Arema Mre Chapter 8

8
CHAPTER 8
CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND
FOUNDATIONS1
FOREWORD
The material in this chapter is written with regard to typical North American Railroad Concrete Structures and Foundations
and other structures mentioned herein with
• Standard Gage Track, 1

• Normal North American passenger and freight equipment, and
• Speeds of freight trains up to 80 mph and passenger trains up to 90 mph.
Additional special provisions for speeds higher than those listed above may be added by the Engineer as necessary.
3
This chapter is presented as a consensus document by a committee composed of railroad industry professionals having
substantial and broad-based experience designing, evaluating, and investigating Concrete Structures and Foundations used by
railroads. The recommendations contained herein are based upon past successful usage, advances in the state of knowledge,
and current design and maintenance practices. These recommendations are intended for routine use and might not provide
sufficient criteria for infrequently encountered conditions. Professional judgment must be exercised when applying the
recommendations of this chapter as part of an overall solution to any particular issue.
This chapter is published annually, incorporating revisions made in the previous year. The latest published edition of the
chapter should be used, regardless of the age of an existing structure. For purposes of determining historical recommendations
under which an existing structure may have been built and maintained, it can prove useful to examine previous editions of the
chapter. However, when historical recommendations differ from the recommendations contained in the latest published
edition of the chapter, the recommendations of the latest published edition of the chapter should be used.
Part 8, Rigid Frame Concrete Bridges was deleted from the manual in 1975. Part 9, Reinforced Concrete Trestles was deleted
from the manual in 1971. Part 15 is reserved for future use. Part 18, Elastomeric Bridge Bearings was moved to Chapter 15 in
2001.
1
The material in this and other chapters in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering is published as recommended practice to railroads and others
concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signals and communications), and allied services and facilities.
For the purpose of this Manual, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE is defined as a material, device, design, plan, specification, principle or practice
recommended to the railways for use as required, either exactly as presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable to meet the needs
of individual railways, but in either event, with a view to promoting efficiency and economy in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of
railways. It is not intended to imply that other practices may not be equally acceptable.
© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part/Section Description Page
1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-1

1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.2 Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.3 Other Cementitious Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.4 Aggregates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11
1.5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.7 Concrete Admixtures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.8 Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20
1.9 Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.10 Details of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.11 Concrete Jointing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.12 Proportioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31
1.13 Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-37
1.14 Depositing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39
1.15 Depositing Concrete Under Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.16 Concrete in Sea Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.17 Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.18 Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.19 Formed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.20 Unformed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.21 Decorative Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22 Penetrating Water Repellent T reatment of Concrete Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.23 Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.24 High Strength Concrete (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-56
1.25 Specialty Concretes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.26 Self-Consolidating Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-62
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-64
2 Reinforced Concrete Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-1

2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.2 Notations, Definitions and Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-8
2.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
2.4 Hooks and Bends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
2.5 Spacing of Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.6 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.7 Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.8 Distribution of Reinforcement in Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.9 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10 Shear Reinforcement – General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.11 Limits for Reinforcement of Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.12 Shrinkage and T emperature Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
2.13 Development Requirements (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
2.14 Development Length of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in T ension (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
2.15 Development Length of Deformed Bars in Compression (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.16 Development Length of Bundled Bars (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.17 Development of Standard Hooks in T ension (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-31
2.18 Combination Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
2.19 Development of Welded Wire Reinforcement in Tension (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
8-ii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)
2.20 Development of Headed and Mechanically Anchored Deformed Bars in Tension (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33
2.21 Anchorage of Shear Reinforcement (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-34
2.22 Splices of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.23 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.24 Design Methods (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-43
2.25 General Requirements (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-43
2.26 Allowable Service Load Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44
2.27 Flexure (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45
2.28 Compression Members with or without Flexure (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-46
2.29 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-46
2.30 Strength Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.31 Design Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-54
2.32 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-55
2.33 Compression Members with or without Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-57
2.34 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-59
2.35 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-61
2.36 Permissible Bearing Stress (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
2.37 Serviceability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
2.38 Fatigue Stress Limit for Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-70
2.39 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-70 1
2.40 Control of Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-71
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-71
3 Spread Footing Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-1

3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2
3.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3
3.3 Depth of Base of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6 3
3.4 Sizing of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.5 Footings with Eccentric Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.6 Footing Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7 Field Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.8 Combined Footings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
4 Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-1 4

4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2
4.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4
4.3 Pile Length Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7
4.4 Pile Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10
4.5 Installation of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-15
4.6 Inspection of Pile Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
5 Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-1

5.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-2
5.3 Computation of Applied Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5
5.4 Stability Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.5 Design of Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.6 Designing Bridges to Resist Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-iii

5.7 Details of Design and Construction for Abutments and Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.8 Details of Design and Construction for Bridge Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
6 Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-1

6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2
6.2 Design of Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2
6.3 Requirements for Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-3
6.4 Requirements for Metal Crib Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.5 Requirements for Timber Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6
7 Mechanically Stabilized Embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-1

7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2
7.2 Design of Mechanically Stabilized Embankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2
7.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-3
10 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-1

10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2
10.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6
10.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6
10.4 Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-13
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-17
11 Lining Railway Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-1

11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.3 Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.4 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
12 Cantilever Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-1

12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-3
14 Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-1

14.1 Scope (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.2 Determination of the Causes of Concrete Deterioration (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.3 Evaluation of the Effects of Deterioration and Damage (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4
14.4 Principal Materials Used in the Repair of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.5 Repair Methods (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-7
14.6 Repair Methods for Prestressed Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-25
16 Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-1

16.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-2
16.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-4
16.3 Design Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.4 Design Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.5 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
8-iv AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

16.6 Manufacture of Precast Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15

16.7 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
17 Prestressed Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-1

17.1 General Requirements and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-4
17.2 Notations (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-5
17.3 Terms (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-7
17.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-9
17.5 Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-11
17.6 General Analysis (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.7 Expansion and Contraction (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.8 Span Length (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.9 Frames and Continuous Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-14
17.10 Effective Flange Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-15
17.11 Flange and Web Thickness-Box Girders (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-15
17.12 Diaphragms (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-16
17.13 Deflections (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-16
17.14 General Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.15 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-18
17.16 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-18 1
17.17 Loss of Prestress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-20
17.18 Flexural Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-26
17.19 Ductility Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-28
17.20 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-29
17.21 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-30
17.22 Post-Tensioned Anchorage Zones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-34
17.23 Pretensioned Anchorage Zones (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44 3
17.24 Concrete Strength at Stress Transfer (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-45
17.25 General Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-45
17.26 General Fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.27 Mortar and Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.28 Application of Loads (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29 Materials - Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53
17.30 Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-54 4
Commentary (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-57
19 Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-1

19.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.2 Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.3 Loads and Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5
19.5 Load Combinations and Rating Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8
19.6 Excessive Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-11
20 Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-1

20.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-2
20.3 Computation of Lateral Forces Acting on Bulkheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-v

20.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9

20.5 Design of Anchored Bulkheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-10
20.6 Cantilever Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.7 Notations (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-15
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-16
21 Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1

21.1 General (2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1
21.2 Reporting of Defects (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
21.3 Inspection (2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-22
22 Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-1

22.1 General (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.2 Scope (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.3 Classification of Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.4 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-3
22.5 Exploration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.6 Determination of Groundwater Level (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6
22.7 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6
22.8 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7
22.9 Inspection (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.10 Geophysical Explorations (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.11 In-Situ T esting of Soil (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.12 Backfilling Bore Holes (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-10
22.13 Cleaning Site (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-10
23 Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-1

23.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2
23.2 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3
23.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-4
23.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-20
Commentary (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-24
24 Drilled Shaft Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-1

24.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-2
24.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.4 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8
24.5 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.6 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
25 Slurry Wall Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-1

25.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-2
25.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3
25.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-7
25.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
Commentary (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-13
8-vi AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

26 Recommendations for the Design of Segmental Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-1

26.1 General Requirements and Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.2 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.3 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.4 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.5 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
26.6 Prestress Losses (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-22
26.7 Flexural Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8 Shear and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.9 Fatigue Stress Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10 Design of Local and General Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation Saddles . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.11 Provisional Post-T ensioning Ducts and Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.12 Duct Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.13 Couplers (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.14 Connection of Secondary Beams (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.15 Concrete Cover and Reinforcement Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.16 Inspection Access (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17 Box Girder Cross Section Dimensions and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
1
27 Concrete Slab Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-1
27.1 Scope and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.2 Application and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.3 General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-6
27.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.5 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.6 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10 3
27.7 Direct Fixation Fastening System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.8 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-24
28 Temporary Structures for Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-1

28.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4 4
28.3 Computation of Lateral Forces (2002) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.4 Stability (2002) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.5 Design of Shoring Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.6 Design of Falsework Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-13
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-18
29 Waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-1
29.1 General Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.2 Waterproofing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.3 Dampproofing (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4 Specific Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.5 Terms (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.6 Applicable ASTM Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.7 General Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.8 Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-vii

29.9 Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

29.10 Membrane Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.11 Sealing Compounds for Joints and Edges of Membrane Protection (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.12 Anti-Bonding Paper (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.13 Inspection and Tests (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.14 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.15 Introduction to Dampproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16 Materials for Dampproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.17 Application of Dampproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
Chapter 8 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-G-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-R-1
INTRODUCTION
The Chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents (specifications,
recommended practices, plans, etc.). Individual Parts are divided into Sections by centered headings set in capital letters and
identified by a Section number. These Sections are subdivided into Articles designated by numbered side headings.
Page Numbers – In the page numbering of the Manual (8-2-1, for example) the first numeral designates the Chapter
number, the second denotes the Part number in the Chapter, and the third numeral designates the page number in the Part.
Thus, 8-2-1 means Chapter 8, Part 2, page 1.
In the Glossary and References, the Part number is replaced by either a “G” for Glossary or “R” for References.
Document Dates – The bold type date (Document Date) at the beginning of each document (Part) applies to the document
as a whole and designates the year in which revisions were last made somewhere in the document, unless an attached footnote
indicates that the document was adopted, reapproved, or rewritten in that year.
Article Dates – Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last time that Article was modified.
Revision Marks – All current year revisions (changes and additions) which have been incorporated into the document are
identified by a vertical line along the outside margin of the page, directly beside the modified information.
Proceedings Footnote – The Proceedings footnote on the first page of each document gives references to all Association
action with respect to the document.
Annual Updates – New manuals, as well as revision sets, will be printed and issued yearly.
8-viii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

8
Part 1
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements1
— 2018 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article Description Page
1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6

1.1.1 Purpose (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.1.2 Scope (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.1.3 T erms (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.1.4 Acceptability (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7 1
1.1.5 ASTM - International (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7
1.1.6 Selection of Materials (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7
1.1.7 Test of Materials (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7
1.1.8 Defective Materials (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.1.9 Equipment (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
3
1.2 Cement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.2.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.2.2 Specifications (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.2.3 Quality, Sampling and Testing (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-9
1.3 Other Cementitious Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10

1.3.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.2 Acceptability (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.3 Specifications (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.4 Materials Not Included in This Recommended Practice (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.5 Documentation (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11
1.4 Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11

1.4.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11
1.4.2 Fine Aggregates (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-12
1.4.3 Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-14
1
References, Vol. 3, 1902, p. 311; Vol. 4, 1903, pp. 336,397; Vol. 5, 1904, pp. 605,610; Vol. 6, 1905, pp. 704,726; Vol. 11, 1910, p. 956; Vol. 13, 1912, pp.
333, 1564; Vol. 24, 1923, pp. 478, 1324; Vol. 28, 1927, pp. 1056, 1436; Vol. 29, 1928, pp. 607, 1399; Vol. 30, 1929, pp. 783, 1461; Vol. 31, 1930, pp. 1148,
1737; Vol. 32, 1931, pp. 330, 796; Vol. 33, 1932, pp. 622, 732; Vol. 34, 1933, pp. 578, 868; Vol. 35, 1934, pp. 953, 1130; Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 843, 1018; Vol.
37, 1936, pp. 632, 1040; Vol. 39, 1938, pp. 136, 332; Vol. 45, pp. 227, 642; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 793, 1341; Vol. 56, 1955, pp. 436, 1084; Vol. 58, 1957, pp.
650, 1182; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 637, 1970, p. 230; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 136; Vol. 74, 1973, p. 138; Vol. 75, 1974, p. 465; Vol. 78, 1977, p. 108; Vol. 83, 1982, p.
285; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 62; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 78; Vol. 96, p. 55; Vol. 97, p. 57.
© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-1-1

Concrete Structures and Foundations

1.4.4 Lightweight Coarse Aggregate for Structural Concrete (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-15
1.5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16

1.5.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16

1.6.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6.2 Welding (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6.3 Specifications (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6.4 Bending and Straightening Reinforcing Bars (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.7 Concrete Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19

1.7.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.7.2 Types of Admixtures and Standard Specifications (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.8 Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20

1.8.1 Cementitious Materials and Concrete Admixtures (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20
1.8.2 Aggregates (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20
1.8.3 Reinforcement (2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21

1.9.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9.2 Safety (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9.3 Design (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9.4 Construction (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-22
1.9.5 Moldings (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-23
1.9.6 Form Coating and Release (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-23
1.9.7 Temporary Openings (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-23
1.9.8 Removal (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-23
1.10 Details of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24

1.10.1 Surface Conditions of Reinforcement (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.2 Fabrication (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.3 Provisions for Seismic Loading (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.4 Placing of Reinforcement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.5 Spacing of Reinforcement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-26
1.10.6 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-26
1.10.7 Future Bonding (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-26
1.11 Concrete Jointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27

1.11.1 Scope (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.11.2 Types of Jointing (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.11.3 Expansion Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.11.4 Expansion Joints in Walls (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-28
1.11.5 Contraction Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-28
1.11.6 Construction Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-29
1.11.7 Watertight Construction Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-29
1.12 Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31

1.12.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31
8-1-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements
1.12.2 Measurement of Materials (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31

1.12.3 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31
1.12.4 Air Content of Air-Entrained Concrete (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-32
1.12.5 Strength of Concrete Mixtures (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-33
1.12.6 Workability (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-34
1.12.7 Slump (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-35
1.12.8 Compression Tests (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-35
1.12.9 Field Tests (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-35
1.12.10 Special Provisions When Using Cementitious Materials Other Than Portland Cement (2009) . . . . . 8-1-35
1.13 Mixing ................................................................................ 8-1-37

1.13.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-37
1.13.2 Site-Mixed Concrete (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-38
1.13.3 Ready-Mixed Concrete (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-38
1.13.4 Delivery (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-38
1.13.5 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39
1.14 Depositing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39

1.14.1 General (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39
1.14.2 Handling and Placing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39 1
1.14.3 Chuting (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-40
1.14.4 Pneumatic Placing (Shotcreting) (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-40
1.14.5 Pumping Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-40
1.14.6 Compacting (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-41
1.14.7 T emperature (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-41
1.14.8 Continuous Depositing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.9 Bonding (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42 3
1.14.10 Placing Cyclopean Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.11 Placing Rubble Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.12 Placing Concrete Containing Silica Fume (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.13 Placing Concrete Containing Fly Ash (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.14.14 Water Gain (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15 Depositing Concrete Under Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43 4

1.15.1 General (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.2 Capacity of Plant (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.3 Standard Specifications (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.4 Cement (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.5 Coarse Aggregates (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.6 Mixing (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.7 Caissons, Cofferdams or Forms (1993) R(2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.8 Leveling and Cleaning the Bottom to Receive Concrete (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.9 Continuous Work (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.10 Methods of Depositing (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.11 Soundings (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.15.12 Removing Laitance (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.15.13 Concrete Seals (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.16 Concrete in Sea Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-1-3

1.16.1 Concrete (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46

1.16.2 Depositing in Sea Water (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.16.4 Minimum Cover (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.16.5 Protecting Concrete in Sea Water (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17 Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47

1.17.1 Condition of Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17.2 Concrete for Moderate Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17.3 Concrete for Severe Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.17.4 Concrete for Very Severe Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.17.5 Concrete for Alkali Soils or Alkali Water (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.17.7 Minimum Cover (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.17.8 Placement of Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.18 Curing ............................................................................... 8-1-48

1.18.1 General (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.18.2 Hot Weather Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-49
1.18.3 Wet Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-49
1.18.4 Membrane Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.18.5 Steam Curing (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.18.6 Curing Concrete Containing Silica Fume (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.18.7 Curing Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.18.8 Curing Concrete Containing Fly Ash (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.19 Formed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51

1.19.1 General (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.19.2 Rubbed Finish (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20 Unformed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52

1.20.1 General (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20.2 Sidewalk Finish (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20.3 Finishing Concrete Containing Silica Fume (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20.4 Finishing Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20.5 Finishing Concrete Containing Fly Ash (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.21 Decorative Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22 Penetrating Water Repellent T reatment of Concrete Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53

1.22.1 General (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22.2 Surface Preparation (2016). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22.3 Environmental Requirements (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22.4 Application (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22.5 Materials (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-54
1.22.6 Quality Assurance (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.22.7 Delivery, Storage and Handling (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.23 Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55

1.23.1 General (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55

1.23.2 Surface Preparation (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-56
1.23.3 Application (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-56
1.24 High Strength Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-56

1.24.1 General (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-56
1.24.2 Materials (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-56
1.24.3 Concrete Mixture Proportions (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.25 Specialty Concretes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57

1.25.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.25.2 Sulfur Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.25.3 Heavyweight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-58
1.25.4 Polymer Concrete (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-59
1.25.5 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
1.25.6 High-Performance Concrete (2014). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
1.26 Self-Consolidating Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-62

1.26.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-62
1.26.2 Mix Design and Testing (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-63 1
1.26.3 Forms and Reinforcement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-63
1.26.4 Mixing Concrete (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-64
1.26.5 Placement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-64
1.26.6 Curing (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-64
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-64
3
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Description Page
8-1-1 Full-Depth Expansion Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-28

8-1-2 Two Methods for Making Contraction Joints for Slabs-on-Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-30 4
8-1-3 Keyed Construction Joint with Waterstop Inserted Perpendicular to the Plane of the Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-30
LIST OF TABLES
Table Description Page
8-1-1 Portland Cement ASTM C150. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-9

8-1-2 Blended Hydraulic Cements ASTM C595 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-9
8-1-3 Sampling and Testing Methods in Addition to those of ASTM C33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-12
8-1-4 Aggregate Soundness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-12
8-1-5 Fine Aggregate Grading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-13
8-1-6 Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-14
8-1-7 ASTM Specifications for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-17
8-1-8 ASTM Specifications for Coated Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-18

LIST OF TABLES (CONT)
8-1-9 Maximum Permissible Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio (by Weight) for Different Types of Structures and
Degrees of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-32
8-1-10 Air-Entrained Concrete Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-33
8-1-11 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio for Air Entrained Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-33
8-1-12 Concrete Exposed to Deicing Chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-36
8-1-13 Concrete Temperature Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
8-1-14 Recommendations For Concrete In Sulfate Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
SECTION 1.1 GENERAL
1.1.1 PURPOSE (2004)

This recommended practice is for work carried out by the Company or by Contractors for the Company when so requested by
the Engineer.
1.1.2 SCOPE (2004)

This recommended practice describes the selection, sampling and testing of materials to be used, the composition of concrete,
and the mixing, transporting, placing, finishing and curing of concrete. This recommended practice shall govern whenever it is
in conflict with other cited references.
1.1.3 TERMS (2006)
Following is a list of terms associated with this Part. These terms are defined in the Glossary located at the end of this Chapter.
AASHTO ASTM - International

Absorption Blast-Furnace Slag
ACI International Blast-Furnace Slag, Ground Granulated
Admixture Bleeding
Admixture, Accelerating Cement, Blended
Admixture, Air-Entraining Cement, Hydraulic
Admixture, Retarding Cement, Slag
Admixture, Water Reducing Cementitious
Admixture, Water Reducing (High Range) Centering
Admixture, Water Reducing and Accelerating Company
Admixture, Water Reducing and Retarding Compound, Curing
Agent, Bonding Concrete
Aggregate Concrete, Cyclopean
Air, Entrained Concrete, Polymer
Approved or Approval Concrete, Polymer Cement

Concrete, Structural Lightweight Reinforcement, Deformed

Contractor Reinforcement, Plain
Engineer Resistance, Chemical
Falsework Shore / Shoring
FHWA Sieve
Fly Ash Sieve Analysis
Form / Formwork Sieve Number
Honeycomb Silica Fume
Joint, Expansion Slump
Laitance Soundness
Modulus, Fineness Strength, Compressive
PCI Superplasticizer
Plans USDOT
Plasticizer Water Absorption
Pozzolan Water-Cementitious Material Ratio
Reinforcement
1.1.4 ACCEPTABILITY (2004)
a. Concrete shall be proportioned, mixed, transported, placed and cured by the methods herein recommended.
1
b. All materials used in the work shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer who shall be the sole judge of their
quality, suitability, and acceptability as to type. The Engineer shall be notified in advance whenever any phase of the
work is to begin.
1.1.5 ASTM - INTERNATIONAL (2004)

3
Whenever reference is made to the ASTM - International (ASTM), the letter ‘M’ indicating a metric edition and the number
indicating the year of issue are omitted from the designation. The latest issue of the referenced designation is to be used in
each case.
1.1.6 SELECTION OF MATERIALS (2004)
The concrete materials shall be selected for strength, durability and chemical resistance, and ability to attain specified 4
properties as required, in accordance with this recommended practice and as approved by the Engineer. They shall be
combined in such a manner as to produce uniformity of color and texture in the surface of any structure or group of structures
in which they are to be used. No change shall be made in the brand, type, source or characteristics of cementitious materials,
the character and source of aggregate or water, or the class of concrete and method of transporting, placing, finishing or curing
without approval of the Engineer.
1.1.7 TEST OF MATERIALS (2004)
a. The Engineer shall have the right to order testing of any materials used in concrete construction to determine if they are
of the quality specified.
b. Tests of materials and concrete shall be made in accordance with appropriate standards of the ASTM - International as
specified.

c. Pre-construction tests shall be carried out on cementitious materials, other than portland cement, as indicated in this
recommended practice.
1.1.8 DEFECTIVE MATERIALS (2004)
All materials of any kind rejected by the Engineer shall be immediately removed from the site and any work affected by the
defective material shall be remedied by the Contractor at his own expense and to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
1.1.9 EQUIPMENT (2004)
The Contractor shall provide all equipment required for the work, including all staging, scaffolding, apparatus, tools, etc., as
necessary. All equipment must be approved by the Engineer who may require the removal of any piece of equipment. The
Contractor shall substitute satisfactory equipment to replace rejected equipment without delay. Upon request, the Contractor
shall furnish for approval a statement of methods and equipment proposed for use in all aspects of the work. Exercise of this
approval by the Engineer shall not relieve the Contractor of his sole responsibility for the safe, adequate and lawful
construction, maintenance and use of such methods and equipment.
SECTION 1.2 CEMENT
1.2.1 GENERAL (2004)
Cement shall be furnished by the Contractor or the Company as provided for in the contract. Cement used in the work shall be
the same as that required by the mix design.
1.2.2 SPECIFICATIONS (2004)1
a. Cement shall conform to one of the following Standard Specifications except as modified in this Chapter.
(1) ASTM C150 Standard Specification for Portland Cement as shown in Table 8-1-1
(2) ASTM C595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements as shown in Table 8-1-2
b. The use of slag cement Types ‘S’ and ‘S(A)’ as defined in ASTM C595 are not included in this recommended practice.
c. Refer also to Section 1.3 Other Cementitious Materials.
1 See C - Commentary

Table 8-1-1. Portland Cement ASTM C150
Type Description
Type I For use when the special properties specified for any other type are not required.
Type IA Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type I, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type II For general use, especially when moderate sulfate resistance, or moderate heat of hydration is
desired.
Type IIA Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type II, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type III For use when high early strength is desired.
Type IIIA Air-entraining cement for the same use as Type III, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type IV For use when a low heat of hydration is desired.
Type V For use when high sulfate resistance is desired.
Table 8-1-2. Blended Hydraulic Cements ASTM C595
Type Description
Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Cement

Type IS Portland blast-furnace slag cement for use in general concrete construction.
Type IS( ) Modified sulfate resistant (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
1
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes.
Portland-Pozzolan Cement
Type IP Portland-pozzolan cement for use in general concrete construction.
Type IP( ) Moderate sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes. 3
Type P Portland-pozzolan cement for use in concrete construction where high early strengths are not required.
Type P( ) Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or low heat of hydration (LH), or any
Pozzolan-Modified Portland Cement
Type I(PM) Pozzolan-modified portland cement for use in general concrete construction. 4
Type I(PM)( ) Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
Slag-Modified Portland Cement
Type I(SM) Cement for use in general concrete construction.
Type I(SM)( ) Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
1.2.3 QUALITY, SAMPLING AND TESTING (2004)
The quality of the cement and the methods of sampling and testing shall meet the requirements of the appropriate ASTM
Standard Specification or Method of Test.

SECTION 1.3 OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
1.3.1 GENERAL (2004)
When using cementitious materials other than portland cement, reference should also be made to the provisions of Section
1.12 Proportioning; Section 1.13 Mixing; Section 1.14 Depositing Concrete; Section 1.16 Concrete in Sea Water; Section 1.17
Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water; Section 1.18 Curing; and Section 1.20 Unformed Surface Finish.
1.3.2 ACCEPTABILITY (2004)
Cementitious materials other than portland cement will be permitted only if approved in writing by the Engineer of the
Railroad Company.
1.3.3 SPECIFICATIONS (2004)1
The specifications listed in Articles 1.3.3.1 and 1.3.3.2 apply to the use of other cementitious materials, either supplied in
blended form with portland cement or added separately at the time of mixing.
1.3.3.1 ASTM C595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements; and ASTM C618 Standard
Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland
Cement Concrete, and the following:
a. Silica Fume - ASTM C1240 Standard Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic-Cement Concrete, Mortar,
and Grout, of the following types:
(1) As-produced silica fume -- in its original form of an extremely fine powder
(2) Slurried silica fume -- in a water base, containing 40 to 60% silica fume by mass
(3) Densified silica fume -- a compacted form of as-produced silica fume
b. Fly Ash - ASTM C618 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a
Mineral Admixture in Concrete, of the following Classes:
(1) Class F -- Normally produced from high energy coals such as bituminous and anthracite coals, but sometimes
produced with sub-bituminous and lignite coals
(2) Class C -- Normally produced from sub-bituminous and lignite coals
(3) Class N – Natural materials such as highly reactive volcanic ash, metakaolin (and other calcined clays),
diatomaceous earths, calcined shales, and other reactive materials
1.3.3.2 Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag - ASTM C989 Standard Specification for Ground Granulated
Iron Blast-Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars.
1.3.4 MATERIALS NOT INCLUDED IN THIS RECOMMENDED PRACTICE (2004)
The following materials are not included in this recommended practice:
a. Pelletized silica fume -- consisting of hard pellets, not presently being used as an additive for concrete.

b. Types of slag not produced in the iron making process.
c. Types ‘S’ and ‘S(A)’ blended hydraulic cements containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag, as defined in ASTM
C595.
d. Blended cements containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag blended with hydrated lime.
1.3.5 DOCUMENTATION (2004)
a. Each shipment of fly ash or silica fume or ground granulated blast-furnace slag used on a project shall have a
certificate of compliance which includes the following:
(1) Name of supplier
(2) Consignee and destination of the shipment
(3) Vehicle identification number
(4) A unique unrepeated order number or other identification number for each shipment
(5) Source
b. Each shipment of fly ash shall also include a certificate of compliance indicating the Class (either Class C or Class F),
with certified test numbers demonstrating that the material meets ASTM C618. 1
c. Each shipment of silica fume shall also include a certificate of compliance demonstrating that it meets the requirements
of ASTM C1240.
d. Each shipment of ground granulated blast-furnace slag shall also include a certificate of compliance indicating its
grade (either Grade 80, 100 or 120), with certified test numbers demonstrating that it meets the requirements of ASTM
C989. 3
SECTION 1.4 AGGREGATES

4
1.4.1 GENERAL (2004)
1.4.1.1 Specifications
Except as specified otherwise herein, all aggregates shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C33, Standard Specification
for Concrete Aggregates.
1.4.1.2 Sampling and Testing
a. Representative samples shall be selected and sent to the testing laboratory at frequent intervals as directed by the
Engineer. Aggregates may not be used until the samples have been tested by the laboratory and approved by the
Engineer.
b. Sampling and testing shall be in accordance with ASTM C33 and the Standard Specifications and Methods of Test of
ASTM - International found in Table 8-1-3.

Table 8-1-3. Sampling and Testing Methods in Addition to those of ASTM C33
ASTM
Type
Designation
Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate C70
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate C127
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate C128
Standard Sand C778
c. The required tests shall be made on test samples that comply with requirements of the designated test methods and are
representative of the grading that will be used in the concrete. The same test sample may be used for sieve analysis and
for determination of material finer than the No. 200 (75 m) sieve. Separated sizes from the sieve analysis may be used
in preparation of samples for soundness or abrasion tests. For determination of all other tests and for evaluation of
potential alkali reactivity where required, independent test samples shall be used.
d. The fineness modulus of an aggregate is the sum of the percentages of a sample retained on each of a specified series of
sieves divided by 100, using the following standard sieve sizes: No. 100, No. 50, No. 30, No. 16, No. 8, No. 4, 3/8 inch,
3/4 inch, 1-1/2 inches (150 m, 300 m, 600 m, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm, 4.75 mm, 9.5 mm, 19.0 mm, 37.5 mm) and
larger, increasing in the ratio of 2 to 1. Sieving shall be done in accordance with ASTM Method C136.
1.4.1.3 Soundness
a. Except as provided in Paragraph 1.4.1.3(b), aggregate subjected to five cycles of ASTM C88 Soundness of Aggregates
by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate shall show a loss weighed in accordance with the grading procedures,
not greater than the percentages found in Table 8-1-4.
Table 8-1-4. Aggregate Soundness
Aggregate Sodium Sulfate Magnesium Sulfate

Fine 10 15
Coarse 12 18
b. Aggregate failing to meet the requirements of Paragraph 1.4.1.3(a) may be accepted provided that concrete of
comparable properties, made with similar aggregate from the same source, has given satisfactory service when exposed
to weathering similar to that to be encountered.
1.4.2 FINE AGGREGATES (2004)
1.4.2.1 General1
Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand or, subject to the approval of the Engineer, manufactured sand with similar
characteristics. Lightweight fine aggregate shall not be used.
1.4.2.2 Grading
a. Sieve Analysis–Fine aggregate, except as provided in ASTM C33, shall be graded within the limits found in Table 8-1-
5.

Table 8-1-5. Fine Aggregate Grading
Total Passing
Sieve Size Percentage by
Weight
3/8 inch (9.5 mm) 100
No. 4 (4.75 mm) 95-100
No. 8 (2.36 mm) 80-100
No. 16 (1.18 mm) 50-85
No. 30 (600 m) 25-60
No. 50 (300 m) 10-30
No. 100 (150 m) 2-10
No. 200 (75 m) zero
b. The minimum percentages shown above for material passing the No. 50 (300 m) and No. 100 (150 m) sieves may be
reduced to 5 and 0, respectively, if the aggregate is to be used in air-entrained concrete containing more than 420 lb of
cement per cubic yard (250 kg per cubic meter), or in non-air-entrained concrete containing more than 520 lb of 1
cement per cubic yard (310 kg per cubic meter). Air-entrained concrete is here considered to be concrete containing
air-entraining cement or an air-entraining admixture and having an air content of more than 3%.
c. The fine aggregate shall have not more than 45% retained between any two consecutive sieves of those shown in
Table 8-1-5 and its fineness modulus shall be not less than 2.3 nor more than 3.1.
d. For walls and other locations where smooth surfaces are desired, the fine aggregate shall be graded within the limits 3
shown in Table 8-1-5, except that not less than 15% shall pass the No. 50 (300 m) sieve and not less than 3% shall
pass the No. 100 (150 m) sieve.
e. To provide the uniform grading of fine aggregate, a preliminary sample representative of the material to be furnished
shall be submitted at least 10 days prior to actual deliveries. Any shipment made during progress of the work which
varies by more than 0.2 from the fineness modulus of the preliminary sample shall be rejected or, at the option of the
Engineer, may be accepted provided that suitable adjustments are made in concrete proportions to compensate for the 4
difference in grading.
f. The percentages listed above do not apply when using pozzolans or ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Such
percentages shall be determined by tests as outlined in this recommended practice.
1.4.2.3 Mortar Strength
Fine aggregate shall be of such quality that when made into a mortar and subjected to the mortar strength test prescribed in
ASTM C87, the mortar shall develop a compressive strength not less than that developed by a mortar prepared in the same
manner with the same cementitious materials and graded standard sand having a fineness modulus of 2.40±0.10. The graded
sand shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C778.
1.4.2.4 Deleterious Substances
a. The amount of deleterious substances in fine aggregate shall not exceed the limits found in Table 8-1-6.

Table 8-1-6. Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate
Maximum Limit
Item
Percentage by Weight
Clay Lumps 1.0
Coal and Lignite 0.5 (Note 1)
Material finer than No. 200 sieve (75 m):
Concrete subject to abrasion 3.0 (Note 2)
All other classes of concrete 5.0 (Note 2)
Note 1: Does not apply to manufactured sand produced from blast-furnace slag.
Note 2: For manufactured sand, if the material finer than the No. 200 (75 m) sieve consists of the
dust of fracture, essentially free from clay or shale, these limits do not apply.
b. A fine aggregate failing the test for organic impurities may be used provided that, when tested for mortar-making
properties, the mortar develops a compressive strength at 7 and 28 days of not less than 95% of that developed in a
similar mortar made from another portion of the same sample which has been washed in a 3% solution of sodium
hydroxide followed by thorough rinsing in water. The treatment shall be sufficient so that the test of the washed
material made in accordance with ASTM C40 will have a color lighter than the standard color solution.
c. Fine aggregate for use in concrete that will be subject to wetting, extended exposure to humid atmosphere, or contact
with moist ground shall not contain any materials that are deleteriously reactive with the alkalies in the cement in an
amount sufficient to cause excessive expansion of mortar or concrete, except that if such materials are present in
injurious amounts, the fine aggregate may be used with a cement containing less than 0.6% alkalies as measured by
percentage of sodium oxide plus 0.658 times percentage of potassium oxide, or with the addition of a material that has
been shown to prevent harmful expansion due to the alkali-aggregate reaction.
1.4.3 NORMAL WEIGHT COARSE AGGREGATE (2004)
1.4.3.1 General
a. Coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed stone, gravel, crushed slag, or a combination thereof or, subject to the
approval of the Engineer, other inert materials with similar characteristics, having hard, strong durable pieces, free
from adherent coatings, and shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C33 except as required by this Part.
b. Crushed slag shall be rough cubical fragments of air-cooled blast-furnace slag, which when graded as it is to be used in
the concrete, shall have a compact weight of not less than 70 lb per cubic foot (1100 kg per cubic meter). It shall be
obtained only from sources approved by the Engineer.
1.4.3.2 Grading
a. Coarse aggregate shall be graded between the limits specified by ASTM C33.
b. The maximum size of aggregate shall be not larger than one-fifth of the narrowest dimension between forms of the
member for which concrete is used, nor larger than one-half of the minimum clear space between reinforcing bars,
except as provided for precast concrete in Section 2.5.

1.4.3.3 Deleterious Substances
a. The amount of deleterious substances in coarse aggregate shall not exceed the limits found in
ASTM C33.
1.4.3.4 Abrasion Loss
Coarse aggregate to be used in concrete when subjected to test for resistance to abrasion (ASTM C535 or ASTM C131) shall
show a loss of weight not more than the following:
a. For concrete subject to severe abrasion such as concrete in water, precast concrete piles, paving for sidewalks,
platforms or roadways, floor wearing surfaces, and concrete cross or bridge ties, the loss of weight shall not exceed
40%.
b. For concrete subject to medium abrasion such as concrete exposed to the weather, the loss of weight shall not exceed
50%.
c. For concrete not subject to abrasion, the loss in weight shall not exceed 60%.
1.4.3.5 Rubble Aggregate
Rubble aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable stone retained on a 6-inch (150 mm) square opening and with individual
pieces weighing not more than 100 lb (45 kg).
1.4.3.6 Cyclopean Aggregate

1
Cyclopean aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable stone with individual pieces weighing more than 100 lb (45 kg).
1.4.4 LIGHTWEIGHT COARSE AGGREGATE FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE (2004)
1.4.4.1 Scope 3
a. This recommended practice covers lightweight coarse aggregates intended for use in lightweight concrete in which
prime considerations are durability, compressive strength, and light weight. Structural lightweight concrete shall only
be used where shown on the plans or specified.
b. Aggregates for use in non-structural concrete such as fireproofing and fill, and for concrete construction where
capacity is based on load tests rather than conventional design procedures, are not included in this recommended 4
practice.
1.4.4.2 General Characteristics
The aggregates shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C330 Standard Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates for
Structural Concrete, except as otherwise specified herein.
1.4.4.3 Unit Weight (Mass Density)
a. The dry weight (mass density) of lightweight aggregates shall not exceed 55 lb per cubic foot (880 kg per cubic meter),
measured loose by accepted ASTM practice.
b. Uniformity of weight (density). The unit weight (mass density) of successive shipments of lightweight aggregate shall
not differ by more than 6% from that of the sample submitted for acceptance tests.

1.4.4.4 Concrete Making Properties
Concrete specimens containing lightweight coarse aggregate under test shall conform to ASTM C330 and shall meet the
following requirements. A magnesium sulfate soundness test shall be conducted for 10 cycles in accordance with ASTM C88.
Loss thus determined shall not exceed 15%. Loss of individual gradation size shall not exceed 20% of that size.
SECTION 1.5 WATER1
1.5.1 GENERAL (2010)
1.5.1.1 Specifications
Mixing water shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C 1602, Standard Specification for Mixing Water Used in the
Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete.
SECTION 1.6 REINFORCEMENT
1.6.1 GENERAL2 (2013)

Reinforcement shall be deformed reinforcement, except that plain bars and plain wire shall be permitted for spirals or tendons,
or for dowels at expansion or contraction joints. Reinforcement consisting of structural steel, steel pipe, or steel tubing shall be
permitted for composite compression members.
1.6.2 WELDING (2013)

a. Welding of reinforcing bars shall conform to “Structural Welding Code–Reinforcing Steel” (AWS D1.4/D1.4M) of the
American Welding Society. Type and location of welded splices and other required welding of reinforcing bars shall be
indicated on the plans or in the project specifications. The ASTM specifications for reinforcing bars, except for ASTM
A706/A706M, shall be supplemented to require a report of the chemical composition necessary to conform to welding
procedures specified in AWS D1.4/D1.4M.
b. If welding of wire to wire, and of wire or welded wire reinforcement to reinforcing bars or structural steel is to be
required on a project, the Engineer shall specify procedures or performance criteria for the welding.
c. Welders of reinforcing bars shall maintain certification by the American Welding Society.
1.6.3 SPECIFICATIONS (2013)
1.6.3.1 Reinforcement
Bars, wire, welded wire reinforcement, prestressing tendons, structural steel, steel pipe and tubing shall conform to one of the
ASTM specifications listed in Table 8-1-7.
1
See C - Commentary

Table 8-1-7. ASTM Specifications for Reinforcement
Type Specifications
Bars, Wire and Welded Wire
Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars A615/A615M
Deformed and Plain Low-Alloy Steel Bars A706/A706M
Deformed Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Bars A996/A996M
Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Bars A955/A955M
Headed Steel Bars A970/A970M
Deformed and Plain Low-Carbon, Chromium Steel Bars A1035/A1035M
Steel Wire, Plain (wire shall not be smaller than size W4 A1064/A1064M
(0.226 inch (5.74 mm) dia.))
Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain A1064/A1064M
Steel Wire, Deformed (wire shall not be smaller than size D4 (0.225 inch (5.72 A1064/A1064M
mm) dia.)) 1
Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Deformed (welded intersections shall not be A1064/A1064M
spaced farther apart than 16 inches (400 mm) in direction of primary flexural
reinforcement)
Stainless Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement, Deformed and Plain A1022/A1022M
Prestressing Tendons
3
Uncoated Seven-Wire Steel Strand A416/A416M
Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire A421/A421M
Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar A722/A722M
Structural Steel, Steel Pipe and Tubing
Structural-Steel A36/A36M, A242/A242M,
A529/A529M, A572/A572M,
4
A588/A588M or A709/A709M (Grade
36, 50 or 50W)
Steel Pipe A53/A53M (Grade B)
Steel Tubing A500/A500M, A501/A501M or
A618/A618M
1.6.3.2 Coated Reinforcement
a. Coated reinforcement, when specified or shown on the plans as a corrosion-protection system, shall conform to one of
the ASTM specifications listed in Table 8-1-8.

Table 8-1-8. ASTM Specifications for Coated Reinforcement
Type Specification
Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars A775/A775M
Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars A934/A934M
Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement A884/A884M
Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing Steel Strand A882/A882M
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Reinforcing Bars A767/A767M
Zinc and Epoxy Dual-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars A1055/A1055M
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement A1060/A1060M
b. Repair all damaged epoxy coating on reinforcing bars with patching material conforming to ASTM A775/A775M,
A934/A934M or A1055/A1055M. Repair shall be done in accordance with the material manufacturer’s
recommendations.
c. Repair all damaged epoxy coating on wire or welded wire reinforcement with patching material conforming to ASTM
A884/A844M. Repair shall be done in accordance with the material manufacturer’s recommendations.
d. Repair all damaged zinc coating on reinforcing bars in accordance with ASTM A780/A780M. The maximum amount
of damaged areas shall not exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar. If the damaged
areas exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar, the bar shall be replaced.
e. Equipment for handling epoxy-coated reinforcing bars shall have protected contact areas. Bundles of coated bars shall
be lifted at multiple pickup points to prevent bar-to-bar abrasion from sags in the bundles. Coated bars or bundles of
coated bars shall not be dropped or dragged. Coated bars shall be stored on protective cribbing. All damaged coating
shall be repaired. The maximum amount of damaged areas shall not exceed 2% of the surface area of each linear foot
(300 mm) of the bar. If the damaged areas exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar,
the bar shall be replaced.
f. After installation of mechanical splices on epoxy-coated, zinc-coated (galvanized), or zinc and epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars, all damaged coating shall be repaired. All parts of mechanical splices used on coated bars, including
steel splice sleeves, bolts, and nuts shall be coated with the same material used for repair of damaged coating on the
spliced material. Remove coating for 2 inches (50 mm) back from the mechanical splice to bright metal before repair.
g. After completion of welding for welded splices on epoxy-coated, zinc-coated (galvanized), zinc and epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars, all damaged coating shall be repaired. All welds, and steel splice members when used to splice bars,
shall be coated with the same material used for repair of damaged coating. Remove coating for 6 inches (150 mm)
back from the welded splice to bright metal before repair.
h. Repair all damaged zinc coating on welded wire reinforcement in accordance with ASTM A780/A780M.
i. Plants applying fusion-bonded epoxy coatings to reinforcing bars shall maintain certification by the Concrete
Reinforcing Steel Institute.

1.6.4 BENDING AND STRAIGHTENING REINFORCING BARS1 (2013)
a. Reinforceing bars shall be fabricated in accordance with Article 1.10.2 and Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.4.2. Field bending and/or straightening of bars that are partially embedded in concrete shall be done in
accordance with the Plans or as permitted by the Engineer.
b. When epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars, or zinc-coated (galvanized)
reinforcing bars are field bent and/or straightened, damaged coating shall be repaired in accordance with Articles
1.6.3.2b or 1.6.3.2d. Field bending and/or straightening of epoxy-coated reinforcing bars conforming to ASTM
A934/A934M shall be prohibited.
SECTION 1.7 CONCRETE ADMIXTURES
1.7.1 GENERAL (2013)
a. The selection of admixtures to be used in concrete, if any, shall be subject to the prior approval of the Engineer.
b. An admixture shall be shown capable of maintaining essentially the same composition and performance throughout the
work as the product used in establishing concrete proportions in accordance with Section 1.12 Proportioning.
c. Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not be used unless approved by the Engineer. 1
d. Special purpose admixtures may be used if approved in writing by the Engineer. However, before an admixture can be
approved for use, it must be shown that its use will not adversely affect the placement, strength and/or durability of the
concrete. Admixtures used in combination may be incompatible and their performance should be verified by prior
testing from a certified third party agency.
3
1.7.2 TYPES OF ADMIXTURES AND STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS (2013)
The specifications listed in Paragraphs 1.7.2(a) and 1.7.2(b) apply in the use of admixtures.
a. ASTM C260 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete.
b. ASTM C494 Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete: 4

(1) Type A--Water-reducing admixtures
(2) Type B--Retarding admixtures
(3) Type C--Accelerating admixtures
(4) Type D--Water-reducing and retarding admixtures
(5) Type E--Water-reducing and accelerating admixtures
(6) Type F--Water-reducing, high range admixtures
(7) Type G--Water-reducing, high range, and retarding admixtures

(8) Type S--Specific performance admixtures
SECTION 1.8 STORAGE OF MATERIALS
1.8.1 CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS AND CONCRETE ADMIXTURES (2009)
a. Immediately upon delivery, all cement shall be stored in watertight ventilated structures to prevent absorption of water.
b. Sacked cement shall be stacked on pallets or similar platforms to permit circulation of air and access for inspection.
The cement sacks shall not be stacked against outside walls.
c. Cement sacks shall not be stacked more than 14 layers high for periods of up to 60 days, nor more than 7 layers high
for periods over 60 days. Older cement shall be used first.
d. Storage facilities for bulk cement shall include separate compartments for each type of cement used. The bins shall be
so constructed as to prevent dead storage in corners.
e. All cement shall be subject at any time to retest. If under retest it fails to meet any of the requirements of the
specifications, it will be rejected and shall be promptly removed from the site of the work by the Contractor.
f. Where the Company furnishes the cement and the failure of the cement to pass the retest is due to negligence on the
part of the Contractor to store it properly, the cost of such cement shall be charged to the Contractor.
g. The above provisions also apply to other cementitious materials and blended cementitious materials, except that fly ash
shall be stored in a separate structure or bin without common walls to avoid leakage of the fly ash into the other
cementitious materials.
h. Liquid admixtures shall be protected from freezing. If freezing occurs then the material shall not be used in concrete
unless the manufacturer approves a method of ensuring the effectiveness of the thawed material, such as agitation.
1.8.2 AGGREGATES (2009)
a. The storage of coarse aggregates shall be minimized, as to avoid the natural tendency of such stockpiles to segregate.
b. Fine and coarse aggregates shall be stored separately and in such a manner as to avoid the inclusion of foreign
materials in the concrete. Aggregates shall be unloaded and piled in such a manner as to maintain the uniform grading
of the sizes. Stockpiles of coarse aggregates shall be built in horizontal layers, not by end dumping, to avoid
segregation. Equipment such as dozers and loaders shall not be operated on the stockpile, so as to avoid contamination,
segregation and breakage.
c. A hard base shall be provided to prevent contamination from underlying material. Overlap of the different sizes shall
be prevented by suitable walls or ample spacing between stockpiles. Stockpiles shall not be contaminated by swinging
aggregate-filled buckets or clams over the various stockpiled aggregate sizes. Crushed slag shall be wetted down when
necessary to ensure a minimum 3% moisture content.
d. Special measures shall be taken to maintain a uniform moisture content in the aggregates as batched. Control and
testing procedures shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer.

