 978-1584779018.
Levene, M. (2005). Genocide in the Age of the Nation
State. New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
MacKinnon, Catharine A.(2006). Are Women
Human?: And Other International Dialogues. The
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
ISBN 0674025555.
Lewy, Guenter (2012). Essays on Genocide and
Humanitarian Intervention. University of Utah Press.
ISBN 978-1607811688.
Mamdani, M. (2001). When Victims Become Killers:
Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda .
Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press.
Melvin, Jess (2018). The Army and the Indonesian
Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder. Routledge.
ISBN 978-1138574694.
Power, Samantha (2003). "A Problem from Hell":
America and the Age of Genocide. Harper Perennial.
ISBN 0060541644.
Rosenfeld, Gavriel D. (1999). "The Politics of
Uniqueness: Reflections on the Recent Polemical T urn
in Holocaust and Genocide Scholarship".Holocaust
and Genocide Studies. 13 (1): 28–61.
doi:10.1093/hgs/13.1.28.
Rotberg, Robert I.; Thomas G. Weiss (1996). From
Massacres to Genocide: The Media, Public Policy , and
Humanitarian Crises. Brookings Institution Press.
ISBN 0815775903.
Rummel, R.J. (1994). Death by Government:
Genocide and Mass Murder in the Twentieth Century.
Transaction Publishers.ISBN 1560009276.
Sagall, Sabby (2013). Final Solutions: Human Nature,
Capitalism and Genocide. Pluto Press. p. 309.
ISBN 978-0745326535.
Sands, Philippe (2016).East West Street : on the
origins of "Genocide" and "Crimes Against Humanity" .
New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0385350716.
Schabas, William A. (2009). Genocide in International
Law: The Crime of Crimes (second edition).
Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0521719001.
Schmid, A.P. (1991). Repression, State Terrorism, and
Genocide: Conceptual Clarifications. State Organized
Terror: The Case of Violent Internal Repression. P.T.
Bushnell. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press. 312 p.
Shaw, Martin (2007). What is Genocide?. Cambridge:
Polity Press. ISBN 0745631827.
Staub, Ervin (1989). The roots of evil: The origins of
genocide and other group violence. New York:
Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0521422147
Staub, Ervin (2011). Overcoming Evil: Genocide,
violent conflict and terrorism. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0195382044
Sunga, Lyal S. (1997). The Emerging System of
International Criminal Law: Developments in
Codification and Implementation. Kluwer.
ISBN 9041104720.
Sunga, Lyal S. (1992). Individual Responsibility in
International Law for Serious Human Rights V iolations.
Springer. ISBN 0792314530.
Tams, Christian J.; Berster, Lars; Schiffbauer, Björn
(2014). Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide: A Commentary. Munich:
C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3406603174.
Totten, Samuel; William S. Parsons;Israel W. Charny
(2008). Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and
Eyewitness Accounts (3rd ed.). Routledge.
ISBN 0415990858.
Valentino, Benjamin A. (2004).Final Solutions: Mass
Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century. Cornell
University Press]. ISBN 0-8014-3965-5.
 Van den Berghe, P.L. (1990). State Violence and
Ethnicity. Niwot, CO: University of Colorado Press
Weitz, Eric D. (2003). A Century of Genocide: Utopias
of Race and Nation. Princeton University Press.
p. 360. ISBN 0691122717.
Schabas, William A. (2006). Preventing Genocide and
Mass Killing: The Challenge for the United Nations
(PDF). London: Minority Rights Group International.
ISBN 1904584373. Archived from the original (PDF)
on 3 July 2007.

External links
Documents

Voices of the Holocaust—a learning resource at the British Library

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(1948) – full text of Genocide Convention
Whitaker Report
8 Stages of Genocide" by Gregory H. Stanton
Research institutes, advocacy groups, and other organizations

Institute for the Study of Genocide

International Association of Genocide Scholars
International Network of Genocide Scholars (INoGS)
United to End Genocide(merger of Save Darfur Coalition and the Genocide Intervention Network)
Simon-Skjodt Center for the Prevention of Genocideat the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Auschwitz Institute for Peace and Reconciliation
Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studiesat the University of Minnesota
Genocide Studies Programat Yale University
Montreal Institute for Genocide Studiesat Concordia University
Minorities at Risk Projectat the University of Maryland
Budapest Centre for Mass Atrocities Prevention

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