1.8.3 REINFORCEMENT (2018)
a. Reinforcement shall be stored in such a manner as to avoid contact with the ground. If reinforcement remains in
storage at the site for more than a month, it shall be covered to protect it from the weather. If reinforcement
accumulates rust, dirt, mud, loose scale, paint, oil, or any foreign substance during storage, it shall be cleaned before
being used. Deterioration may be a basis for rejection. Coated reinforcement shall be handled in accordance with
Section 1.6.
b. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, epoxy-coated wire and welded wire reinforcement, and zinc and/or epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars exposed to the elements shall be covered by opaque polyethylene sheeting or other suitable opaque
protective material as approved by the Engineer. For stacked bundles, the protective covering shall be draped around
the perimeter of the stack. The covering shall be secured in a manner that allows for air circulation around the coated
reinforcement to minimize condensation under the covering. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, epoxy-coated wire and
welded wire reinforcement, and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be handled and repaired in
accordance with Section 1.6.
SECTION 1.9 FORMS
1.9.1 GENERAL (2009)
Forms shall be constructed of wood, steel, or other suitable material, and be of a type, size, shape, quality and strength, which
will produce true, smooth lines and surfaces conforming to the lines and dimensions shown on the plans. Forms shall be
substantial and designed to resist the pressures to which they are subjected. Lumber in forms for exposed surfaces should be 1
dressed to a uniform thickness. Undressed lumber may be used in forms for unexposed surfaces. Forms shall be kept free of
rust, grease and other foreign matter which will discolor the concrete.
Forms may be omitted for foundation concrete if, in the opinion of the Engineer, the sides of the excavation are sufficiently
firm so that the concrete may be thoroughly vibrated without causing the adjacent earth to slough. The actual dimensions of
the excavation shall then be slightly greater than the plan dimensions of the foundation so as to ensure design requirements.
3
1.9.2 SAFETY (2009)
The Contractor shall follow all local, state and federal codes, ordinances and regulations pertaining to forming of concrete at
all stages of construction, in addition to the requirements of this Section and the railroad Company.
1.9.3 DESIGN (2018) 4

a. The Contractor shall be responsible for the design of all forms required to complete the work.
b. Structural design of forms shall be performed in conformance with ACI 347R, Guide to Formwork for Concrete, or
other generally accepted standards, subject to the approval of the Engineer.
c. Forms intended to be used in the field shall be designed by a licensed engineer. Forms used by the precast fabricator
are the responsibility of the fabricator and do not require the Engineer’s review.
d. Drawings and structural design calculations for forms intended to be used in the field shall be provided to the Engineer
for review and acceptance prior to undertaking the work, unless excluded by the project Plans.
e. Documentation demonstrating the adequacy of forms intended to be used in the field supports to safely resist the
design loads shall be provided for review and acceptance prior to undertaking the work, unless excluded by the project
Plans.

f. Shoring and falsework shall be in accordance with Part 28 except as provided herein.
g. Special provision for load transfer and movements shall be taken into account in the design of forms for prestressed
concrete.
h. Special provision for forms supporting concrete that is required to act compositely with other materials in the finished
work shall be made.
i. The review and acceptance of Contractor’s submittals shall not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for the safe and
functional design of the forms and their supports.
1.9.4 CONSTRUCTION (2018)
a. The supervisor responsible for construction of forms intended to be used in the field should be certified by the
American Concrete Institute Inspector Certification Program as a Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector. The
Contractor may appoint a similarly qualified and experienced individual with the approval of the Engineer.
b. Forms shall be constructed mortar-tight, and shall be made sufficiently rigid by the use of ties and bracing to prevent
displacement or sagging and to withstand the pressure and vibration without deflection and/or objectionable distortion
from the prescribed lines during and after placement of the concrete.
c. Joints in forms shall be horizontal or vertical, and suitable devices shall be used to hold adjacent edges together in
accurate alignment.
d. All forms shall be constructed and maintained so as to prevent warping and the opening of joints.
e. All forms shall be constructed so that they may be readily removed without damaging the concrete.
f. Bolts and/or rods shall be used for internal form ties. They shall be so arranged that, when the forms are removed, no
corrodible metal shall be within 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) of any surface.
g. When wire form ties are used, where permitted, spacer blocks shall be removed as the concrete is placed. Wire form
ties shall be cut back 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) from the face of the concrete upon removal of the forms.
h. All fittings for ties shall be of such a design that upon their removal the remaining cavities will be the smallest
practicable size. The cavities shall be filled with cement mortar and the surfaces left in a sound condition, even and
uniform in color with respect to the original surface.
i. All temporary fasteners in contact with concrete shall be countersunk.
j. Any material once used in forms shall be thoroughly cleaned and form release agent shall be applied before erection in
a new location. All rough surfaces shall be smoothed and repairs made to the satisfaction of the Engineer. Forms which
have been used repeatedly and are not acceptable to the Engineer for further use shall be removed from the site.
k. In the case of long spans where no intermediate supports are possible, deflection in the forms due to the weight of the
fresh concrete shall be compensated for by using camber strips, wedges or other devices so that the finished members
conform accurately to the desired line and grade.
l. Foundations for falsework shall be provided in accordance with Part 28.

1.9.5 MOLDINGS (2009)
Unless otherwise specified or directed by the Engineer, suitable moldings or bevels shall be placed in the angles of forms to
round or bevel the edges of the concrete, including abutting edges of expansion joints.
1.9.6 FORM COATING AND RELEASE (2009)
Prior to placing reinforcement, the inside surfaces of forms shall be coated with a non-staining form release agent. A thin film
shall be applied to all surfaces that will be in contact with the fresh concrete.
1.9.7 TEMPORARY OPENINGS (2009)
Temporary openings shall be provided at the base of the column and wall forms, and at other locations where necessary, to
facilitate cleaning and inspection immediately before depositing concrete. Forms for walls or other thin sections of
considerable height shall be provided with openings or other devices which will permit the concrete to be placed in a manner
to avoid accumulation of hardened concrete on the forms or reinforcement.
1.9.8 REMOVAL (2009)
a. Forms shall be removed in such a manner as to ensure the complete safety of the structure. Care shall be taken to
preserve formed surfaces and not to damage the corners or surfaces of the concrete. Hammering on or prying between
forms and concrete shall not be permitted.
1
b. Form and falsework shall not be removed until the following are achieved:
(1) The concrete has adequately cured and has acquired sufficient strength to support its weight and any anticipated
loads.
(2) The minimum time specified in the Plans has elapsed.

3
(3) The Contractor has submitted and the Engineer has accepted a procedure and schedule for removal of form and
falsework with calculations, if applicable, for loads transferred to the structure during the process.
c. The time of removal of forms will depend on the type of the concrete, the location of the form, and the temperature and
moisture conditions which affect the strength of the concrete.
d. The age-strength relationship of the concrete used in determining the time for form and falsework removal shall be 4
determined from tests conducted on representative samples of the same concrete as used in the structure and cured
under job conditions, in accordance with ASTM C 39.
e. If not otherwise specified on the Plans or by the Engineer, formwork and supports shall not be released until the
concrete has attained sufficient strength to support its weight and any anticipated loads upon it, but not less than 70%
of its specified compressive strength. In continuous structures, support shall not be released in any span until the first
and second adjoining spans on each side have reached the specified strength.
f. Bulkheads at construction joints shall not be removed for a period of 15 hours after casting adjacent concrete.
g. Forms for ornamental work, railings, parapets, and vertical surfaces which require a surface finishing operation shall
be removed not less than 12 hours, nor more than 48 hours after casting the concrete, depending upon weather
conditions.
h. Support for pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete members shall not be removed until sufficient prestress has been
applied to enable the member to support its weight and anticipated loads.

SECTION 1.10 DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
1.10.1 SURFACE CONDITIONS OF REINFORCEMENT (2013)
a. Reinforcement at the time concrete is placed shall be free from mud, oil, or other coatings that adversely affect bond
strength. Epoxy coating on bars, wire, and welded wire reinforcement conforming to standards referenced in Table 8-1-
8 is permitted.
b. Reinforcement, except prestressing tendons with rust, mill scale, or a combination of both, shall be considered as
satisfactory, provided the minimum dimensions, including height of deformations, and weight of a hand wire-brushed
test specimen are not less than the applicable ASTM designation requirements.
c. Prestressing tendons shall be clean and free of oil, excessive soaps, dirt, scale, pitting and excessive rust. A light
coating of rust without pitting shall be permitted.
1.10.2 FABRICATION (2013)
a. Reinforcement shall be prefabricated to the dimensions shown on the plans. Reinforcement shall be bent cold, and
shall not be bent or straightened in a manner that will damage the material. Bars with kinks or bends not shown on the
plans shall be rejected. Hot bending of reinforcement will be permitted only when approved by the Engineer.
b. Diameter of bends measured on the inside of the bar shall be as shown on the plans. When diameter of bend is not
shown, minimum bend diameter shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
c. Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, the tolerance in fabricated lengths of bars from that shown on the placing
drawings shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) for bar sizes #11 (36 mm) and under and 2 inches (51 mm) for bar sizes #14 and
#18 (43 mm and 57 mm); the tolerance in out-to-out dimensions of hooks shall be ±1/2 inch (13 mm); the tolerance in
out-to-out dimensions of stirrups and ties shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) and the maximum angular deviation on 90 degree
hooks or bends shall be 0.5 inches per foot (1 in 24).
1.10.3 PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC LOADING (2013)
For structures located in earthquake-risk areas as determined from Chapter 9, consideration shall be given to reinforcement
details that will provide adequate ductility and enable reinforcement to be strained beyond yield to allow the structure to
absorb the energy of an earthquake.
1.10.4 PLACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2013)
1.10.4.1 General
a. Reinforcement, prestressing tendons and ducts shall be accurately placed and adequately supported before concrete is
placed, and shall be secured against displacement within permitted tolerances. Tie wire shall be 16-1/2 gage (1.4 mm)
or heavier. Welding of crossing bars shall not be permitted for the assembly of reinforcement unless authorized by the
Engineer.
b. Reinforcing bars shall not be cut in the field except when authorized by the Engineer. Flame-cutting of epoxy-coated
reinforcing bars and zinc-coated and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall not be permitted.
c. When epoxy-coated, zinc and epoxy dual-coated, or zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars are cut in the field, the
ends of the bars shall be coated with the same material that is used for the repair of damaged coating and shall be
repaired in accordance with Articles 1.6.3.2b and 1.6.3.2d. The limit on the amount of repaired damaged coating does
not apply to cut ends that are coated with patching material.

d. The supervisor responsible for placing reinforcing bars, tendons, and ducts shall maintain certification by the American
Concrete Institute as a Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.
1.10.4.2 Tolerances
Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, reinforcement, prestressing tendons, and prestressing ducts shall be placed in
flexural members, walls and compression members within the following tolerances:
a. Clear distance to formed or unformed concrete surfaces:
(1) When member size is 12 inches (300 mm) or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±3/8 inch (10 mm)
(2) When member size is over 12 inches (300 mm) but not over 2 feet (600 mm). . . ±1/2 inch (13 mm)
(3) When member size is over 2 feet (600 mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±1 inch (25 mm)
(4) Reduction in concrete cover shall not exceed one-third specified concrete cover.
(5) Reduction in concrete cover to formed soffits shall not exceed 1/4 inch (6 mm).
Tolerances shall not permit a reduction in concrete cover except as shown above, and shall not permit reduction
in concrete cover below values specified as minimums as defined in Article 1.10.6.
b. Tolerance on minimum distance between bars shall be minus 1/4 inch (6 mm).
c. Tolerance in uniform spacing of reinforcement from theoretical location shall be ±2 inches (50 mm).
d. Tolerance in uniform spacing of stirrups and ties from theoretical location shall be ±1 inch (25 mm). 1
e. Tolerance for longitudinal location of bends and ends of bars shall be ±2 inches (50 mm), except at discontinuous ends
of members where the tolerance shall be ±1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
f. Tolerance in length of bar laps shall be minus 1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
g. Tolerance in embedded length shall be minus 1 inch (25 mm) for #3 to #11 bars (10 mm to 36 mm) and minus 2 inches 3
(50 mm) for #14 and #18 bars (43 mm and 57 mm).
h. When it is necessary to move bars to avoid interference with other reinforcement, conduits, or embedded items by an
amount exceeding the specified placing tolerances, the resulting arrangement of bars shall be approved by the
Engineer.
i. Tolerance in the vertical and horizontal location of prestressing strand shall be ±1/4 inches (6 mm) except in precast
slabs. The tolerance for vertical location in precast slabs shall be ±1/4 inches (6 mm). The tolerance for horizontal
4
location of prestressing strand in precast slabs shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) in any 15 feet (4.6 m) of strand length.
j. Tolerance in the vertical and horizontal location of unbonded post-tensioning tendons and ducts in bonded post-
tensioning shall be ±1/4 inches (6 mm) except in slabs. The tolerance for vertical location in slabs shall be ±1/4 inches
(6 mm). The tolerance for horizontal location of post-tensioning tendons and ducts in bonded post-tensioning in slabs
shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) in any 15 feet (4.6 m) of strand length.
k. In precast concrete members the bearing plates shall be concentric with the tendons and within tolerance of +/- 1/8”
(PCI MNL 135-00).
1.10.4.3 Bar Supports and Side-Form Spacers
a. Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, reinforcement supported from the ground shall rest on precast concrete
blocks not less than 4 inches (100 mm) square, and having a compressive strength equal to or greater than the specified
compressive strength of the concrete being placed. Reinforcement supported by formwork shall rest on bar supports
and spacers made of concrete, metal, plastic, or other materials approved by the Engineer.

b. Where noted on the plans and at all formed surfaces that will be exposed to the weather in the finished structure, bar
supports and side-form spacers spaced no further than 4 feet (1200 mm) on center shall be provided. Bar supports and
spacers and all other accessories within 1/2 inch (13 mm) of the concrete surface shall be noncorrosive or protected
against corrosion.
c. Epoxy-coated and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars supported from formwork shall rest on coated wire bar
supports, or on bar supports made of dielectric material and other acceptable materials. Wire bar supports shall be
coated with dielectric material for a minimum distance of 2 inches (50 mm) from the point of contact with the epoxy-
coated or zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars. Reinforcing bars used as support bars shall be epoxy-coated. In
walls reinforced with epoxy-coated or zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars, spreader bars shall be epoxy-
coated where specified. Proprietary combination bar clips and spreaders used in walls with epoxy-coated or zinc and
epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be made of corrosion-resistant material or coated with dielectric material.
d. Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars supported from formwork shall rest on galvanized wire bar supports coated
with dielectric material, or on bar supports made of dielectric material or other acceptable materials. All other
reinforcement and embedded steel items in contact with galvanized reinforcing bars, or within a minimum clear
distance of 2 inches (50 mm) from galvanized reinforcing bars unless otherwise required or permitted, shall be
galvanized.
e. Epoxy-coated and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be fastened (tied) with plastic-coated or epoxy-
coated tie wire; or other materials authorized by the Engineer.
f. Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars shall be fastened (tied) with zinc-coated tie wire, or non-metallic-coated tie
wire, or other materials authorized by the Engineer.
1.10.4.4 Draped Welded Wire Reinforcement
When welded wire reinforcement with wire size not greater than W5 or D5 is used for slab reinforcement in slabs not
exceeding 10 feet (3000 mm) in span, the reinforcement may be curved from a point near the top of the slab over the support
to a point near the bottom of the slab at mid-span, provided such reinforcement is either continuous over, or securely anchored,
at the support.
1.10.5 SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2013)

Spacing of reinforcement shall be as shown on the plans. When spacing of reinforcement is not shown, spacing shall be in
accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design for reinforcing bars, and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete, Section 17.5
Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts.
1.10.6 CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT (2013)

Concrete cover for reinforcement shall be as shown on the plans. When concrete cover is not shown, minimum concrete cover
shall be provided in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Details of Reinforcement, Section 2.6 for bars and
wire, and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete, Article 17.5.2 for prestressing tendons and ducts.
1.10.7 FUTURE BONDING (2003)

Exposed reinforcement intended for bonding with future extensions shall be protected from corrosion in an approved manner.

SECTION 1.11 CONCRETE JOINTING
1.11.1 SCOPE (2009)
This recommended practice is applicable to the design of concrete slabs and walls in concrete structures such as bridges,
buildings and flat work, finger joints and other mechanical joint systems are not included in these recommended practices.
1.11.2 TYPES OF JOINTING (2009)
a. Expansion joints are filled separations between adjoining parts of the concrete structure which are provided to allow
for relative movement such as those caused by thermal changes.
b. Contraction joints are sawed, tooled, or constructed in a concrete surface to create a weakened plane to control the
location of cracking resulting from dimensional changes caused by shrinkage.
c. Construction joints occur where two successive placements of concrete meet, across which it is desired to maintain
bond between two concrete placements, and through which any reinforcement which may be present is not interrupted.
1.11.3 EXPANSION JOINTS (2009)
a. Expansion joints allow for differential movement of the concrete mass on either side of the joint. These may also be
referred to as isolation joints.
b. The Engineer may require that the joint be designed to resist movements in other directions, such as those resulting
1
from shear.
c. Expansion joints shall be installed as shown on the Plans or as specified by the Engineer. Waterstops may also be
required.
d. Jointing materials shall be in accordance with ASTM D994 or ASTM D1751. There shall be no connection across the 3
joint except as shown on the Plans or as required by the Engineer.

Figure 8-1-1. Full-Depth Expansion Joint
1.11.4 EXPANSION JOINTS IN WALLS (2009)
Expansion joints between the finished surface and the waterstop shall be filled with a material such as a 1/2 inch (13 mm)
thick strip of Preformed Expansion Joint meeting ASTM D994, ASTM D1751 or ASTM D1752.
1.11.5 CONTRACTION JOINTS (2009)
a. These recommended practices do not include full contraction joints, where all reinforcement is terminated at the joint
and where joint details may include waterstops, bond breakers, joint sealant or shear connectors.
b. Contraction joints allow for differential movement across the joint only in one direction, usually in the plane of the
finished surface. They are provided to allow for dimensional changes such as those caused by drying shrinkage of the
concrete.
c. Contraction joints in slabs-on-grade shall be located and detailed as shown on the plans. Unless otherwise shown or
noted, joints shall be placed at 15 to 25 foot (5 – 8 m) intervals in each direction.
d. Contraction joints for slabs-on-grade shall be made by one of the methods shown in Figure 8-1-2 or as shown on the
plans.
e. Sawing of contraction joints shall be done as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to prevent aggregates being
dislocated by the saw and shall be completed within twelve hours after placement unless otherwise approved by the
Engineer. Sawing shall not be done when the concrete temperature is falling, unless approved by the Engineer.
f. Contraction joints may also be constructed by means or methods specifically designed to create a plane of weakness in
freshly placed concrete. This may include a reduction in the amount of reinforcement passing through the joint if
approved by the Engineer.
g. Contraction joints may also be made by other methods if approved by the Engineer. Sawed or tooled contraction joints
shall be cleaned and filled with polymeric sealant conforming to ASTM D1190 or ASTM D3405 or as specified by the
Engineer.

h. Prior to the application of a polymeric sealing material, a heat resistant backer rod shall be inserted to a minimum depth
of 1/2 inch (13 mm) below the slab surface. The remaining reservoir shall then be filled flush with the slab surface (see
Figure 8-1-2).
1.11.6 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS (2009)
a. Construction joints allow for no differential movement across the plane of the joint. They are provided only at
locations where casting is temporarily suspended or interrupted.
b. The procedures specified in Article 1.14.9 for bonding fresh concrete to hardened concrete shall be followed in the
formation of all construction joints.
c. Reinforcement shall continue through the joint. Additional reinforcement such as dowels and other features such as
keys and waterstops may also be included. Special measures such as attention to vibration shall be taken in the casting
of concrete to either side of the joint in the vicinity of keys.
d. Structures or portions of the structures shall be continuously cast except as specified herein. When necessary to provide
construction joints not indicated or specified by the Plans, such construction joints shall be located as approved by the
Engineer and formed so as not to impair the strength, appearance, or durability of the structure.
1.11.7 WATERTIGHT CONSTRUCTION JOINTS (2009)
a. Contraction joints shall not be used in watertight construction unless shown on the plans approved by the Engineer.
See Figure 8-1-1. 1
b. Where a construction joint is used in watertight construction, special care shall be taken in finishing the concrete to
which the succeeding concrete is to be bonded. The consistency of the concrete shall be carefully controlled and the
surface shall be protected from loss of moisture as described in Article 1.18.4.
c. Where construction joints are required to be watertight, a continuous keyway shall be constructed in the interface of the
first section of the concrete placed with an approved waterstop embedded in this first placement. One half of the 3
waterstop shall be embedded in the first placement and the remaining material shall be embedded in the adjacent
placement. See Figure 8-1-3 for details. The concrete shall be thoroughly vibrated to ensure uniform contact over the
entire surface of the waterstop and the key on either side of the construction joint. The waterstop shall be in accordance
with Corps of Engineers Specification CRD C 572 (PVC) or CRD C 513 (Rubber).
d. Keyed joints shall not be used in slabs less than 6 inches (150 mm) thick.
4

Figure 8-1-2. Two Methods for Making Contraction Joints for Slabs-on-Grade
Figure 8-1-3. Keyed Construction Joint with Waterstop Inserted Perpendicular to the Plane of the Joint

SECTION 1.12 PROPORTIONING
1.12.1 GENERAL (2009)
Mix proportions shall be proposed by the Contractor for the various parts of the work subject to the approval of the Engineer.
Revised mix proportions may be submitted by the Contractor for approval by the Engineer during the work to reflect concrete
test results. Proportions of materials for making concrete shall be selected to provide the strength, workability, durability and
other qualities specified on the Plans and required by the Engineer.
1.12.2 MEASUREMENT OF MATERIALS (2009)
a. In the measurement of cement, 94 lb per bag = 1/4 barrel = 1 cubic foot (1.5 kg of cement shall be assumed to be as one
liter). Materials shall be measured by weighing, except as otherwise specified or where other methods are specifically
authorized by the Engineer. The apparatus provided for weighing the aggregates and cement shall be suitably designed
and constructed for this purpose. The aggregates and cement shall be weighed separately. The accuracy of all weighing
devices shall be such that successive quantities can be measured to within 1% of the desired amount. Cement in
standard packages (bags) need not be weighed, but bulk cement and fractional packages shall be weighed. The mixing
water shall be measured by volume or by weight. The water-measuring device shall be accurate to within 1/2%. All
measuring devices shall be subject to approval of the Engineer.
b. Where volumetric measurements are authorized by the Engineer, the weight proportions shall be converted to
equivalent volumetric proportions. In making this conversion, suitable allowance shall be made for variations in the
moisture condition of the aggregates, including the bulking effect in the fine aggregate.
1
1.12.3 WATER-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS RATIO (2009)
a. The proportioning of materials shall be based on the requirements for a plastic and workable mix suited to the
conditions of placement containing not more than the specified amount of water, including the free water contained in
the aggregates. The maximum specified amount of water shall not exceed the quantities shown in Table 8-1-9 for the
type of structure and the condition of exposure to which it will be subjected. Moisture in the aggregates shall be 3
measured by methods satisfactory to the Engineer.
b. Free water content of aggregates included in the quantities specified must be deducted from the amounts given in the
Table to determine the amount to be added at the mixer. Allowance may be made for absorption when aggregates are
not saturated.

Table 8-1-9. Maximum Permissible Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio (by Weight)

for Different Types of Structures and Degrees of Exposure
Exposure Conditions (Note 1)
Severe wider range in

temperature or Mild temperature rarely
frequent alternations of below freezing,
freezing and thawing or rainy, or arid
(air-entrained conc. only)
At the water line or At the water line or

Description within the range of within the range of
fluctuating water fluctuating water
level or spray level or spray
In Air In Sea In Air In Sea

Water or In Water or In
In
In Fresh Contact Contact
Fresh
Water With With
Water
Sulfates Sulfates
(Note 2) (Note 2)
Thin sections, such as railings, curbs, sills, ledges, 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.53 0.49 0.40
ornamental or architectural concrete, reinforced (Note 3) (Note 3)
piles, and pipe
Moderate sections, such as retaining walls, 0.53 0.49 0.44 (Note 4) 0.53 0.44
abutments, piers, girders, beams (Note 3) (Note 3)
Exterior portions of heavy (mass) sections 0.58 0.49 0.44 (Note 4) 0.53 0.44
(Note 3) (Note 3)
Concrete deposited by tremie underwater – 0.44 0.44 – 0.44 0.44
Concrete slabs laid on the ground 0.53 – – (Note 4) – –
Concrete protected from weather, interiors of (Note 4) – – (Note 4) – –
buildings, concrete below ground
Concrete which will later be protected by 0.53 – – (Note 4) – –
enclosure of backfill but which may be exposed to
freezing and thawing for several years before such
protection is offered
Note 1: Air-entrained concrete shall be used under all conditions involving severe exposure and may be used under mild
exposure conditions to improve workability of the mixture.
Note 2: Soil or ground water containing sulfate concentrations of more than 0.2%.
Note 3: When sulfate resisting cement is used, maximum water-cementitious material ratio may be increased by 0.05.
Note 4: Water-cementitious material ratio should be selected on basis of strength requirements.
Note 5: The water-cementitious materials ratio may require adjustment as outlined in Article 1.12.10.
1.12.4 AIR CONTENT OF AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE (2009)
a. The volume of entrained air in concrete shall be within the limits shown in Table 8-1-10.

Table 8-1-10. Air-Entrained Concrete Volume
Maximum Size Coarse Air Content %

Aggregate Inches (mm) by Volume
1-1/2, 2, or 2-1/2 (38, 50, 63) 5 ±1
3/4, 1 (19, 25) 6 ±1
3/8, 1/2 (10, 13) 7-1/2 ±1
b. The air content shall be determined by one of the following methods:
(1) The gravimetric method, ASTM C138.
(2) The volumetric method, ASTM C173.
(3) The pressure method, ASTM C231.
1.12.5 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE MIXTURES (2011)
a. The provisions of this Section are not applicable when using cementitious materials other than Portland cement.
b. When preliminary tests of the materials to be used are not available, the required water-cementitious materials ratio
shall be determined in accordance with Method 1 (Article 1.12.5.1). When strengths in excess of 4000 psi (28 MPa) are
required, or where lightweight aggregates or admixtures (other than those exclusively for the purpose of entraining air)
1
are to be used, the required water-cementitious materials ratio shall be determined in accordance with Method 2
(Article 1.12.5.2). Method 3 (Article 1.12.5.3) may be used if statistical data conforming to Article 1.12.5.3 are
available.
1.12.5.1 Method 1 – Without Preliminary Tests

3
a. Concrete proportions may be determined in accordance with this method if approved by the Engineer. Concrete
proportions shall then be based on the water-cementitious materials ratio limits found in Table 8-1-11. These limits are
only for concrete that is made with cements meeting Types I, IA, II, IIA, III, IIIA, or V of ASTM C150, or Types IS,
IS-(A), IS(MS), IS-(A)(MS), IP or IP-(A), of ASTM C595. Volume of entrained air shall be within limits of
Article 1.12.4. Air Content of Air-Entrained Concrete ratio shall not be greater than that required by Article 1.12.4.
Table 8-1-11. Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio for Air Entrained Concrete 4

Specified 28 Day Compressive Strength Absolute Water-Cementitious Materials
of Concrete, f  c psi (MPa) Ratio by Weight (Mass)(Note)
2,500 (17) 0.66
3,000 (21) 0.58
3,500 (24) 0.51
4,000 (28) 0.46
5,000 (34) 0.40
Note: Not applicable for concrete containing lightweight aggregates or admixtures other than for
entraining air.
b. The values in Table 8-1-11 are based on the use of cement and aggregates meeting the requirements of this Section and
the concrete being sufficiently protected from loss of moisture and from low temperatures to ensure that proper curing

will take place. When Type III Portland cement is used in lieu of Type I or Type II Portland cement, it may be assumed
that the specified compressive strength will be obtained at the age of 7 days.
c. The strength of cylinders made with Types I, IA, II or IIA Portland cement and tested at the age of 7 days shall not fall
below 65% of the assumed compressive strength at the age of 28 days. The strength of cylinders made with Types III or
IIIA Portland cement and tested at the age of 3 days shall not fall below 65% of the assumed minimum compressive
strength at the age of 28 days shown for Types I, IA, II and IIA Portland cement. The strength of cylinders tested at the
age of 28 days shall be at least 1200 psi (8.3 MPa) greater than the strength specified on the plans when using this
method.
1.12.5.2 Method 2 – With Preliminary Tests
The strength of concrete shall be determined by tests made with representative samples of the materials to be used in the work.
The results of the tests shall be submitted to the Engineer in advance of construction. These tests shall be made using the
consistencies suitable for the work. These samples shall be proportioned to produce a slump of within 3/4 inch (19 mm) of the
maximum permitted slump and with an entrained air content of within 0.5 percent of the maximum air content required. Tests
shall be conducted in accordance with ASTM C192 Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the
Laboratory and with ASTM C39 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. At least
three tests shall be conducted for each of three water-cementitious material ratios that will encompass the required concrete
strength. A curve representing the relation between the water content and the average 28 day compressive strength or earlier
strength at which the concrete is to receive its full working load shall be established for this range of values. The maximum
permissible water-cementitious material ratio for the concrete to be used shall be shown by the curve to produce a strength
15% greater than specified on the Plans or specifications. If any changes are to be made in the materials, new curves shall be
established by tests as described above.
1.12.5.3 Method 3 – On Basis of Field Experience
a. Where a concrete production facility has a record based upon at least 30 consecutive strength tests that represent
similar materials and conditions to those expected, required average compressive strength used as the basis for
selecting concrete proportions shall exceed required f’c at designated test ages by at least:
(1) 1.34 standard deviations, where the standard deviation is less than or equal to 500 psi (3.45 MPa).
(2) 2.33 standard deviations less 500 psi (3.45 MPa), where the standard deviation is greater than 500 psi (3.45 MPa).
b. Strength test data for determining standard deviation shall be considered to comply with the above if data represents
either a group of at least 30 consecutive tests or a statistical average for two groups totaling 30 or more tests.
c. Strength tests used to establish standard deviation shall represent concrete produced to meet a specified strength within
±1000 psi (±6.90 MPa) of that specified for the proposed work.
d. Changes in materials and proportions within the population of background tests used to establish standard deviation
shall not have been more closely restricted than for the proposed work.
1.12.6 WORKABILITY (2009)
The concrete shall be of such consistency and composition that it can be worked readily into the corners and angles of the
forms and around the reinforcement without segregation of materials or the collection of free water on the surface. Subject to
the limiting requirements of Article 1.12.3, the contractor shall, if the Engineer requires, submit a new mix design to adjust the
proportions of cement and aggregates so as to produce a mixture which will be easily placeable at all times, due consideration
being given to the methods of placing and compacting used on the work and subject to the approval of the Engineer.

1.12.7 SLUMP (2009)
The slump test may be used as a control measure to maintain the consistency suitable for the work. When mechanical vibrators
are used to compact the concrete, the consistency suitable to that method shall be used. The slump test shall be made in
accordance with the ASTM Method of Test C143 Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete.
1.12.8 COMPRESSION TESTS (2009)
Specimens for compression tests shall be made and stored in accordance with ASTM C31 Standard Practice for Making and
Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field. These specimens shall be tested in accordance with ASTM C39.
1.12.9 FIELD TESTS (2009)
a. During the progress of construction, the Engineer will have tests made to determine whether the concrete produced
compares to the quality specified by the Plans. The Contractor shall cooperate in the making of such tests and allow
free access to the work for selection of samples and storage of specimens and in affording protection to the specimens
against injury or loss through construction operations.
b. Four cylinders will generally be made for each class of concrete used in any one day’s operation. In special cases, this
normal number of control specimens may be exceeded when in the opinion of the Engineer such additional tests are
required. The Contractor, however, shall not be required to furnish for such additional tests more than 2 cubic feet (75
liters) of concrete for each 100 cubic yard (76 cubic meter) of concrete being placed.
c. Samples of concrete for test specimens shall be taken at the mixer, or in the case of ready-mix concrete, from the 1
transportation vehicle during discharge. When, in the opinion of the Engineer, it is desirable to take samples elsewhere,
they shall be taken as directed. Specimens shall be made and stored in accordance with Article 1.12.8.
d. The air content of freshly mixed air-entrained concrete shall be checked at least twice daily for each class of concrete,
or each time cylinders are cast. Changes in air content above or below the amount specified shall be corrected by
adjustment in the mix design or quantities of air-entraining material being used.
3
e. If the strengths shown by the test specimens fall below the values given in Article 1.12.5 or as specified by the Plans,
then the Engineer shall have the right to require changes in proportions to apply on the remainder of the work.
f. Technicians performing field tests of concrete materials shall maintain Level I certification by the American Concrete
Institute as a Concrete Field Testing Technician. The person in responsible charge of field test operations shall maintain
Level 3 certification by the National Ready Mix Concrete Association as a Concrete Technologist. 4
1.12.10 SPECIAL PROVISIONS WHEN USING CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS OTHER THAN
PORTLAND CEMENT (2009)1
1.12.10.1 Maximum Cementitious Materials
Concrete exposed to deicing chemicals shall contain total weights (masses) of cementitious materials no greater than those
specified in Table 8-1-12.

Table 8-1-12. Concrete Exposed to Deicing Chemicals
Cementitious Material Maximum Percentage of Total Cementitious

Materials by Weight (mass)
Fly ash or other pozzolans conforming to 25
ASTM C618
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag 50
conforming to ASTM C989
Silica fume conforming to ASTM C1240 10
Total fly ash or other pozzolans, ground 50
granulated blast-furnace slag and silica fume
Total fly ash or other pozzolans, and silica 35
fume
Notes: Total cementitious material also includes ASTM C150, ASTM C595, ASTM C845
and ASTM C1157 cements (ASTM C845 is the Standard Specification for Expansive
Hydraulic Cement and is not included in this recommended practice).
The maximum percentages include:
a. Fly ash and other pozzolans and ground granulated blast-furnace slag included in
Types IP or I(PM) or IS or I(SM) blended cements, ASTM C595
b. Silica fume, ASTM C1240, present in blended cements
1.12.10.2 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete
1.12.10.2.1 General
The ability of the concrete mixture to exhibit special properties should be determined by tests for each source of silica fume.
1.12.10.2.2 High-Range Water Reducing Admixtures
High-range water reducing admixtures should be used in concrete containing silica fume in order to achieve the desired
workability.
1.12.10.2.3 Entrained Air
The amount of admixture required to entrain the desired amount of air should be determined by tests as part of the design of
the concrete mixture.
1.12.10.3 Requirements When Using Fly Ash in Concrete
1.12.10.3.1 General
Mix proportions, including the proportions of fly ash, shall be determined by tests.
1.12.10.3.2 Water-Reducing Admixtures and High Range Water-Reducing Admixtures
Water reducing admixtures and high-range water reducing admixtures may be used in concrete containing fly ash.

1.12.10.3.3 Testing to Verify Mix Design
The mixture shall be designed and proportioned to provide the properties for which the fly ash was used, and to avoid other
possible undesirable properties. Tests shall include slump/workability, requirements for air-entraining admixtures, the rate of
bleeding of fresh concrete, the time of setting, the rate of early strength gain and any need to use an accelerating admixture or
a water-reducing admixture, the heat of hydration (if required), reactivity with sulphates or expansion due to alkali-silica
reactions (if required), and the 28-day or later strength as required by the design parameters.
1.12.10.3.4 Water to Cementitious Materials Ratio
The water to cementitious material ratio will normally be reduced in concrete containing fly ash.
1.12.10.3.5 Air Entrainment
Concrete containing fly ash should be air entrained if it is to be subjected to freezing and thawing conditions. Concrete should
also attain the desired design strength before being subjected to chlorides.
1.12.10.4 Requirements When Using Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag in Concrete
1.12.10.4.1 General
Mix proportions, including the proportion of ground granulated blast-furnace slag, shall be determined by tests.
1.12.10.4.2 Water-Reducing Admixtures

1
Water-reducing admixtures may be used in concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag, in order to increase the
rate of strength gain.
1.12.10.4.3 Accelerators
An accelerating admixture may be used when using ground granulated blast-furnace slag in a concrete mix. 3
1.12.10.4.4 Proportioning of Aggregates
Concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag will normally be proportioned for a larger quantity of coarse
aggregate than normal Portland cement concrete.
1.12.10.4.5 Entrained Air 4

The amount of admixture required to entrain the desired amount of air should be determined by tests as part of the design of
the concrete mixture.
SECTION 1.13 MIXING
1.13.1 GENERAL (2009)
a. The concrete shall be mixed only in the quantity required for immediate use. Concrete that has developed an initial set
shall not be used.

b. The first batch of concrete materials placed in the mixer shall contain a sufficient excess of cement, sand, and water to
coat the inside of the drum without reducing the required mortar content of the mix. The mixer shall be thoroughly
cleaned if mixing is interrupted for a period that would permit initial set to take place.
c. Concrete may be mixed at the site of construction, at a central point, and/or in truck mixers.
d. The ingredients shall be thoroughly mixed to specification.
1.13.2 SITE-MIXED CONCRETE (2009)
a. Unless authorized by the Engineer, the concrete shall be mixed in a batch mixer of approved type and size which will
ensure a uniform distribution of the material throughout the mass. The equipment at the mixing plant shall be so
constructed that all materials (including the water) entering the drum can be accurately measured and weighed. The
batch shall be fully discharged from the mixer before recharging. The volume of the mixed material per batch shall not
exceed the manufacturer’s rated capacity of the mixer. Mixing of each batch shall continue for the periods noted below,
during which time the drum shall rotate at a peripheral speed as recommended by the manufacturer. The mixing time
shall be measured from the time when all of the solid materials are in the mixer drum, provided that all of the mixer
water has been introduced before one-fourth of the mixing time has elapsed. The mixer shall have a timing device with
a bell or other suitable warning device adjusted to give a clearly audible signal each time the lock is released. In case of
failure of the timing device, the contractor shall be permitted to operate while it is being repaired, provided an
approved timepiece equipped with minute and second readings is furnished. If the timing device is not placed in good
working order within 24 hours, further use of the mixer will be prohibited until repairs are made.
b. Minimum mixing time shall be as follows:
(1) For mixers of a capacity of 1 cubic yard (0.8 cubic meter) or less – 90 seconds unless a shorter time is shown to be
satisfactory in accordance with concrete uniformity test requirements of ASTM C94.
(2) For mixers of a capacity greater than 1 cu yd (0.8 cubic meter), the time of mixing shall be increased 25 seconds
for each cubic yard (0.8 cubic meter) of capacity or fraction thereof or as determined by the concrete uniformity
test requirements of ASTM C94.
c. The production of concrete shall meet the applicable requirements of ASTM C94.
1.13.3 READY-MIXED CONCRETE (2009)
Ready mixed concrete shall be mixed and delivered to the site by any of three methods of operation: central mixing, shrink
mixing or truck mixing. The production of ready-mixed concrete shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C94. The batch
plant providing ready-mixed concrete shall be certified by the National Ready Mix Concrete Association.
1.13.4 DELIVERY (2009)
a. The organization supplying concrete shall have sufficient plant capacity and transporting equipment to ensure
continuous delivery at the rate required. The rate of delivery of concrete during concrete operations shall be such as to
provide for the proper handling, placing, and finishing of the concrete. The methods of delivering and handling
concrete shall facilitate placing with minimum rehandling and without damage to the structure or concrete.
b. The Contractor shall submit records to the Engineer showing the time and date of each batch produced and the mix
proportions and the approximate location within the structure of each batch.

1.13.5 REQUIREMENTS WHEN USING SILICA FUME IN CONCRETE (2009)
1.13.5.1 Material Handling Procedures When Using Silica Fume
It is recommended that persons handling silica fume use protective equipment and procedures to minimize the generation and
accumulation of dust. Manufacturers’ material safety data sheets should be consulted for specific health and safety practices to
be followed.
1.13.5.2 Workability of Delivered Concrete1
Tests for slump and entrained air content should be carried out at the site before placing concrete containing silica fume to
ensure that specification limits are met.
SECTION 1.14 DEPOSITING CONCRETE
1.14.1 GENERAL (2018)
Before beginning placement of concrete, hardened concrete and foreign materials shall be removed from the inner surfaces of
the mixing and conveying equipment. Before depositing any concrete all debris shall be removed from the space to be
occupied by the concrete, and mortar splashed upon the reinforcement and surfaces of forms shall be removed. Reinforcement
shall be checked for position and fastening and approval of the Engineer obtained. Where concrete is to be placed on a rock 1
foundation, all loose rock, clay, mud, etc., shall be removed from the surface of the rock. Any unusual conditions or excess
fissures shall be treated as directed by the Engineer. Water shall be removed from the space to be occupied by the concrete
before concrete is deposited, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer. Any flow of water into an excavation shall be diverted
through proper side drains to a sump, or be removed by other approved methods which will avoid washing the freshly
deposited concrete. If directed by the Engineer water ventpipes and drains shall be filled by grouting or otherwise after the
concrete has thoroughly hardened. All temporary runways for delivery of concrete must be supported free from all reinforcing
steel. The supervisor of the concrete placing crew shall be certified by the American Concrete Institute as a Concrete Flatwork 3
Finisher, or Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.Precast fabricators shall be certified by Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, proof will be provided upon request.
1.14.2 HANDLING AND PLACING (1993)
a. Concrete shall be handled from the mixer, or in case of ready-mixed concrete, from the transporting vehicle, to the 4
place of final deposit as rapidly as practicable by methods which will prevent the separation or loss of the ingredients.
Special care shall be taken to fill each part of the forms by depositing concrete as near final position as possible, to
work the coarser aggregates back from the face and to force the concrete under and around the reinforcement without
displacing it. Concrete shall not have a free fall of more than 4 feet unless permitted by the Engineer. Depositing a large
quantity at any point and working it to final position, shall not be permitted.
b. Concrete shall be placed in horizontal layers and each layer shall be placed and compacted before the preceding layer
has taken initial set so as to prevent formation of a joint. It shall be so deposited as to maintain, until the completion of
the unit, a plastic surface approximately horizontal, except in arch rings. Temporary struts or braces within the form
shall be removed when concrete has reached an elevation rendering their further service unnecessary. These temporary
members shall be entirely removed from the forms and not buried in the concrete. After the concrete has taken its
initial set, care shall be exercised to avoid jarring the forms or placing any strain on the ends of the projecting
reinforcement. Under no circumstances shall concrete that has partially hardened be deposited in the work.

c. In placing concrete for an arch ring, the work shall be carried on symmetrically with respect to the center line, and the
working faces of the completed courses shall be on approximately radial planes. This requirement applies whether or
not the arch is placed in voussoir sections with allowance for key sections for final placement.
d. In order to allow for shrinkage or settlement, at least 2 hours shall elapse after placing concrete in walls, columns or
stems of deep T-beams before depositing concrete in girders, beams or slabs supported thereon, unless otherwise
specified or shown on the plans. If the columns are structural steel encased in concrete, the lapse of time to allow for
shrinkage or settlement need not be observed.
e. Concrete in girders, slabs and shallow T-beam construction shall be placed in one continuous operation for each span,
unless otherwise provided. Concrete shall be deposited uniformly for the full length of the span and brought up evenly
in horizontal layers.
f. No concrete shall be placed in the superstructure until the pier forms have been stripped sufficiently to determine the
character of the concrete in the piers, and the load of the superstructure shall not be allowed to come upon abutments,
piers and column bents until they have been in place at least 7 days, unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer.
1.14.3 CHUTING (1993)
When concrete is conveyed by chuting, the plant shall be of such size and design as to insure a practically continuous flow in
the chute. The chutes shall be of metal or metal lined. The angle of the chute with the horizontal and the shape of the chute
shall be such as to allow the concrete to slide without separation of the ingredients. The delivery end of the chute shall be as
close as possible to the point of deposit. When the operation is intermittent, the chute shall discharge into a hopper. The chute
shall be thoroughly flushed with water before and after each run: the water used for this purpose shall be discharged outside
the forms. Chutes must be properly baffled or hooded at the discharging end to prevent separation of the aggregates.
1.14.4 PNEUMATIC PLACING (SHOTCRETING) (1993)
Shotcrete construction shall be in accordance with ACI Standard “Guide to Shotcrete” (ACI 506) and ACI Standard
“Specification for Materials, Proportioning, and Application of Shotcrete” (ACI 506.2) of the ACI.
1.14.5 PUMPING CONCRETE (1993)
a. The pump and all appurtenances shall be so designed and arranged that the specified concrete can be transported and
placed in the forms without segregation. The pump shall be capable of developing a working pressure of at least 300
psi and the pipeline and fittings shall be designed to withstand twice the working pressure.
b. Where it is necessary to lay the pipe on a down grade, a reducer shall be placed at the discharge end of the pipe to
provide a choke and thus produce a continuous flow of concrete. When the type of pump is such that it discharges the
concrete in small batches, or “belching,” a baffle box shall be provided into which the concrete shall be discharged.
This box should preferably be of metal, about 2 feet square, with open sides so as to permit the concrete to flow into the
forms at right angles to line of discharge. The pipe shall be not less than 6 inches nor more than 8 inches outside
diameter, and the line shall be laid with as few bends as possible. When changes in direction are necessary they shall be
made with bends of 45 degrees or less, unless greater bends are specifically permitted. If greater bends are permitted in
special cases, they shall be long-radius bends. The maximum distance of delivery of concrete by pumping shall be
1000 feet horizontally and 100 feet vertically, unless otherwise specifically permitted by the Engineer. (A 90-degree
bend is figured as equivalent to 40 feet of horizontal piping. A 45-degree bend is equivalent to 20 feet. A 22.5-degree
bend is equivalent to 10 feet.) When pumping is completed, the concrete remaining in the pipeline if it is to be used,
shall be ejected in such a manner that there will be no contamination of the concrete or separation of the ingredients.
The pipeline and equipment must then be thoroughly cleaned. The pipeline can be cleaned by either water or air. If
water is used, a pump shall be provided with a capacity of at least 80 gpm and capable of developing a pressure of 400
psi. Cleaning of the pipe can also be accomplished by the use of a “go-devil” which is propelled through the line by
water or air pressure. (The “go-devil” is a dumbbell shaped piece with a rubber cup on each end. The cups are turned

toward the liquid, or air, and the seal is the same as in a simple plunger pump.) If water is used, it must be discharged
outside of the forms. On important work duplicate pumping equipment and additional pipe shall be provided to prevent
delay due to breakdown of equipment.
1.14.6 COMPACTING (1993)
a. Concrete shall be thoroughly compacted during and immediately after depositing by vibrating the concrete internally
by means of mechanical vibrating equipment, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer.
b. Internal mechanical vibrators shall be of a type approved by the Engineer. They shall be of sturdy construction,
adequately powered, capable of transmitting vibration to the concrete in frequencies of not less than 3500 impulses per
minute and shall produce a vibration of sufficient intensity to consolidate the concrete into place without a separation
of the ingredients.
c. The vibratory elements shall be inserted into the concrete at the point of deposit and in the areas of freshly placed
concrete. The time of vibration shall be of sufficient duration to accomplish thorough consolidation, complete
embedment of the reinforcement, the production of smooth surfaces free from honeycomb and air bubbles, and to work
the concrete into all angles and corners of the forms. However, over-vibration shall be avoided, and vibration shall
continue in a spot only until the concrete has become uniformly plastic and shall not continue to the extent that pools of
grout are formed. The length of time of vibration depends upon the frequency of the vibration (impulses per minute),
size of vibrators and the slump of the concrete. This length of time must be determined in the field.
d. The internal vibrators shall be applied at points uniformly spaced, not farther apart than the radius over which the
vibration is visibly effective, and shall be applied close enough to the forms effectively to vibrate the surface concrete. 1
The vibration shall not be dissipated in lateral motion but shall be concentrated in vertical settlement in consolidation
of the concrete.
e. The vibrator shall not be used to push or distribute the concrete laterally. The vibrating element shall be inserted in the
concrete mass a sufficient depth to vibrate the bottom of each layer effectively, in as nearly a vertical position as
practicable. It shall be withdrawn completely from the concrete before being advanced to the next point of application.
3
f. To secure even and dense surfaces, free from aggregate pockets or honeycomb, vibration shall be supplemented by
working or spading by hand in the corners and angles of forms and along form surfaces while the concrete is plastic
under the vibratory action.
g. A sufficient number of vibrators shall be employed so that, at the required rate of placement, thorough consolidation is
secured throughout the entire volume of each layer of concrete. Extra vibrators shall be on hand for emergency use and
for use when other vibrators are being serviced. 4
h. The use of surface vibrators to supplement internal vibration will be permitted when satisfactory surfaces cannot be
obtained by the internal vibrations alone and when the contractor has obtained the approval of the Engineer of the
equipment to be used. Surface vibrators shall be applied only long enough to embed the coarse aggregate and to bring
enough mortar to the surface for satisfactory finishing.
i. The use of approved form vibrators will be permitted by the Engineer only when it is impossible to use internal
vibrators. They shall be attached to or held on the forms in such a manner as to effectively transmit the vibration to the
concrete and so that the principal path of motion of the vibration is in a horizontal plane.
1.14.7 TEMPERATURE (1993)
a. Concrete when deposited shall have temperatures within the limits shown in Table 8-1-13.
b. The method of controlling the temperature of the concrete shall be approved by the Engineer.

Table 8-1-13. Concrete Temperature Limits
Temperature of Concrete
Temperature of Air
When Placed–Degrees F
Degrees - F Minimum Maximum

Below 30 70 90
Between 30 and 45 60 90
Above 45 50 90
1.14.8 CONTINUOUS DEPOSITING (1993)
Concrete shall be deposited continuously and as rapidly as practicable until the unit of operation approved by the Engineer is
completed. Construction joints in addition to those provided on the plans will not be allowed unless authorized by the
Engineer. If so authorized, they shall be made in accordance with Section 1.11, Concrete Jointing.
1.14.9 BONDING (1993)
Before new concrete is placed against hardened concrete, the surface of the hardened concrete shall be cleaned and all laitance
removed. Immediately before new concrete is placed, the existing surfaces shall be thoroughly wetted and all standing water
removed. Prior to placing fresh concrete, apply a bonding layer of mortar, usually 1/8 inch to 1/2 inch in thickness, which is
spread on the moist and prepared hardened concrete surface. In lieu of mortar, a suitable commercial bonding agent may be
used, when applied in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
1.14.10 PLACING CYCLOPEAN CONCRETE (1993)
Cyclopean aggregate shall be thoroughly embedded in the concrete. The individual stones shall not be closer than 12 inches to
any surface or adjacent stones. Stratified stone shall be laid on its natural bed. Cyclopean aggregate shall be carefully placed to
avoid injury to forms or adjoining masonry.
1.14.11 PLACING RUBBLE CONCRETE (1993)
Rubble aggregate shall be thoroughly embedded in the concrete. The individual stones shall not be closer than 4 inches to any
surface or adjacent stones. Rubble aggregate shall be carefully placed to avoid injury to forms or adjacent masonry.
1.14.12 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)1
1.14.12.1 Protection from Moisture Loss
Protection of concrete from early moisture loss is to begin at the first opportunity after placement and may require that such
measures precede the curing phase of the work. Evaporation retarders, fogging and protection from the wind during the
placement stage, or immediate curing, may be options included in the project specifications. Appropriate measures to protect
against early moisture loss in concrete containing silica fume should be included and stressed in the project specifications.
Subgrade moistening may be required to prevent excessive drying from the underside of the concrete.
1.14.12.2 Consolidation
Careful attention to effective vibration is required for concrete containing silica fume.

1.14.13 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)
1.14.13.1 Air Entrainment
Tests shall be performed at the site to verify that the required amount of entrained air is present at the time of depositing the
concrete.
1.14.14 WATER GAIN (1993)
Water gain is characterized by an accumulation of water at the surface. Whenever water gain appears in the concrete placed,
the succeeding batches must be placed sufficiently dry to correct the over-wet condition by the reduction of the water cement
ratio without changing the proportions of the other ingredients.
SECTION 1.15 DEPOSITING CONCRETE UNDER WATER
1.15.1 GENERAL (2014)
a. The methods specified in Section 1.14, Depositing Concrete shall be used except when the space to be filled with
concrete contains water which cannot be removed in some practical way. In such cases, and when authorized by the
Engineer, concrete shall be deposited under water in accordance with the following.
1
b. The methods, equipment and materials proposed to be used, shall be submitted first to the Engineer for review before
the work is started. The methods used shall prevent the washing out of the cement from the concrete mixture, minimize
the segregation of materials and the formation of laitance, and prevent the flow of water through or over the new
concrete until it has fully hardened. Concrete shall not be placed in water having a temperature below 35 degrees F (2
degrees C).
3
1.15.2 CAPACITY OF PLANT (2014)
Sufficient mixing, transporting and placing equipment will be provided to ensure that the depositing of all underwater concrete
for each predetermined section or unit of the work to be done shall be continuous until completion.
1.15.3 GENERAL GUIDELINES (2014) 4

The materials, preparations and methods to be used in making concrete to be deposited under water shall conform to the
requirements of these guidelines except as modified or supplemented by the following Articles.
1.15.4 CEMENT (2014)
Not less than 610 lb per cubic yard (362 kg per cubic meter) of cement in concrete shall be used.
1.15.5 COARSE AGGREGATES (2014)
Coarse aggregate for this work shall be of good quality, strong and durable as specified in Section 1.4. The maximum size of
aggregate preferably shall be 2 inches (51 mm) and shall not exceed 3 inches (76 mm). The coarse aggregate shall be well
graded in such proportions that the weight of the coarse aggregate shall be not less than 1.25 nor more than 2.0 times that of
the fine aggregate. Maximum size of coarse aggregate shall be adjusted when depositing concrete by tremie pipe or pump.

1.15.6 MIXING (2014)
The cement and aggregates shall be mixed for a period of 2 minutes with sufficient water to produce a concrete having a slump
of not less than 6 inches (152 mm) nor more than 8 inches (203 mm) for concrete placed by tremies, and not less than 3 inches
(76 mm) nor more than 6 inches (152 mm) for concrete placed by bottom dump buckets or for concrete placed in sacks.
1.15.7 CAISSONS, COFFERDAMS OR FORMS (1993) R(2014)
Caissons, cofferdams or forms shall be sufficiently tight to prevent loss of mortar or flow of water through the space in which
the concrete is to be deposited. Pumping will not be permitted while concrete is being deposited, nor until a minimum of 24
hours thereafter or longer period if required by the Engineer.
1.15.8 LEVELING AND CLEANING THE BOTTOM TO RECEIVE CONCRETE (2014)
a. Before starting to deposit concrete under water, the condition of the bottom surface receiving concrete shall be
examined by an approved method and reported to the Engineer for review.
b. The bottom surface receiving concrete, whether of clay, rock, or other material, shall be leveled as directed by the
Engineer, before depositing concrete.
c. Where the bottom surface on which concrete is to be deposited under water is likely to be covered with silt or
unwanted material, such material shall be removed down to solid surface before any concrete is placed. The method to
be used to clean the bottom of silt or unwanted material shall be subject to the review of the Engineer.
1.15.9 CONTINUOUS WORK (2014)
Concrete shall be deposited continuously until it reaches the required elevation. While depositing concrete, the top surface
shall be kept as nearly level as possible, and the formation of laitance planes avoided.
1.15.10 METHODS OF DEPOSITING (2014)1
a. Tremie. When concrete is to be deposited under water by means of a tremie, the top section of the tremie shall be a
hopper large enough to hold one entire batch of the mix or the entire contents of the transporting bucket, when one is
used.
(1) The tremie pipe shall be not less than 8 inches (203 mm) in diameter and shall be large enough to allow a free flow
of concrete and strong enough to withstand the external pressure of the water in which it is suspended, even if a
partial vacuum develops inside the pipe.
(2) Unless the lower end of the pipe is equipped with an approved automatic check valve, the upper end of the pipe
shall be plugged with an approved material, before delivering the concrete to the tremie pipe through the hopper,
which plug will be forced out of the bottom end of the pipe by filling the pipe with concrete.
(3) It will be necessary to slowly raise the tremie in order to allow a uniform flow of the concrete, but the tremie pipe
shall not be emptied so that water enters above the concrete in the pipe.
(4) After the start of placing the concrete and until all concrete is placed, the lower end of the tremie pipe shall be
below the top surface of the plastic concrete in order to avoid formation of laitance layers.

(5) If the charge in the tremie is lost while depositing, the tremie shall be raised above the concrete surface, and unless
sealed by a check valve it shall be replugged at the top end, as at the beginning, before refilling for depositing
concrete.
b. Pumping. When concrete is to be deposited by pump, the methods, equipment and properties of coarse and fine
aggregates suitable for pumping shall be submitted to the Engineer for review. Maximum coarse aggregate size shall be
limited to one-third the smallest inside diameter of the pump or pipe. Fineness modulus of sand meeting the
requirements of ASTM C33/C33M shall fall between 2.40 and 3.00 with the median being 2.70.
c. Bottom Dump Bucket. Where concrete is to be deposited under water by means of a bottom dump bucket, the bucket
shall be of the type that cannot be dumped until after it has rested, with its load, on the surface upon which the concrete
is to be deposited.
(1) The bottom doors shall be so equipped as to be automatically unlatched by the release of tension on the supporting
line or cable of the bucket, and the bottom doors shall then open downward and outward as the bucket is raised.
(2) The top of the bucket shall be fitted with double, overlapping canvas flaps, or other approved covers, to cover the
contained concrete and to protect it from wash when it enters the water and as the bucket descends to the bottom.
(3) The bucket shall be submerged slowly until it is completely under water. The normal line speed after that shall not
exceed 200 feet (61 m) per minute. After the bucket has reached the surface on which the concrete is to be
deposited, it shall be raised slowly for the first 6 feet (1.83 m) or 8 feet (2.44 m) while the concrete is being
deposited.
d. Placing Sacks of Concrete. Where a relatively small amount of concrete is to be placed that does not warrant the
1
equipment required for other tremie or open-bottom bucket methods, concrete may be placed under water in sacks or
bags. In such case the space shall be filled with sacks of concrete carefully placed by hand in header and stretcher
formation, so that the whole mass becomes interlocked. Sacks used for this purpose shall be made of jute or other
coarse fabric free from deleterious materials, and shall be filled about two-thirds full of concrete with the sack
openings securely tied.
3
e. Grouted Aggregate. Coarse aggregate shall be installed by placing in the forms followed by injecting cement grout
through pipes that extend to the bottom of the forms. The pipes shall be withdrawn as grouting proceeds. The grout
shall force the water up in the forms and fill interstices in the aggregate.
(1) The grout injecton pipe system shall be designed and installed to deliver grout to the entire mass. Vent pipes shall
be required to relieve entrapped water or air. Sounding wells or an approved alternate method shall be provided to
determine the location of grout surface during the grout injection. 4
(2) The coarse aggregate shall be placed in horizontal layers of such maximum thickness that will provide a dense fill
without segregation and shall be well-compacted.
(3) The grout mixture shall be applied under such pressure and at such consistency that will ensure complete filling of
voids, and the grout injection pipes shall be properly spaced to be consistent with this requirement.
(4) Mineral fillers and admixtures may be added to the grout mixture if approved by the Engineer.
(5) The grout mixture required for this work shall necessitate the use of special mixers and agitators to deliver suitable
grout in place. This equipment and all grout lines shall be maintained in good operating condition and cleaned of
all grout after every shift or work stoppage.

1.15.11 SOUNDINGS (2014)

During the time that concrete is being deposited under water, soundings shall be taken to the surface of the deposited concrete
and recorded at regular intervals as directed by the Engineer. The surface of the deposited concrete shall be maintained
relatively level over the area being covered.
1.15.12 REMOVING LAITANCE (2014)

Upon completing a unit or section of underwater concrete, any laitance or silt collecting on the upper surface of the same shall
be removed and the concrete surface thoroughly cleaned if additional concrete is to be deposited on that surface. The laitance
removal process shall be reviewed by the Engineer. Following removal and cleaning, the final upper surface shall be
examined and reported to the Engineer for review prior to additional concrete being deposited.
1.15.13 CONCRETE SEALS (2014)
Under favorable conditions it is possible to place underwater concrete of a limited thickness in the bottoms of caissons or
cofferdams and so completely seal the structures. After the concrete has set, all water can be pumped out. In such cases, if it is
economical to do so, the water shall be pumped out, the exposed surfaces cleaned and the balance of the concrete deposited in
air.
SECTION 1.16 CONCRETE IN SEA WATER
1.16.1 CONCRETE (2004)
a. Unless otherwise specifically provided, concrete for structures in, or exposed to, sea water shall be air-entrained in
accordance with Article 1.12.4, and shall be made with Type II or IIA portland cement having a maximum tricalcium
aluminate content of 8%. Concrete in sea water or exposed directly along the sea coast shall contain a minimum of 560
lb of portland cement per cubic yard. The concrete shall be mixed for a period of not less than 2 minutes and the water
content of the mixture shall be carefully controlled and regulated so as to produce concrete of maximum
impermeability. Porous or weak aggregates shall not be used.
b. When concrete mix designs include cementitious materials other than portland cement, the resistance to the harmful
effects of exposure to sea water shall be determined by tests, or by experience from using materials from the same
sources.
1.16.2 DEPOSITING IN SEA WATER (1993)
Between levels of extreme low water and extreme high water as determined by the Engineer, sea water shall not come in direct
contact with the concrete for a period of not less than 30 days. Sea water shall not be allowed to come in contact with other
concrete that will be in or exposed to sea water until it is hardened for at least 4 days. Concrete may be deposited in sea water
only when so approved by the Engineer. The original surface, as the forms are removed from the concrete, shall be left
undisturbed.
Concrete shall be placed in such a manner that no construction joints shall be formed between levels of extreme low water and
extreme high water as determined by the Engineer. Construction joints outside the level between extreme low water and
extreme high water shall be held to the minimum necessary, and all construction joints shall be made as described in Section
1.11, Concrete Jointing and Section 1.14, Depositing Concrete, Article 1.14.9.

1.16.4 MINIMUM COVER (1993)
Reinforcing steel or other corrodible metal shall have a cover of not less than 4 inches of concrete.
1.16.5 PROTECTING CONCRETE IN SEA WATER (1993)
Where severe climatic conditions or severe abrasions are anticipated, the face of the concrete from 2 feet below low water to 2
feet above high water, or from a plane below to a plane above wave action, shall be protected by stone of suitable quality,
dense vitrified shale brick as designated or as required by the Engineer, or in special cases the protection may be creosoted
timber.
SECTION 1.17 CONCRETE IN ALKALI SOILS OR ALKALI WATER
1.17.1 CONDITION OF EXPOSURE (1993)
In areas where concrete may be exposed to injurious concentrations of sulfates from soils and waters, concrete shall be made
with sulfate resisting cement. Table 8-1-14 gives limitations on tricalcium aluminate content in cement for various exposure
conditions, severity of conditions may be judged by the extent of deterioration which has occurred to concrete previously used
in the immediate vicinity or from the sulfate concentrations found in either the soil or the water.
1
Table 8-1-14. Recommendations For Concrete In Sulfate Exposures
Normal Weight Lightweight

Sulfate Concentration as SO4 Maximum Aggregate Aggregate
Tricalcium Concrete Concrete
Sulfate 3
Aluminate in Maximum Water-
Exposure Minimum
In Soil, Percent Cement, Percent Cementitious
In Solution, PPM (Note 1) Compression
by Weight Material Ratio,
Strength, f c, psi
by Weight
Moderate 0.10–0.20 150–1500 8 0.50 3750
Severe 0.20–2.00 1500–10,000 5 0.45 4000
4
Very Severe over 2.00 over 10,000 5 plus pozzolan 0.45 4000
(Note 2)
Note 1: Maximum tricalcium aluminate content of cement for concrete in seawater shall be 8%.
Note 2: Use a pozzolan which has been determined by tests to improve sulfate resistance when used in concrete containing a
cement with a maximum tricalcium aluminate content of 5% or less.
1.17.2 CONCRETE FOR MODERATE EXPOSURE (1993)
Concrete for moderate sulfate exposure shall be made from Type II or specified portland blast furnace slag cement Type IS
(MS), and portland pozzolan cement Type IP (MS) may be used to meet the 8% tricalcium aluminate limitation. Concrete shall
contain not less than 610 lb of cement per cu yd. The concrete shall be air-entrained in accordance with Section 1.12,
Proportioning, Article 1.12.4.

1.17.3 CONCRETE FOR SEVERE EXPOSURE (1993)
Concrete for severe sulfate exposure shall be made using Type V portland cement with a 5% maximum tricalcium aluminate
content. Concrete shall contain not less than 660 lb of cement per cu yd. The concrete shall be air-entrained in accordance with
Section 1.12, Proportioning, Article 1.12.4.
1.17.4 CONCRETE FOR VERY SEVERE EXPOSURE (1993)
Concrete for very severe exposure shall be made using Type V portland cement with a 5% maximum tricalcium aluminate
content plus pozzolan. The pozzolan used should have been determined by tests to improve the sulfate resistance of concrete
containing a cement with a maximum tricalcium aluminate content of 5% or less. The concrete shall contain not less than 660
lb of cement per cu yd. The concrete shall be air-entrained in accordance with Section 1.12, Proportioning, Article 1.12.4.
NOTE: Type III may also be specified to meet either the 5% or 8% tricalcium aluminate limitation. In certain
areas the tricalcium aluminate content of other types of cement may be less than 5% or 8%. Sulfate
resisting cement will not increase resistance to some chemically aggressive solutions, for example
ammonium nitrate. The special provisions of the project specifications shall cover all special cases.
1.17.5 CONCRETE FOR ALKALI SOILS OR ALKALI WATER (2004)
When concrete mix designs include cementitious materials other than portland cement, resistance to the harmful effects of
exposure to alkali soils or alkali water shall be determined by tests, or by experience from using materials from the same
sources.
Wherever possible, placing of concrete shall be continuous until completion of the section or until the concrete is at least 18
inches above ground or water level. If construction joints are required they shall be minimized, and all construction joints shall
be made as described in Section 1.11, Concrete Jointing and Section 1.14, Depositing Concrete, Article 1.14.9.
1.17.7 MINIMUM COVER (1993)
Reinforcing steel or other corrodible metal shall have a cover of not less than 4 inches of concrete.
1.17.8 PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE (1993)
Alkaline water or soils shall not be in contact with the concrete during placement and for a period of at least 72 hours
thereafter.
SECTION 1.18 CURING
1.18.1 GENERAL (2018)

a. In freezing weather, or when there is likelihood of freezing temperatures within the specified curing period, suitable
and sufficient means must be provided before concreting, for maintaining all concrete surfaces at a temperature of not
less than 50 degrees F (10 degrees C) for a period of not less than 7 days after the concrete is placed when Type I, IA,
II or IIA portland cement is used, and not less than 3 days when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used. Curing for
precast members shall be in accordance with Chapter 8, Section 17.26.4.

b. The temperature of concrete surfaces shall be determined by thermometers placed against the surface of the concrete.
Provision shall be made in form construction to permit the removal of small sections of forms to accommodate the
placing of thermometers against concrete surfaces at locations designated by the Engineer. After thermometers are
placed, the apertures in forms shall be covered in a way to simulate closely the protection afforded by the forms.
c. In determining the temperatures at angles and corners of a structure, thermometers shall be placed not more than 8
inches (200 mm) from the angles and corners. In determining temperatures of horizontal surfaces, thermometers shall
rest upon the surface under the protection covering normal to section involved.
d. Temperature readings shall be taken and recorded at intervals to be designated by the Engineer, over the entire curing
period specified, and the temperatures so recorded shall be interpreted as the temperature of the concrete surfaces when
the thermometers were placed.
e. When protection from cold is needed to insure meeting these specification requirements, all necessary materials for
covering or housing must be delivered at the site of the work before concreting is started and must be effectively
applied or installed, and such added heat must be furnished as may be necessary without depending in any way upon
the heat of hydration during the first 24 hours after concrete is placed when Type I, IA, II or IIA portland cement is
used, or the first 18 hours when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used. The methods of heating and protecting the
concrete shall be approved by the Engineer. Chemicals or other foreign materials shall not be mixed with the concrete
for the purpose of preventing freezing, unless approved by the Engineer.
f. When heat is supplied by steam or salamanders, covering or housing of the structure shall be so placed as to permit free
circulation of air above and around the concrete within the enclosure, but to the exclusion of air currents from without,
except that where salamanders are used, sufficient ventilation shall be provided to carry off gases. Special care shall be
exercised to maintain the specified temperature continuously and uniformly in all parts of the structure enclosures, and 1
to exclude cold drafts from angles and corners and from all projecting reinforcing steel. All exposed surfaces in the
heated enclosure shall be kept continuously wet during the heating period unless heat is supplied in the form of live
steam.
g. The supervisor responsible for curing procedures shall maintain certification by the American Concrete Institute as a
Concrete Flatwork Finisher or Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.
3
1.18.2 HOT WEATHER CURING (1993)
a. The temperature of concrete at times of placement shall not exceed 90 degrees F (32 degrees C). When the temperature
of the concrete approaches 90 degrees F (32 degrees C), special efforts to prevent too rapid drying out must be made.
b. Continuous wet curing is preferred and shall commence as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to resist
surface damage. Wet curing shall be carried out in accordance with the practice recommended under Article 1.18.3. 4
Curing water shall not be much cooler than the concrete to avoid temperature-change stresses resulting in cracking.
Exposed, unformed concrete surfaces shall be protected from wind and direct sun.
1.18.3 WET CURING (1993)

a. All concrete surfaces when not protected by forms, or membrane curing compounds, must be kept constantly wet for a
period of not less than 7 days after concrete is placed when Type I, IA, II or IIA portland cement is used, or not less
than 3 days when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used.
b. The wet curing period for all concrete which will be in contact with brine drip, sea water, salt spray, alkali or sulfate-
bearing soils or waters, or similar destructive agents, shall be increased to 50% more than the periods specified for
normal exposures. Salt water and corrosive waters and soils shall be kept from contact with the concrete during
placement and for the curing period.
c. When wood forms are left in place during the curing period they shall be kept sufficiently damp at all times to prevent
openings at the joints and drying of the concrete.

1.18.4 MEMBRANE CURING1 (1993)

a. In lieu of wet curing, a concrete curing compound in full conformance to ASTM C309 may be used, with the approval
of the Engineer.
b. Liquid Membrane-Forming Curing Compounds shall meet the requirements of ASTM C309:
(1) Type 1 (Clear).
(2) Type 1D (Clear with Fugitive Dye).
(3) Type 2 (White Pigmented).
(4) Class B (Solids Restricted to Resin Only).
c. The compounds shall be applied to all exposed concrete surfaces except those areas where concrete or other materials
are to be bonded, such as construction joints or areas to be dampproofed or waterproofed.
d. The compound shall be sprayed on finished surfaces as soon as the surface water has disappeared. Spraying equipment
shall be of the pressure-tank type with mist producing spray orifice. If forms are removed during the curing period,
concrete shall be sprayed lightly with water and the moistening continued until the surface will not readily absorb more
water. The curing compound shall then be sprayed on the concrete surface as soon as the moisture film has
disappeared.
1.18.5 STEAM CURING (2018)
Steam curing shall be done in an enclosure capable of containing the live steam in order to minimize moisture and heat losses.
The application of the steam shall be delayed from 2 to 4 hours after final placement of concrete to allow the initial set of the
concrete to take place. If retarders are used, the waiting period before application of the steam may be increased to 4 to 6
hours. The steam shall be at 100% relative humidity to prevent loss of moisture and to provide excess moisture for proper
hydration of the cement. Application of the steam shall not be directly on the concrete. During application of the steam, the
ambient air temperature shall increase at a rate not to exceed 40 degrees F (25 degrees C) per hour until a maximum
temperature of 140 degrees F to 160 degrees F (60 degrees C to 70 degrees C) is reached. This temperature shall be held for 12
to 18 hours or until the concrete has reached the required strength. In discontinuing the steam, the ambient air temperature
shall decrease at a rate not to exceed 40 degrees F (25 degrees C) per hour until a temperature has been reached about 20
degrees F (-7 degrees C) above the temperature of the air to which the concrete will be exposed. The concrete shall not be
exposed to temperatures below freezing for 6 days after casting. Curing for precast members shall be be in accordance with
Chapter 8, Section 17.26.4.
1.18.6 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2003)2
1.18.6.1 Delays in Implementing Curing
Curing of freshly placed concrete as outlined in this Article should be implemented immediately upon having placed the
concrete or other measures should be taken to minimize the opportunity for shrinkage cracking to occur.
1
See C - Commentary

1.18.7 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-FURNACE

SLAG (2004)1
1.18.7.1 General
Curing time may have to be extended due to slower strength gain during the initial curing period.
1.18.7.2 Delays in Implementing Curing
Curing of freshly placed concrete as outlined in this Article may require implementation sooner than normal if the mix exhibits
less bleed water than normal.
1.18.8 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)2
Curing procedures and times should be determined from the concrete mix design requirements.
SECTION 1.19 FORMED SURFACE FINISH
1.19.1 GENERAL (2016)

1
The following requirements, except as modified by the Plans or as approved by the Engineer, shall apply to the construction of
concrete surfaces exposed upon the completion of the structure:
a. Construct all face forms smooth and watertight. If constructed of wood, size the face boards to a uniform thickness and
dress all offsets or inequalities to a smooth surface. Fill and point flush all openings and cracks, as approved by the
Engineer, to prevent leakage and the formation of fins.
3
b. Cast concrete in one continuous operation between prescribed construction limits, true to line with sharp, unbroken
edges beveled or rounded as specified. Make joints not shown on the plans only if approved by the Engineer.
c. Mix, place and consolidate concrete so that the aggregate is uniformly distributed and a full surface of mortar, free
from air pockets and void spaces, is brought against the form.
d. Remove the forms carefully. Remove any fins or projections neatly as approved by the Engineer. If any small pits or 4
openings appear in the exposed surface of the concrete, or if the removal of bolts used for securing the forms leave
small holes, thoroughly saturate the surface with water and neatly fill all such holes, pits, etc., with an approved mortar.
Smooth with a wooden float to achieve an even finish. Mix the pointing mortar in small quantities, and use while still
plastic.
e. Perform all work in connection with the correction of damaged sections, voids or honeycomb as approved by the
Engineer.
f. Do not apply mortar or cement to the surface except to fill pits or voids, tie bolt holes, etc., as provided above, and not
by plastering.
1
See C - Commentary

1.19.2 RUBBED FINISH (2016)
a. Do not rub the surface unless called for on the plans or directed by the Engineer.
b. Fill all voids. Then thoroughly wet the surface and rub with a carborundum brick, or similar abrasive, to a smooth,
even finish of uniform appearance without applying any cement or other coating.
SECTION 1.20 UNFORMED SURFACE FINISH
1.20.1 GENERAL (2018)
a. After placing and consolidating concrete, strike off and finish with floats and trowels or finishing machines in a
manner approved by the Engineer. Finish edges with an edging tool satisfactory to the Engineer. Take care to avoid an
excess of water in the concrete and drain or otherwise promptly remove any water that accumulates on the surface. Do
not sprinkle dry cement, or a mixture of cement and sand, directly onto the surface.
b. Slope all horizontal surfaces of bridge seats to drain, except those directly under bearing plates.
c. Require the supervisor responsible for finishing unformed surfaces to have and maintain certification by the American
Concrete Institute as a Concrete Flatwork Finisher. Precast fabricators shall be certified by Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute, proof will be provided upon request.
1.20.2 SIDEWALK FINISH (2005)
Float and trowel the top surface of all walks to a smooth finish with a steel trowel. After the water sheen has disappeared, final
finish the surface by brushing with a bristle brush. Draw the brush across the walk, at right angles to the edge of the walk.
Adjacent strokes should slightly overlap, to produce a uniform surface, moderately roughened by parallel brush marks. The
stiffness of the bristles and the time at which the surface is finished shall leave well defined brush marks. Keep the brush clean
at all times to avoid depositing mortar picked up during previous strokes.
1.20.3 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)1
For concrete containing silica fume, trial placements and finishing may be required prior to the start of the project.
1.20.4 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-FURNACE

SLAG (2004)2
Finishing techniques may have to be adjusted to account for reduced amounts of bleed water.
1.20.5 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)
Finishing may have to be delayed unless the concrete mix was proportioned to avoid delayed setting.
1
See C - Commentary

SECTION 1.21 DECORATIVE FINISHES
Construct special or decorative finishes as called for on the Plans and as set forth in a special specification or special provision.
SECTION 1.22 PENETRATING WATER REPELLENT TREATMENT

OF CONCRETE SURFACES1
1.22.1 GENERAL (2016)
When called for on the plans, in the specifications or ordered by the Engineer the following requirements shall be applicable to
the treatment of exposed concrete surfaces upon completion of the structure or precast member. Water repellent treatment is
not intended to be used on surfaces subject to hydrostatic pressure.
1.22.2 SURFACE PREPARATION (2016)
a. Concrete surfaces shall be cleaned by light sand or shot blasting, followed by vacuum cleaning to remove all traces of
curing compounds, laitance, dirt, salt, oil, grease, fluids or other foreign material that would prevent penetration or
adhesion of the sealer.
b. Concrete surface shall be clean and dry or as recommended by manufacturer. If concrete is subjected to rain or 1
moisture the surface should be allowed to air dry for a minimum of forty-eight (48) hours before treatment.
c. The cleaning process shall not alter the existing surface finish unless specified by the Engineer as an intentional part of
the design.
1.22.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS (2003)

3
a. Volatile Organic Compound regulations may vary by individual state. Therefore, it is mandatory that materials selected
for use be in total conformance to the applicable legislation of the state within which the work will be performed.
b. Ambient and surface temperatures at time of application shall be as specified by the manufacturer but not less than 40
degrees F (5 degrees C) or greater than 100 degrees F (38 degrees C).
c. No rain shall be predicted for a minimum of 12 hours after completion of water repellent treatment.
4
d. No precipitation shall occur within 24 hours preceding application.
e. No wind shall be predicted of velocity, per the manufacturer, greater than that which will cause an improper application
rate to drift, etc.
f. Adjoining surfaces of other materials shall be protected unless solvent carrier is certified as harmless to these materials
by water repellent manufacturer.
1.22.4 APPLICATION (2003)
a. The penetrating water repellent treatment solution shall be applied in strict accordance with manufacturer’s
instructions and not diluted or altered unless specified by the manufacturer. Equipment for the application of the

water-repellent treatment shall be clean of foreign materials and approved by the Engineer before use. The sealer shall
be applied by brushing, spraying or rolling, as recommended by the manufacturer.
b. Surface treatment of new concrete prior to 28 days curing is not permitted, unless approved by the manufacturer and
the Engineer.
c. The sealer manufacturer should be consulted on the recommended treatment of cracks.
d. Follow all safety precautions required by occupational jurisdiction.
e. A minimum of two (2) coats of water-repellent treatment is recommended to achieve uniform coverage. The second
and each additional coat shall be applied perpendicular to the previous coat. Care shall be taken when applying each
coat, such that running or puddling does not occur. Each coat shall be allowed to dry for a minimum of two (2) hours
before the next coat is applied. The final coat shall be allowed to dry according to the manufacturer’s instructions
before applying ballast and track.
1.22.5 MATERIALS (2003)
a. The penetrating water repellent material shall consist of an isobutyltrialkoxy silane, n-octyltrialkoxy silane or iso-
octytrialkoxy silane dissolved in a suitable solvent that will produce a hydrophobic surface covalently bonded to the
concrete. Only one (1) brand and specific type of penetrating sealer shall be used on each individual concrete element
(i.e., each pier, deck, abutment, etc.). The penetrating sealer must be a one part liquid, with no field blending required.
b. Qualities of the material to be furnished for the project shall be tested and results certified by an independent testing
laboratory with report provided to the owner. The following tests shall be performed on standardized laboratory
specimens:
(1) Water Penetration. ASTM C642–50 Day Soak less 1% Absorption (untreated specimen 4%, 0.2% absorption).
(2) Water Penetration. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244–21 Day Soak–Effective
Average Minimum 80% (Series II).
(3) Vapor Transmission. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244–Minimum 100%.
(4) Surface Appearance. No change in surface appearance or texture.
(5) Penetration. Oklahoma DOT OHD L-34 Visible Average 0.15 inches
(6) Drying Time. Dry and ready for use 1 hour after application.
(7) Accelerated Weathering. ASTM G23–2000 hours are weatherometer–Maximum 3% loss of effectiveness.
(8) Water Penetration. Alberta DOT Type 1 Class B minimum.
(9) Salt Water Ponding. AASHTO T-259–Maximum 1.50 lb per cubic yard at 1/16 inch to 1/2 inch; 0.75 lb per cubic
yard at 1/2 inch to 1 inch.
(10) Traction – ASTM E303. No change when treated surface is compared to control surface. Measured in British
Pendulum Numbers.

1.22.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE (1993)
a. The manufacturer shall provide written certification of the quality of the product being offered and issue a warranty as
to its effectiveness when it is applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications.
b. Manufacturer shall have an established Quality Assurance Program with the Program available to the owner or buyer.
c. Pre-Test. An eight square feet (0.75 square meter) test panel on the job shall be treated and evaluated in accordance
with the primary water repellent manufacturer’s recommendations and written test procedures which would allow the
water repellent to cure for a minimum of 5 days. Two test cores (minimum 3 inches (75 mm) diameter and 3 inches (75
mm) deep) should be taken at locations determined by the Engineer. In the presence of the manufacturer, or one of its
representatives, the cores should be split by chisel. One core should be retained by the Engineer. The water repellent
material shall have penetrated the core at least 1/8 inch (3 mm) (avg) and shall appear as a band of non-wettable
concrete.
d. Test Data. All test data submitted by the water repellent manufacturer must be data generated by an independent testing
laboratory. Product tests must be totally controlled by the testing laboratory. Specimens cannot be pre-treated by the
manufacturer.
1.22.7 DELIVERY, STORAGE AND HANDLING (1995)
a. Materials shall be delivered to job site in manufacturer’s original undamaged containers with labels and seals intact.
b. Materials shall be stored in accordance with manufacturer’s requirements and in a dry area with a temperature range of 1
not less than 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) and not more than 120 degrees F (49 degrees C). Adequate ventilation shall be
provided, away from sources of ignition.
c. Manufacturer’s application instructions and Material Safety Data Sheet shall be consulted for additional safety
instructions.
SECTION 1.23 REPAIRS AND ANCHORAGE USING REACTIVE RESINS1
1.23.1 GENERAL (2003)

4
a. This recommended practice covers reactive resin polymer materials (i.e. epoxy) used for concrete repairs and
installation of anchor bolts and other miscellaneous items in concrete.
b. The material shall be a non-metallic, non-shrinking polymer resin supplied in prepackaged and/or pre-measured
containers. It shall contain no rust or corrosion promoting agents and shall be moisture insensitive.
c. Packaged stability of each component in original unopened containers stored in temperatures between 40 degrees F (5
degrees C) and 90 degrees F (32 degrees C) shall be a minimum of six months. The mixing instructions, setting time
and expiration date of the material shall appear on each container.

1.23.2 SURFACE PREPARATION (2003)
a. The surface of the concrete should be prepared per the manufacturer’s recommendations for the type of application
being conducted.
b. The concrete surface shall be clean and dry, with no traces of curing compounds, laitance, dirt, salt, oil, or grease.
a. The reactive resins should be chosen to provide the requirements (i.e. viscosity, strength, flexibility, adhesion etc.) of
the specific repair to be performed. The specific type, grade and class of material is to be selected by the Engineer in
accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturer.
SECTION 1.24 HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE1
1.24.1 GENERAL (1995)
a. The following specifications shall apply to structures with a minimum specified concrete compressive strength of
6,000 psi (41 MPa) and made with portland cement concrete. These provisions do not apply to “exotic” materials and
techniques such as polymer-impregnated concrete, polymer concrete, or concrete with artificial aggregates.
b. The compressive strength of production concrete shall be tested at 7 and 28 days and at other times as required by the
Engineer in accordance with ASTM C39.
1.24.2 MATERIALS (1995)
Trial batches containing the materials to be used on the job shall be prepared at the proposed slump and tested to determine
compressive strength. Unless tests on additional trial batches are performed, materials shall be of the same type, brand and
source of supply throughout the duration of the project.
1.24.2.1 Cement
a. Cement mill test reports shall be submitted by cement suppliers for each shipment of cement. Silo test certificates shall
be submitted for the previous 6 to 12 months. Cement uniformity in accordance with ASTM C917 shall be reported.
Variations shall be limited to the following:
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4%

Ignition Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5%
Fineness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 cm2/g (Blaine)
Sulfate (SO3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20% of optimum
b. Mortar cube tests shall be performed in accordance with ASTM C109.

1.24.2.2 Chemical Admixtures
Chemical admixtures shall conform to the following ASTM specifications:
Air-entraining admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C260

Retarders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Types B and D
Normal-setting water reducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Type A
High-range water reducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Types F and G
Accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Types C and E
1.24.2.3 Mineral Admixtures
Mineral admixtures consist of fly ash (Class C and F), silica fume and ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Fly ash shall
conform to ASTM C618 specifications. Methods for sampling and testing of fly ash shall conform to ASTM C311. Silica fume
shall conform to ASTM C1240. Slag shall conform to ASTM C989.
1.24.2.4 Aggregates
Fine and coarse aggregate shall meet the requirements of ASTM C33.
1.24.2.5 Water
Water for use in high-strength concrete shall conform to Section 1.5, Water. Acceptance requirements specified in Table 1 of 1
ASTM C94 shall be met.
1.24.3 CONCRETE MIXTURE PROPORTIONS (1995)
Trial batches shall be performed to generate sufficient data to obtain optimum mixture proportions.
3
SECTION 1.25 SPECIALTY CONCRETES
1.25.1 GENERAL
4
This manual article describes and provides requirements for specialty concretes that may be used in railroad construction.
Before any specialty concrete is used, additional investigation of specific and detailed specifications shall be made.
1.25.2 SULFUR CONCRETE1
1.25.2.1 General
Sulfur concrete is a thermoplastic material produced by mixing heated aggregate 350F to 400F (177C to 204C) with modified
sulfur cement and fine mineral filler (ambient temperature) to prepare a well-mixed concrete that is maintained within a
temperature range of 270F to 285F (132C to 141C) until placed. The ACI Manual of Concrete Practice contains detailed
information.

1.25.2.2 Design
a. Mixture design for sulfur concrete is different from portland cement concrete.
b. Aggregate for sulfur concrete shall conform with ASTM C33.
c. Reinforcement may be with reinforcing steel, epoxy-coated reinforcing steel or with fibers.
1.25.2.3 Handling
The requirements for mixing/transporting equipment are defined by the unique thermoplastic characteristic of sulfur concrete.
Sulfur concrete must be maintained in a molten state and continuously monitored to maintain the temperature range of 270F
(133C) to 285F (147C). The concrete mixture must be thoroughly mixed so the molten sulfur cement adequately coats the fine
and coarse aggregate and mineral filler.
1.25.2.4 Placing
Sulfur concrete can be placed in either wooden or metal forms.
1.25.3 HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE
1.25.3.1 Design
Heavyweight concrete, unless otherwise stipulated, shall conform to the other requirements of Chapter 8, Part 1, shall be made
with Type II cement, and shall be proportioned as directed by the Engineer, with not more than 6 gal. (22.7 L) of water per 94
lb (42.8 kg) of cement. Where heavyweight concrete is required for counterweights, the coarse aggregate shall be trap rock,
iron ore, or other heavy material or the concrete may incorporate steel punchings or scrap metal. The mortar shall be composed
of 1 part of cement and 2 parts of fine aggregate. Fine metallic aggregate shall consist of commercial chilled-iron or steel shot
or ground iron, meeting SAE J 444a. All metallic aggregate shall have a specific gravity of 6.50 or greater and be clean and
free from foreign coatings of grease, oil, machine shop compounds, zinc chromate, loose scale, and dirt. The maximum weight
of heavy concrete shall be 315 lb per cu feet (5,050 kg per cu m).
1.25.3.2 Placing
a. Heavyweight concrete shall be placed in layers and consolidated with vibrators or tampers. Heavyweight concrete
usually will not “flow” in a form and must be placed uniformly throughout the area and compacted in place with a
minimum of vibration. Under no circumstances shall an attempt be made to move heavyweight concrete during
consolidation with vibration equipment. Layers shall be limited to a maximum 12 inch (300 mm) thickness.
Consolidation shall be by internal vibrators to achieve uniform and optimum density. In heavyweight concrete
vibrators have a smaller effective area, or radius of action; therefore greater care shall be exercised to insure that the
concrete is properly consolidated. Vibrators shall be inserted at closely spaced intervals and only to a depth sufficient
to cause complete intermixing of adjacent layers. Counterweights containing punchings or scrap metal or iron ore
aggregates shall be enclosed in steel boxes.
b. Heavyweight concrete not enclosed in steel boxes shall be adequately reinforced.
1.25.3.3 Determining Weight
For ascertaining the weight of the concrete, test blocks having a volume of not less than 0.1 cu m (4 cu feet) for ordinary
concrete, and 1 cu feet (0.03 cu m) for heavy concrete, and 1 cu feet (0.03 cu m) for the mortar for heavy concrete, shall be cast
at least 30 days before concreting is begun. Two test blocks of each kind shall be provided, and one weighed immediately after
casting and the other after it has cured for 28 days.

1.25.4 POLYMER CONCRETE (2013)
1.25.4.1 General1
This section covers polymer concrete that is to be used for repair of bridges and other structures. The section describes the
selection, sampling and testing of materials, material properties and construction requirements under specific conditions.
1.25.4.2 Selection of Materials2
The materials shall meet the project requirements and be approved by the Engineer.
1.25.4.3 Submittals
a. Submittals shall be reviewed and approved by the Engineer.
b. Contractor shall have a copy of all approved submittals at work site during construction.
c. Manufacturer(s) Submittals:
(1) Material descriptions, brochures and technical data sheets including general chemical composition and physical
properties, pertinent test data, and specific recommendations for surface preparation, testing, mixing, application,
fillers (e.g. aggregates, sands) and curing.
(2) Manufacturer’s Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all materials to be used including instructions for storing 1
and handling.
d. Contractor’s Submittals:
(1) Details of proposed storage methods.
(2) Form(s): drawings, prepared by a licensed engineer, including fabrication, assembly, and support of forms per 3
Section 1.9.
(3) Detailed installation procedures:
(a) Surface preparation including testing.
(b) Mixing, including detailed mixing and application instructions. 4

(c) Installation.
(d) Quality assurance.
(4) Concrete design mixture including procedures for ensuring quality of polymer concrete and repair materials.
1.25.4.4 Surface Preparation3
a. The substrate to which the polymer concrete is to be applied must be sound, clean, dry and properly prepared.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

b. Sufficient surface preparation shall be demonstrated, when specified, by use of a tensile adhesion test in accordance
with ASTM D4541.
c. Defective areas and honeycombed areas shall not be patched until examined and approved by the Engineer. When
such approval is received by the Contractor, areas involved shall be repaired in accordance with the applicable
manufacturers written instructions.
1.25.4.5 Installation1
Installation shall be in accordance with the Manufacturer’s recommendations as approved by the Engineer.
1.25.4.6 Quality Assurance2
a. Applicator:
Personnel using the product must have previous experience using similar products.
b. Manufacturer(s):
(1) Submit a listing of representative projects installed in similar climates and for similar substrate conditions, in the
last 5 years.
(2) Manufacturer must employ trained technical representatives who will be available for consultation and project site
inspection.
c. Contractor:
Contractor shall confirm in writing that substrates have been inspected, are adequately prepared and represent a
suitable substrate for the application of the materials.
d. Testing and inspection services shall be approved by the Engineer.
e. Pre-installation Conference: Engineer may conduct conference at Project site with Contractor and/or Manufacturer.
1.25.4.7 Delivery, Storage and Handling
a. Materials delivered to the project site shall be in sealed in, undamaged containers with labels intact and legible,
indicating the material name and lot number.
b. Comply with manufacturer’s written instructions for minimum and maximum temperature requirements and other
conditions for storage. Store materials in a dry location, at temperatures not exceeding 90ºF (32ºC) or as otherwise
permitted by the manufacturer.
1.25.4.8 Removal of Forms
Contractor shall be responsible for proper removal of forms in accordance with Article 1.9.8.
1
See C - Commentary

1.25.5 FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE (2014)
1.25.5.1 General1
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is concrete made primarily of hydraulic cements and aggregates where discrete fibers of
various types are added to the concrete mix to inhibit cracking and improve resistance to deterioration due to fatigue, impact,
shrinkage and/or thermal stresses. Fibers added to the concrete mix shall not be used as a replacement for steel reinforcement,
where steel reinforcement is required in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design. FRC shall conform to ASTM
C1116/C116M.
1.25.5.2 Design
a. Types of fibers used in the concrete mix shall be the following:
(1) Steel fibers: Fibers manufactured from carbon or stainless steel shall be shaped into various geometric shapes such
as crimped, hooked-end or other mechanical deformations for anchorage in the concrete. Steel fibers shall conform
to ASTM A820/A820M.
(2) Glass fibers: Fibers shall be alkali resistant and manufactured by processes intended for use in FRC. Glass fibers
shall conform to ASTM C1666/C1666M.
(3) Synthetic fibers: Fibers shall be made from materials such as polypropylene, polyethylene, polyester, nylon and
other synthetic materials such as carbon, aramid and other acrylics. Fibers shall be manufactured by processes
intended for use in FRC and meet the requirements for ASTM C1116/C1116M, Type III, synthetic fiber-reinforced 1
concrete.
(4) Cellulose fibers: Fibers manufactured from processed wood pulp or other plant-based material and intended for
use in fiber-reinforced concrete. Fibers shall meet the requirements of ASTM D7357.
b. Concrete mix design and concrete mixing process shall be approved by the Engineer. Dosage of fibers shall be in
accordance with the fiber manufacturer’s recommendations. Mixing shall be sufficient to prevent formation of fiber 3
balls.
1.25.5.3 Placing
Use of a water-reducing agent is permitted to prevent slump loss during placement. Vibration may be needed to ensure
consolidation.
4
1.25.6 HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE (2014)2
1.25.6.1 General
High-Performance Concrete (HPC) is concrete made from cementitious materials, water and aggregates to which chemical
admixtures and/or fibers are added to meet an array of performance requirements dictated by project needs. Specific mixing,
placing and curing techniques are needed to produce the desired results. The American Concrete Institute (ACI) defines HPC
as "concrete which meets special performance and uniformity requirements that cannot always be achieved routinely by using
only conventional materials and normal mixing, placing, and curing practices."
Extensive testing is required to ensure that the concrete meets the specific project requirements. HPC is intended to be more
durable with enhanced properties compared to concrete without special additive.
1
See C - Commentary

Typical requirements for HPC includes some or all of the following properties:
• High strength
• High early strength
• High modulus of elasticity
• High abrasion resistance
• Increased durability and additional service life in severe environments
• Low permeability and diffusion
• Resistance to chemical attack
• High resistance to frost and deicer scaling damage
• Toughness
• Impact resistance
• Volume stability
• Ease of placement
• Consolidation without segregation
• Inhibition of bacterial and mold growth
1.25.6.2 Verification of property
HPC requirements for each project shall be defined by the Engineer and verified prior to construction for each specific HPC
property.
SECTION 1.26 SELF-CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
1.26.1 GENERAL (2013)1
a. Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) is a highly fluid yet stable concrete mix that can spread readily into place and fill the
forms without mechanical consolidation or undergoing significant segregation. Concrete is not made self-
consolidating by the addition of extra water, which would increase segregation and have other undesired effects.
b. Self-consolidating concrete shall be designed, mixed, formed, and cured in accordance with the other provisions of
Part 1 except as stipulated herein.

1.26.2 MIX DESIGN AND TESTING (2013)1
1.26.2.1 Mix Design
The mix designer shall be experienced in the design and production of SCC. High-range water-reducing and viscosity-
modifying admixtures as well as fine limestone powder and mineral pozzolans are generally included in the design mix. The
size, smoothness and gradation of the aggregates shall be selected based on the requirements of the particular project. The
required slump flow to be achieved by the mix design is dependent upon the requirements for placement of the SCC. By
careful selection and design of the mix, the cured SCC can have properties comparable to that of conventional concrete.
1.26.2.2 Quality Control Testing
Slump flow, visual stability index, column segregation and J-Ring tests shall be performed on the as-designed mixture by the
supplier at the plant. Tests of the cured concrete shall also be performed to ensure that the design mix produces the required
properties. Test results shall be subject to review for approval by the Engineer. New tests will be required whenever there is a
change in the source of a component material or whenever there is a change in a production procedure.
1.26.2.3 Testing Methods
a. Among the tests specifically designed for ensuring the desired flow and stability characteristics of fresh SCC are the
following:
(1) ASTM C1610 Test Method for Static Segregation of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using Column Technique,
1
(2) ASTM C1611 Test Method for Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete, and
(3) ASTM C1621 Test Method for Passing Ability of Self-Consolidating Concrete by J-Ring.
b. Other tests can also be used in addition to or in place of the tests listed above. The Engineer will direct which tests
shall be employed and the frequency of testing. See Articles 1.12.8 and 1.12.9 of this Part for testing requirements for
the hardened concrete. The tests shall be performed by qualified personnel. 3
c. Quality control personnel must understand the engineering properties, placement techniques, element characteristics,
and raw materials considerations that were used to determine mixture proportions and fresh concrete properties.
1.26.3 FORMS AND REINFORCEMENT (2013)2
a. The structural design of forms shall take into account the fluid nature of self-consolidating concrete as well as the rate 4
of placement. Forms shall be designed to support lateral concrete pressures in accordance with the full fluid pressure
provisions of ACI 347R. If the design of the forms is in accordance with ACI 347R, but to a loading less than the full
fluid pressure, form pressure measuring devices shall be used to prevent rapid concrete placements from exceeding the
rated capacity of the forms.
b. Forms should be sufficiently watertight to prevent leakage of fluid from the SCC. Form release agents with a high
solids content should be used.
c. Reinforcement ties and other attachments shall be designed to account for the fluid nature of the concrete.
1
See C - Commentary

1.26.4 MIXING CONCRETE (2013)
Mixing proportions and procedures shall be carefully controlled to achieve consistency in the stability and fluidity of SCC.
SCC may require additional mixing time (30 to 90 seconds) as compared to conventional concrete. Wash water, if used, shall
be completely discharged from the drum before a succeeding batch is produced.
1.26.5 PLACEMENT (2013)1
SCC should be placed continuously and in layers of such thickness that no fresh SCC is placed on concrete that has hardened
enough to cause a plane of weakness. A detailed placement plan shall be submitted to the Engineer and approved prior to
placing SCC.
1.26.6 CURING (2013)
Curing of SCC is essential and early protection of exposed surfaces is critical to preventing plastic shrinkage cracking.
Procedures for curing conventional concrete should be applied.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various Articles in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements. In the numbering of Articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the Section/Article being
explained.
C - SECTION 1.2 CEMENT
C - 1.2.2 SPECIFICATIONS (2004)
The use of slag cement Types ‘S’ and ‘S(A)’ as defined in Standard Specification C 595 is not included in this recommended
practice as these cements are not intended to be used alone in producing structural concrete.
C - SECTION 1.3 OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
C - 1.3.3.1(a) Silica Fume
One of the primary benefits of including silica fume in a concrete mix design is to reduce the permeability of the hardened
concrete. Porosity will be significantly reduced if proper proportioning, pre-construction testing, and curing methods are used.
Long term durability, resistance to chemical attack including sulphate attack, and penetration of chloride ions can all be
favorably affected.
Other possible benefits include improved resistance to abrasion. Silica fume has been used to obtain both of these properties.
However, the replacement method may inhibit other special properties.
C - 1.3.3.1(b) Fly Ash
All fly ashes contain pozzolanic materials, but some fly ashes also exhibit cementitious properties of their own. Factors
affecting this are the glass content, its fineness and gradation, and silica or silica-plus-alumina content. There is, therefore, a
wide variation in pozzolanic and cementitious efficiency of different fly ashes, which cannot be predicted by selecting Class C,
Class F or Class N. Direct tests of strength development, and tests to determine the efficiency of fly ash to produce special
properties such as sulphate resistance, or resistance to alkali-silica reactions, are necessary.

Possible benefits of using fly ash in a concrete mix which is properly designed, deposited and cured include increased long-
term strength potential, improved workability and pumpability, reductions in the heat of hydration when using fly ash as a
replacement for some of the cement that would otherwise be used, a finer pore structure which reduces the ingress of chloride
ions, and improved resistance to sulphate attack and to alkali silica reactions. Possible difficulties in using fly ash include a
need to adjust the dosage of air entraining admixture, reduced bleeding of fresh concrete, reduced rate of strength gain which
could effect form and/or falsework removal parameters, and a need to delay finishing of unformed surfaces under some
circumstances.
C - 1.3.3.2 Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag
When used as provided in this recommended practice, replacement of part of the portland cement that would otherwise be
required in a concrete mix design with ground granulated blast-furnace slag may impart several benefits. These include a
much reduced permeability, with a consequent reduction of penetration of chloride ions and reductions in corrosion of
reinforcement; reduced heat of hydration at early ages; improved sulphate resistance; and reduced levels of alkali silica
reactivity. Reductions in alkali silica reactivity are due to reduced permeability, reductions in available alkali, chemical
effects, and other effects.
C - SECTION 1.4 AGGREGATES
C - 1.4.2.1 General
Use of lightweight fine aggregates is not allowed because of their poor performance in all lightweight concrete, and the many
difficulties and restrictions to their use.
1
C - SECTION 1.5 WATER
Non-potable water (not fit for human consumption) is being used as mixing water in hydraulic cement concrete to a much
larger extent than when the AREMA recommendation effective in 2009 was written. Use of a non-potable water source
requires limiting the solids content of the water. ASTM C1603, which is referenced by ASTM C1602, provides a test method
for measurement of the solids content of water by means of measuring the water’s density.
3
In addition to limiting the amount of solids in mixing water, maximum concentrations of other materials that impact the
quality of concrete must be limited. These include levels of chloride ions, sulfates, and alkalies. ACI 318-08, R 3.4.1 is the
requirement that water used to mix concrete must comply with ASTM C1602. As indicated in ACI 318-08, R 3.4.1, ASTM
C1602 permits the use of potable water without testing.
The chief concern over high chloride content is the possible effect of chloride ions on the corrosion of embedded reinforcing
steel, prestressing tendons, aluminum embedments or stay-in-place galvanized metal forms. Limitations placed on the 4
maximum concentration of chloride ions that are contributed by the ingredients including water, aggregates, cement, and
admixtures are given in ACI 318-08, Chapter 4, Table 4.3.1. ASTM C1602 limits the chloride ions in ppm (parts per million)
and only applies to that contributed by the mixing water.
Test results for non-potable water shall be furnished to the Engineer and approved prior to use.
C - SECTION 1.6 REINFORCEMENT
C - 1.6.1 GENERAL (2013)
“Report on Steel Reinforcement - Material Properties and U.S. Availability (ACI 439.4R-09)” provides further guidance for
steel reinforcement.

C - 1.6.4 BENDING AND STRAIGHTENING REINFORCING BARS (2013)
a. Field bending and straightening of partially embedded reinforcing bars is discouraged, but when this operation is
required it should be closely controlled. Construction conditions that make field bending or straightening necessary
also make it difficult to control the conditions under which it is done thus making field inspection even more critical.
b. Numerous technical papers published on this subject contain varying opinions on the best procedures to use. Current
known factors that affect field bending and straightening of partially embedded reinforcing bars in concrete include:
(1) Application of heat appears to be necessary to bend or straighten larger sized bars, but either overheating (above
1800 degrees F (980 degrees C)) or under heating between 450 degrees F (230 degrees C) and 650 degrees F (340
degrees C) can result in reduced strength or even cause failure of the bars.
(2) Repeated bending and straightening weakens the steel and could result in failure even under the best controlled
conditions.
(3) Tight bending diameters decreases the strength of the steel.
c. The reworking of reinforcing bars that are partially embedded in concrete involves some level of risk and is not
encouraged. Risks may be minimized by using reinforcing bars of a more ductile steel such as low-alloy steel bars
(ASTM A706/A706M) rather than carbon-steel bars (ASTM A615/A615M) in locations where field bending and/or
straightening will be required.
d. When field bending and straightening of partially embedded bars is permitted by the Engineer, the following example
procedural guideline should be used:
(1) Bars of size #3 (10 mm) through #7 (22 mm).
(a) Bend or straighten bars cold (bars should be above freezing temperature).
(b) Do not allow more than one cycle of bending and straightening.
(c) Diameter of bends should conform to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Table 8-2-6. Bends should not
exceed 90 degrees.
(d) Bending should be done with a uniform application of force.
(e) Straightening should be accomplished by using a steel pipe pushed tightly against the bend, with application
of force as follows:
1 Steel pipe should have an inside diameter 1/8 inch to 3/8 inch (3 mm to 9 mm) larger than the outside
diameter of the bar to be straightened.
2 Steel pipe should be long enough to provide sufficient leverage.
3 Straightening pipe should be reset against the bar at 45 degrees for #4 (13 mm) and smaller bars and at 30
degrees and 60 degrees for #5 to #7 (16 mm to 22 mm) bars.
4 Workers should have a firm base from which to apply straightening pressure.
(2) Bars of size #8 through #11 (25 mm through 36 mm).
(a) Bend or straighten bars after preheating to 1100 degrees F to 1500 degrees F (590 degrees to 810 degrees C)
as measured with temperature-indicating crayons.

(b) Concrete must be protected from exposure to excessive heat. If necessary protective insulation should be
used.
(c) Atmospherically cool bars. Do not expose to water or other cooling mediums.
(d) Do not allow more than one cycle of bending and straightening.
(e) Diameter of bends should conform to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Table 8-2-6.
(f) Bending should be done with a uniform application of force.
(g) Straightening should be accomplished by using a steel pipe pushed tightly against the bend, with application
of force as follows:
1 Steel pipe should have an inside diameter 1/8 inch to 3/8 inch (3 mm to 9 mm) larger than the outside
diameter of the bar to be straightened.
2 Steel pipe should be long enough to provide sufficient leverage.
3 Straightening pipe should be reset progressively against the bar around the bend.
4 Workers should have a firm base from which to apply straightening pressure.
C - SECTION 1.12 PROPORTIONING

1
C - 1.12.10 SPECIAL PROVISIONS WHEN USING CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS OTHER
THAN PORTLAND CEMENT (2009)
C - 1.12.10.2 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete
ACI 211.1 provides guidance for proportioning concrete containing silica fume.
3
C - 1.12.10.2.2 High-Range Water Reducing Admixtures
Concrete containing silica fume will have a greater water demand to maintain workability than concrete not containing silica
fume. However, this additional water is rarely provided since it would negate the potential benefits of using silica fume. High
range water reducers (superplasticizers) are commonly used instead. If a superplasticizer is not used, then the fresh concrete
would appear sticky and not consolidate properly. Concrete containing silica fume is more cohesive and less prone to 4
segregation than other fresh concretes. It is common to increase the slump by 2 inches (50mm) from what would otherwise be
provided.
The use of a high range water reducing admixture will also benefit the rate of strength gain. Initial strength gain will be slower
when using silica fume. Twenty-eight (28) to ninety (90) day strengths can be enhanced using silica fume, however, as long as
the water to cementitious material ratio is kept low by using a high range water reducing admixture.
C - 1.12.10.2.3 Entrained Air
Concrete containing silica fume will require more air entraining admixture than normal concrete to obtain the desired result.
The amount will depend upon the amount of silica fume and the type of air entraining admixture used.
C - 1.12.10.3 Requirements When Using Fly Ash in Concrete
ACI 211.1 provides guidance for proportioning concrete containing fly ash.

C - 1.12.10.3.3 Testing to Verify Mix Design
Reduced bleeding rates in fresh concrete may result in raising the possibility of plastic shrinkage cracking.
Initial setting time and the rate of early strength gain may be retarded by the use of fly ash. Setting time requirements can also
delay finishing. The rate of early strength gain can be satisfactory with a properly designed and tested mix, which usually
includes increases in the total cementitious material (fly ash plus portland cement) content. The proportion of fly ash to
cement may be varied from winter to summer.
Air entraining admixture requirements will be different for concrete containing fly ash to achieve the same amount of air that
would have resulted in concrete not containing fly ash.
The heat of hydration can be reduced if the fly ash is used to replace some of the portland cement instead of being added as
additional cementitious material.
The long term strength of the hardened concrete may be enhanced using fly ash.
Improved performance against sulphate attack and resistance to alkali aggregate reactivity will require the addition of
sufficient quantities of cementitious materials other than portland cement that may exceed the proportions of what would be
used otherwise.
C - 1.12.10.3.4 Water to Cementitious Materials Ratio
The improved workability and pumpability of concrete containing fly ash will permit reductions in the amount of water. This
is due to the spherical shape of the fly ash particles imparting improved workability; and to the reduced unit weight of fly ash
as compared with cement which can result in increased paste content when cement replacement with fly ash is by weight.
Reductions in the amount of water can also reduce the possibility of plastic shrinkage. The measurement of water as a
proportion of total cementitious material by weight provides a consistent approach which is also applicable when using
blended cements.
C - 1.12.10.4 Requirements When Using Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag in Concrete
ACI 211.1 provides guidance for proportioning concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag.
C - 1.12.10.4.1 General
The amount of ground granulated blast-furnace slag as a proportion of the total cementitious material normally varies between
25% and 70%, with approximately 40% to 50% being a common proportional amount. A maximum amount of 50% can also
be applicable, per Table 8-1-12.
Final concrete properties will also be determined by the portland cement used, the grade or reactivity of the ground granulated
blast-furnace slag, curing conditions, and the special properties for which the material was used, such as reduced early heat of
hydration.
C - 1.12.10.4.2 Water-Reducing Admixtures
Concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag will have a slower rate of strength gain than normal portland cement
concretes, especially at early ages, unless the water content is reduced.
C - 1.12.10.4.3 Accelerators
Significant retardation has been observed at low temperatures when using ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Accelerating
admixtures can be used to counter this effect. However, the source and reactivity of the ground granulated blast-furnace slag,
the ratio of ground granulated blast-furnace slag to normal portland cement, the characteristics of the cement, and the water to

cementitious material ratio will also influence set time. Therefore the need for pre-construction tests, as noted previously, is
also confirmed here.
C - 1.12.10.4.4 Proportioning of Aggregates
Portland cement concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag will have a higher volume of paste than normal
portland cement concrete when both mixes are proportioned by weight (mass). The proportional difference is due to ground
granulated blast-furnace slag being lighter than portland cement. The coarse to fine aggregate ratio can therefore be increased
or the water to cementitious material ratio can be reduced. Increases in the amount of coarse aggregate may be beneficial to
finishing, which may aid in reducing shrinkage and potential for scaling. The natural tendency of concrete containing ground
granulated blast-furnace slag is to be more workable and easier to place and consolidate. This will compensate for some
increases in the proportion of coarse aggregate.
C - SECTION 1.13 MIXING
C - 1.13.5 REQUIREMENTS WHEN USING SILICA FUME IN CONCRETE (2009)
C - 1.13.5.2 Workability of Delivered Concrete
Refer to Commentary for Article 1.12.10.2.2.
C - SECTION 1.14 DEPOSITING CONCRETE

1
C - 1.14.12 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)
C - 1.14.12.1 Protection from Moisture Loss
Fresh concrete containing silica fume displays significantly less bleeding than normal concrete. There is therefore the
potential that shrinkage cracking will occur if the evaporation rate exceeds the bleeding rate. Increased amounts of silica fume
will increase the potential for such shrinkage cracking. Other conditions including adverse temperatures, wind, or low 3
humidity could also increase the potential for shrinkage cracking. Evaporation retarders, fogging, and protection from the
wind during the placement stage are options which may be included in the project specifications to counter this. Measures to
protect against early moisture loss in concrete containing silica fume should included in the project specifications. Shrinkage
cracking can be eliminated through the use of proper procedures.
C - 1.14.12.2 Consolidation
4
The cohesive nature of concrete containing silica fume makes it susceptable to excessive entrapment of air, even with higher
slumps. Proper placing techniques are essential to achieving any special properties for which silica fume is specified.
C - SECTION 1.15 DEPOSITING CONCRETE UNDER WATER
C - 1.15.10 METHODS OF DEPOSITING (2014)
a. Tremie. Preferably, flanged steel pipe of adequate strength should be used, to sustain the greatest length and weight
required for the job. A separate lifting device shall be provided for each tremie pipe with its hopper at the upper end.
Experience has shown that temie concrete can be placed as specified, so that it will flow as much as 50 feet (15.24 m)
horizontally from the discharge end of the tremie with a slope of less than 3 feet (1 m) in 50 feet (15.24 m).
b. Pumping. Refer to guidelines from American Concrete Pumping Association for detailed information on pumping
concrete.

c. Bottom Dump Bucket. The bucket should preferably be designed for hinged bottom doors to operate inside of a steel
skirt. The skirt should surround the bucket while the bottom doors are shut and extend below the bucket as the bottom
doors open, minimizing turbulence and motion while concrete is deposited.
C - SECTION 1.18 CURING
C - 1.18.4 MEMBRANE CURING (1993)
a. With the emergence of legislation designed to limit the amounts of Volatile Organic Compound (V.O.C.) emission, it is
incumbent upon specifying Engineers to be cognizant of these new laws.
b. Volatile Organic Compound regulations may vary by individual state. Therefore, it is mandatory that materials selected
for use be in total conformance to the applicable legislation of the state within which the work will be performed.
C - 1.18.6 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2003)
C - 1.18.6.1 Delays in Implementing Curing
Refer to the commentary concerning Article 1.14.12.1.
C - 1.18.7 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-

FURNACE SLAG (2004)
C - 1.18.7.1 General
Strength gain may be slower at low temperatures during the initial curing period when the ground granulated blast-furnace slag
is used to replace part of the portland cement in a mix. The amount of retardation will depend upon the temperature, the
proportions and characteristics of each of the cementitious materials, the total content of cementitious material and other
factors. Little, if any, retardation occurs at temperatures above about 70 F (21 C), and the behavior of concretes containing
ground granulated blast-furnace slag under elevated curing temperatures has been reported to be good.
Refer also to the commentary concerning accelerators, in Article 1.12.10.4.3.
C - 1.18.7.2 Delays in Implementing Curing
Ground granulated blast-furnace slags that are finer than portland cements are likely to produce mixes with reduced bleed
water when the combined amount of cementitious material is not also reduced.
C - 1.18.8 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)
Time of setting and the rate of early strength gain will have been prescribed in arriving at the mix design and proportioning.
This will have determined the water to cementitious material ratio that, if high, may require special curing measures to avoid
plastic shrinkage cracking. Special curing requirements may also result if a minimum specified strength is to be attained
before subjecting the hardened concrete to freeze-thaw cycles or to chlorides.

C - SECTION 1.20 UNFORMED SURFACE FINISH
C - 1.20.3 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)
The tackiness and lack of bleed water of concrete containing 10% to 20% silica fume will make finishing of unformed surfaces
more difficult and may require trial placements in order to determine finishing methods. The use of evaporation retarders and
other methods to reduce evaporation will aid the finishing process.
C - 1.20.4 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-

FURNACE SLAG (2004)
See the commentary for Article 1.18.7.2 regarding delays in implementing curing procedures.
C - SECTION 1.22 PENETRATING WATER REPELLENT TREATMENT OF CONCRETE

SURFACES
C - 1.22.1 GENERAL (2016)

a. Penetrating sealers are primarily intended for use in sealing the surface of concrete structures against intrusion of water
and chlorides, while having a minimum effect on the concrete’s ability to breathe (transfer water vapor). Of the 21
materials tested and addressed in National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244, only the silane
exhibited a measurable penetration effect.
1
NCHRP Report 244:
“This silane material produces a non-wettable concrete surface to a depth of 0.10 inch (2.5 mm). The other materials
tested in this project, including boiled linseed oil, generally do not produce a measurable penetration or a measurable
thickness of non-wettable concrete. Most of these other materials are coatings and should not be referred to in
specifications as ‘penetrating sealers’.”
3
b. With the emergence of new legislation designed to limit the amounts of Volatile Organic Compound (V.O.C.) emission,
it is incumbent upon specifying Engineers to be cognizant of these new laws.
C - 1.22.2 SURFACE PREPARATION (2016)

a. Good surface preparation, prior to applying the sealer, is essential to achieve the desired maximum penetration into the
concrete. When the sealers penetrate below the surface of the concrete, they chemically bond to the concrete and 4
prevent water and chlorides from entering the concrete. Contaminants must be totally removed and the surface
allowed to dry. Properly applied sealers shall provide protection from the ingress of water and chlorides for a period of
five (5) years.
b. Surface preparation may be accomplished by:
(1) High pressure water (hot or cold).
(2) Chemical cleaners.
(3) Sandblasting.
(4) Shotblasting.

c. When high pressure water is employed, all surfaces shall be free of standing water or moisture at the time of the
treatment which could restrict surface penetration. Care must be taken when using high-pressure water steam to avoid
excessive exposure of coarse aggregate.
C - 1.22.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS (2003)

There is some question of the effects of high temperature on water repellent treatments as one author states that high
temperatures actually speed up the condensation reaction of monomeric silanes into oligomeric siloxanes. Because of this,
application of treatment at temperatures over 100 degrees F should be carefully considered.
C - 1.22.4 APPLICATION (2003)

Consult the manufacturer’s material safety data sheet and application instructions for further safety information.
C - 1.22.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE (1993)

a. The owner of a concrete structure or buyer of a concrete sealer shall be satisfied that the manufacturer can furnish the
quality assurance claimed. This can be done by comparing test results of the product against test results obtained by
independent test studies, several of which are listed in the References found at the end of this Chapter. The buyer or
owner should also be satisfied that an agent or distributor who makes such claims or offers such a warranty has the full
authority to do so by the manufacturer.
b. The owner of a concrete structure or buyer of a concrete sealer should seek out an applicator (either owner’s own
employee or outside contractor) approved by the manufacturer in order to validate its warranty.
C - SECTION 1.23 REPAIRS AND ANCHORAGE USING REACTIVE RESINS
d. Reactive resins may be selected for inclusion with fine and/or coarse aggregate in polymer concrete or included with a
clean, dry, fine aggregate in a polymer mortar. Reactive resins can be used in chemical bonding systems as an adhesive
for concrete or as a binder for mortars or concrete.
e. Reactive resins may also be used neat (without the addition of aggregate) as a bonding agent, as a bonding coat for
adhesion, as well as anchoring between metallic inserts and concrete when the spacing between the metallic insert and
the interior wall of the bored hole in the concrete is 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) minimum. While the general rule for anchor bolt
embedment is ten (10) to fifteen (15) times the bolt diameter, the embedment shall be designed based upon loads to be
carried.
C - SECTION 1.24 HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
C - 1.24.1 GENERAL (1995)
a. With the advances in concrete technology during the last few decades, the commonly achievable limits of concrete
strength have steadily increased. The use of high-strength concrete in construction has also increased. Concrete
compressive strengths approaching 20,000 psi (138 MPa) have been used in cast-in-place concrete buildings. High-
strength concrete has also been used in bridge structures. Research has been conducted on the performance of high-
strength prestressed concrete in bridges.
b. Because of the continuing advances in technology, the definition of the minimum concrete compressive strength for
high-strength concrete is changing with time. Different geographic locations may also have varying limits for what
they consider as high-strength concrete. The ACI Committee 363 report on high-strength concrete (ACI 363R-92)
defines high-strength as having compressive strengths of 6,000 psi (41 MPa) or greater.

c. The ACI Committee 363 report on high-strength concrete provides detailed information on material and structural
aspects of high-strength concrete.
C - 1.24.2 MATERIALS (1995)
a. To achieve adequate consistency and quality of high-strength concrete, stringent control of constituent materials is
necessary. Variations in type, brand and source of supply of the components can have major influences on the
properties of high-strength concrete. Therefore, emphasis is placed on the preparation of trial batches and maintenance
of the same component materials throughout the project.
b. Testing and comparison of laboratory and production-sized trial batches are needed to establish the required strength of
laboratory trial batches. This is because the laboratory trial batches have often exhibited significantly higher strength
than production batches.
C - 1.24.2.1 Cement
The quality and consistency of cement used in high-strength concrete need verification through mill test reports, and mortar
cube tests. The most suitable types of cement for high-strength concrete are Type I or Type III with minimum 7-day cube
compressive strength of 4500 psi (31 MPa). In addition, cement should not show signs of false set.
C - 1.24.2.2 Chemical Admixtures
a. Chemical admixtures are commonly used in high-strength concrete to increase compressive strength through reduction
of water, control rate of hardening, accelerate strength gain, and improve workability and durability. Performance of all 1
materials in high-strength concrete as a whole should be considered when selecting the type, brand and dosage of any
admixtures.
b. Air-entraining admixtures (ASTM C260) are used to improve durability and freeze-thaw resistance. However, air voids
have the effect of reducing compressive strength and their use is therefore recommended only when durability is a
concern. Incorporation of entrained air may reduce strength at a rate of 5% to 7% for each percent of air in the mix.
3
c. Retarders (ASTM C494, Types B and D) are used to control early hydration and hardening of concrete. Factors such as
an increase in strength and temperature effects should be considered.
d. Normal-setting water reducers (ASTM C494, Type A) are used to increase strength without affecting the rate of
hardening. High-range water reducers (ASTM C494, Types F and G) are used to increase strength (decrease water
demand) especially high early strength (24 hours) or increase slump. Matching the admixture to the cement used (both
in type and dosage rate) is an important consideration. 4
e. High-range water reducers (ASTM C494, Types F and G) are often used in high-strength concrete mixtures and are
essential with the very high-strength concretes to ensure adequate workability with low water-cementitious ratios.
Further information is available in ACI SP-68.
f. Accelerators (ASTM C494, Types C and E) are not normally used in high strength concrete except when early form
removal is critical. Accelerators will normally be counterproductive in long-term strength development.
C - 1.24.2.3 Mineral Admixtures
a. Mineral admixtures such as fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag have been widely used in
high-strength concrete. Variations in physical and chemical properties of mineral admixtures (even when within
tolerance of specifications) can have a major influence on properties of high-strength concrete.

b. Fly ash generally reduces early strength gain and improves late age strength of concrete. There are two (2) classes of
fly ash available (ASTM C618). Class F fly ash is generally available in eastern U.S. and Canada and has pozzolanic
properties, but little or no cementitious properties. Class C fly ash is generally available in western U.S. and Canada
and has pozzolanic and some autogenous cementitious properties. An ignition loss of 3% or less is desirable, although
ASTM C618 permits a higher value. ASTM C311 provides standard test methods for sampling and testing of fly ash or
natural pozzolans.
c. Silica fume consists of very fine spherical particles, approximately 100 times smaller than the average cement particle,
and is a highly effective pozzolanic material. It is used in concrete in applications where abrasion resistance and low
permeability are desired. Normally, silica fume content ranges from 5% to 15% of portland cement content. The
availability of high-range water reducers has facilitated the use of silica fume in high-strength concrete. However,
concrete with silica fume has an increased tendency to develop plastic shrinkage cracks. Therefore steps should be
taken to prevent rapid water evaporation.
d. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (ASTM C989) is used as a partial replacement for portland cement in various
proportions to enhance different properties of concrete. Research has shown promise for its use in high-strength
concrete.
C - 1.24.2.4 Aggregates
a. The optimum gradation of fine aggregates for high-strength concrete is mainly determined by its effect on water
requirement rather than physical packing. High-strength concrete has high contents of fine cementitious materials and
therefore the grading of fine aggregates is relatively unimportant compared to conventional concrete. Fine aggregates
with rounded particle shapes and smooth texture require less mixing water and are therefore preferred in high-strength
concrete.
b. The desirable maximum size of coarse aggregate should be 1/2 inch (13 mm) or 3/8 inch (10 mm). Mix designs with
maximum size aggregate of 3/4 inch (19 mm) and 1 inch (25 mm) have also been successfully used. Many studies have
shown that crushed stone produces higher strengths than rounded gravel because of improved mechanical bond in
angular particles. However, accentuated angularity can result in higher water requirement and reduced workability and
therefore should be avoided. The ideal aggregate should be clean, cubical, angular, 100% crushed aggregate with a
minimum of flat and elongated particles. It would also be beneficial if the aggregate has moderate absorption capability
to provide added curing water for high-strength concrete.
c. High-strength concrete requires high-strength aggregates. However, this trend holds only true until the limit of the
bonding potential of the cement-aggregate combination is reached.
C - 1.24.3 CONCRETE MIXTURE PROPORTIONS (1995)
a. High-strength concrete mix proportioning is a more critical process than the design of normal-strength concrete
mixtures. Generally, chemical admixtures and pozzolanic materials are added and the attainment of low water-
cementitious ratio is essential. Trial batches are often required to optimize constituent materials and mixture
proportions. Additional information can be found in ACI 211.1, ACI 211.4, and ACI Publication SP-46.
b. The relationship between water-cementitious ratio and compressive strength in high-strength concrete is similar to that
identified for normal-strength concrete. The use of high-range water reducers has provided lower water-cementitious
ratios and higher slumps. Water-cementitious ratios by weight for high-strength concrete typically have ranged from
approximately 0.27 to 0.50. The compressive strength of concrete at a given water-cementitious ratio varies widely
depending on the cement, aggregates and admixtures used. The quantity of liquid admixtures, particularly high-range
water reducers, has sometimes been included in the calculation of water-cementitious ratio. When silica fume as a
slurry is used, its water content must be included in the water-cementitious ratio.

c. Typical cement contents in high-strength concrete range from 660 lb/cy (390 kg/m3) to 940 lb/cy (560 kg/m3). For any
given set of materials in a concrete mixture, there may be an optimum cement content that produces maximum
concrete strength. The strength of concrete may decrease if cement is added in excess of the optimum level. The
strength for any given cement content will vary with the water demand of the mixture and the strength-producing
characteristics of that particular cement. Loss of workability (stickiness) will be increased as higher cement amounts
are used.
d. The maximum temperature desired in the concrete element may limit the quantity or type of cement. Addition of ice,
set retarders or pozzolans may be considered.
C - 1.24.3.1 Aggregate Proportions
Table 3.1 in the ACI 363R-92 suggests the amounts of coarse aggregate based on the fineness modulus of sand for the purpose
of initial proportioning. In general, the least sand consistent with necessary workability has given the best strengths for a given
paste. The use of smaller coarse aggregates (maximum 3/8 inch (10 mm) to 1/2 inch (13 mm)) are generally beneficial, and
crushed aggregates seem to bond best to the cementitious paste.
C - 1.24.3.2 Proportioning of Admixtures
a. In high-strength concrete, pozzolanic admixtures have been used to supplement the portland cement from 10% to 40%
by weight of the cement content. The use of fly ash has often reduced the water demand of the mixture. Silica fume, on
the other hand, dramatically increases the water demand of the mixture which has made the use of retarding and high-
range water-reducing admixture (superplasticizing) admixtures a requirement.
b. The amount of conventional water reducers and retarders in high-strength concrete varies depending on the particular
1
admixture and application. In general, the tendency has been to use maximum quantities of these admixtures.
Typically, water reductions of 5% to 8% may be increased to 10%. Corresponding increases in fine aggregate content
have been made to compensate for the loss of volume due to the reduction of water.
c. Most high-strength concretes contain both mineral admixtures and chemical admixtures. It is common for these
mixtures to contain combinations of chemical admixtures. High-range water reducers have performed better in high- 3
strength concretes when used in combination with conventional water reducers or retarders.
C - 1.24.3.3 Workability
a. High-strength concrete mixtures tend to lose slump more rapidly than lower-strength concrete. If slump is to be used as
a field control, testing should be done at a prescribed time after mixing. Concrete should be discharged before the
mixture becomes unworkable. 4
b. High-strength concrete, often placed with 1/2 inch (13 mm) maximum size aggregate and with a high cementitious
content, is inherently placeable provided attention is given to optimizing the ratio of fine to coarse aggregate. Local
material characteristics have a marked effect on proportions. Cement fineness and particle size distribution influence
the character of the mixture. Appropriate admixtures improve the placeability of the mixture.
c. Mixtures that were proportioned properly but appear to change in character and become more sticky should be
considered suspect and checked for proportions, possible false setting of cement, undesirable air-entrainment, or other
changes. A change in the character of a high-strength mixture could be a warning sign for quality control.
C - 1.24.3.4 Trial Batches
Frequently, the development of a high-strength concrete program has required a large number of trial batches. In addition to
laboratory trial batches, field-sized trial batches have been used to simulate typical production conditions. Once a desirable
mixture has been formulated in the laboratory, field testing with production-sized batches should be preformed.

C - SECTION 1.25 SPECIALTY CONCRETES
C - 1.25.2 SULFUR CONCRETE
f. Sulfur concrete is generally not resistant to alkalis or oxidizers. However sulfur concrete exhibits excellent
characteristics of:
(1) High strength [in excess of 62 MPa (9,000 psi)] and fatigue resistance;
(2) Excellent corrosion resistance against salts and most acids;
(3) Extremely rapid set and strength gains and achieves a minimum of 70% to 80% of ultimate compressive strength
within 24 hours;
(4) Placement year round, above and below freezing temperatures;
(5) Very low water permeability.
C - 1.25.2.2 Handling
Extreme care should be used when handling sulfur concrete to avoid burns.
C - 1.25.2.3 Placing
Wall construction should be given special consideration to preclude poor consolidation. Preheating the reinforcing steel and
forms using infrared or suitable heaters, plus using insulation on the outside of wall forms should be utilized to retain heat
during placement.
C - 1.25.4 POLYMER CONCRETE (2013)
a. Polymer concretes are composite materials that combine synthetic resins with blended aggregates and graded fillers to
produce low permeability concretes, mortars and grouts with high resistance to water, chlorides, and freeze-thaw
cycles.
b. The resins comprise of monomers, or monomers and polymers which polymerize when mixed with cure initiators or
catalysts. Graded fillers, sands and, where applicable, aggregates are then added into the polymerizing solution. The
resin binds the materials tightly together to form a hard impermeable composite.
c. The resins are formulated to provide a range of characteristics, including varying degrees of flexibility, rigidity and
strength.
d. The resins used in these products are from a wide range of generic chemical groups, most commonly epoxies, methyl
methacrylates, polyesters and polyurethanes.
e. Polymer concretes typically cure more rapidly than cement-based equivalents, while exhibiting greater flexural and
tensile strengths. The rate of curing depends on the polymer resin base.
f. As a result, polymer concretes can be used to provide effective solutions to construction conditions, particularly where
rapid cure and high strength gain may be required.

g. Common uses are keyway joint grouting, joint headers, bedding of bridge bearings, and structural repairs.
h. The repair areas and volume of polymer concrete placements are generally small.
i. Polymer concretes are also used as an alternative to cement-based material in locations exposed to high chloride and
water ingress.
j. The materials can generally be placed without specialized equipment and do not require a sensitive curing procedure.
C - 1.25.4.2 Selection of Materials
Care must be taken to ensure that the properties of the product proposed meet the specific site requirements:
a. Some products are susceptible to outgassing when installed in humidity levels above 85%, which may lead to
pinholing and/or foaming, causing a reduced impermeability to liquid water and reduced ultimate strength.
b. Some resins have strict allowable timeframes for overcoating their primers, without which their removal or other
treatment may be required.
c. Some products, such as some epoxy-based systems, exhibit a slower rate of curing or even no curing at lower
temperatures.
d. Elevated temperatures can make certain products unsuitable.
e. Filler aggregate - For applications greater than 1 inch of thickness, add aggregate in accordance with the
1
Manufacturer’s recommendations.
C - 1.25.4.4 Surface Preparation
a. A suitably level area on the prepared substrate should be identified and primed. Using the proposed polymer concrete
material as the adhesive, the primed area should be tensile tested per ASTM D4541. After sufficient curing of the 3
polymer concrete the adhesion should be tested, and the mode of failure must be in the concrete substrate. Failure at the
bond line indicates insufficient surface preparation, and further removal of additional weak or unsound material is
required.
b. The surface should be prepared by shotblasting or other mechanical means to remove all laitance, weak, damaged,
contaminated and friable material. Saw cut repair boundaries along straight edge and chip edge down a minimum of 1
inch (25 mm) to sound concrete by means of cold chisels or pneumatic chipping hammers. Where honeycombing 4
exists around reinforcing, chip concrete to provide a minimum space of ¾ inch (19 mm) around the reinforcing to
afford sufficient bond.
C - 1.25.4.5 Installation
Installation should be in accordance with the Manufacturer’s recommendations, however, but the minimum guidelines below
should be followed:
a. Surfaces to be treated should be primed as required.
b. Do not apply materials if rain is anticipated within three hours of application without approved protective measures in
place.
c. Ensure that the product’s maximum humidity limit and over-coating window are adhered to.

d. Mix and place polymer concrete used for structural concrete slabs and full depth overlays in accordance with
manufacturer's printed instructions.
e. Provide control joints as recommended by Manufacturer, or as indicated on drawings.
f. Repair placement cavities in accordance with repair procedures outlined below.
(1) Place patching mortar by trowelling toward edges of patch to force intimate contact with edge surfaces. For large
patches, fill edges first and then work toward center, always troweling toward edges of patch. At fully exposed
reinforcing bars, force patching mortar to fill space behind bars by compacting with trowel from sides of bars.
(2) For vertical patching, place material in lifts of not more than 2 inch (50 mm) nor less than 1/8 inch (3 mm). Do not
feather edge.
(3) For overhead patching, place material in lifts of not more than 1½ inch (38 mm) nor less than 1/8 inch (3 mm). Do
not feather edge.
(4) Where multiple lifts are used, score surface of lifts to provide a rough surface for application of subsequent lifts.
Allow each lift to reach final set before placing subsequent lifts.
g. Allow surfaces of lifts that are to remain exposed to become firm and then finish to a smooth surface with a trowel.
h. Floated finish: Provide where concrete flatwork is to receive waterproofing membranes or setting beds for finished
materials.
i. Contractor, at his own expense, shall level depressed spots and grind high spots in concrete surfaces which are in
excess of specified tolerances. Leveling materials proposed for providing proper surface shall be approved by
Engineer.
j. Some Manufacturers recommend using lifts no greater than 2 inch (50 mm) in thickness for polymer concrete, but
some specific products are designed for lifts greater than 2 inch (50 mm) thickness.
C - 1.25.4.6 Quality Assurance
a. Applicator
Documentation of experience shall be provided in a listing of representative projects completed by personnel using the
proposed materials in the last 5 years. Provide Owner contact information for each representative project.
d. Testing Services and Inspection Services:
(1) The Contractor should accept as indicative, the results of tests, including results involving mix designs and field
quality control of materials. If, as a result of these tests, it is determined that the specified material properties are
not being obtained, the Engineer may order such changes in proportions or materials, or both, as may be necessary
to secure the specified properties, at no additional expense to the Company.
(2) The use of testing and inspection services should not relieve the Contractor of his/her responsibility to furnish
materials and construction in compliance with the Contract.
(3) Failure to detect any defective work or material should not in any way prevent later rejection when such defect is
discovered, nor should it obligate the Engineer for final acceptance.

(4) Additional testing and inspection services requested by the Contractor because of changes in materials, sources, or
proportions, or occasioned by failure of tests and inspection to meet specification requirements, should be paid for
by the Contractor.
(5) The minimum number of test cylinders to be made for each type of polymer concrete and for each placement
should be as specified by the Engineer or as recommended by the Manufacturer.
C - 1.25.5 FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE (2014)
Fibers should be used only to inhibit cracking and improve resistance to material deterioration as a result of fatigue, impact,
shrinkage, and/or thermal stresses. All flexural and tensile stresses must be resisted by steel reinforcement. Where the use of
steel reinforcement is not essential by design such as concrete pavement, concrete overlays and shotcrete linings, the Engineer
may use fibers. Testing data provided by the manufacturer of fibers intended for use in fiber-reinforced can be used to evaluate
its performance. Such data shall be from testing meeting the requirements of ASTM C1399/C1399M-10.
Detailed information for Fiber-Reinforced Concrete can be obtained from publications by ACI Committee 544.
C - 1.25.6 HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE (2014)
Detailed information on High-Performance Concrete can be obtained from the Portland Cement Association publication,
“Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures”, 15th edition, 2011.
1
C - SECTION 1.26 SELF-CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
C - 1.26.1 GENERAL (2013)
a. SCC may be used to reduce labor during placement, to more completely fill around and between congested
reinforcement, and to reduce or eliminate honeycombing and bug holes. It may also be used in such structural 3
elements as drilled shafts, where the difficulty of inspecting the placement for air pockets is a concern.
b. SCC normally contains a greater percentage of fine materials making up the paste and of fine aggregates, and a lesser
percentage of coarse aggregates than conventional concrete.
C - 1.26.2 MIX DESIGN AND TESTING (2013)

4
C - 1.26.2.1 Mix Design
As with conventional concrete, the water-cement ratio, quality and gradation of aggregates, and the inclusion of mineral
admixtures such as fly ash and silica fume affect the strength, modulus of elasticity and creep and shrinkage properties of the
hardened concrete. For structural elements such as columns, cantilevers and prestressed concrete beams where those
properties are important, relevant tests should be performed unless information from other completed projects can confirm
that the mix design will produce the required properties despite the high fines content and reduced maximum aggregate size
typical of SCC.
C - 1.26.2.2 Quality Control Testing
a. The supplier should have a full range of test results for the mix that is proposed. The purpose of the plant testing is to
ensure that the concrete can flow into and completely fill forms under its own weight, that it will flow around and bond
to reinforcing steel under its own weight, and that it will have a high resistance to segregation.

(1) ASTM C1610 is used to evaluate the stability of a concrete mixture. A column is filled with concrete and given
time to segregate. The column is then separated into sections and each section is washed over a sieve and the
retained aggregate is weighed. The degree of segregation is measured by the difference in the results for the
various sections. This is a laboratory test and is normally not practical to be performed in the field.
(2) ASTM C1611 is used to evaluate the filling ability (deformability) of a concrete mixture and its stability. The test
is performed similar to a standard slump cone test. However, instead of measuring the slump vertically, the mean
spread of the resulting concrete is recorded as the slump flow with results ranging between 22 to 28 inches (560 to
710 mm) being typical, depending on project requirements. The standard slump cone is inverted for this test,
which is suitable for laboratory and field use.
(3) ASTM C1621 is used to evaluate the passing ability of a concrete mixture. The test consists of a ring of
reinforcing bars that fits around the base of a standard test cone. The slump flow is measured with and without the
J-Ring and the difference is noted. A difference of less than 1 inch (25 mm) indicates good passing ability,
whereas a difference of more than 2 inches (50 mm) indicates poor passing ability. This test can be used in the
laboratory and in the field.
C - 1.26.3 FORMS AND REINFORCEMENT (2013)
a. Rapid placement into the forms is desirable in order to achieve the economies that can result from the use of self-
consolidating concrete. Maintaining the flowability of a concrete pour even after it is placed in order to improve the
bond to subsequent pours also implies rapid placement. Rapid placement can reduce the thixotrophic properties of the
concrete mass to act as a semi-solid or gel and this has the potential to increase form pressures beyond those which
would normally be expected. Stronger form systems allow faster placement since the labor involved with normal
consolidation techniques is not required when using SCC.
b. Form release agents with a high-solids content will better resist abrasion from the movement of the concrete. Light
application of form release agents, or wiping off after application is also recommended to avoid staining of
architectural finishes.
C - 1.26.5 PLACEMENT (2013)
a. SCC is commonly placed by discharging the material into the forms at a single location, depending on the fluidity of
the SCC to fill the forms within a distance of about 33 feet (10 m). Considerations with respect to placement that
determine the required slump flow include the intricacy of the form, depth, length and size of form, surface finish, and
amount of reinforcement. A high rate of placement can be desirable to achieve flow momentum, which is also helpful
in filling the forms. Overfilling of forms should be avoided due to the difficulty of screeding the fluid material.
b. Specific placement techniques may be required for various types of structural elements, such as beams, double-tees,
slabs, modules and walls, columns and drilled shafts. Free falling placement should be avoided.
c. The field inspector should expect to see a sheen but no sign of free water on the top of the concrete as it is being placed.
The coarse aggregates should also remain prominent on top of the concrete as a sign that segregation is not taking
place. Concrete should not be allowed to set up before subsequent lifts are placed, and production rates and delivery
schedules should be arranged accordingly. The previous lift should be able to flow under the weight of the subsequent
lift. If the previous lift has begun to gel but has not hardened significantly, it may be rodded to restore its flowability.
d. Dropping concrete during placement will increase turbulence and could result in entrapped air and segregation. Any
anomaly on the surface of the forms, such as that resulting from splashed concrete is also likely to be visible on the face
of the completed work. A tremie tube may be used to avoid dropping the concrete. SCC should not splatter.

8
Part 2
Reinforced Concrete Design1
— 2018 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5

2.1.1 Scope (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.1.2 Design Methods (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.1.3 Highway Bridges (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.1.4 Buildings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5 1
2.1.5 Pier Protection (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-6
2.1.6 SuperStructure Protection (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-6
2.1.7 Skewed Concrete Bridges (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-6
2.2 Notations, Definitions and Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-8

2.2.1 Notations (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-8 3
2.2.2 D ef i ni t i o n s (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-11
2.2.3 Design Loads (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-12
2.2.4 Loading Combinations (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-19
2.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20

2.3.1 Concrete (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
2.3.2 Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
Details of Reinforcement
2.4 Hooks and Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21

2.4.1 Standard Hooks (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
2.4.2 Minimum Bend Diameter (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
2.5 Spacing of Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.6 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22

2.6.1 Minimum Concrete Cover (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.6.2 Concrete Cover for Bar Bundles (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
1
References, Vol. 31, 1930, pp. 1148, 1787; Vol. 48, 1947, p. 418; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 291, 757; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 794, 1341; Vol. 57, 1956, p. 996; Vol. 63,
1962, pp. 278, 688; Vol. 68, 1967, p. 313; Vol. 71, 1970, pp. 230, 242; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 136; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 205; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 91; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 53;
Vol. 91, 1990, p 63; Vol. 93, 1992, pp. 78, 92; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 98.

2.6.3 Concrete Cover for Corrosive and Marine Environments (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.6.4 Corrosion Protection (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.7 Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.8 Distribution of Reinforcement in Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.9 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10 Shear Reinforcement – General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24

2.10.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10.2 Types of Shear Reinforcement (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.10.3 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.11 Limits for Reinforcement of Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25

2.11.1 Longitudinal Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.11.2 Lateral Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.12 Shrinkage and T emperature Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
Development and Splices of Reinforcement
2.13 Development Requirements (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27

2.13.1 General (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
2.13.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-28
2.13.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
2.13.4 Special Members (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
2.14 Development Length of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in T ension (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
2.15 Development Length of Deformed Bars in Compression (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.16 Development Length of Bundled Bars (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.17 Development of Standard Hooks in T ension (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-31
2.18 Combination Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
2.19 Development of Welded Wire Reinforcement in T ension (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32

2.19.1 Deformed Wire Reinforcement (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
2.19.2 Plain Wire Reinforcement (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33
2.20 Development of Headed and Mechanically Anchored Deformed Bars in Tension (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33
2.21 Anchorage of Shear Reinforcement (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-34

Reinforced Concrete Design
2.22 Splices of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35

2.22.1 Lap Splices (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.22.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.22.3 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-36
2.22.4 Splices of Deformed Bars in Compression (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-36
2.22.5 End Bearing Splices (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
2.22.6 Splice Requirements for Columns (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
2.22.7 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Reinforcement in Tension (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.22.8 Splices of Welded Plain Wire Reinforcement in Tension (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
Analysis and Design – General Considerations
2.23 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38

2.23.1 General (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.23.2 Expansion and Contraction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.23.3 Stiffness (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-39
2.23.4 Modulus of Elasticity (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-39
2.23.5 Thermal and Shrinkage Coefficients (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-39
2.23.6 Span Length (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-39
2.23.7 Computation of Deflections (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-39 1
2.23.8 Bearings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-40
2.23.9 Composite Concrete Flexural Members (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-40
2.23.10 T-Girder Construction (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-41
2.23.11 Box Girder Construction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.24 Design Methods (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-43

3
Service Load Design
2.25 General Requirements (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-43
2.26 Allowable Service Load Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44

2.26.1 Concrete (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44
2.26.2 Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45 4
2.27 Flexure (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45
2.28 Compression Members with or without Flexure (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-46
2.29 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-46

2.29.1 Shear Stress (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-46
2.29.2 Permissible Shear Stress (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-46
2.29.3 Design of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-48
2.29.4 Shear-Friction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-49
2.29.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-50
2.29.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-51
2.29.7 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-52

Load Factor Design
2.30 Strength Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53

2.30.1 Required Strength (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.30.2 Design Strength (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.31 Design Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-54

2.31.1 Strength Design (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-54
2.32 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-55

2.32.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-55
2.32.2 Rectangular Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-55
2.32.3 I- and T-Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-55
2.32.4 Rectangular Sections With Compression Reinforcement (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-56
2.32.5 Other Cross Sections (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-57
2.33 Compression Members with or without Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-57

2.33.1 General Requirements (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-57
2.33.2 Compression Member Strengths (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58
2.33.3 Biaxial Loading (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-59
2.34 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-59

2.34.1 General Requirements (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-59
2.34.2 Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-60
2.35 Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-61

2.35.1 Shear Strength (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-61
2.35.2 Permissible Shear Stress (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-62
2.35.3 Design of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-64
2.35.4 Shear-Friction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-65
2.35.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-66
2.35.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-67
2.35.7 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.36 Permissible Bearing Stress (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
2.37 Serviceability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69

2.37.1 Application (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
2.37.2 Service Load Stresses (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
2.38 Fatigue Stress Limit for Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-70
2.39 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-70
2.40 Control of Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-71

2.40.1 General (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-71
2.40.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-71
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-71

LIST OF FIGURES
8-2-1 Cooper E 80 (EM 360) Axle Load Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-13

8-2-2 Standard Hook Bars and Tie Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
8-2-3 #6, #7, or #8 Stirrups (fy > 40,000 psi) (#19, #22, or #25 (fy > 280 MPa)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
C-8-2-1 Pier Protection: Minimum Crash Wall Requirements (Not To Scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-74
C-8-2-2 Comparison of Impact Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-75
LIST OF TABLES
8-2-1 Coefficient for Nose Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-18

8-2-2 Coefficient for Design Ice Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-18
8-2-3 Temperature Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-19
8-2-4 Group Loading Combinations – Service Load Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-19
8-2-5 Group Loading Combinations – Load Factor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
8-2-6 Minimum Diameter of Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
8-2-7 Minimum Concrete Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
8-2-8 Recommended Minimum Thickness For Constant Depth Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
SECTION 2.1 GENERAL
2.1.1 SCOPE (2005)

3
These recommended practices shall govern the design of reinforced concrete members of railway structures supporting or
protecting tracks and shall govern both SERVICE LOAD DESIGN and LOAD FACTOR DESIGN.
2.1.2 DESIGN METHODS (2005)
a. The design of reinforced concrete members shall be made either with reference to service loads and allowable service
load stresses as provided in the Service Load Design Section or, alternately, with reference to load factors and strength
4
as provided in the Load Factor Design section. The design method to be used, SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or LOAD
FACTOR DESIGN, shall be as directed by the Engineer.
2.1.3 HIGHWAY BRIDGES (2005)
Unless otherwise specified by highway authority, all highway bridges shall be designed in accordance with the latest
Specifications for Highway Bridges adopted by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
2.1.4 BUILDINGS (2005)
Unless otherwise specified by local governing ordinances or state codes, all concrete railway buildings shall be designed in
accordance with the latest “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318)” of the American Concrete
Institute, subject to design loads conforming to railway requirements.

2.1.5 PIER PROTECTION (2005)
2.1.5.1 Adjacent to Railroad Tracks1
a. To limit damage by the redirection and deflection of railroad equipment, piers supporting bridges over railways and
with a clear distance of 25 feet (7600 mm) or less from the centerline of a railroad track shall be of heavy construction
(defined below) or shall be protected by a reinforced concrete crash wall. Crash walls for piers from 12 to 25 feet (3600
to 7600 mm) clear from the centerline of track shall have a minimum height of 6 feet (1800 mm) above the top of rail.
Piers less than 12 feet (3600 mm) clear from the centerline of track shall have a minimum crash wall height of 12 feet
(3600 mm) above the top of rail.
b. The crash wall shall be at least 2-6 (760 mm) thick and at least 12 feet (3600 mm) long. When two or more columns
compose a pier, the crash wall shall connect the columns and extend at least 1 foot (300 mm) beyond the outermost
columns parallel to the track. The crash wall shall be anchored to the footings and columns, if applicable, with
adequate reinforcing steel and shall extend to at least 4 feet (1200 mm) below the lowest surrounding grade.
c. Piers shall be considered of heavy construction if they have a cross-sectional area equal to or greater than that required
for the crash wall and the larger of its dimensions is parallel to the track.
d. Consideration may be given to providing protection for bridge piers over 25 feet (7600 mm) from the centerline of
track as conditions warrant. In making this determination, account shall be taken of such factors as horizontal and
vertical alignment of the track, embankment height, and an assessment of the consequences of serious damage in the
case of a collision.
2.1.5.2 Over Navigable Streams
Piers located adjacent to channels of navigable waterways shall have a protection system in accordance with Part 23 Pier
Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams.
2.1.6 SUPERSTRUCTURE PROTECTION (2010)2
2.1.6.1 General Requirements
a. An evaluation of a railroad bridge over a roadway should be performed when the risk potential and consequence from
a vehicular collision with a railroad superstructure is deemed necessary by the Engineer. Factors to be considered in
the evaluation should include but not limited to railroad safety and operational requirements, vertical clearance over
roadway surface, roadway functional classification, roadway design speed, roadway sight distance, traffic data, and
other reasonable data for the specific location. Reasonable protection of the superstructure should be determined based
upon results from the evaluation and approval by the Engineer.
b. A re-evaluation of the grade separation requirements should be performed when changes in conditions at the location
or other factors warrant.
2.1.7 SKEWED CONCRETE BRIDGES (2005)3
a. The skew angle, on most concrete bridges, is the smallest angle measured between a line perpendicular to the
centerline of bridge and the centerline of the abutments or piers. Skewed concrete bridges should be avoided when
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

possible. When skewed bridges are unavoidable, cast-in-place concrete bridges are preferable. The following table
illustrates the maximum recommended skew for different types of concrete bridges.
TYPE OF STRUCTURE SKEW IN DEGREES

Precast concrete slabs and box girders 15
Precast concrete I-girders and T-girders 30
Cast-in-place concrete slabs and girders 60
b. When interior diaphragms are used on concrete girder bridges, they should be placed perpendicular to the web of the
girder.
c. Abutments may be skewed, provided there is either a haunch in the backwall of the abutment, or an approach slab is
provided for each track. The end of the haunch in the backwall of the abutment and the end of the approach slab shall
be set perpendicular to the center of the track.
d. Concrete bridges with a curved superstructure should not be skewed. Piers and abutments for these bridges should be
placed radial to the centerline of the bridge.
e. The ends of concrete slabs and concrete box girders with flange widths 5’-0” (1525 mm) and wider may be skewed.
Skews on the ends of concrete I-girders, concrete T-girders and concrete box girders with flange widths less than 5’-0”
(1525 mm) should be avoided.
f. All concrete bridges that differ from these guidelines should be evaluated on a case by case basis. 1

SECTION 2.2 NOTATIONS, DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN LOADS
2.2.1 NOTATIONS (2005)
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, inches (mm). See Article 2.31.1f
ab = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block for balanced strain conditions, inches (mm). See Article 2.33.2
av = shear span, distance between concentrated load and face of support, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the main tension reinforcing bars and having the same centroid as that
reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, square inches (mm2). When the main reinforcement consists of
several bar sizes the number of bars shall be computed as the total steel area divided by the area of the largest bar
used. See Section 2.39
Ab = area of an individual bar, square inches (mm2). See Section 2.14
Ac = area of the core of a spirally reinforced compression member measured to the outside diameter of the spiral, square
inches (mm2). See Article 2.11.2
Af = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting moment, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
Ag = gross area of section, square inches (mm2).
Ah = area of shear reinforcement parallel to flexural tension reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
An = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting tensile force, Nc(Nuc), square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7
and Article 2.35.7
As = area of tension reinforcement, square inches (mm2)
As = area of compression reinforcement, square inches (mm2)
Asf = area of reinforcement to develop compression strength of overhanging flanges of I- and T-sections, square inches
(mm2). See Article 2.32.3
Ask = area of skin reinforcement per unit height in one side face, square inches/foot (mm2/m). See Section 2.8
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.33.1 and 2.33.2
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, square inches (mm2)
Avf = area of shear-friction reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
Aw = area of individual wire to be developed or spliced, square inches (mm2)
b = width of compression face of member, inches (mm)
bo = perimeter of critical section for slabs and footings, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.6
bv = width of cross section being investigated for horizontal shear, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.5
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section. For tapered webs, the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width,
whichever is smaller, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.1 and Article 2.35.1
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, inches (mm). See Article 2.31.1
Cm = a factor relating the actual moment diagram to an equivalent uniform moment diagram. See Article 2.34.2
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement, inches (mm)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of compression reinforcement, inches (mm)
d = distance from centroid of gross section neglecting the reinforcement, to centroid of tension reinforcement, inches
(mm)
db = diameter of bar or wire, inches (mm)

dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar located closest thereto, inches
(mm). See Section 2.39
dp = diameter of round pile or cross sectional depth of H-pile at footing base, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and
Article 2.35.6
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (MPa). See Article 2.23.4
EI = flexural stiffness of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa). See Article 2.23.4
fb = average bearing stress in concrete on loaded area, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1 and Section 2.36
fc = extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
f c = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f c = square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight aggregate concrete, psi (MPa)
fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, psi (MPa). See Section 2.38
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
ff = stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa). See Section 2.38 and Article 2.26.2
fs = tensile stress in reinforcement at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.2
f sb = stress in compression reinforcement at balanced strain conditions, psi (MPa). See Article 2.32.4 and Article 2.33.2
ft = extreme fiber tensile stress in concrete at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa)
h = overall thickness of member, inches (mm) 1
hf = compression flange thickness of I- and T-sections, inches (mm)
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed to concrete. See Article 2.23.7
Ie = effective moment of inertia for computation of deflection. See Article 2.23.7
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement
Io = moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis of member cross section
3
k = effective length factor for compression member. See Article 2.34.2
la = additional embedment length at support or at point of inflection, inches (mm). See Article 2.13.2
ld = development length, inches (mm). See Section 2.13 through Section 2.22
ldb = basic development length for deformed bars and deformed wire in tension, inches (mm).
ldh = development length of standard hook in tension, measured from critical section to outside end of hook (straight
embedment length between critical section and start of hook [point of tangency] plus radius of bend and one bar 4
diameter), inches (mm).
lhb x applicable modification factors
ldt = basic development length for headed and mechanical anchored deformed bars in tension, inches (mm).
lhb = basic development length of standard hook in tension, inches (mm).
lu = unsupported length of compression member. See Section 2.34
M = computed moment capacity as defined in Article 2.13.2
Ma = maximum moment in member at section for which deflection is being computed. See Article 2.23.7
Mb = nominal moment strength of a section at balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.33.2
Mc = moment to be used for design of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
Mcr = cracking moment. See Article 2.23.7
Mn = nominal moment strength of a section
Mnx = nominal moment strength of a section considered about the x axis. See Article 2.33.3
Mny = nominal moment strength of a section considered about the y axis. See Article 2.33.3

Mu = factored moment at section Mn

Mux = factored moment component in direction of x axis. See Article 2.33.3
Muy = factored moment component in direction of y axis. See Article 2.33.3
M1b = value of small end moment on compression member due to loads that result in no appreciable side sway, calculated
by conventional elastic frame analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double
curvature. See Article 2.34.2
M2b = value of larger end moment on compression member due to loads that result in no appreciable side sway, calculated
by conventional elastic frame analysis, always positive. See Article 2.34.2
M2s = value of larger end moment on compression member due to loads that result in appreciable side sway, calculated by
conventional elastic frame analysis, always positive. See Article 2.34.2
n = modular ratio = Es/Ec. See Article 2.27
N = design axial load normal to cross section occurring simultaneously with V to be taken as positive for compression,
negative for tension, and to include the effects of tension due to shrinkage and creep. See Article 2.29.2
Nc = design tensile force applied at top of bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with V, to be taken as positive for
tension. See Article 2.29.7
Nu = factored axial load normal to the cross section occurring simultaneously with Vu to be taken as positive for
compression, negative for tension, and to include the effects of tension due to shrinkage and creep. See
Article 2.35.2
Nuc = factored tensile force applied at top of bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with Vu, to be taken as positive for
tension. See Article 2.35.7
Pb = nominal axial load strength of a section at balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.33.2
Pc = critical load. See Article 2.34.2
Pn = nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity.
Pnx = nominal axial load strength corresponding to Mnx with bending considered about the x axis only. See Article 2.33.3
Pny = nominal axial load strength corresponding to Mny with bending considered about the y axis only. See Article 2.33.3
Pnxy = nominal axial load strength with biaxial loading. See Article 2.33.3
Po = nominal axial load strength of a section at zero eccentricity. See Article 2.33.2 and Article 2.33.3
Pu = factored axial load at given eccentricity Pn
r = radius of gyration of cross section of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
s = tie spacing, inches (mm). See Article 2.22.4
s = shear reinforcement spacing in a direction parallel to the longitudinal reinforcement, inches (mm)
sw = spacing of wire to be developed or spliced, inches (mm)
S = span length as defined in Article 2.23.6, feet (meters)
v = design shear stress at section. See Section 2.29
vc = permissible shear stress carried by concrete. See Section 2.29 and Section 2.35
vdh = design horizontal shear stress at any cross section. See Article 2.29.5
vh = permissible horizontal shear stress. See Article 2.29.5 and Article 2.35.5
vu = factored shear stress at section. See Section 2.35
vuh = factored horizontal shear stress at any cross section. See Article 2.35.5
V = design shear force at section. See Section 2.29
Vu = factored shear force at section. See Section 2.35
wc = weight of concrete, pounds per cubic foot (kg/m3)
yt = distance from centroidal axis of gross section, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension, inches (mm).
See Article 2.23.7
Z = a quantity limiting distribution of flexural reinforcement. See Section 2.39

 = angle between inclined shear reinforcement and longitudinal axis of member

f = angle between shear-friction reinforcement shear plane. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
b = ratio of area of bars cut off to total area of bars at the section. See Article 2.13.1
c = ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.6
d = ratio of maximum factored axial dead load to maximum total factored axial load, where the load is due to gravity
effects only in the calculation of Pc in EQ 2-43, or ratio of the maximum factored sustained lateral load to the
maximum total factored lateral load in that level in the calculation of Pc in EQ 2-43. See Article 2.34.2
1 = a factor defined in Article 2.31.1
b = Moment magnification factor for members braced against sidesway to reflect effects of member curvature between
ends of compression member.
s = Moment magnification factor for members not braced against sidesway to reflect lateral drift resulting from lateral
and gravity loads.
 = correction factor related to unit weight of concrete. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
 = coefficient of friction. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
 = tension reinforcement ratio = As/bd
 = compression reinforcement ratio = As/bd
b = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.32.1
s = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of core (out-to-out of spirals) of a spirally reinforced
compression member. See Article 2.11.2
v = ratio of tie reinforcement area to area of contact surface
w = reinforcement ratio (As/bwd) used in EQ 2-15 and EQ 2-46. See Article 2.29.2 and Article 2.35.2
1
 = strength reduction factor. See Article 2.30.2
2.2.2 DEFINITIONS (2005)
The following terms are for general use in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design. Specialized terms appear in individual
paragraphs. Refer to the Chapter 8 Glossary located at the end of the chapter for definitions. 3
Compressive Strength of Concrete (f c) Nominal Strength

Deformed Reinforcement Plain Reinforcement
Design Load Required Strength 4
Design Strength Service Load
Development Length Spiral
Embedment Length Stirrups or Ties
Embedment Length, Equivalent (le) Yield Strength or Yield Point (fy)
End Anchorage Concrete, Structural Lightweight
Factored Load

2.2.3 DESIGN LOADS (2012)
a. General.
(1) The following loads and forces shall be considered in the design of railway concrete structures supporting
tracks:
D = Dead Load F = Longitudinal Force due to Friction or

L = Live Load Shear Resistance at Expansion Bearings
I = Impact
CF = Centrifugal Force EQ = Earthquake (Seismic)
E = Earth Pressure SF = Stream Flow Pressure
B = Buoyancy ICE = Ice Pressure
W = Wind Load on Structure OF = Other Forces (Rib Shortening, Shrinkage,
WL = Wind Load on Live Load Temperature and/or Settlement of
Supports)
LF = Longitudinal Force from Live Load
(2) Each member of the structure shall be designed for that combination of such loads and forces that can occur
simultaneously to produce the most critical design condition as specified in Article 2.2.4.
b. Dead Load.
(1) The dead load shall consist of the estimated weight of the structural member, plus that of the track, ballast, fill, and
other portions of the structure supported thereby.
(2) The unit weight of materials comprising the dead load, except in special cases involving unusual conditions or
materials, shall be assumed as follows:
• Track rails, inside guardrails and fastenings – 200 lb per linear foot of track. (3kN/m)
• Ballast, including track ties – 120 lb per cubic foot. (1900 kg/m3)
• Reinforced concrete – 150 lb per cubic foot. (2400 kg/m3)
• Earthfilling materials – 120 lb per cubic foot. (1900 kg/m3)
• Waterproofing and protective covering – estimated weight.
c. Live Load.
(1) The recommended live load for each track of main line structure is Cooper E 80 (EM 360) loading with axle loads
and axle spacing as shown in Figure 8-2-1. On branch lines and in other locations where the loading is limited to
the use of light equipment, or cars only, the live load may be reduced, as directed by the engineer. For structures
wherein the material in the primary load-carrying members is not concrete, the E loading used for the concrete
design shall be that used for the primary members.
(2) The axle loads on structures may be assumed as uniformly distributed longitudinally over a length of 3 feet
(900 mm), plus the depth of ballast under the tie, plus twice the effective depth of slab, limited, however, by the
axle spacing.

Figure 8-2-1. Cooper E 80 (EM 360) Axle Load Diagram
(3) Live load from a single track acting on the top surface of a structure with ballasted deck or under fills shall be
assumed to have uniform lateral distribution over a width equal to the length of track tie plus the depth of ballast
and fill below the bottom of tie, unless limited by the extent of the structure.
(4) The lateral distribution of live load from multiple tracks shall be as specified for single tracks and further limited
so as not to exceed the distance between centers of adjacent tracks.
(5) The lateral distribution of the live load for structures under deep fills carrying multiple tracks, shall be assumed as
uniform between centers of outside tracks, and the loads beyond these points shall be distributed as specified for
single track. Widely separated tracks shall not be included in the multiple track group.
1
(6) In calculating the maximum live loads on a structural member due to simultaneous loading on two or more tracks,
the following proportions of the specified live load shall be used:
• For two tracks – full live load,
• For three tracks – full live load on two tracks and one-half on the other track,
3
• For four tracks – full live load on two tracks, one-half on one track, and one-fourth on the remaining track.
(7) The tracks selected for full live load in accordance with the listed limitations shall be those tracks which will
produce the most critical design condition on the member under consideration.
d. Impact Load.1 4
(1) Impact forces, applied at the top of rail, shall be added to the axle loads specified. For rolling equipment without
hammer blow (diesels, electric locomotives, tenders alone, etc.), the impact shall be equal to the following
percentages of the live load:
(U.S. Customary)
For L  14 feet I = 60
For 14 feet < L  127 feet I = 225   L 
For L > 127 feet I = 20
1 See Commentary

(Metric)
For L  4 meters I = 60
For 4 meters < L  39 meters I = 125   L 
For L > 39 meters I = 20
Where L is the span length in feet (meters).
This formula is intended for ballasted-deck spans and substructure elements as required.
(2) For continuous structures, the impact value calculated for the shortest span shall be used throughout.
(3) Impact may be omitted in the design for massive substructure elements which are not rigidly connected to the
superstructure.
(4) For steam locomotives with hammer blow, the impact calculated according to Article 2.2.3d(1) shall be increased
by 20%.
e. Centrifugal Force.
(1) On curves, a centrifugal force corresponding to each axle load shall be applied horizontally through a point 8 feet
(2450 mm) above the top of rail measured along a line perpendicular to the line joining the tops of the rails and
equidistant from them. This force shall be the percentage of the live load computed from the formulas below.
(2) On curves, each axle load on each track shall be applied vertically through the point defined in the first paragraph
of this article.
(3) The greater of loads on high and low sides of a superelevated track shall be used for the design of supports under
both sides.
(4) The relationships between speed, degree of curve, centrifugal force and a superelevation which is 3 inches (75
mm) less than that required for zero resultant flange pressure between wheel and rail are expressed by the
formulas:
C = 0.00117 S2D EQ 2-1
C = 0.000452 S2D EQ 2-1M
E = 0.0007 S2D – 3 EQ 2-2

E = 0.0068 S2D – 75 EQ 2-2M
E+3
S = --------------------- EQ 2-3
0.0007D
E + 75 EQ 2-3M
S = ---------------------
0.0068D

where:
C = Centrifugal force in percentage of the live load

D = Degree of curve (Degrees based on 100 foot (30 m) chord)
E = Actual superelevation in inches (mm)
S = Permissible speed in miles per hour (km/hr)
f. Earth Pressure. Earth pressure forces to be applied to the structure shall be determined in accordance with the
provisions of Part 5 Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers.
g. Buoyancy. Buoyancy shall be considered as it affects the design of either substructure, including piling, or the
superstructure.
h. Wind Load on Structure. The base wind load acting on the structure is assumed to be 45 lb per square foot (2160 Pa) on
the vertical projection of the structure applied at the center of gravity of the vertical projection in any horizontal
direction. A base wind velocity of 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) was used to determine the base wind load. If an
increase in the design wind velocity is made, the design wind velocity and design wind load shall be shown on the
plans.
For Group II and Group V loadings, when a design wind velocity greater than 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) is
advisable the base wind load may be increased by the ratio of the square of the design wind velocity to the square of the
base wind velocity. This increase shall not apply to Group III and Group VI Loadings.
1
i. Wind Load on Live Load. A wind load of 300 lb per linear foot (4.4 kN/m) on the train shall be applied 8 feet (2450
mm) above the top of rail in a horizontal direction perpendicular to the centerline of the track.
j. Longitudinal Force.1
(1) The longitudinal force for E-80 (EM-360) loading shall be taken as the larger of:
3
– Force due to braking, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 8 feet (2450 mm) above top of rail.
Longitudinal braking force (kips) = 45 + 1.2L

(Longitudinal braking force (kN) = 200 + 17.5L)
– Force due to traction, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 3 feet (900 mm) above top of rail. 4
Longitudinal traction force (kips) = 25 L
(Longitudinal traction force (kN) = 200 L )
For design of superstructure elements, L shall be taken as the length in feet (meters) of the span under consideration.
For design of substructure elements, L shall be as follows:
– Where rail is continuous across the bridge, or where load transfer devices that are approved by the Engineer
are employed at discontinuities in the rail, L shall be the total bridge length in feet (meters). Longitudinal
force shall be distributed to individual substructure units as described in Article 2.2.3(j)(2) below.
1 See Commentary

– Where rail is not continuous across the bridge, and approved load transfer devices are not employed, L shall
be taken as the length in feet (meters) of each bridge segment with rail continuity. The substructure units for
each segment shall be evaluated and the longitudinal force computed for that segment shall be distributed to
individual substructure units as described in Article 2.2.3(j)(2) below.
– For design loads other than E-80 (EM-360), these forces shall be scaled proportionally. The points of force
application shall not be changed.
(2) The effective longitudinal force shall be distributed to the various components of the supporting structure, taking
into account their relative stiffness. The resistance of the backfill behind the abutments shall be utilized where
applicable. The mechanisms (rail, bearings, load transfer devices, etc.) available to transfer the force to the
various components shall also be considered.
(3) The longitudinal deflection of the superstructure due to longitudinal force computed in (1) above shall not exceed
1 inch (25 mm) for E-80 (EM 360) loading. For design loads other than E-80 (EM 360), the maximum allowable
longitudinal deflection shall be scaled proportionally. In no case, however, shall the longitudinal deflection exceed
1-1/2 inches (38 mm).
k. Longitudinal Force Due to Friction or Shear Resistance at Expansion Bearings. Provisions shall be made to
accommodate forces due to friction or shear resistance due to expansion bearings.
l. Earthquake. In regions where earthquakes may be anticipated, structures may be designed to resist earthquake motions
by considering the relationship of the site to active faults, the seismic response of the soils at the site, and the dynamic
response characteristics of the total structure. Refer to Chapter 9 Seismic Design for Railway Structures for additional
guidance.
m. Stream Flow Pressure. All piers and other portions of structures which are subject to the force of flowing water or drift
shall be designed to resist the maximum stresses induced thereby.
(1) Stream Pressure
The effect of flowing water on piers and drift build up, assuming a second-degree parabolic velocity distribution
and thus a triangular pressure distribution, shall be calculated by the formula:
Pavg = K(Vavg)2 EQ 2-4
where:
Pavg = average stream pressure, in pounds per square foot, (Pa)

Vavg = average velocity of water in feet per second, (m/s) computed by dividing the flow rate by the
flow area,
K = a constant, being 1.4 (or 725 for metric) for all piers subjected to drift build up and square-ended
piers, 0.7 (or 360 for metric) for circular piers, and 0.5 (or 260 for metric) for angle-ended piers
where the angle is 30 degrees or less.
The maximum stream flow pressure, Pmax, shall be equal to twice the average stream flow pressure, Pavg,
computed by EQ 2-4. Stream flow pressure shall be a triangular distribution with Pmax located at the top of water
elevation and a zero pressure located at the flow line.
(2) The stream flow forces shall be computed by the product of the stream flow pressure, taking into account the
pressure distribution, and the exposed pier area. In cases where the corresponding top of water elevation is above

the low beam elevation, stream flow loading on the superstructure shall be investigated. The stream flow pressure
acting on the superstructure may be taken as Pmax with a uniform distribution.
(3) Pressure Components
When the direction of stream flow is other than normal to the exposed surface area, or when bank migration or a
change of stream bed meander is anticipated, the effects of the directional components of stream flow pressure
shall be investigated.
(4) Drift Lodge Against Pier
Where a significant amount of drift lodge against a pier is anticipated, the effects of this drift build up shall be
considered in the design of the bridge opening and the bridge components. The overall dimensions of the drift
build up shall reflect the selected pier locations, site conditions, and known drift supply upstream. When it is
anticipated that the flow area will be significantly blocked by drift build up, increases in high water elevations,
stream velocities, stream flow pressures, and the potential increases in scour depths shall be investigated.
n. Ice Pressure. The effects of ice pressure, both static and dynamic, shall be accounted for in the design of piers and
other portions of the structure where, in the judgment of the Engineer, conditions so warrant.
(1) General. Ice forces on piers shall be selected having regard to site conditions and the mode of ice action to be
expected. Consideration shall be given to the following modes:
(a) dynamic ice pressure due to moving ice sheets and floes carried by streamflow, wind or currents;
1
(b) static ice pressure due to thermal movements of continuous stationary ice sheets onlarge bodies of water;
(c) static pressure resulting from ice jams;
(d) static uplift or vertical loads resulting from adhering ice in waters of fluctuating level.
3
The expected thickness of ice, the direction of its movement, and the height at which it acts shall be determined by
field investigations, published records, aerial photography and other means. Consideration shall be given to the
worst expected combination of height, thickness and pressure, to the possibility of unusual thicknesses resulting
from special circumstances or operations, and to the natural variability of ice conditions from year to year.
(2) Dynamic Ice Pressure. Horizontal forces resulting from the pressure of moving ice are to be calculated by the
formula: 4
F = Cnptw EQ 2-5
where:
F = horizontal ice force on pier; pounds (N)

Cn = coefficient for nose inclination from Table 8-2-1;
p = ice pressure as indicated below; psi (MPa)
t = thickness of ice in contact withpier; inches (mm)
w = width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at the level of ice action; inches (mm)

Table 8-2-1. Coefficient for Nose Inclination
Inclination of Nose to Vertical Cn

0 degrees to 15 degrees 1.00
(3) The ice pressure “p” shall normally be taken in the range of 100 psi (0.7 MPa) to 400 psi (2.8 MPa) on the
assumption that crushing or splitting of the ice takes place on contact with the pier. The value used shall be based
on an assessment of the probable condition of the ice at time of movement, on previous local experience, and on
assessment of existing structure performance. Relevant ice conditions include the expected temperature of the ice
at time of movement, the size of moving sheets and floes and the velocity at contact. Due consideration shall be
given to probability of extreme rather than average conditions at the site in question.
NOTE: The following values of ice pressure appropriate to various situations may be used as a
guide:
(a) In the order of 100 psi (0.7 MPa) where break-up occurs at melting temperatures and where the ice runs as
small “cakes” and is substantially disintegrated in its structure;
(b) In the order of 200 psi (1.4 MPa) where break-up occurs at melting temperatures, but the ice moves in large
pieces and is internally sound;
(c) In the order of 300 psi (2.1 MPa) where at break-up there is an initial movement of the ice sheet as a whole or
where large sheets of sound ice may strike the piers;
(d) In the order of 400 psi (2.8 MPa) where break-up or major ice movement may occur with ice temperature
significantly below the melting point.
(4) The ice pressure values listed above apply to piers of substantal mass and dimensions. The values shall be
modified as necessary for variations inpier width or pile diameter, and design ice thickness by multiplying by the
appropriate coefficient obtained from Table 8-2-2.
Table 8-2-2. Coefficient for Design Ice Thickness
b/t Coefficient
0.5 1.8
1.0 1.3
1.5 1.1
2.0 1.0
3.0 0.9
4.0 or greater 0.8
where:
b = width of pier or diameter of pile;

t = design ice thickness.

(5) Piers should be placed with their longitudinal axes parallel to the principal direction of ice action. The force
calculated by the formula shall then be taken to act along the direction of the long axis. A force transverse to the
longitudinal axis and amounting to not less than 15% of the longitudinal force shall be considered to act
simultaneously.
(6) Where the longitudinal axis of a pier cannot be placed parallel to the principal direction of ice action, or where the
direction of ice action may shift, the total force on the pier shall be figured by the formula and resolved into vector
components. In such conditions, forces transverse to the longitudinal axis of the pier shall in no case be taken as
less than 20% of the total force.
(7) In the case of slender and flexible piers, consideration should be given to the vibrating nature of dynamic ice
forces and to the possibility of high momentary pressures and structural resonance.
(8) Ice pressure on piers frozen into ice sheets on large bodies of water shall receive special consideration where there
is reason to believe that the ice sheets are subject to significant thermal movements relative to the piers.
o. Other Forces (Rib Shortening, Shrinkage, Temperature and/or Settlement of Supports).
(1) The structure shall be designed to resist the forces caused by rib shortening, shrinkage, temperature rise and/or
drop and the anticipated settlement of supports.
(2) The range of temperature shall generally be as shown in Table 8-2-3.
Table 8-2-3. Temperature Ranges

1
Climate Temperature Rise Temperature Fall
Moderate 30 degrees F (17 degrees C) 40 degrees F (22 degrees C)
Cold 35 degrees F (20 degrees C) 45 degrees F (25 degrees C)
2.2.4 LOADING COMBINATIONS (2005) 3

a. General. The following groups represent various combinations of loads and forces to which a structure may be
subjected. Each component of the structure, or the foundation on which it rests, shall be proportioned for the group of
loads that produce the most critical design condition.
b. Service Load Design.

4
(1) The group loading combinations for SERVICE LOAD DESIGN are as shown in Table 8-2-4.
Table 8-2-4. Group Loading Combinations – Service Load Design
Allowable Percentage
Group Item
of Basic Unit Stress
I D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF 100
II D + E + B + SF + W 125
III Group I + 0.5W + WL + LF + F 125
IV Group I + OF 125
V Group II + OF 140
VI Group III + OF 140

Table 8-2-4. Group Loading Combinations – Service Load Design (Continued)
Allowable Percentage
Group Item
of Basic Unit Stress
VII Group I + ICE 140
VIII Group II + ICE 150
(2) No increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for members or connections carrying wind load only. If
predictability of service load conditions is different from the specifications, this difference should be accounted for
in the appropriate service load analyses or in the unit stress increase percentages.
c. Load Factor Design.

(1) The group loading combinations for LOAD FACTOR DESIGN are as shown in Table 8-2-5.
Table 8-2-5. Group Loading Combinations – Load Factor Design
Group Item
I 1.4 (D + 5/3 (L + I) + CF + E + B + SF)
IA 1.8 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF)
II 1.4 (D + E + B + SF + W)
III 1.4 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + LF + F)
IV 1.4 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF + OF)
V Group II + 1.4 (OF)
VI Group III + 1.4 (OF)
VII 1.0 (D + E + B + EQ)
VIII 1.4 (D + L + I + E + B + SF + ICE)
IX 1.2 (D + E + B + SF + W + ICE)
(2) The load factors given are only intended for designing structural members by the load factor concept. The actual
loads should not be increased by these factors when designing for foundations (soil pressure, pile loads, etc.). The
load factors are not intended to be used when checking for foundation stability (safety factors against overturning,
sliding, etc.) of a structure. The load factors given above represent usual conditions and should be increased if, in
the Engineer’s judgment, the predictability of loads is different than anticipated by the specifications.
SECTION 2.3 MATERIALS
2.3.1 CONCRETE (1992)
a. Compressive strength of concrete f c for which each part of the structure is designed, shall be shown on the plans.
b. Specified compressive strength of concrete f c shall be the basis for acceptance. Requirements for f c shall be based on
tests of cylinders made and tested in accordance with the methods as prescribed in Part 1 Materials, Tests and
Construction Requirements.

a. Yield strength or grade of reinforcement used in design shall be shown on the plans.
b. Reinforcement to be welded shall be indicated on the plans and the welding procedure to be used shall be specified.
ASTM steel specifications, except for ASTM A706, shall be supplemented to require a report of material properties
(chemical analysis) necessary to conform to welding procedures specified in “Structural Welding Code–Reinforcing
Steel” (AWS D 1.4) of the American Welding Society. If coated bars are to be welded, the Engineer should specify any
additional requirements to those contained in AWS D 1.4, such as removal of zinc or epoxy coating for welding and
field application of new coatings in the weld region if protection is required.
c. Designs shall not be based on a yield strength fy in excess of 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
d. Only deformed reinforcement shall be used except that plain bars or smooth wire may be used as spirals.
e. Reinforcement shall conform to the specifications listed in Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements,
except that, for reinforcing bars, the yield strength shall correspond to that determined by tests on full-size bars.
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
1
SECTION 2.4 HOOKS AND BENDS
2.4.1 STANDARD HOOKS (2005)
The term “standard hook” as used herein, shall mean one of the following:
3
a. 180-degree bend plus 4db extension, but not less than 2-1/2 inches (60 mm) at free end of bar.
b. 90-degree bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar.
c. For stirrup and tie hooks:
(1) #5 (#16) bar and smaller, 90-degree bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar, or
4
(2) #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, #25) bar, 90-degree bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar, or
(3) #8 (#25) bar and smaller, 135-degree bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar.
2.4.2 MINIMUM BEND DIAMETER (2005)
a. Diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar, other than for stirrups and ties in sizes #3 (#10) through #5 (#16),
shall not be less than the values in Table 8-2-6.
Table 8-2-6. Minimum Diameter of Bend
Bar Size Minimum Diameter

#3 through #8 (#10 through #25) 6 bar diameters

Table 8-2-6. Minimum Diameter of Bend
Bar Size Minimum Diameter

#9, #10 and #11 (#29, #32 and #36) 8 bar diameters
#14 and #18 (#43 and #57) 10 bar diameters
b. Inside diameter of bends for stirrups and ties shall not be less than 4db for #5 (#16) bar and smaller. For bars larger than
#5 (#16), diameter of bend shall be in accordance with Table 8-2-6.
c. Inside diameter of bend in welded wire fabric, smooth or deformed, for stirrups and ties shall not be less than four wire
diameters for deformed wire larger than D6 and two wire diameters for all other wires. Bends with inside diameter of
less than eight wire diameters shall not be less than four wire diameters from the nearest welded intersection.
SECTION 2.5 SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. For cast-in-place concrete the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than one and one-half
times the diameter of the bars, two times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, nor 1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
b. For precast concrete (manufactured under plant control conditions) the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer
shall be not less than the diameter of the bars, one and one-third times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, nor 1
inch (25 mm).
c. Where positive or negative reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall be placed
directly above those in the bottom layer with the clear distance between layers not less than 1 inch (25 mm).
d. Clear distance limitation between bars shall also apply to the clear distance between a contact lap splice and adjacent
splices or bars.
e. Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four in any one bundle. Bars
larger than #11 (#36) shall not be bundled in beams. Bundled bars shall be located within stirrups or ties. Individual
bars in a bundle cut off within the span of a member shall terminate at different points with at least 40 bar diameters
stagger. Where spacing limitations are based on bar size, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a
diameter derived from the equivalent total area.
f. In walls and slabs the principal reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than one and one-half times the wall or
slab thickness, nor more than 18 inches (450 mm).
SECTION 2.6 CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT
2.6.1 MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER (2005)
Table 8-2-7 defines the minimum concrete cover that shall be provided for reinforcement.
2.6.2 CONCRETE COVER FOR BAR BUNDLES (2005)
For bar bundles, minimum concrete cover shall be equal to the lesser of the equivalent diameter of the bundle or 2 inches (50
mm), but not less than that given in Article 2.6.1.

Table 8-2-7. Minimum Concrete Cover
Minimum Cover Minimum Cover

Condition of Concrete
(Inches) (mm)
Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth 3 75
Concrete exposed to earth or weather
Principal reinforcement 2 50
Stirrups, ties and spirals 1-1/2 40
Concrete bridge slabs
Top reinforcement 2 50
Bottom reinforcement 1-1/2 40
Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground
Principal reinforcement 1-1/2 40
Stirrups, ties and spirals 1 25
2.6.3 CONCRETE COVER FOR CORROSIVE AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS (1992)
In corrosive or marine environments or other severe exposure conditions, the amount of concrete protection shall be suitably
increased, and the denseness and nonporosity of the protecting concrete shall be considered, or other protection shall be
provided.
2.6.4 CORROSION PROTECTION (1992)

1
Exposed reinforcing bars, inserts, and plates intended for bonding with future extensions shall be protected from corrosion.
SECTION 2.7 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1992) 3

a. At any section of a flexural member where tension reinforcement is required by analysis, the reinforcement provided
shall be adequate to develop a design moment strength Mn at least 1.2 times the cracking moment calculated on the
basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight concrete specified in Article 2.26.1a.
b. The requirements of Section 2.7a may be waived if the area of reinforcement provided at the section under
consideration is at least one-third greater than that required by analysis based on the load factors specified in 4
Article 2.2.4c.
SECTION 2.8 DISTRIBUTION OF REINFORCEMENT IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2005)
a. Flexural tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the zones of maximum tension.
(1) For T-girder and box-girder flanges, tension reinforcement shall be distributed over an effective tension flange
width equal to 1/10 the girder span length, or a width as defined in Article 2.23.10b, whichever is smaller. If the
actual slab width, center-to-center of girder webs, exceeds the effective tension flange width, and for excess
portions of deck slab overhang, additional longitudinal reinforcement having a total area at least equal to 0.4% of
excess slab area shall be provided in the outer portions of the slab.

(2) For integral bent caps of T-girder and box girder construction, tension reinforcement shall not be placed outside
the bent cap web farther than an overhanging slab width on each side of the bent cap equal to 1/4 the average
spacing of intersecting girder webs or a width as defined in Article 2.23.10b for integral bent caps, whichever is
smaller.
b. If the depth of web exceeds 3 feet (900 mm), longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed along both
side faces of the member for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforcement. The area of skin reinforcement
Ask per foot (m) of height on each side face shall be 0.012(d-30) (or Ask d-750) in metric). The maximum
spacing of the skin reinforcement shall be the smaller of d/6 or 12 inches (300 mm). Such reinforcement may be
included in strength computations if a strain compatibility analysis is made to determine stresses in the individual bars
or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin reinforcement in both faces need not exceed one-half of the required
flexural tensile reinforcement.
c. For LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, the distribution of flexural reinforcement requirements of Article 2.39 shall also apply.
SECTION 2.9 LATERAL REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2005)
a. Compression reinforcement used to increase the strength of flexural members shall be enclosed by ties or stirrups, at
least #3 (#10) in size for longitudinal bars #10 (#32) or smaller, and at least #4 (#13) in size for #11, #14, #18 (#36,
#43, #57) and bundled longitudinal bars, or by welded wire fabric of equivalent area. Spacing of the ties shall not
exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters. Such stirrups or ties shall be provided throughout the distance where the
compression reinforcement is required.
b. Torsion reinforcement, where required, shall consist of closed stirrups, closed ties, or spirals, combined with
longitudinal bars.
c. Closed stirrups or ties may be formed in one piece by overlapping standard stirrup or tie end hooks around a
longitudinal bar, or formed in one or two pieces lap spliced with a Class C splice (lap of 1.7ld).
d. In seismic areas, where an earthquake of such magnitude as to cause major damage to construction has a high
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate strength and
ductility to resist anticipated seismic movements.
SECTION 2.10 SHEAR REINFORCEMENT – GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
2.10.1 MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be provided in all flexural members, except slabs, footings, and shallow
beams, where the design shear stress is greater than one-half the permissible shear stress vc carried by concrete. Beams
where total depth does not exceed either 10 inches (250 mm), 2-1/2 times the thickness of the flange, or one-half the
width of the web shall be considered shallow beams.
b. Where shear reinforcement is required by Article 2.10.1a, or by analysis, the area provided shall not be less than
Av = 60 bws/fy EQ 2-6
Av = 0.42 bws/fy EQ 2-6M

where:
bw = inches (mm)
s = inches (mm)
c. Minimum shear reinforcement requirements may be waived if it is shown by test that the required ultimate flexural and
shear strength can be developed when shear reinforcement is omitted.
2.10.2 TYPES OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (1992)
a. Shear reinforcement may consist of:
(1) Stirrups perpendicular to axis of member or making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the longitudinal tension
reinforcement.
(2) Welded wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to axis of member.
(3) Longitudinal bars with a bent portion making an angle of 30 degrees or more with the longitudinal tension bars.
(4) Combinations of stirrups and bent bars.
(5) Spirals.
1
b. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends in accordance with requirements of Section 2.21.
2.10.3 SPACING OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
Where shear reinforcement is required and is placed perpendicular to axis of member, it shall be spaced not further apart than
0.50d, but not more than 24 inches (600 mm). Inclined stirrups and bent bars shall be so spaced that every 45-degree line,
extending toward the reaction from the mid-depth of the member, 0.50d, to the longitudinal tension bars, shall be crossed by at 3
least one line of shear reinforcement.
SECTION 2.11 LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS

4
2.11.1 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Longitudinal reinforcement for compression members shall not be less than 0.01 nor more than 0.08 times the gross
area of Ag of the section. The minimum number of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be six for bars in a circular
arrangement and four for bars in a rectangular arrangement. The minimum size of bar shall be #5 (#16).
b. When the cross section is larger than that required by consideration of loading, a reduced effective area may be used.
The reduced effective concrete area shall not be less than that which would require 1% of longitudinal reinforcement to
carry the loading.
2.11.2 LATERAL REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Spirals. Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:

(1) Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or wire, with a minimum diameter of 3/8 inch (10 mm).
(2) Ratio of spiral reinforcement s shall not be less than the value given by:
Ag f c
 s = 0.45  ------ – 1 ------ EQ 2-7
A f
c y
where:
fy = the specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement but not more than 60,000 psi (420 MPa)
(3) Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed 3 inches (75 mm) nor be less than 1-1/2 inches (40 mm) or 2 times
the maximum size of coarse aggregate used.
(4) Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 1-1/2 extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each end of a
spiral unit.
(5) Spirals shall extend from top of footing or other support to level of lowest horizontal reinforcement in members
supported above.
(6) Splices in spiral reinforcement shall be welded splices, or they shall be lap splices not less than the larger of
12 inches (300 mm) and the length indicated in one of (a) through (e) below:
(a) deformed uncoated bar or wire......................................................................................................48db
(b) plain uncoated bar or wire.............................................................................................................72db
(c) epoxy-coated deformed bar or wire...............................................................................................72db
(d) plain uncoated bar or wire with a standard stirrup or tie hook in accordance with Article 2.4.1c at ends of
lapped spiral reinforcement. The hooks shall be embedded within the core confined by the spiral
reinforcement.................................................................................................................................48db
(e) epoxy-coated deformed bar or wire with a standard stirrup or tie hook in accordance with Article 2.4.1c at
ends of lapped spiral reinforcement. The hooks shall be embedded within the core confined by the spiral
reinforcement.................................................................................................................................48db
(7) Spirals shall be of such size and so assembled to permit handling and placing without distortion from designed
dimensions.
(8) Spirals shall be held firmly in place and true to line by vertical spacers. For spiral bar or wire smaller than 5/8 inch
(16 mm) diameter, a minimum of two spacers shall be used for spirals less than 20 inches (500 mm) in diameter,
three spacers for spirals 20 to 30 inches (500 to 750 mm) in diameter, and four spacers for spirals greater than 30
inches (750 mm) in diameter. For spiral bar or wire 5/8 inch (16 mm) diameter or larger, a minimum of three
spacers shall be used for spirals 24 inches (600 mm) or less in diameter, and four spacers for spirals greater than 24
inches (600 mm) in diameter.
b. Ties. Tie reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:
(1) All bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties, at least #3 (#10) in size for longitudinal bars #10 (#32) or smaller, and at
least #4 (#13) in size for #11, #14, #18 (#36, #43, #57), and bundled longitudinal bars. Deformed wire or welded
wire fabric of equivalent area may be used.

(2) Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed the least dimension of the compression member or 12 inches (300 mm).
When two or more bars larger than #10 (#32) are bundled, tie spacing shall be one-half that specified above.
(3) Ties shall be located vertically not more than half a tie spacing above the footing or other support and shall be
spaced as provided herein to not more than half a tie spacing below the lowest horizontal reinforcement in
members supported above.
(4) At each tie location, the lateral ties shall be so arranged that no longitudinal bar is farther than 2 feet (600 mm) on
either side along the tie from a bar with lateral support provided by the corner of a tie having an included angle of
not more than 135 degrees. Where longitudinal bars are located around the perimeter of a circle, a complete
circular tie may be used.
c. In a compression member which has a larger cross section than required by conditions of loading, the lateral
reinforcement requirements may be waived where structural analysis or tests show adequate strength feasibility of
construction.
d. In seismic areas, where an earthquake of such magnitude as to cause major damage to construction has a high
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement for column piers shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate
strength and ductility to resist anticipated seismic movements.
SECTION 2.12 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT (2005) 1

Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses shall be provided near exposed surfaces of walls and slabs not otherwise
reinforced. The total area of reinforcement provided shall be at least 0.25 in2/ft (530 mm2/m) measured in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of the reinforcement and be spaced not farther apart than three times the wall or slab thickness,
nor 18 inches (450 mm).
DEVELOPMENT AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
4
SECTION 2.13 DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS (2017)
2.13.1 GENERAL (2017)
a. The calculated tension or compression in the reinforcement at each section shall be developed on each side of that
section by embedment length, standard hook, headed deformed bar, mechanical device, or end anchorage, or a
combination thereof. For bars in compression, hooks and headed deformed bars shall not be used to develop bars.
b. Tension reinforcement may be anchored by bending it across the web and making it continuous with the reinforcement
on the opposite face of the member, or anchoring it there.
c. Critical sections for development of reinforcement in flexural members are at points of maximum stress and at points
within the span where adjacent reinforcement terminates, or is bent. The provisions of Article 2.13.2c must also be
satisfied.

d. Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance equal to
the effective depth of the member, 15 bar diameters, or 1/20 of the clear span, whichever is greater, except at supports
of simple spans and at the free end of cantilevers.
e. No more than 50 percent of the reinforcement shall be terminated at any section and adjacent bars shall not be
terminated in the same section. This provision does not apply to base of columns.
f. Continuing reinforcement shall have an embedment length not less than the development length ld beyond the point
where bent or terminated tension reinforcement is no longer required to resist flexure.
g. Flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength shall not be
terminated in a tension zone unless one of the following conditions is satisfied.
(1) Shear at the cutoff point does not exceed two-thirds of the design shear strength, Vn including the shear length
of furnished shear reinforcement.
(2) Stirrup area in excess of that required for shear is provided along each terminated bar over a distance from the
termination point equal to three-fourths the effective depth of the member. The excess stirrup area shall not be less
than 60bws/fy (or 0.41 bws/fy in metric). The resulting spacings shall not exceed d/(8b) ,where b is the ratio of
the area of bars cut off to the total area of bars at the section.
(3) For #11 (#36) and smaller bars, the continuing bars provide double the area required for flexure at the cutoff point
and shear does not exceed three-fourths of the design shear strength, Vn.
2.13.2 POSITIVE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT (2017)
a. At least one-half the positive moment reinforcement in simple members and one-fourth the positive moment
reinforcement in continuous members shall extend along the same face of the member into the support. In beams, such
reinforcement shall extend into the support a distance of 12 or more bar diameters (at least 6 inches (150mm)), or shall
be extended as far as possible into the support and terminated in standard hooks or other adequate anchorage.
b. When a flexural member is part of the lateral load resisting system, the positive reinforcement required to be extended
into the support by Article 2.13.2a shall be anchored to develop the full fy in tension at the face of the support.
c. At simple supports and at points of inflection, positive moment tension reinforcement shall be limited to a diameter
such that ld computed for fy by Section 2.14 satisfies EQ 2-8; except EQ 2-8 need not be satisfied for reinforcement
terminating beyond centerline of simple supports by a standard hook, or a mechanical anchorage at least equivalent to
a standard hook.
M
ld ----- la EQ 2-8
V
where:
M = the computed moment capacity assuming all positive moment tension reinforcement at the section to be
fully stressed
V = the maximum applied design shear at the section
la = the embedment length beyond center of support or point of inflection

la at a point of inflection shall be limited to the effective depth of the member 12d b , whichever is greater. The value of
M/V in the development length limitation may be increased 30% when the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a
compressive reaction.
2.13.3 NEGATIVE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT (1994)
a. Tension reinforcement in a continuous, restrained, or cantilever member, or in any member of a rigid frame, shall be
anchored in or through the supporting member by embedment length, hooks, or mechanical anchorage.
b. Negative moment reinforcement shall have an embedment length into the span as required by Article 2.13.1a and
Article 2.13.1d.
c. At least one-third the total reinforcement provided for negative moment at the support shall have an embedment length
beyond the point of inflection not less than the effective depth of the member, 12 bar diameters, or one-sixteenth of the
clear span, whichever is greater.
2.13.4 SPECIAL MEMBERS (1994)
Adequate end anchorage shall be provided for tension reinforcement in flexural members where reinforcement stress is not
directly proportional to moment, such as: sloped, stepped, or tapered footings; brackets; deep beams; or members in which the
tension reinforcement is not parallel to the compression face.
1
SECTION 2.14 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED WIRE
IN TENSION (2017)
Development length ld, in inches (mm), of deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall be computed as the product of the
basic development length ldb of Section 2.14a and the applicable modification factor or factors of Section 2.14b through 3
Section 2.14f, but ld shall be not less than that specified in Section 2.14g.
a. The basic development length shall be taken as:
EQ 2-8.1
l db = 0.0759d b f y  f c
4
l db = 0.914d b f y  f c EQ 2-8.1
b. The basic development length shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.4 for top reinforcement.
NOTE: Top reinforcement is horizontal reinforcement so placed that more than 12 inches (300 mm) of concrete is
cast in the member below the bar.
c. When lightweight aggregate concrete is used, the basic development length in Section 2.14a shall be multiplied by 1.3.
The factors of Section 2.14b and Section 2.14d shall also be applied.
d. The basic development length ldb shall be multiplied by the modification factor, λrc, which shall satisfy the following:
0.4 ≤ λrc = db/(cb+ktr) ≤ 1.0

in which,
ktr = 40 Atr/(sn)
where:
λrc = reinforcement confinement factor
cb = the smaller of the distance from center of bar or wire being developed to the nearest concrete surface and one-half
the center-to-center spacing of the bars or wires being developed (in)
ktr = transverse reinforcement index
Atr = total cross-sectional area of all transverse reinforcement, which is within the spacing, s, and which crosses the
potential plane of splitting through the reinforcement being developed (in2)
s = maximum center-to-center spacing of transverse reinforcement within ld (in)
n = number of bars or wires developed along plane of splitting
e. Where anchorage or development for the full yield strength of reinforcement is not required, or where reinforcement in
flexural members is in excess of that required by analysis, the basic development length shall be multiplied by (As
required)/(As provided).
f. The basic development length for bars coated with epoxy with cover less than 3 bar diameters or clear spacing between
bars less than 6 bar diameters shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.5. The basic development length for all other epoxy
coated bars shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.2. The product obtained when combining the factor for top
reinforcement with the applicable factor for epoxy coated reinforcement need not be taken greater than 1.7.
g. The development length ld shall be taken as not less than 12 inches (300 mm) except in the computation of lap splices
by Section 2.22.3 and anchorage shear reinforcement by Section 2.21.
SECTION 2.15 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION (2017)
The development length ld for bars in compression shall be computed as 0.02f y d b   f c (or f y d b  4  f c in metric),
but shall not be less than 0.0003 fydb or 8 inches (or (0.04 dbfy) in metric or 200 mm). Where excess bar area is provided the ld
length may be reduced by the ratio of required area to area provided. The development length may be reduced 25% when the
reinforcement is enclosed by spirals not less than 1/4 inch (6 mm) in diameter and not more than 4-inch (100 mm) pitch.
SECTION 2.16 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF BUNDLED BARS (2016)
a. The development length of each bar of bundled bars, in tension or compression, shall be that for the individual bar,
increased by 20% for a 3-bar bundle, and 33% for a 4-bar bundle.

b. For determining the appropriate factors specified in Sections 2.14 and 2.15, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a
single bar of a diameter derived from the equivalent total area and a centroid that coincides with that of the bundled
bars.
SECTION 2.17 DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS IN TENSION (2017)
a. Development length ldh in inches (mm), for deformed bars in tension terminating in a standard hook (Article 2.4.1)
shall be computed as the product of the basic development length lhb of Section 2.17b and the applicable modification
factor or factors of Section 2.17c but ldh shall not be less than 8db or 6 inches (150 mm), whichever is greater.
b. Basic development length lhb for a hooked bar shall be 1200dbfy/(60,000 f c) (or 100dbfy/(420 f c ) in metric).
c. Basic development length lhb shall be multiplied by applicable modification factor or factors for:
(1) Epoxy-coated reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2
(2) Concrete cover
For #11 (#36) bar and smaller, side cover (normal to plane of hook) not less than 2-1/2 inches (60
mm), and for 90-degree hook, cover on bar extension beyond hook not less than 2 inches (50 mm). 0.8
1
(3) Ties or stirrups
i. For 90-degree hooks of #11 (#36) and smaller bars that are either enclosed within ties or stirrups
perpendicular to the bar being developed, spaced not greater than 3db along the development
length, ldh of the hook; or enclosed within ties or stirrups parallel to the bar being developed spaced
not greater than 3db along the length of the tail extension of the hook plus bend, and in both cases 3
the first tie or stirrup enclosing the bent portion of the hook within 2db of the outside of the bend
(Figure 8-2-2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8
ii. For 180-degree hooks of #11 (36) and smaller bars that are enclosed within ties or stirrups
perpendicular to the bar being developed, spaced not greater than 3db along the development
length, ldh, of the hook, and the first tie or stirrup enclosing the bent portion of the hook is within
2db of the outside of the bend. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8
4
(4) Excess reinforcement
Where anchorage or development for fy is not specifically required, or where reinforcement is  A s required 
provided in excess of that required by analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ----------------------------------
 A s provided 
(5) Lightweight aggregate concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
d. For bars being developed by a standard hook at discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and top (or
bottom) cover over hook less than 2-1/2 inches (60 mm), hooked bar shall be enclosed within ties or stirrups spaced
along full development length /dh not greater than 3db where db is diameter of hooked bar (Figure 8-2-2). For this case,
factor of Section 2.17c(3) shall not apply.
e. Hooks shall not be considered effective in developing bars in compression.

ldh
spacing 3db
Figure 8-2-2. Standard Hook Bars and Tie Requirements
SECTION 2.18 COMBINATION DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
Information deleted in 1990 revision.
SECTION 2.19 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED WIRE REINFORCEMENT IN TENSION (2017)
2.19.1 DEFORMED WIRE REINFORCEMENT (2017)
a. Development length ld, in inches (mm), of welded deformed wire reinforcement measured from point of critical
section to end of wire shall be computed as the product of the basic development length of Article 2.19.1b or
Article 2.19.1c and applicable modification factor or factors of Section 2.14b, Section 2.14c and Section 2.14d; but ld
shall not be less than 8 inches (200 mm) except in computation of lap splices by Article 2.22.7 and development of
shear reinforcement by Section 2.21.
b. Basic development length of welded deformed wire reinforcement, with at least one cross wire within the development
length not less than 2 inches (50 mm) from point of critical section, shall be
0.03d b  f y – 20 000   f c NOTE: The 20,000 has units of psi. EQ 2-9
0.36d b  f y – 140   f c NOTE: The 140 has units of MPa. EQ 2-9M
but not less than

 0.20A w  s w   f y  f c  EQ 2-10
 2.4A w  s w   f y  f c  EQ 2-10M
c. Basic development length of welded deformed wire reinforcement, with no cross wires within the development length,
shall be determined as for deformed wire in accordance with Article 2.1.4a.
2.19.2 PLAIN WIRE REINFORCEMENT (2017)
Yield strength of welded plain wire reinforcement shall be considered developed by embedment of two cross wires with the
closer cross wire not less than 2 inches (50 mm) from point of critical section. However, development length ld measured from
point of critical section to outermost cross wire shall not be less than
0.27A w  f y 
------------------  ---------- EQ 2-11
s w  f 
c
3.24A w  f y 
------------------  ---------- EQ 2-11M
s w  f 
c
modified by a factor of Section 2.14c for lightweight aggregate concrete and a factor of Section 2.14e for excess
reinforcement, but ld shall not be less than 6 inches (150 mm), except in computation of lap splices by Article 2.22.8.
1
SECTION 2.20 DEVELOPMENT OF HEADED AND MECHANICALLY ANCHORED

DEFORMED BARS IN TENSION (2017) 3
a. Development length for headed deformed bars in tension, ld shall be determined from (b). Use of heads to develop
deformed bars and tension shall be limited to conditions satisfying (1) through (6):
(1) Bar fy shall not exceed 60,000 psi (420 MPa);
(2) Bar size shall not exceed #11 (#36);

4
(3) Concrete shall be normal weight;
(4) Net bearing area of head Abrg shall not be less than 4Ab;
(5) Clear cover for bar shall not be less than 2db; and
(6) Clear spacing between bars shall not be less that 4db.
b. For headed deformed bars satisfying ASTM A970 including Appendix A, Requirements for Class HA Headed
Dimensions, development length in tension ldt shall be (0.016Ψefy/(√f 'c))db (or (0.19Ψefy/(√f 'c))db in metric), where
the value of f 'c used to calculate l dt shall not exceed 6000 psi (40 MPa) and the factor Ψe shall be taken as 1.2 for
epoxy-coated reinforcement and 1.0 for other cases. Length l dt shall not be less than the larger of 8db or 6 in. (150mm).
c. Heads shall not be considered effective in developing bars in compression.

d. Any mechanical attachment or device capable of developing fy of deformed bars is allowed, provided that test results
showing the adequacy of such attachment or device is approved by the Engineer.
e. Development of deformed bars shall be permitted to consist of a combination of mechanical anchorage plus additional
embedment length of deformed bars between the critical section and the mechanical attachment or device.
f. If mechanical anchorages are to be used, complete details shall be shown in the contract documents.
SECTION 2.21 ANCHORAGE OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2017)
a. Shear reinforcement shall extend to a distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall be carried as close to the
compression and tension surfaces of the member as cover requirements and the proximity of other reinforcement
permit. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends for its design yield strength.
b. The ends of single leg, single U-stirrup, or multiple U-stirrups, shall be anchored by one of the following means:
(1) For #5 (#16) bar and D31 wire, and smaller, and for #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, and #25) bars with fy of 40,000 psi
(280 MPa) or less, a standard hook around longitudinal reinforcement.
(2) See Figure 8-2-4. For #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, and #25) stirrups with fy greater than 40,000 psi (280 MPa), a
standard hook around a longitudinal bar plus an embedment between mid-height of the member and the outside
end of the hook equal to or greater than 0.014d b f y  f c (or 0.17d b f y  f c in metric).
(3) For each leg of welded plain wire reinforcement forming single U-stirrups, either:
(a) Two longitudinal wires spaced at 2-inch (50 mm) spacing along the beam at the top of the U-stirrup.
(b) One longitudinal wire located not more than d/4 from the compression face and a second wire closer to the
compression face and spaced at least 2 inches (50 mm) from the first wire. The second wire may be located
beyond a bend or on a bend which has an inside diameter of at least 8 wire diameters.
(4) For each end of a single leg stirrup of welded plain or deformed wire reinforcement, two longitudinal wires at a
minimal spacing of 2 inches (50 mm) and with the inner wire at not less than d/4 or 2 inches (50 mm) from mid-
depth of the member shall be provided. The outer longitudinal wire at the tension face shall not be farther from the
face than the portion of the primary flexural reinforcement closest to the face.
c. Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so placed as to form a closed unit shall be considered properly spliced when the laps are 1.3
ld. In members at least 18 inches (460 mm) deep, such splices with Abfy not more than 9,000 lbs/leg (40 kN/leg) shall
be considered adequate if stirrup legs extend the full depth of the member.
d. Between the anchored ends, each bend in the continuous portion of a transverse single U-stirrup or multiple U-stirrups
shall enclose a longitudinal bar.
e. Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear reinforcement shall, in a region of tension, be continuous with the longitudinal
reinforcement and in a compression zone shall be anchored, above or below the mid-depth d/2 as specified for
development length in Section 2.14 for that part of the stress in the reinforcement needed to satisfy EQ 2-21 or EQ 2-
21M.

Figure 8-2-3. #6, #7, or #8 Stirrups (fy > 40,000 psi) (#19, #22, or #25 (fy > 280 MPa))
SECTION 2.22 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
Splices of reinforcement shall be made only as shown on design drawings, or as specified, or as authorized by the Engineer.
3
2.22.1 LAP SPLICES (2016)
a. Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than #11 (#36), for reinforcement in tension.
b. Lap splices within a bundle, shall be as specified in Article 2.16. Individual bar splices within a bundle shall not
overlap. Entire bundles shall not be lap spliced. 4
c. Bars spliced by noncontact lap splices in flexural members shall not be spaced center to center of bars transversely
farther apart than the lesser of 1/5 the required lap splice length, or 6 inches (150 mm).
2.22.2 WELDED SPLICES AND MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS (2005)
a. Welded splices and other mechanical connections may be used. Except as provided herein, all welding shall conform to
“Structural Welding Code–Reinforcing Steel” (AWS D1.4).
b. A full welded splice shall have bars butted and welded to develop in tension at least 125% of specified yield strength fy
of the bar.
c. A full mechanical connection shall develop in tension or compression, as required, at least 125% of specified yield
strength fy of the bar.

d. Welded splices and mechanical connections not meeting requirements of Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c may be
used in accordance with Article 2.22.3d.
2.22.3 SPLICES OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED WIRE IN TENSION (2017)
The provisions herein may be used for #11 (#36) bars were smaller in normal weight concrete.
a. Minimum length of lap for tension lap splices shall be as required for Class A or Class B lap splices, but not less than
12 inches (300 mm),
where:
Class A lap splice = 1.0ld

Class B lap splice = 1.3ld
where:
ld = the tensile development length for the specified yield strength fy in accordance with
Section 2.14.
b. Except as specified herein, lap splices of deformed bars and deformed wire in tension, shall be Class B lap splices.
Class A lap splices may be used where:
(1) The area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by analysis over the entire length of the lap
splice, and
(2) One-half or less of the total reinforcement is spliced within the required lap splice length.
c. Welded splices or mechanical connections used where area of reinforcement provided is less than twice that required
by analysis shall meet requirements of Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c.
d. Welded splices or mechanical connections not meeting the requirements of Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c shall be
permitted for #5 (#16) bars or smaller if the following requirements are met:
(1) Splices shall be staggered at least 24 inches (600 mm) and in such manner as to develop at every section at least
twice the calculated tensile force at that section but not less than 20,000 psi (140 MPa) for total area of
reinforcement provided.
(2) In computing tensile force developed at each section, spliced reinforcement may be rated at the specified splice
strength, but not greater than fy. Unspliced reinforcement shall be rated at that fraction of fy defined by the ratio of
the shorter actual development length to ld required to develop the specified yield strength fy . The stress in the
unspliced reinforcement shall be taken as fy times the ratio of the shortest length embedded beyond the section to ld, but
not greater than fy.
e. Splices in “tension tie members” shall be made with a full welded splice or full mechanical connection in accordance
with Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c, and splices in adjacent bars shall be staggered at least 30 inches (750 mm).
2.22.4 SPLICES OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION (2017)
a. Minimum length of lap for compression lap splices shall be 0.0005fydb, in inches (or 0.07fydb in millimeters), but not
less than 12 inches (300 mm). For f 'c less than 3000 psi (20 MPa), length of lap shall be increased by 1/3.

b. When bars of different size are lap spliced in compression, splice length shall be the larger of the compression
development length of the larger bar or compression lap splice length of the smaller bar. Lap splices of #14 (#43) and
#18 (#57) to #11 (#36) and smaller bars shall be permitted.
c. Welded splices or mechanical connections used in compression shall meet requirements of Article 2.22.2b or
Article 2.22.2c.
2.22.5 END BEARING SPLICES (2017)
a. In bars required for compression only, compressive stress may be transmitted by bearing of square cut ends held in
concentric contact by a suitable device.
b. Bar ends shall terminate in flat surfaces within 1-1/2 degrees of a right angle to the axis of the bars and shall be fitted
within 3 degrees of full bearing after assembly.
c. End bearing splices shall be used only in members containing closed ties, closed stirrups, or spirals.
2.22.6 SPLICE REQUIREMENTS FOR COLUMNS (2017)
a. Lap splices, mechanical splices, butt-welded splices, and end-bearing splices shall be used with the limitations of
Article 2.22.6b. A splice shall satisfy requirements for all load combinations for the column.
b. Lap splices for columns:

1
(1) Where the bar stress due to the factored loads is compressive, lap splices shall conform to Article 2.22.4a,
Article 2.22.4b, and where applicable, Article 2.22.6b(4) or Article 2.22.6b(5).
(2) Where the bar stress due to factored loads is tensile and does not exceed 0.5 fy in tension, lap splices shall be Class
B tension lap splices if more than one-half of the bars are spliced at any section, or Class A tension lap splice if
half or fewer of the bars are spliced at any section and alternate lap splices are staggered by ld.
3
(3) Where the bar stress due to factored loads is greater than 0.5fy in tension, lap splices shall be Class B tension lap
splices.
(4) In tied reinforced compression members, where ties throughout the lap splice length have an effective area not less
than 0.0015hs in both directions, lap splice length shall be multiplied by 0.83, but lap length shall not be less than
12 inches (300 mm). Tie legs perpendicular to dimension h shall be used in determining effective area.
4
(5) In spirally reinforced compression members, lap splice length of bars within a spiral may be multiplied by 0.75,
but lap length shall not be less than 12 inches (300 mm).
(6) At footings, it shall be permitted to lap splice #14 (#36) and #18 (#43) longitudinal bars in compression only with
dowels. Such dowels shall not be larger than #11 (#36) bars and shall extend into the supported member a distance
not less than the larger of ld of the #14 (#43) and #18 (#57) bars or the compression lap splice length of the dowels.
Such dowels shall extend into the footing a distance not less than ld of the dowels.
c. Mechanical or welded splices in columns shall meet the requirements of Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c.
d. End-bearing splices in columns complying with Article 2.22.5, shall be permitted to be used for column bars stressed
in compression provided the splices are staggered or additional bars are provided at spliced locations. The continuing
bars in each face of the column shall have a tensile strength, based on fy not less than 0.25fy times the area of the
vertical reinforcement in that face.

2.22.7 SPLICES OF WELDED DEFORMED WIRE REINFORCEMENT IN TENSION (2017)
a. Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded deformed wire reinforcement measured between the end of each
reinforcement sheet shall not be less than 1.7ld nor 8 inches (200 mm), and the overlap measured between outermost
cross wires of each reinforcement sheet shall not be less than 2 inches (50 mm). ld shall be the development length for
the specified yield strength fy in accordance with Article 2.19.1.
b. Lap splices of welded deformed wire reinforcement, with no cross wires within the lap splice length, shall be
determined as for deformed wire reinforcement.
c. Where any plain wire reinforcement or deformed wire larger than D–31 is present in welded deformed wire
reinforcement in the direction of the lap splice, or where welded deformed wire reinforcement is lap spliced to welded
plain wire reinforcement, the reinforcement shall be lap spliced in accordance with Article 2.22.8.
2.22.8 SPLICES OF WELDED PLAIN WIRE REINFORCEMENT IN TENSION (2017)
Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded plain wire reinforcement shall be in accordance with the following:
a. When area of reinforcement provided is less than twice that required by analysis at splice location, length of overlap
measured between outermost cross wires of each reinforcement sheet shall not be less than one spacing of cross wire
plus 2 inches (50 mm), nor less than 1.5ld nor 6 inches (150 mm). ld shall be the development length for the specified
yield strength fy in accordance with Article 2.19.2.
b. When area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by analysis at splice location, length of overlap
measured between outermost cross wires of each reinforcement sheet shall not be less than 1.5ld nor 2 inches (50 mm). ld
shall be the development length for the specified yield strength fy in accordance with Article 2.19.2.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN – GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
SECTION 2.23 ANALYSIS METHODS
2.23.1 GENERAL (1992)
a. All members of continuous and rigid frame structures shall be designed for the maximum effects of the loads specified
in Article 2.2.3 as determined by the theory of elastic analysis.
b. Consideration shall be given to the effects of forces due to shrinkage, temperature changes, creep, and unequal
settlement of supports.
2.23.2 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION (2005)
a. In general, provision for temperature changes shall be made in simple spans when the span length exceeds 40 feet (12
m).
b. In continuous bridges, provision shall be made in the design to resist thermal stresses induced or means shall be
provided for movement caused by temperature changes.

c. Movements not otherwise provided for shall be provided by rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads or other means.
2.23.3 STIFFNESS (1992)
a. Any reasonable assumptions may be adopted for computing the relative flexural and torsional stiffnesses of continuous
and rigid frame members. The assumptions made shall be consistent throughout the analysis.
b. Effect of haunches shall be considered both in determining moments and in design of members.
2.23.4 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (2005)
1.5 1.5
a. Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as w c 33 f c , in psi (or w c 0.043 f c in MPa), for values of
wc between 90 and 155 pcf (1500 and 2500 kg/m3). For normal weight concrete (wc = 145 pcf, wc = 2300 kg/m3), Ec
may be considered as 57 000 f c (or 4700 f c in metric).
b. Modulus of elasticity of nonprestressed steel reinforcement may be taken as 29,000,000 psi (200 GPa).
2.23.5 THERMAL AND SHRINKAGE COEFFICIENTS (2005)
a. Thermal coefficient for normal weight concrete may be taken as 0.000006 per degree F (or 0.0000105 per degree C).
1
b. Shrinkage coefficient for normal weight concrete may be taken as 0.0002.
c. Thermal and shrinkage coefficients for lightweight concrete shall be determined for the type of lightweight aggregate
used.
2.23.6 SPAN LENGTH (1992)

3
a. Span length of members not built integrally with supports shall be considered the clear span plus depth of member, but
need not exceed distance between centers of supports.
b. In analysis of continuous and rigid frame members, center-to-center distances shall be used in the determination of
moments. Moments at faces of support may be used for member design. When fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or
more with the axis of a continuous or restrained member are built monolithic with the member and support, face of
support shall be considered at a section where the combined depth of the member and fillet is at least one and one-half 4
times the thickness of the member. No portion of a fillet shall be considered as adding to the effective depth.
c. Effective span length of slabs shall be as follows:
(1) Slabs monolithic with beams or walls (without haunches), S = clear span.
(2) Slabs supported on steel stringers, S = distance between edges of flanges plus 1/2 the stringer flange width.
2.23.7 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS (2005)

a. Where deflections are to be computed, they shall be based on the cross-sectional properties of the entire superstructure
section except railings, curbs, sidewalks or any element not placed monolithically with the superstructure section
before falsework removal. Deflections of composite members shall take into account shoring during erection,
differential shrinkage of the elements and the magnitude and duration of load prior to the beginning of effective
composite action.

b. Computation of live load deflection may be based on the assumption that the superstructure flexural members act
together and have equal deflection. The live loading shall consist of all tracks loaded as specified in Article 2.2.3c. The
live loading shall be considered uniformly distributed to all longitudinal flexural members.
c. Computation of Immediate Deflection.
(1) Deflections that occur immediately on application of load shall be computed by the usual methods of formulas for
elastic deflections. Unless values are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, deflections shall be computed
taking the modulus of elasticity for concrete as specified in Article 2.23.4a for normal weight or lightweight
concrete and taking the effective moment of inertia as follows, but not greater than Ig.
M cr 3 M cr 3
I c =  --------- I g + 1 –  --------- I cr EQ 2-12
M  M 
a a
where:
fr Ig
Mcr= -------- EQ 2-13
yt
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Article 2.26.1a
(2) For continuous spans, the effective moment of inertia may be taken as the average of the values obtained from EQ
2-12 for the critical positive and negative moment sections.
2.23.7.1 Computation of Long-time Deflection
Unless values are obtained by more comprehensive analysis, the additional long-term deflection for both normal weight and
lightweight concrete flexural members shall be obtained by multiplying the immediate deflection caused by the sustained load
considered, computed in accordance with Article 2.23.7c, by the factor
A s
 2 – 1.2 -------
-  0.6
 A 
s
2.23.8 BEARINGS (2005)
Bearing devices shall be designed in accordance with Part 18 Elastomeric Bridge Bearings and Chapter 15, Part 10 and
Part 11. Bearing stresses in concrete shall not exceed the values given in Section 2.26 or Section 2.36.
2.23.9 COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1992)
a. Application. Composite flexural members consist of concrete elements constructed in separate placements but so
interconnected that the elements respond to loads as a unit.
b. General Considerations.
(1) The total depth of the composite member or portions thereof may be used in resisting the shear and the bending
moment. The individual elements shall be investigated for all critical stages of loading.
(2) If the specified strength, unit weight, or other properties of the various components are different, the properties of
the individual components, or the most critical values, shall be used in design.

(3) In calculating the flexural strength of a composite member by load factor design, no distinction shall be made
between shored and unshored members.
(4) All elements shall be designed to support all loads introduced prior to the full development of the design strength
of the composite member.
(5) Reinforcement shall be provided as necessary to control cracking and to prevent separation of the components.
c. Shoring. When used, shoring shall not be removed until the supported elements have developed the design properties
required to support all loads and limit deflections and cracking at the time of shoring removal.
d. Vertical Shear.
(1) When the total depth of the composite member is assumed to resist the vertical shear, the design shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Section 2.29 or Section 2.35 as for a monolithically cast member of the same
cross-sectional shape.
(2) Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored in accordance with Section 2.21. Extended and anchored shear
reinforcement may be included as ties for horizontal shear.
e. Horizontal Shear. In a composite member, full transfer of the shear forces shall be assured at the interfaces of the
separate components. Design for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article 2.29.5 or
Article 2.35.5.
1
2.23.10 T-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION (1992)
a. In T-girder construction, the girder web and slab shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively bonded together. Full
transfer of shear forces shall be assured at the interface of web and slab. Where applicable, the design requirements of
Article 2.23.9 for composite concrete members shall apply.
b. Compression Flange Width. 3

(1) The effective slab width acting as a T-girder flange shall not exceed one-fourth of the span length of the girder, and
its overhanging width on either side of the girder shall not exceed six times the thickness of the slab or one-half the
clear distance to the next girder.
(2) For girders having a slab on one side only, the effective overhanging flange width shall not exceed 1/12 of the span
length of the girder, nor 6 times the thickness of the slab, nor one-half the clear distance to the next girder. 4
(3) Isolated T-girders in which the flange is used to provide additional compression area shall have a flange thickness
not less than one-half the width of the girder web and a total flange width not more than four times the width of the
girder web.
(4) For integral bent caps, the effective overhanging slab width on each side of a bent cap web shall not exceed six
times the least slab thickness, nor 1/10 the span length of the bent cap. For cantilevered bent caps, the span length
shall be taken as two times the length of cantilever span.
c. Diaphragms. Diaphragms shall be used at span ends. Intermediate diaphragms shall be used where required in the
judgment of the Engineer.

2.23.11 BOX GIRDER CONSTRUCTION (2005)
a. In box girder construction, the girder web and top and bottom slab shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively
bonded together. Full transfer of shear forces shall be assured at the interfaces of the girder web with the top and
bottom slab. Design shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article 2.23.9. When required by design, changes
in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web thickness.
b. Compression Flange Width.
(1) For box girder flanges, the entire slab width shall be assumed effective for compression.
(2) For integral bent caps, the effective overhanging slab width on each side of a bent cap web shall not exceed six
times the least slab thickness, nor 1/10 the span length of the bent cap. For cantilevered bent caps, the span length
shall be taken as two times the length of cantilever span.
c. Top and Bottom Slab Thickness.
(1) The thickness of the top slab shall be designed for loads specified in Article 2.2.3c, but shall be not less than the
minimum specified in Table 8-2-8.
Table 8-2-8. Recommended Minimum Thickness For Constant Depth Members

(Note 1)
Minimum Thickness Minimum Thickness

Superstructure Type
In Feet (Note 2) In Meters (Note 2)
Bridge slabs with main reinforcement S + 10 S+3
parallel or perpendicular to traffic --------------- ------------
20 20
but not less than 0.75 but not less than 0.23
T-Girders S+9 S + 2.75
------------ --------------------
15 15
Box Girders S + 10 S+3
--------------- ------------
17 17
Note 1: When variable depth members are used, table values may be adjusted to account for change in relative stiffness
of positive and negative moment sections.
Note 2: Recommended values for simple spans; continuous spans may be about 90% of thickness given. S = span
length as defined in Article 2.23.6, in feet (meters).
(2) The thickness of the bottom slab shall be not less than 1/16 of the clear span between girder webs or 6 inches (150
mm), whichever is greater, except that the thickness need not be greater than the top slab unless required by
design.

d. Top and Bottom Slab Reinforcement.
(1) Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.4% of the flange area shall be placed in the bottom slab parallel to the
girder span. A single layer of reinforcement may be provided. The spacing of such reinforcement shall not exceed
18 inches (450 mm).
(2) Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.5% of the cross-sectional area of the slab, based on the least slab
thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab transverse to the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be distributed
over both surfaces with a maximum spacing of 18 inches (450 mm). All transverse reinforcement in the bottom
slab shall extend to the exterior face of the outside girder web in each group and be anchored by a standard 90
degree hook.
(3) At least 1/3 of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement in the top slab shall extend to the exterior face of
the outside girder web in each group and be anchored by a standard 90 degree hook. If the slab extends beyond the
last girder web, such reinforcement shall extend into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the
exterior face of the girder web not less than that provided by a standard hook.
e. Diaphragms. Diaphragms shall be used at span ends. Intermediate diaphragms shall be used where required in the
judgment of the Engineer. Diaphragm spacing for curved girders shall be given special consideration.
SECTION 2.24 DESIGN METHODS (1992) 1

The design methods to be used, SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, shall be as directed by the
Engineer.
3
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN
(APPLICABLE TO Section 2.25 THROUGH Section 2.29)
4
SECTION 2.25 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (1992)
a. For reinforced concrete members designed with reference to service loads and allowable stresses, the service load
stresses shall not exceed the values given in Section 2.26.
b. Development and splices of reinforcement shall be as required under Development and Splices of Reinforcement.

SECTION 2.26 ALLOWABLE SERVICE LOAD STRESSES
2.26.1 CONCRETE (2005)
For service load design, stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following:
a. Flexure:
Extreme fiber stress in compression fc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 f c

Extreme fiber stress in tension for plain concrete, ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 fr
Modulus of rupture f r , from tests, or if data are not available:
Normal weight concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 f c
0.62 f c (metric)
Lightweight concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 f c
b. Shear:
NOTE: For more detailed analysis of permissible shear stress vc carried by concrete, and shear values for
lightweight aggregate concrete – see Article 2.29.2.
Beams and one-way slabs and footings:
Shear carried by concrete vc, but not to exceed 95 psi (0.66 MPa). . . . . . . . 0.95 f c
Maximum shear carried by concrete plus shear reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . v c + 4 f c
v c + 0.33 f c (metric)
Two-way slabs and footings:

(If shear reinforcement is provided see Article 2.29.6d)
 2
Shear carried by concrete vc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  0.8 + ----- f c
 c
0.17
 0.066 + ---------
- f c (metric)
   c
but not greater than. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8 f c
c. Bearing on loaded area fb, but not to exceed 1050 psi (7.2 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.30 f c
Minimum distance from edge of bearing to edge of supporting concrete shall be 6 inches (150 mm).

a. For service load design, tensile stress in reinforcement fs shall not exceed the following:
Grade 40 (Grade 280) reinforcement. . . . . . . 20,000 psi (140 MPa)

Grade 60 (Grade 420) reinforcement. . . . . . . 24,000 psi (170 MPa)
b. Fatigue Stress Limit.
(1) The range between a maximum tensile stress and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load
plus impact shall not exceed the value obtained from:
ff = 21 – 0.33fmin + 8 (r / h)
ff = 145 – 0.33fmin + 55 (r / h) (metric)
where:
ff = stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa).

fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, ksi (MPa).
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; when the actual value is not
known, use 0.3. 1
(2) Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high stress range.
SECTION 2.27 FLEXURE (2005) 3
For investigation of service load stresses, the straight-line theory of stress and strain in flexure shall be used and the following
assumptions shall be made:
a. A section plane before bending remains plane after bending; strains vary as the distance from the neutral axis.
4
b. Stress-strain relation of concrete is a straight line under service loads within the allowable service load stresses.
Stresses vary as the distance from the neutral axis except, for deep flexural members with overall depth-clear-span
ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution of stress should be
considered.
c. Steel takes all the tension due to flexure.
d. Modular ratio n = Es/Ec may be taken as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6). Except in calculations for
deflections, the value of n for lightweight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for normal weight concrete of
the same strength.
e. In doubly reinforced flexural members, an effective modular ratio of 2Es/Ec shall be used to transform the compression
reinforcement for stress computations. The compressive stress in such reinforcement shall not be greater than the
allowable tensile stress.

SECTION 2.28 COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH OR WITHOUT FLEXURE (1992)
The combined axial load and moment capacity of compression members shall be taken as 35% of that computed in accordance
with the provisions of Section 2.33. Slenderness effects shall be included according to the requirements of Section 2.34. The
term Pu in Article 2.33.1b shall be replaced by 2.85 times the design axial load. In using the provisions of Section 2.33 and
Section 2.34,  shall be taken as 1.0.
SECTION 2.29 SHEAR
2.29.1 SHEAR STRESS (2005)
a. Design shear stress v shall be computed by:
V
v = ---------- EQ 2-14
bw d
where:
bw = the width of web

d = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement.
For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter and d shall be taken as 0.8 times the diameter of the section.
b. When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the member,
sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support may be designed for the same shear v as that
computed at a distance d. An exception occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed between that point and the
face of support. In that case sections closer than d to the support shall be designed for V at distance d plus the major
concentrated loads.
c. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall be calculated according to Article 2.29.2. When v exceeds vc, shear
reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.29.3. Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion shall be added.
d. For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
2.29.2 PERMISSIBLE SHEAR STRESS (2005)
NOTE: The value of f c used in computing vc in this paragraph shall not be taken greater than 100 psi (0.69
MPa).
a. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall not exceed 0.95 f c (or 0.079 f c in metric) unless a more detailed
analysis is made in accordance with Article 2.29.2b or Article 2.29.2c. For members subject to axial tension, vc shall
not exceed the value given in Article 2.29.2d. For lightweight concrete, the provisions of Article 2.29.2f shall apply.
b. Shear stress carried by concrete vc, for members subject to shear and flexure only, may be computed by:

Vd
v c = 0.9 f c + 1100 w ------- EQ 2-15
M
Vd
v c = 0.075 f c + 7.58 w ------- EQ 2-15M
M
Vd
but vc shall not exceed 1.6 f c (or 0.13 f c in metric). The quantity ------- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where
M
M is the design moment occurring simultaneously with V at the section considered.
c. For members subject to axial compression, vc may be computed by:
0.0006N
v c = 0.9  1 + --------------------- f c EQ 2-16
 Ag 
0.0006N
v c = 10.8  0.0069 + --------------------- f c EQ 2-16M
 Ag 
N
The quantity ------ shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
d. For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total shear, unless a
more detailed analysis is made using: 1
0.004N
v c = 0.9  1 + ------------------ fc EQ 2-17
 Ag 
0.004N 3
v c = 10.8  0.0069 + ------------------ fc EQ 2-17M
 Ag 
where:
N is negative for tension
N 4
The quantity ------ shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
e. Special provisions for slabs of box culverts. For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet (600 mm) or more fill, shear stress vc
may be computed by:
Vd
vc = f c + 2200 ------- EQ 2-18
M
Vd
v c = 0.083 f c + 15.2 ------- EQ 2-18M
M
but vc shall not exceed 1.8 f c (or 0.15 f c in metric). For single cell box culverts only, vc need not be taken less
than 1.4 f c (or 0.12 f c in metric) for slabs monolithic with walls or 1.2 f c (or 0.10 f c in metric) for slabs

Vd
simply supported. The quantity of ------- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where M is moment occurring
M
simultaneously with V at section considered.
f. The provisions for shear stress vc carried by concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate
concretes are used, one of the following modifications shall apply:
(1) When fct is specified, shear stress vc shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (or 1.8 fct in metric) for f c but the
value of fct/6.7 (or 1.8 fct in metric) used shall not exceed f c .
(2) When fct is not specified, shear stress vc shall be multiplied by 0.85.
2.29.3 DESIGN OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Shear reinforcement shall conform to the general requirements of Section 2.10. When shear reinforcement
perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, required area shall be computed by:
 v – v c b w s
A v = ---------------------------- EQ 2-19
fs
b. When inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply:
(1) When inclined stirrups are used, required area shall be computed by:
 v – v c b w s
A v = ---------------------------------------- EQ 2-20
f s  sin  + cos  
(2) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
distance from the support, required area shall be computed by:
 v – v c b w d
A v = ----------------------------- EQ 2-21
f s sin 
in which (v – vc) shall not exceed 1.5 f c (or 0.12 f c in metric).
(3) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at
different distances from the support, required area shall be computed by Article 2.29.3b(1).
(4) Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any longitudinal bar that is bent shall be considered
effective for shear reinforcement.
c. Where more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, required area
shall be computed as the sum for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more than 2/3 of the total shear
resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, vc shall be included only once.
d. When (v – vc) exceed 2 f c (or 0.17 f c in metric), maximum spacings given in Article 2.10.3 shall be reduced by
one-half.

e. The value of (v – vc) shall not exceed 4 f c (or 0.33 f c in metric).
f. When flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength is terminated in
a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 2.13.1g.
2.29.4 SHEAR-FRICTION (2005)
a. Provisions for shear-friction are to be applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane,
such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an interface between two concretes
cast at different times.
b. A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf
across the shear plane may be designed using either Article 2.29.4c or any other shear transfer design methods that
result in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of
Article 2.29.4d through Article 2.29.4h shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength.
c. Shear-friction design method.
(1) Shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicular to shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf shall be
computed by:
V
A vf = ------- EQ 2-22
fs  1
where:
 = the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article 2.29.4c(3).
(2) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to shear plane such that the shear force produces tension in shear- 3
friction reinforcement, area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf shall be computed by:
V
A vf = ----------------------------------------------- EQ 2-23
f s   sin  f + cos  f 
where: 4
f = angle between shear-friction reinforcement and shear plane.
(3) Coefficient of friction  in EQ 2-22 and EQ 2-23 shall be
concrete placed monolithically. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4

concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface intentionally roughened as
specified in Article 2.29.4g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by reinforcing bars
(see Article 2.29.4h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7

where:
= 1.0 for normal weight concrete and 0.85 for lightweight concrete.
d. Shear stress v on area of concrete section resisting shear transfer shall not exceed 0.09 f c nor 360 psi (2.5 MPa).
e. Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across shear
plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement A v f f s , when calculating required A v f .
f. Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to develop the
specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
g. For the purpose of Article 2.29.4, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, the interface for shear
transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If  is assumed equal to 1.0, interface shall be roughened to a full
amplitude of approximately 0.25 inches (6 mm).
h. When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing bars, steel
shall be clean and free of paint.
2.29.5 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN FOR COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL

MEMBERS (2005)
a. In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected
elements.
b. Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article 2.29.5c or
Article 2.29.5d, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement
with results of comprehensive tests.
c. Design horizontal shear stress vdh at any cross section may be computed by:
V
v dh = ---------- EQ 2-24
bw d
where:
V = design shear force at section considered

d = depth of entire composite section
Horizontal shear vdh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in accordance with the following:
(1) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 36 psi
(0.25 MPa).
(2) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.29.5e, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 36 psi (0.25 MPa).
(3) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.29.5e, and contact surface is clean, free of laitance,
and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1/4 inch (6 mm), shear stress vh shall not exceed
160 psi (1.1 MPa).

(4) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the contact surface in excess of the minimum required by
Article 2.29.5e, permissible vh may be increased by 72fy /40,000 psi (or 72fy /280 MPa in metric).
d. Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the actual
change in compressive or tensile force, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear between
interconnected elements. Horizontal shear shall not exceed the permissible horizontal shear stress vh in accordance
with Article 2.29.5c.
e. Ties for horizontal shear.
(1) A minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area shall not be less
than 50bws/fy (or 0.35bws/fy in metric), and tie spacing ‘s’ shall not exceed 4 times the least web width of support
element, nor 24 inches (600 mm).
(2) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire
fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or
hooks.
(3) All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement may be
used in satisfying the minimum tie reinforcement.
2.29.6 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SLABS AND FOOTINGS (2005)
a. Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be governed by the more 1
severe of two conditions:
(1) The slab or footing acting as a wide beam, with a critical section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.29.1 through Article 2.29.3.
(2) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so 3
that its perimeter is a minimum and approaches no closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated load or
reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.29.6b and
Article 2.29.6c.
(3) At footings supported on piles the shear on the critical section shall be determined in accordance with:
(a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more outside the critical section shall be 4
considered as producing shear on that section.
(b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more inside the critical section shall be considered as
producing no shear on that section.
(c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as producing shear
on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at dp/2 outside the section and
zero value at dp/2 inside the section.
b. Design shear stress for two-way action shall be computed by:
V
v = -------- EQ 2-25
bo d

where:
V and bo are taken at the critical section defined in Article 2.29.6a(2).
c. Design shear v shall not exceed the smallest vc given by EQ 2-26 or EQ 2-27 unless shear reinforcement is provided in
accordance with Article 2.29.6d.
2
v c =  0.8 + ----- f c ; f’c in psi EQ 2-26
  c
0.17
v c =  0.066 + ---------- f c ; f’c in MPa EQ 2-26M
   c
or
sd
v c =  0.8 + --------- f c ; f’c in psi EQ 2-27
 b o
 s d f c
v c =  0.8 + --------- ---------- ; f’c in MPa EQ 2-27M
 b  12
o
but not greater than 1.8 f (or 0.15 f in metric).

c c
where:
c is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area.
where:
s is 20 for interior concentrated loads or reaction areas, 15 for edge concentrated loads or reaction areas and 10 for
corner concentrated loads or reaction areas.
d. If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires is provided in accordance with Article 2.29.3, vc at any section shall
not exceed 0.9 f c (or 0.075 f c in metric) and v shall not exceed 3 f c (or 0.25 f c in metric). Shear stresses
shall be investigated at the critical section defined in Article 2.29.6a(2) and at successive sections more distant from
the support.
2.29.7 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BRACKETS AND CORBELS (2005)
a. The following provisions shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio av/d not greater than
unity, and subject to a horizontal tensile force Nc not larger than V. Distance d shall be measured at face of support.
b. Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.5d.
c. Section at face of support shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear V, a moment

[Vav + Nc(h-d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nc.

(1) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist shear V shall be in accordance with Article 2.29.4. For normal
weight concrete, shear stress v shall not exceed 0.09f c nor 360 psi (2.5 MPa). For “sand-lightweight” concrete,
shear stress v shall not exceed (0.09 – 0.03av/d)f c nor (360 – 126av/d) psi (or 2.5 – 0.09av/d) MPa in metric).
(2) Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vav + Nc(h-d)] shall be computed in accordance with Section 2.26 and
Section 2.27.
(3) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nc shall be computed by An = Nc /fs. Tensile force Nc shall not be taken
less than 0.2V unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces.
(4) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be made equal to the greater of (Af + An), or
(2Av f / 3 + An).
d. Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with a total area Ah not less than 0.5 (As – An), shall be uniformly distributed
within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As.
e. Ratio  = As/bd shall not be taken less than 0.04 (f c /fy).
f. At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the following:
(1) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield strength fy
of As bars;
(2) bending primary tension bars As back to form a horizontal loop, or

1
(3) some other means of positive anchorage.
g. Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars As, nor
project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
3
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
(APPLICABLE TO Section 2.30 THROUGH Section 2.39)
SECTION 2.30 STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS

4
2.30.1 REQUIRED STRENGTH (2005)
Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all sections at least equal to the required
strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in such combinations as stipulated in Article 2.2.4c, which represent
various combinations of loads and forces to which a structure may be subjected. Each part of such structure shall be
proportioned for the group loads that are applicable, and the maximum design required shall be used. Members shall also
follow all other requirements of this Chapter to ensure adequate performance at service load levels.
2.30.2 DESIGN STRENGTH (1992)
a. For reinforced concrete members designed with reference to load factors and strengths, the design strength provided by
a member, its connections to other members, and its cross sections, in terms of flexure, axial load, and shear, shall be
taken as the nominal strength calculated in accordance with the requirements and assumptions of LOAD FACTOR
DESIGN, multiplied by a strength reduction factor .

b. Strength reduction factor  shall be taken as follows:
For flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  = 0.90

For shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  = 0.85
For spirally reinforced compression members, with or
without flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  = 0.75
For tied reinforced compression members with or without flexure. . . . . . . . . . .  = 0.70
NOTE: The value of  may be increased linearly from the value for compression
members to the value for flexure as the axial load strength Pn decreases
from Pb to zero.
For bearing on concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  = 0.70
NOTE: Development and splices of reinforcement specified in Section 2.13 through Section 2.22 do not require a 
factor.
SECTION 2.31 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
2.31.1 STRENGTH DESIGN (2005)
Strength design of members for flexure and axial loads shall be based on the assumptions given in this article, and on
satisfaction of the applicable conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains.
a. Strain in the reinforcing steel and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
b. Maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber shall be assumed equal to 0.003.
c. Stress in reinforcement below the specified yield strength fy for the grade of steel used shall be taken as Es times the
steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy the stress in the reinforcement shall be considered
independent of strain and equal to fy .
d. Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in flexural calculations of reinforced concrete.
e. The relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain may be assumed to be a
rectangle, trapezoid, parabola, or any other shape which results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with
the results of comprehensive tests.
f. The requirements of Article 2.31.1e may be considered satisfied by an equivalent rectangular concrete stress
distribution defined as follows: A concrete stress of 0.85 f c shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent
compression zone bounded by the edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a
distance (a = 1c) from the fiber of maximum compressive strain. The distance c from the fiber of maximum strain to
the neutral axis is measured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. The factor 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete
strength f c up to and including 4000 psi (28 MPa). For strengths above 4000 psi (28 MPa) 1 shall be reduced
continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi (7 MPa) of strength in excess of 4000 psi (28 MPa), but 1 shall not be
taken less than 0.65.

SECTION 2.32 FLEXURE
2.32.1 MAXIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1992)
a. For flexural members, the reinforcement  provided shall not exceed 0.75 of that ratio b which would produce
balanced strain conditions for the section under flexure.
For flexural members with compression reinforcement, the portion of b balanced by compression reinforcement need
not be reduced by the 0.75 factor.
b. Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield strength fy
just as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.
2.32.2 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT ONLY (2005)
a. For rectangular sections, when   0.75 b the design moment strength Mn may be computed by:
0.6f y
M n =  A s f y d  1 – ---------------- EQ 2-28
 f c 
a
=  A s f y  d – --- EQ 2-29
 2 1
where:
As fy
a = --------------------
0.85f c b
3
b. The balanced reinforcement ratio b for rectangular sections with tension reinforcement only is given by:
4
0.85 1 f c 87 000
 b = -----------------------  ----------------------------- EQ 2-30
fy  87 000 + f 
y
0.85 1 f c 600
 b = -----------------------  -------------------- EQ 2-30M
fy  600 + f 
y
2.32.3 I- AND T-SECTIONS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT ONLY (2005)
a. When the compression flange thickness is equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block a
and   0.75 b, the design moment strength Mn may be computed by the equations given in Article 2.32.2.
b. When the compression flange thickness is less than a, the design moment strength Mn may be computed by:

M n =   A s – A sf f y  d – --a- + A sf f y  d – 0.5h f  EQ 2-31

 2
where:
hf
Asf = 0.85f c  b – b w  ----
fy
 A s – A sf f y
a = ------------------------------
0.85f c b w
c. The balanced reinforcement ratio b for I- and T-sections with tension reinforcement only is given by:
b w 0.85 1 f c 87 000

 b = ------ -----------------------  ----------------------------- +  f EQ 2-32
b fy  87 000 + f 
y
b w 0.85 1 f c 600
 b = ------ -----------------------  -------------------- +  f EQ 2-32M
b fy  600 + f 
y
where:
A sf
 f = ----------
bw d
d. When the compression flange thickness is greater than a, the design moment strength, Mn, may be computed by
using the equations in Article 2.32.2.
e. For T-girder and box-girder construction defined by Article 2.23.10 and Article 2.23.11, the width of the compression
face b shall be equal to the effective slab width.
2.32.4 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS WITH COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. For rectangular sections when   0.75 b, the design moment strength Mn may be computed by:
M n =   A s – A s f y  d – --a- + A s f y  d – d  EQ 2-33
 2
where:
 A s – A s f y
a = -----------------------------
-
0.85f c b
and the following condition shall be satisfied:

A s – A s 0.85 1 f c d   87 000 

--------------------  ---------------------------- ---------------------------- EQ 2-34
bd fy d  87 000 – f 
y
A s – A s 0.85 1 f c d   600 
--------------------  ---------------------------- ------------------- EQ 2-34M
bd fy d  600 – f y
b. When the value of (As – As)/bd is less than the value given by EQ 2-34, so that the stress in the compression
reinforcement is less than the yield strength fy or when effects of compression reinforcement are neglected, the
moment strength may be computed by the equations in Article 2.32.2, except when a general analysis is made based on
stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31.
c. The balanced reinforcement ratio b for rectangular section with compression reinforcement is given by:
0.85 1 f c  87 000  f sb

 b = ----------------------
- ----------------------------- + -------------- EQ 2-35
fy  87 000 + f y fy
0.85 1 f c  600  f sb

 b = ----------------------
- -------------------- + -------------- EQ 2-35M
fy  600 + f y fy
where:
1
f sb is stress in compression reinforcement at balanced strain conditions
f sb = d
87 000 – ----  87 000 + f y   f y
d
f sb = d (metric)
600 – ----  600 + f y   f y 3
d
2.32.5 OTHER CROSS SECTIONS (1992)
For other cross sections the design moment strength Mn shall be computed by a general analysis based on stress and strain
compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31. The requirements of Article 2.32.1 shall also be satisfied. 4
SECTION 2.33 COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH OR WITHOUT FLEXURE
2.33.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (2005)
a. Design of cross sections subject to axial load or to combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress and strain
compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31. Slenderness effects shall be included in accordance with
Section 2.34.
b. Members subject to compressive axial load shall be designed for the maximum moment that can accompany the axial
load. The factored axial load Pu at given eccentricity shall not exceed that given in Article 2.33.1c. The maximum
factored moment Mu shall be magnified for slenderness effects in accordance with Section 2.34.

c. Design axial load strength Pa of compression members shall not be taken greater than the following:
(1) For members with spiral reinforcement conforming to Article 2.11.2a:
P a (max) = 0.85  0.85f c  A g – A st  + f y A st  EQ 2-36
(2) For members with tie reinforcement conforming to Article 2.11.2b:
P a (max) = 0.80  0.85f c  A g – A st  + f y A st  EQ 2-37
2.33.2 COMPRESSION MEMBER STRENGTHS (2005)
The following provisions may be used as a guide to define the range of the load-moment interaction relationship for members
subjected to combined flexure and axial load.
a. Pure Compression.
(1) The design axial load strength at zero eccentricity Po may be computed by:
P o =   0.85f c  A g – A st  + A st f y  EQ 2-38
(2) For design, pure compression strength is a hypothetical loading condition since Article 2.33.1c limits the axial
load strength of compression members to 85% and 80% of the design axial load strength at zero eccentricity.
b. Pure Flexure. The assumptions given in Section 2.31, or the applicable equations for flexure given in Section 2.32 may
be used to compute the design moment strength Mn in pure flexure.
c. Balanced Strain Conditions. Balanced strain conditions for a cross section are defined in Article 2.32.1b. For a
rectangular section with reinforcement in one or two faces and located at approximately the same distance from the
axis of bending, the balanced load strength Pb and balanced moment strength Mb may be computed by:
P b =   0.85f c ba b + A s f sb – A s f y  EQ 2-39
and
a
M b =  0.85f c ba b  d – d – ----b- + A s f sb  d – d – d  + A s f y d EQ 2-40
 2
where:
87 000
ab =  -----------------------------  1 d
87 000 + f y
600
ab =  --------------------  1 d (metric)
600 + f y
d
f sb = 87 000 – ----  87 000 + f y   f y
d

d
f sb = 600 – ----  600 + f y   f y (metric)
d
d. Combined Flexure and Axial Load.
(1) The design strength under combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress and strain compatibility using
the assumptions given in Section 2.31. The strength of a cross section is controlled by tension when the nominal
axial load strength Pn is less than Pb. The strength of a cross section is controlled by compression when the
nominal axial load strength Pn is greater than Pb.
(2) The nominal values of axial load strength Pn and moment strength Mn must both be multiplied by the appropriate
strength reduction factor  for spirally reinforced or tied compression members as given in Article 2.30.2. The
value of  may be increased linearly from the value for compression members to the value for flexure as the
design axial load strength Pn decreases from 0.10f c A g or Pb whichever is smaller, to zero.
2.33.3 BIAXIAL LOADING (1992)
In lieu of a general section analysis based on stress and strain compatibility for a loading condition of biaxial bending, the
strength of non-circular members subject to biaxial bending may be computed by the following approximate expressions:
1
P nxy = ---------------------------------------------------- EQ 2-41
 -------
1 - +  ------- 1 - –  ----- 1
P  P  P 
nx ny o
1
where the factored axial load,
P u  0.1f c A g
or 3
M ux M uy
-------------- -1
- + -------------- EQ 2-42
M nx M ny
when the factored axial load,

4
P u  0.1f c A g
SECTION 2.34 SLENDERNESS EFFECTS IN COMPRESSION MEMBERS
a. Design of compression members shall be based on forces and moments determined from an analysis of the structure.
Such an analysis shall take into account the influence of axial loads and variable moment of inertia on member stiffness
and fixed-end moments, the effect of deflections on the moments and forces, and the effects of the duration of the
loads.

b. In lieu of the procedure described in Article 2.34.1a, the design of compression members may be based on the
approximate procedure given in Article 2.34.2.
2.34.2 APPROXIMATE EVALUATION OF SLENDERNESS EFFECTS (2005)
a. Unsupported length lu of a compression member shall be taken as the clear distance between slabs, girders, or other
members capable of providing lateral support for the compression member. When haunches are present, the
unsupported length shall be measured to the lower extremity of the haunch in the plane considered.
b. Radius of gyration r may be taken equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction in which stability is being
considered for rectangular compression members, and 0.25 times the diameter for circular compression members. For
other shapes, r may be computed from the gross concrete section.
c. For compression members braced against sidesway, the effective length factor k shall be taken as 1.0, unless an
analysis shows that a lower value may be used. For compression members not braced against sidesway, the effective
length factor k shall be determined with due consideration of cracking and reinforcement on relative stiffness, and shall
be greater than 1.0.
d. For compression members braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected when klu/r is less than
34 – 12M1b/M2b. For compression members not braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected
when klu/r is less than 22. For all compression members with klu/r greater than 100, an analysis as defined in
Article 2.34.1a shall be made. M1b = value of smaller end moment on compression member calculated from a
conventional elastic analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double curvature, M2b =
value of larger end moment on compression member calculated from a conventional elastic analysis, always positive.
e. Compression members shall be designed using the factored axial load Pu from a conventional frame analysis and a
magnified factored moment Mc defined by EQ 2-43. For members braced against sidesway, s shall be taken as 1.0.
For members not braced against sidesway, b shall be evaluated as for a braced member and s as for an unbraced
member.
M c =  b M 2b +  s M 2s EQ 2-43
where:
Cm
-  1.0
-----------------
b = Pu
1 – ---------
P c
1 -  1.0
---------------------
s = P u
1 – ------------ -
P c
and
2
 EI-
--------------
Pc = 2
 kl u 
In lieu of a more precise calculation, EI may be taken either as

Ec Ig
----------
- + Es Is
5
EI = ---------------------------
1 + d
or conservatively
Ec Ig
----------
-
2.5 -
EI = --------------
1 + d
For members braced against sidesway and without transverse loads between supports, Cm may be taken as:
M 1b
C m = 0.6 + 0.4 ---------
- but not less than 0.4. EQ 2-44
M 2b
For all other cases Cm shall be taken as 1.0.
f. When a group of compression members on one level composes a bent, or when they are connected integrally to the
same superstructure, and all collectively resist the sidesway of the structure, the value of s shall be computed for the
member group with Pu and Pc equal to the summations for all compression members in the group.
g. If computations show that there is no moment at both ends of a compression member or that computed end
eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm); M2b in EQ 2-43 shall be based on a minimum
1
eccentricity of (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm) about each principal axis separately. Ratio M1b /M2b in EQ 2-44
shall be determined by either of the following:
(1) When computed end eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm), computed end moments
may be used to evaluate M1b /M2b in EQ 2-44.
(2) If computations show that there is essentially no moment at both ends of a compression member, the ratio 3
M1b/M2b shall be taken equal to one.
h. When compression members are subject to bending about both principal axes, the moment about each axis shall be
amplified by  computed from the corresponding conditions of restraint about that axis.
i. In structures which are not braced against sidesway, the flexural members shall be designed for the total magnified end
moments of the compression members at the joint. 4
SECTION 2.35 SHEAR
2.35.1 SHEAR STRENGTH (2005)
a. Factored shear stress vu shall be computed by:
Vu
v u = -------------- EQ 2-45
b w d

where:
bw = the width of web

d = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement
For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter, and d need not be taken less than the distance from the extreme
compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member.
b. When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the member and
loads are applied at or near the top of the member, sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support
may be designed for the same shear vu as that computed at a distance d. An exception occurs when major concentrated
loads are imposed between that point and the face of support. In that case sections closer than d to the support shall be
designed for Vu at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
c. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall be calculated according to Article 2.35.2. When vu exceeds vc, shear
reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.35.3. Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion shall be added.
NOTE: The design criteria for combined shear and torsion given in “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete – ACI318-02” may be used.
d. For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
2.35.2 PERMISSIBLE SHEAR STRESS (2010)
NOTE: The value f’c used in computing vc shall not be taken greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
a. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall not exceed 2 f c (or 0.17 f c in metric) unless a more detailed analysis is
made in accordance with Article 2.35.2b or Article 2.35.2c. For members subject to axial tension, vc shall not exceed
the value given in Article 2.35.2d. For lightweight concrete, the provisions of Article 2.35.2f shall apply.
b. Shear stress carried by concrete vc, for members subject to shear and flexure only, may be computed by:
Vu d
v c = 1.9 f c + 2500 w ---------
- EQ 2-46
M u
Vu d
v c = 0.16 f c + 17 w ---------
- EQ 2-46M
Mu
Vu d
but vc shall not exceed 3.5 f c (or 0.29 f c in metric). The quantity ---------
- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where
Mu
Mu is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with Vu at the section considered.
c. For members subject to axial compression, vc may be computed by:
N
v c = 2  1 + 0.0005 ------u f c EQ 2-47
 A g

N
v c = 0.17  1 + 0.072 ------u f c EQ 2-47M
 A g
N
The quantity ------u shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
d. For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total shear, unless a
more detailed analysis is made using
N
v c = 2  1 + 0.002 ------u f c EQ 2-48
 A g
N
v c = 0.17  1 + 0.29 ------u f c EQ 2-48M
 A g
where:
Nu is negative for tension
1
N
the quantity ------u shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
e. Special provisions for slabs of box culverts. For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet (600 mm) or more fill, shear stress vc
may be computed by:
3
Vu d
v c = 2.14 f c + 4600 ---------
- EQ 2-49
Mu
Vu d
v c = 0.18 f c + 32 ---------
- EQ 2-49M
M u
4
1
but vc shall not exceed 4 f c (or --- f c in metric). For single cell box culverts only, vc need not be taken less than
3
f c 5
3 f c (or ---------- in metric) for slabs monolithic with walls or 2.5 f c (or ------ f c in metric) for slabs simply
4 24
Vu d
supported. The quantity ---------
- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where Mu is factored moment occurring
Mu
simultaneously with Vu at section considered.
f. The provisions for shear stress vc carried by concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate
concretes are used, one of the following modifications shall apply:

(1) When fct is specified, shear stress vc shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (or 1.8fct in metric) for f c , but the
value of fct/6.7 (or 1.8fct in metric) used shall not exceed f c .
(2) When fct is not specified, shear stress vc shall be multiplied by 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.
2.35.3 DESIGN OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Shear reinforcement shall conform to the general requirements of Section 2.10. When shear reinforcement
perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, required area shall be computed by:
 v u – v c b w s
A v = ------------------------------- EQ 2-50
fy
b. When inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply:
(1) When inclined stirrups are used, required area shall be computed by:
 v u – v c b w s
A v = ---------------------------------------- EQ 2-51
f y  sin  + cos  
(2) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
distance from the support, required area shall be computed by:
 v u – v c b w d
A v = -------------------------------- EQ 2-52
f y sin 
f c
in which (vu – vc) shall not exceed 3 f c (or ---------- in metric).
4
(3) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at
different distances from the support, required area shall be computed using Article 2.35.3b(1).
(4) Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any one longitudinal bar that is bent shall be considered
effective for shear reinforcement.
c. When more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, required area
shall be computed as the sum for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more than 2/3 of the total shear
resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, vc shall be included only once.
f c
d. When (vu – vc) exceeds 4 f c (or ---------- in metric), maximum spacings given in Article 2.10.3 shall be reduced by
3
one-half.
2 f c
e. The value of (vu – vc) shall not exceed 8 f c (or ------------- in metric).
3
f. When flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength is terminated in
a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 2.13.1g.

2.35.4 SHEAR-FRICTION (2005)
a. Provisions for shear-friction are to be applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane,
such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an interface between two concretes
cast at different times.
b. A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf
across the shear plane may be designed using either Article 2.35.4c or any other shear transfer design method that
results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of
Article 2.35.4d through Article 2.35.4h shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength.
c. Shear-friction design method.
(1) When shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicular to shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf shall be
computed by:
Vu
A vf = ----------- EQ 2-53
f y 
where:
 = the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article 2.35.4c(3).

1
(2) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to shear plane such that the shear force produces tension in shear-
friction reinforcement, area of shear friction reinforcement Avf shall be computed by:
Vu
A vf = --------------------------------------------------
- EQ 2-54
f y   sin  f + cos  f 
3
where:
f = angle between shear-friction reinforcement and shear plane
(3) Coefficient of friction  in EQ 2-53 and EQ 2-54 shall be:

4
concrete placed monolithically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface
intentionally roughened as specified in Article 2.35.4g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0
concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by
reinforcing bars (see Article 2.35.4h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7
where  = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.
d. Shear stress vu on area of concrete section resisting shear transfer shall not exceed 0.2f c nor 800 psi (5.5 MPa).
e. Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across shear
plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement A v f f y , when calculating required A v f .

f. Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to develop the
specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
g. For the purpose of this paragraph, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, the interface for shear
transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If  is assumed equal to 1.0, interface shall be roughened to a full
amplitude of approximately 1/4 inch (6 mm).
h. When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing bars, steel
shall be clean and free of paint.
2.35.5 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN FOR COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL

MEMBERS (2005)
a. In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected
elements.
b. Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article 2.35.5c or
Article 2.35.5d, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement
with results of comprehensive tests.
c. Design horizontal shear stress vuh at any cross section may be computed by
Vu
v uh = -----------
- EQ 2-55
b v d
where:
Vu = factored shear force at section considered

d = depth of entire composite section
Horizontal shear vuh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in accordance with the following:
(1) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 80 psi
(0.55 MPa).
(2) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.35.5e, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 80 psi (0.55 MPa).
(3) When ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.35.5e and contact surfaces are clean, free of laitance and
intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of 1/4 inch (6 mm), shear stress, vh, shall be taken equal to (260 +
0.6vfy in psi [(1.8 + 0.6vfy in MPa]; but not greater than 500 psi (3.5 MPa).
(4) When factored shear stress, vu, at section considered exceeds  500 psi ( 3.5 in MPa), design for horizontal shear
shall be in accordance with Article 2.35.4.
d. Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the actual
change in compressive or tensile force to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear
between interconnected elements. The factored horizontal shear stress shall not exceed the horizontal shear strength
vuh in accordance with Article 2.35.5c, except that length of segment considered shall be substituted for d.

e. Ties for horizontal shear.
(1) A minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area shall not be less
than 50bws/fy (or 0.35bws/fy in metric), and tie spacing s shall not exceed 4 times the least web width of support
element, nor 24 inches (600 mm).
(2) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire
fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or
hooks.
(3) All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement may be
used in satisfying the minimum tie reinforcement.
2.35.6 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SLABS AND FOOTINGS (2005)
a. Shear strength of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be governed by the more
severe of the following conditions:
(1) The slab or footing acting as a wide beam, with a critical section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.35.1 through Article 2.35.3.
(2) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so
that its perimeter is a minimum and approaches no closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated load or 1
reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.35.6b and
Article 2.35.6c.
(3) For footings supported on piles the shear on the critical section shall be determined in accordance with:
(a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more outside the critical section shall be
considered as producing shear on that section. 3
(b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more inside the critical section shall be considered as
producing no shear on that section.
(c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as producing shear
on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at dp/2 outside the section and
zero value at dp/2 inside the section. 4
b. Factored shear stress for two-way action shall be computed by:
Vu
v u = ------------- EQ 2-56
b o d
where:
Vu and bo = are taken at the critical section defined in Article 2.35.6a(2).
c. Factored shear stress vu shall not exceed vc given by EQ 2-57, EQ 2-58, or EQ 2-59 unless shear reinforcement is
provided in accordance with Article 2.35.6d.

s d
v c =  --------
- + 2 f c EQ 2-57
b 
o
sd f c
v c =  --------
- + 2 ---------- EQ 2-57M
b  12
o
v c =  2 + ----
4- f c EQ 2-58
  c
2 f c
v c =  1 + ----- ---------- EQ 2-58M
  6 c
v c = 4 f c EQ 2-59
1
v c = --- f c EQ 2-59M
3
c is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. s is 40 for interior concentrated loads or
reaction areas, 30 for edge concentrated loads or reaction areas, and 20 for corner concentrated loads or reaction areas.
d. If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires is provided in accordance with Article 2.35.3, vc at any section shall
1 1
not exceed 2 f c (or --- f c in metric) and vu shall not exceed 6 f c (or --- f c in metric). Shear stresses shall be
6 2
investigated at the critical section defined in Article 2.35.6a(2) and at successive sections more distant from the
support.
2.35.7 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BRACKETS AND CORBELS (2005)
a. The following provisions shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio and av/d not greater than
unity, and subject to a horizontal tensile force Nuc not larger than Vu. Distance d shall be measured at face of support.
b. Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.5d.
c. Section at face of support shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear Vu, a moment
[Vuav + Nuc(h – d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nuc .
(1) In all design calculations in accordance with this paragraph, strength reduction factor  shall be taken equal to
0.85.
(2) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist shear Vu shall be in accordance with Article 2.35.4. For normal
weight concrete, shear stress vu shall not exceed 0.2 f c nor 800 psi (5.5 MPa). For “sand-lightweight” concrete,
shear stress vu shall not exceed (0.2 – 0.07a v /d) f c nor (800 – 280a v /d) psi (5.5 – 1.9a v /d MPa).
(3) Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vuav + Nuc(h – d)] shall be computed in accordance with Section 2.31 and
Section 2.32.
(4) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nuc shall be computed by An = Nuc/fy . Tensile force Nuc shall not be
taken less than 0.2Vu unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces.

(5) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be made equal to the greater of (Af + An), or
(2 A v f /3 + An).
d. Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with a total area of Ah not less than 0.5(As – An), shall be uniformly distributed
within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As.
e. Ratio  = As/bd shall not be taken less than 0.04 (f c /fy).
f. At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the following:
(1) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield strength fy
of As bars;
(2) bending primary tension bars As back to form a horizontal loop, or
(3) some other means of positive anchorage.
g. Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars As, nor
project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
SECTION 2.36 PERMISSIBLE BEARING STRESS (2005) 1

Design bearing stress shall not exceed (0.85f c), except when the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded
area, then the design bearing stress on the loaded area shall be permitted to be multiplied by A 2  A 1 , but not more than 2,
where:
A1 = load area 3
A2 = the area of the lower base of the largest frustrum of a pyramid, cone, or tapered wedge
contained wholly within the support and having for its upper base the loaded area, and having
side slopes of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
Minimum distance from edge of bearing to edge of supporting concrete shall be 6 inches (150 mm).
4
SECTION 2.37 SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
For flexural members designed with reference to load factors and strengths by LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, stresses at service
load shall be limited to satisfy the requirements for fatigue in Section 2.38, and the requirements for distribution of
reinforcement in Section 2.39. The requirements for deflection control in Section 2.40 shall also apply.
2.37.2 SERVICE LOAD STRESSES (1992)
For investigation of service load stresses to satisfy the requirements of Section 2.38 and Section 2.39, the straight-line theory
of stress and strain in flexure shall be used, and the assumptions given in Section 2.27 shall apply.

SECTION 2.38 FATIGUE STRESS LIMIT FOR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. The range between a maximum tension stress and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load plus
impact at service load shall not exceed:
ff = 21 – 0.33fmin + 8(r/h)
ff = 145 – 0.33fmin + 55(r/h) (metric)
where:
ff = stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa)

fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, ksi (MPa)
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; when the actual value is not known,
use 0.3
b. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high stress range.
SECTION 2.39 DISTRIBUTION OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the zones of maximum tension. When the design yield strength fy for
tension reinforcement exceeds 40,000 psi (280 MPa), cross sections of maximum positive and negative moment shall
be so proportioned that the calculated stress in the reinforcement at service load fs in ksi (MPa), does not exceed the
value computed by:
Z
f s = -------------- but fs shall not be greater than 0.5 fy EQ 2-60
3 d A
c
where:
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the main tension reinforcing bars and having the same
centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, square inches (mm2). When the main
reinforcement consists of several bar sizes the number of bars shall be computed as the total steel area
divided by the area of the largest bar used
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar located closest thereto,
inches (mm), but dc shall not exceed (2 inches + 1/2 db) (or (50 mm + 1/2 db) in metric).
b. The quantity Z in EQ 2-60 shall not exceed 170 kips per inch (30 kN/mm) for members in moderate exposure
conditions and 130 kips per inch (23 kN/mm) for members in severe exposure conditions. Where members are exposed
to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments, such as deicer chemicals, the denseness and nonporosity of the
protecting concrete should be considered, or other protection, such as a waterproof protecting system, should be
provided in addition to satisfying EQ 2-60.

SECTION 2.40 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS
2.40.1 GENERAL (1992)
Flexural members of bridge structures shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or any deformations
which may adversely affect the strength or serviceability of the structure at service load.
2.40.2 SUPERSTRUCTURE DEPTH LIMITATIONS (1992)
The minimum thicknesses stipulated in Table 8-2-8 are recommended unless computation of deflection indicates that lesser
thickness may be used without adverse effects.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design. In
the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/paragraph being explained.
C - SECTION 2.1 GENERAL
C - 2.1.5 PIER PROTECTION (2017) 1

C - 2.1.5.1 Adjacent to Railroad Tracks
a. The provisions of this section are not intended to create a structure that will resist the full impact of a direct collision by
a loaded train at high speed. Rather, the intent is to reduce the damage caused by shifted loads or derailed equipment.
This is accomplished by: deflecting or redirecting the force from the pier; providing a smooth face; providing resisting
mass; and distributing the collision forces over several pier columns. 3
b. Research by the National Transportation Safety Board found no clear break point in the distribution of the distance
traveled from the centerline of the track by derailed equipment. It was therefore decided to retain the existing 25 feet
(7600 mm) distance within which collision protection is required. In addition, it is recognized that the distance traveled
by equipment in a derailment is related to the speed of the train, the weight of the equipment, whether the side slopes
tend to restrain or distribute the equipment and the alignment of the track. In cases where these factors would cause the
equipment to travel farther than normal in a derailment, the required distance should be increased. Structures not 4
otherwise requiring protection under this section along the railroad right-of-way may also warrant protection by using
crash walls or earthen berms.
c. The AASHTO “LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 17th Edition (2014)” require piers within 30 feet (9144 mm) of
the edge of a highway to be designed for a 600 kip (2670kN) crash load applied at an angle of zero (0) to fifteen (15)
degrees from the edge of the highway pavement and 5 feet (1520 mm) above the ground. Studies have shown that piers
adjacent to railroads can experience increased crash loading due to derailed equipment strikes. This is of special
concern when railroad freight and passenger speeds are greater than 50 and 70 miles per hour (80 and 110 km per
hour), respectively and the pier is located 25 feet (7600 mm) or less from the centerline of the track. Refer to the study
performed in 2014 by G. Layden entitled “Development of Crash Wall Design Loads from Theoretical Train Impact.”
d. Where the risk of serious damage to the overhead structure is estimated to be higher than normal in case of an impact,
the clearance should also be increased. Among the factors to be considered in this evaluation are: the height of the pier,
bearing type, redundancy of the structure, length of the span and consequences of loss of use of the structure.

e. Examples of crash walls and pier protection for tracks on one side of piers are shown in Figure C-8-2-1. Where tracks
are on both sides of the pier the wall shall protect both sides.
C - 2.1.6 SUPERSTRUCTURE PROTECTION (2010)
C - 2.1.6.1 General Requirements
a. The purpose for this guideline stems from the fact that many existing railroad bridge superstructures have been struck
by trucks and other over-height loads and vehicles. Many of these bridges play a pivotal role in the day-to-day
operations of the railroads and the transportation of goods. Railway networks are less extensive than those of other
modes of transportation to the extend that unplanned shutdowns can have an adverse impact on railroad operations,
particularly along core routes of a railway network. Protection of railroad bridge superstructures to abate impacts to
daily railroad operations is critical and should be evaluated.
Parameters that affect railroad operational requirements include:
(1) The availability of other routes between linked markets
(2) The freight tonnage hauled over the route relative to the rest of the rail network
(3) The types of commodity handled on the line
(4) Future growth of freight or passenger traffic between the served markets or terminals
(5) The density of passenger traffic on the line
Roadway functional classification, which is influenced by traffic volume and type of service it provides for the
community, determines:
(1) Vehicular design speed
(2) Vertical and horizontal alignment of the roadway
(3) Cross section of the roadway
C - 2.1.7 SKEWED CONCRETE BRIDGES (2005)
a. There is no supporting documentation for the maximum recommended skew angles given. The information was
compiled from a questionnaire that was sent to several Chief Bridge Engineers of Class I railroad companies. The
skew angle recommendations resulted from the Chief Engineers’ past experience. The preference to use cast-in-place
concrete for skewed bridges is due to the high torsional stiffness of concrete bridges and the flexibility of forming the
concrete to fit the bearing area. The maximum recommended skew angle is reduced for precast slabs and box beams
since the bearing area of precast box beams and slabs is longer. This longer bearing area can result in warping of the
section during precasting due to the varying cambers.
b. The placement of interior diaphragms perpendicular to the webs is recommended since they allow for easier
construction or installation of transverse post-tensioning.
c. On skewed abutments, the end of the haunch in the backwall of the abutment or the end of the approach slab is set
perpendicular to the centerline of track to ensure adequate stiffness for the last tie off the bridge.
e. The ends of concrete slabs and concrete box girders with flanges 5’-0” (1520 mm) wide and wider may be skewed to
reduce the width of pier cap or abutment seat.

C - 2.2.3 DESIGN LOADS (2014)
C - 2.2.3 (d.) IMPACT LOAD
Previously, different impact formulas were included in the Manual for reinforced concrete in Part 2 and prestressed concrete in
Part 17. It was known however that impact values should be similar for both types of structures (Reference 132). In order to
resolve this discrepancy, a new impact formula was developed based on work in Europe (Reference 132) and Canada
(References 137, 138). The resulting impact is generally lower than that recommended previously for reinforced concrete,
particularly for longer spans. It is generally higher than that recommended previously for prestressed concrete, particularly for
shorter spans. This is illustrated in Figure C-8-2-2.

Figure C-8-2-1. Pier Protection: Minimum Crash Wall Requirements (Not To Scale)

Figure C-8-2-2. Comparison of Impact Formulas

According to the ORE report (Reference 132) the impact can be expressed as:
I = 0.65 x K / (1 - K + K2) where K = V/(2Lf)
V = speed of train in feet/second (meters/second)

L = span length in feet (meters)
f = natural frequency of the loaded bridge in hertz
In order to get the impact value as a percentage, this formula is multiplied by 100
I = 65 x K / (1 - K + K2)
For simply supported undamped beams, the natural frequency of the bridge can be estimated (see Reference 136) as:
f = 3.5     where  is the deflection due to dead and live load in inches or;
f = 5.6     where is in centimeters.
NOTE: Limited data exist for impact on continuous structures. The ORE has done one test on such structures which
suggests that impact values do not normally exceed those for simple spans. Article 2.2.3d(2) recommends
using for the entire continuous structure the impact value calculated for the shortest of the continuous spans.
Assuming the deflection under dead and live load is equal to L/750 (where L is the span length) and the speed is 100 miles per
hour (160 kilometers per hour) and transforming to consistent units we get:
K = V/(2Lf) = 2.64/ L where L is the span length in feet or;
K = V/(2Lf) = 1.47/ L where L is in meters
Replacing this value for K in the ORE impact formula and considering the fact that the denominator is practically a constant
for the range of span lengths where the formula is applicable, the impact formula is simplified to:
I = 225/ L where L is the span length in feet or;
I = 125/ L where L is in meters
This formula was validated by the ORE with tests on 37 reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and steel bridges, small
scale models and theoretical calculations. It was found that the formula gave a good representation of the mean impact values
for European railway bridges. For North American bridges, the formula had to be adjusted for higher impacts due to different
track and equipment maintenance standards. It was decided to address this issue by using in the ORE formula a design speed
of 100 mph (160 km/h) which is higher than the actual speed for North American freight operations. Therefore, for bridge
rating purposes, one should not attempt to input actual train speeds in the ORE formula. Impact reduction for bridge rating
purposes is given in Part 19. The different safety factors given in the Manual for impact loading will cover the cases where the
impact would be higher than the mean value.
For piers and abutments, where the weight of the substructure is much greater than the live load, the effects of impact will
generally be minimal and therefore can be neglected in the design.
When the substructure and superstructure are rigidly connected together, the superstructure will undergo additional rotation
due to the impact loading at the point where it is connected to the substructure. In order to maintain compatibility of
deformations, the substructure will experience the same additional rotations. Therefore, impact must be used in this case for
the design of the substructure.

Particular attention should be given to short structural members spanning in the direction perpendicular to the track and
located next to the bridge approach. These members will be subjected to higher impacts due to the transition in stiffness of the
riding surface between the bridge and the approach. Members such as concrete deck slabs and flanges of precast concrete
beams are known to experience higher impacts. However, very limited test data is available to evaluate accurately the level of
impact experienced by these members. Some Railways design these members for impacts as high as 100 percent.
It should be noted that direct fixation can result in much higher impacts than reflected by the formula. This formula is
intended for ballasted deck spans and substructure elements as required. For bridges with direct fixation, refer to Part 27
Concrete Slab Track.
The Association of American Railroads (AAR) conducted a series of tests on nine prestressed concrete bridges in the late
1950s and early- to mid-1960s from which impact data was gathered. Spans varied from 18 feet to 70 feet in length. This data
is summarized in the Committee 30 report found in AREA Bulletin 597, January 1966. The highest impacts measured were 45
percent in a 30 foot span. Other spans tested all had impacts less than 30 percent.
The AAR performed further testing on three prestressed concrete bridges in the early 1990s [References 134 & 135]. Tests
included cars equipped with flat wheels or out-of-round wheels near the condemning limit. Impacts up to 51 percent were
measured on an 18-foot span.
Testing on the concrete bridges at the Facility for Accelerated Service Testing (FAST) (References 139-146) and
complementary testing in revenue service (Reference 147) have shown:
• Impacts measured in a prestressed concrete span with concrete ties and a bolted rail joint were approximately twice
as high as those measured with continuous welded rail.
1
• Maximum impacts measured in prestressed concrete spans of various lengths generally follow the design impact
formula for wood ties with 8 inches of ballast or concrete ties with 12 inches (300 mm) of ballast with continuous
welded rail.
• Use of wood ties, concrete ties with under-tie pads, plastic composite ties, or ballast mat each helped to reduce
impact compared to that measured under conventional concrete ties on a concrete span. The use of a resilient layer in 3
the track structure reduces the track stiffness to better match the stiffness of approach track. A resilient layer also
results in better retention of track geometry requiring less frequent track surfacing maintenance.
• Reducing ballast depth from 12 inches (300 mm) below wood ties to 8 inches (200 mm) below wood ties resulted in
an increase of approximately 30 percent in measured impacts and an increase in track maintenance demand.
• As ballast degraded and became increasingly fouled, measured impacts increased. 4

C - 2.2.3 (j.) LONGITUDINAL LOAD. (2008) (References 34, 35, 36, 46, 52, 55, 66, 67, 68, 69, and
105)
a. Longitudinal loads due to train traffic can vary tremendously from train to train. These loads are dependent on train
handling and operating practices. The greatest longitudinal loads result from starting or stopping a train, or moving a
train up or down a grade. The longitudinal loads applied to a bridge from normal train operations could be small in
comparison to the design loads.
b. Maximum adhesion between wheel and rail for train braking is about 15 percent. This level of adhesion would
typically be reached with an emergency application of the train air brakes. The equation for train braking is derived
using 15 percent of the Cooper E-80 (EM 360) live loading.
c. Longitudinal load due to braking acts at the center of gravity of the live load. Center of gravity height is taken as 8 feet
(2450 mm) above top of rail. This load is transferred from vehicle to rail as a horizontal force at the top of rail and a
vertical force couple transmitted through the wheels.

d. Locomotive traction can be applied at levels of adhesion approaching 50 percent, particularly with locomotives using
AC traction motors. Locomotive tractive effort is generally limited by drawbar and coupler capacity to less than about
500 kips (2200 kN), depending on equipment. Large applications of dynamic braking effort (which generate tractive
forces) are also possible. The greatest locomotive tractive efforts are generally reached at speeds below 25 mph (40
km/h). Above this speed, locomotive horsepower generally governs, and available tractive effort drops.
e. Longitudinal load due to locomotive traction acts at the drawbar. Drawbar height is taken as 3 feet (900 mm) above top
of rail. As with braking, this force is transferred from vehicle to rail as a horizontal force at the top of rail and a vertical
force couple transmitted through the wheels.
f. The equation for longitudinal load due to locomotive traction is based on maximum values from AAR measurements
on bridges tested with AC locomotives. The equipment used in the tests was approximately equivalent to a Cooper E-
60 (EM 270) loading on the spans tested. The formula has been scaled to be consistent with the E-80 (EM 360) design
loading.
g. Longitudinal deflection limits are required to increase serviceability of the structure. They can also potentially reduce
track problems (buckling, ballast degradation, etc.) on or just beyond the ends of the bridge.
h. The longitudinal deflection is computed assuming the entire bridge acts as a unit. The stiffness of individual
substructure components must be considered. Stiffer components deflect the same amount as more flexible
components; the stiffer components resist more load.
i. For the case where longitudinal deflection controls the design of fairly tall flexible pile bents, the designer should
consider adding longitudinal bracing to some of the double bents to stiffen them above the ground line, and thus reduce
longitudinal deflection. Battering or increasing the batter of piles, and/or adding more piles can also reduce deflection.

8
Part 3
Spread Footing Foundations1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2

3.1.1 Scope (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2
3.1.2 Classification (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3
3.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3 1

3.2.1 Field Survey (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3
3.2.2 Controlling Dimensions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4
3.2.3 Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4
3.2.4 Character of Subsurface Materials (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-5
3.3 Depth of Base of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6 3

3.3.1 Selection of Tentative Depths (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6
3.3.2 Revision of Depths of Footings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4 Sizing of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7

3.4.1 De fi ni t i ons (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4.2 Safety Factors (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4.3 Footings on Granular Material (Cohesion = 0) (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-8
3.4.4 Footings on Saturated Clay (I = 0) (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-10
3.4.5 Footings on Unsaturated Silts and Clays (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-11
3.4.6 Footings on Non-Homogeneous Deposits (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-11
3.4.7 Footings on Soils with Cohesion and Friction (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5 Footings with Eccentric Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12

3.5.1 Loads Eccentric in One Direction (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5.2 Loads Eccentric in Two Directions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5.3 Sizing Footings with Eccentric Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-13
3.6 Footing Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14

3.6.1 Pressure Distribution (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
1
References, Vol. 58, 1957, pp. 633, 1182; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 676, 1188; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 438, 860; Vol. 74, 1973, p. 138; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 206; Vol. 78,
1977, p. 108; Vol. 90, 1989, pp. 53, 56; Vol. 96, p. 59.

3.7 Field Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14

3.7.1 Modification of Design (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.2 Reinforcement (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.3 Footings at Varying Levels (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.4 Drainage (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.5 Treatment of Bottom of Excavation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.6 Stresses (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.7.7 Information on Drawings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.8 Combined Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15

3.8.1 Uses and Types (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.8.2 Allowable Soil Pressures (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
3.8.3 Column Loads (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
3.8.4 Sizing Combined Footings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
LIST OF FIGURES
8-3-1 Bulbs of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4

8-3-2 Extreme Frost Penetration, in Inches, Based upon State Averages. Source: U.S. National Weather Records Center
................................................................................... 8-3-6
8-3-3 Relationship Among I, N, and Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-9
8-3-4 Types of Combined Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
SECTION 3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 SCOPE (2013)1
a. This part of the Manual covers investigation, design and construction of rectangular or square spread footings.
b. In general for the purposes of this part, spread footings will be considered to be of rectangular or square shape of
dimensions (B) x (L) where B (width of the footing) is less than or equal to L (length of the footing).
c. A spread footing is a structural unit which transfers and distributes load to the underlying soil at a pressure consistent
with the requirements of the structure and the supporting capacity of the soil. The general approach to sizing footings
on soil is to assure that the maximum contact pressure defined in Article 3.4.1 is equal to or less than the allowable soil
pressure defined in the same article.
d. Sizing of footings on rock is not covered in this part.
1
See C - Commentary

Spread Footing Foundations
3.1.2 CLASSIFICATION (2013)
a. Spread footings may be classified according to their depth and dimensions:
(1) Spread footings may be classified as shallow footings when the depth of foundation, Df, defined as the minimum
vertical distance from the base of the footing to the surface of the surrounding ground or floor, does not exceed the
least width, B, of the footing. See Figure 8-3-1.
(2) Deep footings, for which the depth, Df, is greater than the width, B, (see Figure 8-3-1) are described in Part 4, Pile
Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.
b. Spread footings may be classified according to the structural elements they support:
(1) An individual column footing which supports a single column or isolated load
(2) A continuous footing which supports a wall or abutment
(3) A combined footing which supports more than one column
(4) A raft or mat footing, which is not covered in this part, supports all the columns in a structure or a large portion
thereof
c. Spread footings may be classified with respect to the subsurface material from which they derive their support:
1
(1) Footings on granular, non-cohesive soils
(2) Footings on saturated clay or plastic silt
(3) Footings on unsaturated clay or silt
(4) Footings on nonhomogeneous deposits 3

(5) Footings on preconsolidated clay
(6) Footings on rock
4
SECTION 3.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED
3.2.1 FIELD SURVEY (2013)
a. All available information shall be furnished in the form of a topographic map, in order to adapt the structural
requirements to the field conditions. The locations and dimensions of underground and above ground utilities, existing
foundations, roads, tracks, or other structures shall be indicated. In connection with footings for river crossings, the
records of normal high water, low water, floodwater level, depth of scour, stream flow direction and velocities, and
alignment of the stream shall be provided.
b. All available information concerning the nature of the foundations of neighboring structures, the nature of the
underlying materials, and of the settlement and behavior of these foundations shall be assembled and condensed as a
guide to the judgment of the engineer in the design of the new structure.

(kPa)
NO REDUCTION IN ALLOWABLE
SETTLEMENT PRESSURE IS
REQUIRED WHEN WATER
TABLE IS BELOW THIS
ELEVATION - SEE ARTICLE
3.4.3.3b
Reduction in allowable pressure under footing on granular material
Figure 8-3-1. Bulbs of Pressure

(Factors affected by depth)
3.2.2 CONTROLLING DIMENSIONS (2013)
Information shall be assembled concerning the proposed arrangement of the columns, piers, abutments or equipment to be
supported; the depths of basements, tunnels, and other excavations; the surface elevation of fill areas; and all other factors that
may affect or be affected by the proposed construction.
3.2.3 LOADS (2013)
a. The loads to be supported by the foundations shall be subdivided into the following categories:
(1) Dead load
(2) Live load without impact1
(3) Longitudinal and lateral forces
(4) Snow load
(5) Ice load
1
See C - Commentary

(6) Earthquake load
(7) Wind load
(8) Loads from pore water pressures including buoyancy and seepage forces
(9) Area load, defined as any load transmitted to the supporting soil by the addition of fill or adjacent structures
(10) Vibratory loads to footings on granular material shall be considered.
b. An estimate shall be made of the duration of each loading, because the settlement of some types of subsurface
materials depends upon the proportion of the total time the loads are active.
c. The character, frequency, and amplitude of any vibratory loads including earthquakes shall be noted for additional
analysis. If such loads are an important consideration, the foundation design shall be referred to a geotechnical
engineer with expertise in soil dynamics.
d. Footings shall be designed to resist the following loads:
(1) Primary Loads: Dead + Live + Centrifugal Force + Earth Pressure + Pore Water Pressures + Area Load + Special
Vibratory Loads
(2) Secondary Loads: Longitudinal Force + Wind + Ice and Stream Flow Pressures + Earthquake Forces.
1
3.2.4 CHARACTER OF SUBSURFACE MATERIALS (2013)
3.2.4.1 General
a. Pertinent supplementary data with respect to local geological or foundation conditions, including aerial photographs,
river morphology, scour reports and soil maps, shall be assembled if available. Data concerning changes in
groundwater level shall also be investigated.
b. The data concerning subsurface materials shall be assembled in suitable graphical form, such as cross sections through
the various deposits, showing the probable arrangement and sequence of lenses or strata, the pertinent physical
properties of each element of the deposit including liquefaction potential, and the location of the groundwater table.
3.2.4.2 Field Investigation

4
a. The nature and extent of the various formations of soil and rock beneath the site and the depth to groundwater shall be
determined by means of test borings or probes and physical tests of a type and to an extent appropriate to the character
and importance of the structure and the nature of the subsurface materials. The borings shall be made in accordance
with Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.
b. Borings should extend at least to a depth equal to two times the least footing width plus the depth of the footing from
the ground surface. At least one boring should, if practical, extend into bedrock. For structures on cohesive soils,
undisturbed samples should generally be recovered for laboratory testing. The recovery of undisturbed samples in
granular soil has not proven satisfactory. In-situ tests may provide useful data for foundation design. These tests
include standard penetration test, vane shear test, Dutch cone penetration test (static penetration test), pressuremeter
test, and other tests as described in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.

3.2.4.3 Depth of Frost and Volume Change
a. The maximum depth of frost penetration shall be determined, usually on the basis of local experience and records.
Figure 8-3-2 is a map showing the depths of frost penetration in the contiguous 48 states. Similarly, in regions of
excessively swelling or shrinking soils, the depth to which significant volume changes occur as a result of seasonal
variations in moisture content shall be determined.
b. Permafrost, or permanently frozen ground, exists in the northern hemisphere in arctic and subarctic regions. Although
the southern boundary of permafrost is irregular, it may extend as far south as the 50th parallel. Foundations for
structures, in areas of permafrost, should be designed in such a way as to not disturb the permanently frozen ground; or
if this is not practical, the influence of the foundation on the permafrost should be predicted so the effect of the changes
can be accommodated in the design. A geotechnical engineer with experience in these ground conditions should be
consulted for design of foundations to be placed on permafrost.
Figure 8-3-2. Extreme Frost Penetration, in Inches, Based upon State Averages. Source:
U.S. National Weather Records Center
SECTION 3.3 DEPTH OF BASE OF FOOTINGS
3.3.1 SELECTION OF TENTATIVE DEPTHS (2013)
On the basis of the data concerning the subsurface materials, tentative elevations for the bases of the footings shall be selected.
Unless special provisions are made, the depth shall not be less than the depth of frost penetration, scour, or in expansive clay

subsoils, less than the thickness of the zone of significant volume change of the subsoil due to seasonal moisture variations.
Footings shall be founded below disturbed shallow soils, uncontrolled fills, soils susceptible to collapse, and organic soils.
3.3.2 REVISION OF DEPTHS OF FOOTINGS (2013)
After the preliminary depths have been selected, the allowable soil pressure shall be determined and the sizes of the footings
proportioned to the pressures. If the resulting design is not feasible or economical, similar studies shall be made of footings
established at other depths until the most suitable and economical arrangement is determined. In considering the relative
economy of footings at various levels, the cost and difficulty of excavation below groundwater level in pervious soils shall be
taken into account. The economy and suitability of other types of foundations, such as piles or drilled shafts, shall also be
considered. For deep foundations, the designer should refer to Part 4, Pile Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.
SECTION 3.4 SIZING OF FOOTINGS
The following definitions will be used in the design procedures described below. The pressures used in this Section are net
pressures; that is, they represent pressures at the base level of the footing in excess of pressures at the same level due to the
weight of the surrounding soil immediately adjacent to the footing.
• Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity. The ultimate pressure at which the supporting material will fail in shear beneath 1
the footing, less the pressure due to the weight of the soil at that depth.
• Allowable Bearing Capacity. The net ultimate bearing pressure divided by an appropriate factor of safety.
• Allowable Settlement Pressure. The maximum pressure to which the footings may be subjected without
producing excessive settlement or excessive differential settlement of the structure. This settlement consists of two
stages: 3
– Initial Settlement or Elastic Settlement - occurs shortly after loading.
– Consolidation - occurs over an extended time period.
• Allowable Soil Capacity. The smaller of the allowable bearing pressure and the allowable settlement pressure.
4
• Maximum Contact Pressure. The maximum pressure applied by the combined effects of vertical and moment
loads for eccentrically loaded footings as described in this Part, Section 3.5, Footings with Eccentric Loads.
3.4.2 SAFETY FACTORS1 (2013)
The safety factor for Primary Loads shall not be less than 3; for Primary + Secondary Loads the safety factor shall not be less
than 2. Consideration shall be taken of load duration in relation to foundation soil and groundwater conditions when selecting
a safety factor.
1
See C - Commentary

3.4.3 FOOTINGS ON GRANULAR MATERIAL (COHESION = 0) (2013)
3.4.3.1 General
a. The allowable soil pressure for a footing on granular material depends on the width of the footing, B; the shape of the
footing; the depth of foundation, Df, the SPT1 Blow Count or N-value of the foundation material; the unit weight of the
foundation material, J ; and the depth of the groundwater table.
b. The depth of the present and/or future groundwater level will noticeably affect the bearing capacity and allowable
settlement pressure of the footing. Consideration shall be given to the future groundwater level - See Figure 8-3-1.
c. Vibrational loads can cause severe settlement of a footing founded on very loose to medium dense granular soils. If
future construction in the adjacent area will require pile driving, vibratory compaction of subsoil, or other vibrations,
then consideration should be given to a more extensive vibratory analysis and a geotechnical engineer knowledgeable
in soil dynamics shall be consulted.
3.4.3.2 Net Bearing Capacity of a Footing on Granular Material
a. The net ultimate bearing capacity of a footing on granular material can be calculated from the following equations:
(1) For a continuous footing:
Q u = 0.5JBN J + D f J N q – 1
(2) For a square footing:
Q u = 0.4JBN J + D f J N q – 1
(3) For a circular footing:
Q u = 0.3JBN J + D f J N q – 1
where:
Qu = the net ultimate bearing capacity in lb/square foot (kPa)

B = the footing width in feet (m)
Df = the footing depth in feet (m)
J = the unit weight of the granular material in lb/cubic foot (kN/m3)
NJ and Nq = dimensionless bearing capacity factors which are a function of the internal angle of friction, I.
The standard penetration blow count, N, is typically utilized to correlate to the internal angle
of friction.
The standard penetration blow count is described in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation. The relationship
among I, N, and the bearing capacity factors are shown in Figure 8-3-3 as proposed by Peck, Hanson and Thornburn.
b. For saturated sands the buoyant unit weight should be used in the equations above.
1
See C - Commentary

Figure 8-3-3. Relationship Among I, N, and Bearing Capacity
3.4.3.3 Allowable Settlement Pressure for Granular Material
a. An empirical equation by Meyerhof may be used to estimate the allowable settlement pressure, Qs.

(1) For B d 4 feet (1220 mm):
Ns
Q s = -------
8
Q s = 0.471sN (metric)
(2) For B ! 4 feet (1220 mm):
Ns B + 1
Q s = § -------· ------------------
© 12 ¹ B
B + 305
Q s = 0.314sN ------------------------ (metric)
B
where:
Qs is in tons/square foot (kPa)

N = the standard penetration blow count
B = the footing width in feet (millimeters)
s = the allowable settlement in inches (millimeters)
(3) The presence of a water table will have the effect of reducing the allowable settlement pressure as the effective
stress is lowered. Therefore the allowable settlement pressure shall be reduced 50% if the water table is at the base
of the footing and 0% if the water table is at a depth greater than B. The reduction for intermediate depths can be
interpolated, see Figure 8-3-1. Fluctuations in water table elevation shall be considered.
3.4.3.4 Sizing Footings on Granular Material
A trial footing size is used to determine the net bearing capacity from Article 3.4.3.2 and the allowable bearing pressure
described in Article 3.4.1 is calculated by dividing the net ultimate bearing capacity by the appropriate safety factor from
Article 3.4.2. The trial footing size is used to determine the allowable settlement pressure defined in Article 3.4.3.3. The loads
defined in Article 3.2.3 are divided by the trial footing area to give the maximum contact pressure defined in Article 3.4.1. If
the maximum contact pressure is greater than either the allowable bearing capacity or the allowable settlement pressure, the
footing size must be increased until the maximum contact pressure is less than the allowable soil pressure defined in
Article 3.4.1.
3.4.4 FOOTINGS ON SATURATED CLAY (I = 0) (2013)
3.4.4.1 General
The net ultimate bearing capacity of spread footings on saturated clays or clayey soils depends on the footing width, B; the
footing length, L; the depth of the footing below the surface, Df, and on the unconfined compressive strength of the clay, qu.
3.4.4.2 Net Bearing Capacity
a. The net ultimate bearing capacity for a footing may be determined by means of the following equations:
(1) For a continuous footing:

Qu = 2.7qu
(2) For a square or rectangular footing:
Qu = 2.7qu (1 + 0.3 B/L)
(3) For a circular footing:
Qu = 3.5qu
b. In these equations, Qu and qu are expressed in tons/square foot. The value of qu shall be taken as the average
unconfined compressive strength of the clay within a depth B below the base of the footing; provided, however, that
the strength of the clay does not decrease significantly with increasing depth below the footing. In the event that
weaker material underlies stronger material, a special investigation of the bearing capacity shall be undertaken.
3.4.4.3 Sizing Footings on Clay
The appropriate factor of safety as indicated in Article 3.4.2 shall be used in order to obtain an allowable bearing capacity. The
required footing area is determined by dividing the column or wall load by the allowable bearing capacity.
3.4.4.4 Settlement Characteristics
a. For footings located on or above clays with qu below 2.0 tons per square foot (0.19 MPa), a settlement analysis should
generally be undertaken using the footing size and contact pressure determined in Article 3.4.11. If the estimated 1
settlement is greater than the allowable settlement, the footing design shall be reevaluated to bring the estimated
settlement below the allowable limit or a deep foundation shall be used.
b. The potential effect of subsidence due to drainage of the soil shall be considered in the design of the structure.
3.4.5 FOOTINGS ON UNSATURATED SILTS AND CLAYS (2013)

3
a. Laboratory testing is required for accurate determination of the allowable bearing capacity. Due to the existence of
tension cracks in the soil and unknown pore pressures, an extensive field investigation may be required. Similar
structures will not necessarily have the same solution. Careful evaluation is necessary in order to arrive at a satisfactory
footing design. A rise in the groundwater table will reduce the allowable bearing capacity and complicate the analysis.
b. Where loadings on footings are light, due consideration to swelling of a clay soil shall be given. This may be especially 4
important if the percent of soil with particle diameters less than 0.001 mm is greater than 15%.
3.4.6 FOOTINGS ON NON-HOMOGENEOUS DEPOSITS (2013)
a. Footings established above stratified or other non-homogeneous formations shall be proportioned on the assumption
that the most unfavorable condition disclosed by the subsurface exploration may be present under the most heavily
loaded footings, unless detailed information is obtained concerning the actual conditions beneath each footing.
b. Subsoil of this type requires extensive knowledge and investigation in order to obtain a suitable solution. However, in
many cases using the above assumption in order to simplify the solution is satisfactory.
1
See C - Commentary

3.4.7 FOOTINGS ON SOILS WITH COHESION AND FRICTION (2013)
a. Many soils, including preconsolidated clays, fit this category and an accurate analysis can be carried out. The
investigation must be undertaken without the use of the simplifying assumptions made for granular or cohesive soils,
and more extensive laboratory information is required. Triaxial shear tests are required for this analysis.
b. At times, it will be satisfactory to assume the soil alternately only granular or cohesive and use the lower value for
allowable pressure.
SECTION 3.5 FOOTINGS WITH ECCENTRIC LOADS
3.5.1 LOADS ECCENTRIC IN ONE DIRECTION (2013)

a. When a footing is subjected to overturning moments in addition to total vertical loads, the line of action of the resultant
force is located some distance from the centroid of the footing. This distance, called eccentricity, e, is calculated by the
equation
e = M
-----
P
where:
M = the moment
P = total vertical load
The eccentricity shall have a maximum value of B/6.
b. The contact pressure distribution beneath a footing subjected to overturning moment will be non-uniform and the
maximum contact pressure, qmax and minimum contact pressure, qmin, can be calculated from:
P 6M
q max = -------- + ----------
BL B 2 L
P - – ---------
q min = ------- 6M-
BL B 2 L
where:
B = footing width
L = footing length
M = moment
P = total vertical load
3.5.2 LOADS ECCENTRIC IN TWO DIRECTIONS (2013)
a. When a footing is subjected to overturning moments in two directions, the total vertical load, P, is calculated, the
horizontal loads and their lines of action in each direction are determined, and the moments in the two directions are
computed by multiplying the force times the moment arm for each load. The eccentricity in each direction is computed
by dividing the moment in each direction by the vertical load as follows:

M M
e x = -------x and e y = -------y
P P
where:
ex and ey = the eccentricities in the two directions

Mx and My = the moments in the respective directions (i.e. Mx is the moment about the
y axis and My is the moment about the x axis)
B is the footing dimension parallel to the x direction and L is parallel to the
y direction, and all other terms are as previously defined.
The eccentricities ex and ey shall have a maximum value of B/6 and L/6, respectively.
b. The contact pressure distribution beneath a footing subjected to overturning moments in two directions will be non-
uniform, and the maximum contact pressure, qmax, and the minimum contact pressure, qmin, can be calculated from:
P 6M 6M
q max = -------- + ----------x- + ----------y-
BL B 2 L BL 2
P 6M 6M
q min = -------- – ----------x- – ----------y- 1
BL B 2 L BL 2
3.5.3 SIZING FOOTINGS WITH ECCENTRIC LOADS (2013)
a. Footings shall be initially sized using Primary Loads with the required factor of safety and verified by using Primary +
Secondary Loads with their required factor of safety. Both design criteria must be met.
3
b. Select trial footing dimensions B and L. Using these dimensions, the previously determined eccentricities, and the total
vertical load, calculate the maximum and minimum contact pressures beneath the footing according to Article 3.5.1.b
for loads eccentric in one direction or Article 3.5.2.b for loads eccentric in two directions. The maximum contact
pressure is then compared with the allowable soil pressure determined from either Article 3.4.3 for granular material,
or Article 3.4.4 for clays. If the maximum contact pressure exceeds the allowable soil pressures or if the settlement is
excessive, the footing size shall be increased in order to decrease maximum contact pressure and settlement. If the
resulting footing size is too large to be practical, deep foundations, such as piles as described in Part 4, Pile 4
Foundations or drilled shafts as described in Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations, shall be considered.
c. If qmin is negative, the corner of the footing is in tension and larger footing dimensions shall be tried. The computations
of maximum and minimum contact pressures are repeated with new trial dimensions until qmin becomes positive. This
indicates that the soil under the entire footing is in compression and the entire footing area will contribute to the
footing’s load carrying capacity.
d. If a footing is subject to eccentric loading, then it must be sized such that the safety factor of overturning is 2 or greater
and the safety factor of sliding is 1.5 or greater. These safety factors are calculated as follows:
FSoverturning = Ȉ Resisting Moments » Ȉ Overturning Moments
FSsliding = Ȉ Sliding Resistance » Ȉ Driving Horizontal Forces

SECTION 3.6 FOOTING STRESSES
3.6.1 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION (2013)
a. The pressure distribution on the footing itself is eqivalent to the reaction of the soil to the contact pressure.
b. It is desirable, if possible, to proportion the footing for a uniform pressure distribution.
c. A more detailed study may be required for a flexible footing and for a mat footing. In actual practice, the pressure
distribution may vary materially from this ideal distribution. The distribution of the reaction is dependent upon the
rigidity of the structural system, distribution of the loading and characteristics of the soil.
SECTION 3.7 FIELD CONDITIONS
3.7.1 MODIFICATION OF DESIGN (2013)

If excavation discloses soils or soil conditions different from those upon which the design of the footings has been based, the
design shall be altered as necessary.

Wherever the concrete of a reinforced footing is cast against the soil, steel reinforcement shall be provided with a cover of not
less than 3 inches (76 mm). If the concrete is cast against a seal coat or against steel sheeting that is to remain in place, the
cover shall be not less than 2 inches (51 mm).
3.7.3 FOOTINGS AT VARYING LEVELS (2013)

If the footings for two adjacent parts of a structure are established at different elevations, the difference in elevation of the
bases of adjacent footings, divided by the least horizontal clear distance between the footings, shall not exceed a value
appropriate to the characteristics of the subsoil, and in general should not exceed 1.0. An increased load on the lower footing
will result otherwise.
3.7.4 DRAINAGE (2013)

Unless underwater construction is specified, surface water or groundwater shall not be permitted to accumulate in excavations
for footings. Such water shall be conducted to sumps located outside the boundaries of the footings and removed. If the water
cannot be handled by this procedure, groundwater lowering should be accomplished by well points, a tremie seal course, or
other appropriate means.
3.7.5 TREATMENT OF BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION (2013)

a. Care should be exercised to prevent disturbance of the materials at the bottom of the excavation by equipment or
workers. The bottom 3 inches (76 mm) of concrete in the footings shall be neglected for strength calculations.
b. On soft clayey or silty soils a working platform or mud coat of lean concrete, from 2 inches (51 mm) to 3 inches (76
mm) in thickness, is recommended if disturbance is probable. Otherwise, final excavation of the last 3 inches (76 mm)
to 6 inches (152 mm) above grade should be deferred until immediately before placement of the reinforcement. The
concrete in a working platform or mud slab shall not be considered as contributing to the strength of the footing.

c. If a tremie seal is to be placed to permit dewatering of the cofferdam, the thickness of the seal, in addition to other
factors, shall be adequate to withstand the upward pressure of the water beneath the seal at the time of dewatering. This
uplift force shall be determined by a rational analysis1.
3.7.6 STRESSES (2013)

Concrete and reinforcing steel stresses/strength shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
3.7.7 INFORMATION ON DRAWINGS (2013)

Design drawings shall indicate the allowable soil pressure, type of soil, grade of the reinforcing steel, strength of concrete, and
other pertinent data.
SECTION 3.8 COMBINED FOOTINGS
3.8.1 USES AND TYPES (2013)
a. Combined footings support more than one column and are used for reasons such as:
(1) Property line or other obstructions make it undesirable to use a single column on an independent single footing.
(2) Allowable soil pressures are so low or column loads so large that individual footings would overlap. 1
b. Examples of combined footing types are illustrated in Figure 8-3-4 and include: rectangular, trapezoidal, and strap
footings.
Figure 8-3-4. Types of Combined Footings
1
See C - Commentary

3.8.2 ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURES (2013)
a. Allowable soil pressures defined in Article 3.4.1 are determined from Article 3.4.3 for granular material or
Article 3.4.4 for clays. For combined footings, the minimum safety factor is 3 for all load cases.
b. A combined footing is ideally proportioned such that the centroid of the contact area lies on the line of action of the
resultant of column loads, thereby producing a uniform pressure distribution. In situations where it is impossible to
produce a uniform pressure distribution, the pressure distribution is computed and the footing sized according to the
principles outlined in Section 3.5, Footings with Eccentric Loads. The dimensions of the footing are selected so that the
allowable soil pressure is not exceeded.
3.8.3 COLUMN LOADS (2013)
Combined footings should be proportioned for uniform soil pressure under dead load plus the amount of live load that is likely
to govern settlement as recommended in Article 3.2.3. The centroid of the footing should lie on the line of action of the
resultant column loads consisting of dead load plus a fraction of live load required by the specifications or building code, as
applicable.
3.8.4 SIZING COMBINED FOOTINGS (2013)
3.8.4.1 Rectangular Footings
A rectangular footing is used if the rectangle can extend beyond each column the distance necessary to make the centroid of
the rectangle coincide with the point where the resultant of the column loads intersects the base.
3.8.4.2 Trapezoidal Footings
A trapezoidal footing is used if a rectangular footing cannot project the required distance beyond one or multiple columns.
3.8.4.3 Strap Footings
The strap footing is considered as two individual footings connected by a beam.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish an explanation of various articles in Part 3, Spread Footing Foundations. In the
numbering of articles of this Section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained.
C - 3.1.1 SCOPE (2013)
The designer should be aware that the approaches presented here are for the least complicated situation; and where unusual
geology or loadings are expected, geotechnical engineering specialists should be consulted.

C - SECTION 3.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED
C - 3.2.3 LOADS (2013)
a. (2) Impact is not considered in the design of a footing except for special circumstances. Normal live load, defined as
the live load that is likely to be transmitted to the foundation throughout the greater portion of the useful lifetime of the
structure, is commonly used when the foundation soil is saturated clay.
Maximum live load, defined as the greatest live load that may be anticipated at any time during the lifetime of the
structure, is commonly used when the foundation soil is freely draining granular material.
C - SECTION 3.4 SIZING OF FOOTINGS
C - 3.4.2 SAFETY FACTORS (2013)
A factor of safety of 3.0 for Primary Loads should be applied when the bearing capacity of a footing is calculated using the
bearing capacity equations of Articles 3.4.3.2 or 3.4.4.2. However, a reduced factor of safety for Primary Loads may be
considered in cases where detailed site-specific soils investigations have been performed and advanced testing and analytical
methods have been applied to evaluate the load vs. settlement relationship of the footing system. In such cases the footing
may be sized to limit footing settlement to within tolerable limits under Primary and Secondary loading conditions. However,
in no case should the bearing capacity factor of safety be less than 2.0.
C - 3.4.3 FOOTINGS ON GRANULAR MATERIAL (COHESION = 0) (2013) 1

C - 3.4.3.1 General
a. Investigation. Penetration testing is a most useful method to determine the soil condition underlying a site. The
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is the most popular and economical means to obtain this subsurface data. The method
is standardized by ASTM D1586 as “Standard Method for Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soil” and is
commonly called the Standard Penetration Test. For detailed procedure, see Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface 3
Investigation.
C - 3.4.4 FOOTINGS ON SATURATED CLAY () = 0) (2013)
C - 3.4.4.4 Settlement Characteristics

4
a. In certain cases, large settlements will occur by consolidation of an underlying layer under very small additional loads.
If any doubt exists concerning the consolidation characteristics of the soil, one or more consolidation tests should be
undertaken. Settlement by “consolidation” of underlying clay layers can be many times the initial “elastic settlement.”
Both the consolidation and elastic settlements can be estimated by using data obtained from laboratory analysis.
C - SECTION 3.7 FIELD CONDITIONS
C - 3.7.5 TREATMENT OF BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION (2013)
c. In determining uplift forces and required seal concrete depth in cofferdams, factors such as floods, extreme high tides,
and upstream power generation that raise the normal pool elevation should be considered. The final design pool
elevation shall be clearly noted on the plans, monitored and not exceeded during construction while the cofferdam is
dewatered.

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.

8www.nbm.
Part 4
Pile Foundations1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2

4.1.1 Scope (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2
4.1.2 Pile Types (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2
4.2 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4

4.2.1 Subsurface Investigation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4
4.2.2 Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4
4.2.3 Loads on Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-5
4.3 Pile Length Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7

4.3.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7
4.3.2 Estimated Tip Elevation and Estimated Length (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7
4.3.3 Minimum Tip Elevation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.4 Wave Equation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.5 Pile Driving Formulas (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.6 Plan Tip Elevations (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.7 Estimated Pile Length (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-9
4.3.8 Pile Driving and Loading Tests (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-9
4.4 Pile Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10

4.4.1 Timber Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10
4.4.2 Steel Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10
4.4.3 Precast Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-11
4.4.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-12
4.4.5 Augered Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-13
4.4.6 Micropiles (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-14
4.5 Installation of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-15

4.5.1 Driven Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-15
4.5.2 Augered Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-17
1
References, Vol. 40, 1939, pp. 418, 764; Vol. 41, 1940, pp. 369, 843; Vol. 49, 1948, p. 254; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 311, 758; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 382, 861; Vol. 63,
1962, pp. 276, 687; Vol. 64, 1963, pp. 226, 624; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 136; Vol. 91, 1990, pp. 63, 74; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 99.

8-4-1
4.6 Inspection of Pile Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
LIST OF TABLES
8-4-1 Recommended Augered Cast-In-Place Concrete Pile Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-14
SECTION 4.1 GENERAL
4.1.1 SCOPE (2013)
a. This Part covers the design and construction of pile foundations.
b. For the purpose of this Part, a pile shall be considered as a slender structural member continuously driven, augered, or
drilled into the earth. Drilled shafts consisting of concrete placed in pre-drilled holes are addressed in Part 24, Drilled
Shaft Foundations.
c. In this Part, factors of safety are suggested. Where information on loads or soil conditions is limited, more conservative
factors of safety should be considered.
4.1.2 PILE TYPES (2013)
4.1.2.1 General
There are numerous types of piles used in pile foundations. The choice of pile type depends on the soil and environmental
conditions, the presence or absence of ground and surface water, the function of the pile (i.e., whether compression, uplift or
lateral loads are to be resisted), the headroom available to install the piles, the desired speed of construction, potential
construction impacts to adjacent structures or facilities and economics. The ability of the pile type to withstand attack by
aggressive substances or organisms in the ground or in the surrounding water must also be considered.
4.1.2.2 Pile Categories1
Piles are generally categorized by:
a. Principal materials of which the piles are made:
(1) Timber
(2) Steel
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
(3) Concrete or Reinforced Concrete
(4) Metal shell cast-in-place concrete with or without reinforcement
(5) High strength drill casing and grout
b. Amount of displacement of soil:
(1) Displacement piles: these include all solid piles, including timber, precast concrete and steel pipe piles closed at
the end by a shoe, conical point or plug.
(2) Small displacement piles: these include rolled steel sections, open-ended pipe and hollow sections if soil enters
freely during driving, and screw piles.
(3) Non-displacement piles: these are formed by drilling or augering. The drill hole may be lined with steel casing that
is either left in place or extracted as the hole is filled with concrete or grout.
c. Method of installation:
(1) Driven
(2) Augered and cast -in-place
(3) Drilled and cast-in-place

1
d. Load Transfer Mechanism:
(1) End-bearing pile: a pile which passes through overburden soil having low to moderate frictional resistance, and
has its tip bearing on relatively impenetrable strata such as rock, hard pan, or other material that offers rapidly
increasing resistance to further penetration.
3
(2) Friction pile: a pile that derives its support principally from the surrounding soil through the development of
frictional resistance between the pile and the soil.
(3) Combination of end-bearing and friction pile.
4.1.2.3 Pile Type Selection1

4
Selection of the type of foundation pile for a particular structure should be based on the following criteria:
a. Design load per pile or pile group
b. Type of foundation material to be penetrated
c. Relative costs of the piles and pile installation
d. Equipment available for installing piles
e. Availability of desired pile type
f. Special considerations based on specific project conditions, including, but not limited to:
1
See C - Commentary

(1) Restricted space both laterally and overhead for pile installation. Space can be restricted laterally by existing
and/or abandoned piles or other obstructions.
(2) Possible damage to existing structures
(3) Exposure to seawater
(4) Possible damage from marine organisms
(5) Chemical attack
(6) Noise level during driving
(7) Underwater vibration
g. Full length piles shall be used wherever possible. If splices cannot be avoided, an approved method of splicing shall be
used which will develop the full strength of the pile. Piles shall not be spliced except by permission of the Engineer,
who must also approve all splice locations and details.
SECTION 4.2 DESIGN
4.2.1 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION (2013)
a. Test borings shall be made at locations and to a sufficient depth below the anticipated tip elevation of the piles to
adequately determine the character of the material through which the piles are to be driven and of the materials
underlying the pile tips. The results of the borings and soil tests, taken into consideration with the function of the piles
in service, will assist in determining the type, spacing, and length of piles that should be used and whether the piles will
be end bearing, friction or a combination of both types.
b. The subsurface investigation should be made in accordance with provisions outlined in Part 22, Geotechnical
Subsurface Investigation.
4.2.2 LOADS (2013)
4.2.2.1 General1
a. Pile foundations shall be designed to resist the entire superimposed load, including the weight of the footing and
overlying loads supported by the footing.
b. Pile foundations shall be designed for the combination of loads and forces in Articles 4.2.2.2 and 4.2.2.3 which
produce maximum load and in accordance with Article 4.2.3, Loads on Piles.
4.2.2.2 Primary Loads and Forces2
a. Dead
b. Live - Vertical
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
c. Live - Horizontal due to surcharge or fluid pressure
d. Centrifugal force
e. Earth pressure
f. Buoyancy
g. Negative skin friction
NOTE: Live Load Impact shall be considered only in Case A of Article 4.2.3 for steel or concrete piles
extended above the ground line where they are rigidly connected to the member supporting the
superstructure.
4.2.2.3 Secondary Loads and Forces
a. Wind and other lateral forces
b. Ice and Stream flow
c. Longitudinal forces
d. Seismic forces
e. Vessel impact in waterways1

1
4.2.3 LOADS ON PILES (2013)2
a. Pile foundations shall be designed using the most restrictive of the following load capacity cases:
(1) Case A: The capacity of an individual pile as a structural member 3

(2) Case B: The ability of the pile to transfer its load to the ground
(3) Case C: The capacity of the ground to support the load from the pile or pile group
b. When pile foundations are designed for primary and secondary loads in combination as defined in Part 2, the allowable
loads may be increased 25% for Load Cases A, B, and C. The number of piles shall not be less than is required for 4
primary forces alone with no increases in allowable stress for Case A. The minimum factor of safety shall be 2.0 for
Cases B and C. For group friction piles, the factor of safety for Case C shall not fall below 2.0 for primary and
secondary load combinations.
c. If the pile design capacity is not determined by geotechnical investigations, known positive contact with bedrock, or
field testing of the pile, the Factor of Safety shall be increased to at least 2.5 times the required design load, and the
Engineer shall be notified.
4.2.3.1 Eccentricity of Loads
The maximum design pile load under eccentric loading shall not exceed the allowable load as determined under Section 4.4,
Pile Structural Design, with the appropriate factors of safety stipulated in Article 4.2.3. The piles shall be so spaced that the
1
For references see C-23.3.2 Sources of Information, Part 23, Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams
2
See C - Commentary

eccentric load on the piles, due to primary loads and forces, will be distributed as equally as practicable to the piles in the
group. Pile loads due to combinations of primary and secondary loads and forces shall not exceed that permitted by
Article 4.2.3.
4.2.3.2 Uplift on Piles
a. In special cases when piles or pile groups are subjected to uplift, and sufficient bond and anchorage are provided
between the pile, pile cap and the supported structure, the uplift shall be considered in the design of the pile foundation.
The pile foundation shall be designed for uplift considering load capacity Cases A, B, and C of Article 4.2.3. The
factor of safety for Cases B and C shall be a minimum of 2.0 for combinations of primary and secondary loads and
forces, and a minimum of 3.0 for combinations of secondary loads and forces with dead load alone. The capacity of the
pile as a structural member (Case A) shall be based on allowable stresses established in the applicable Parts of the
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering: Chapter 7, Timber Structures; Chapter 8, Part 2, Reinforced Concrete
Design; or Chapter 15, Steel Structures. The allowable stresses may be increased 25% for combinations of primary and
secondary loads and forces.
b. The ultimate uplift capacity of an individual pile shall be determined by jacking test piles of identical type and
dimension to that used in the design, and measuring the pull required per square foot of embedded surface area to raise
the pile. When a tension pile group is involved, a group analysis shall also be undertaken. The maximum capacity of a
tension pile group shall be considered to be the smaller of (1) the capacity of a single pile multiplied by the number of
piles in the group, or (2) the weight of the block of soil contained within the perimeter of the groups, each with a
minimum safety factor of 2.0, except as noted in paragraph a.
4.2.3.3 Spacing of Piles
a. Piles shall be spaced to nearly equalize their load consistent with economical design of the footings. The spacing of
piles shall depend upon: the type of pile, that is whether friction or end bearing, the pile's structural and crushing
strength, and the type of material resisting the pile. Generally, piles should be spaced, center-to-center, at least three
times the minimum butt width of the pile. Piles should be spaced far enough apart, or other suitable means used, to
prevent heaving or uplifting of adjacent piles during driving.
b. In small groups, the piles may be battered to enlarge the area sustaining the group, thereby increasing the load-carrying
capacity of the group without unreasonably increasing the size of the foundation. End-bearing piles may be spaced in
accordance with the capacity of the pile and the end-bearing stratum that will carry the design load. When closely
spaced friction piles are contemplated, their total group capacity shall be verified by an acceptable geotechnical
method which considers the capacity of the engaged soil mass to support the applied pile loads.
c. When determining spacing of piles in granular soils, consideration should be given to the increased difficulty of
driving due to the increased soil density that will occur because of soil compaction (packing) or consolidation within
the pile group.
4.2.3.4 Batter Piles1
a. Piles may be battered to help resist horizontal forces. Primary horizontal forces on pile foundations shall be resisted by
batter piles where practicable. Such piles shall be designed to carry horizontal forces combined with their share of the
vertical loads. In general, batter should not exceed 3 (horizontal) to 12 (vertical).
b. Secondary horizontal forces on pile foundations may be resisted by the shear and flexural capacity of the vertical piles
in conjunction with the development of passive soil pressure, or friction between the soil/foundation interface where
these resisting forces can be determined to exist for a particular foundation system. Where these resisting forces are not
expected to be reliable over the service life of the structure, batter piles or other dependable means of resisting these
forces shall be implemented.
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
c. Where large pile groups are involved, where clearance problems limit the pile foundation area, where secondary
horizontal loads are small or in areas of the country where earthquake loading makes use of batter piles undesirable, the
foundation shall be specially designed to include the horizontal forces as acting on the vertical piles. In such a case, the
piles shall be designed to resist all loads, and the structure designed for the horizontal movement to be encountered
subjected to the limitations defined in Part 2.
4.2.3.5 Scour
a. The possible effects of scour on pile foundations located in or adjacent to water should be reviewed as part of the total
pile foundation design.
b. When there is a possibility that the upper portion of the soil formations may be removed by scour, the piles or pile
group shall be designed to have adequate bearing capacity and lateral support below the projected depth of scour. The
free-standing portions of the exposed piles shall be designed as columns.
c. Determination of the estimated depth of scour at a given location should be based on past records of streambed erosion
or wave action in the area, and their influence on existing structures. It is suggested, however, to perform an analysis1
of probable scour depths with consideration of stream flow parameters, streambed material properties, channel
characteristics and bridge configuration. Such an analysis should be used in conjunction with historical records as a
basis for design.
4.2.3.6 Lateral Support
a. A fully embedded pile can generally be considered laterally supported. A pile that is, or may be as a result of scour, in
air or water, or which may be in muck, peat, fluid material or liquefiable soils, shall be investigated for the allowable
1
capacity by the methods given in the Report of ACI Committee 543 "Recommendations for Design, Manufacture, and
Installation of Concrete Piles" or other acceptable method approved by the Engineer.
b. The lateral loads on piles can be taken into account by using recognized structural analysis methods.
SECTION 4.3 PILE LENGTH DETERMINATION
4.3.1 GENERAL (2013)
The determination of the most satisfactory and economical length of piles is one of the key factors in designing an adequate 4
pile foundation. In addition to information that can be obtained from soil borings, pile driving tests, pile load tests, and pile
driving formulas, the use of the one-dimensional wave equation can be a valuable tool on large or difficult foundations, and is
recommended for design and field control purposes2. Pile driving records of nearby adjacent piles may also be used in
determining pile length if definite correlation between the existing and proposed piles as to type, loading, and use can be
determined as well as the accuracy of the previous pile driving record.
4.3.2 ESTIMATED TIP ELEVATION AND ESTIMATED LENGTH (2013)
a. At each boring location, using recognized geotechnical methods, the theoretical length of piles shall be computed
considering contributions from both allowable bearing capacity and frictional resistance. Piles in very deep deposits
are likely to receive support primarily through friction, whereas relatively shallow hardpan or rock conditions are
1
See C - Commentary
2
See Reference 71

likely to provide support primarily through end bearing. Many foundation conditions will provide both allowable
bearing capacity and frictional resistance.
b. At each substructure unit, an estimated tip elevation and an estimated pile length shall be selected and tabulated based
on the design cutoff elevation.
4.3.3 MINIMUM TIP ELEVATION (2013)1
At each boring location, a tip elevation shall be computed, above which no structural piles will be permitted to stop. The
minimum tip elevation reflects the design intent of the pile foundation design and is determined by an experienced foundation
engineer's review of the estimated tip elevations, recognizing practical aspects of foundation construction practice. As an
example, if geotechnical calculations demonstrate that piles should penetrate into a hardpan layer at varying depths, the
minimum tip elevation will be shown at the top of this layer. In certain cases, field conditions during driving may modify this
elevation.
4.3.4 WAVE EQUATION (2013)2
a. The use of the one-dimensional wave equation for driven piles will greatly assist the Engineer and Contractor in
determining the pile foundation adequacy and the construction of the project as planned.
b. By the use of this equation, several values will be obtained:
(1) The ability of the soil-hammer cushion-pile system to obtain the required pile capacity
(2) The estimated blows per foot (300 mm) needed to obtain the required pile capacity at the estimated depth
(3) The means whereby the required blows per foot (300 mm) at other depths can be evaluated
(4) The means of evaluating the required blows per foot (300 mm) when the hammer fails to produce the
manufacturer’s rated energy
c. When this procedure is followed, the Contractor’s hammer selection is evaluated and the Engineer can have the
opportunity to modify the design before construction is started.
4.3.5 PILE DRIVING FORMULAS (2013)3
Many dynamic pile driving formulas have been developed as an aid in determining pile capacities. While such formulas serve
a useful purpose, particularly on smaller projects, greater accuracy, and economy can usually be obtained by use of the wave
equation method as described in Article 4.3.4. If pile driving formulas are proposed for use, formulas that take into account the
relationship between the weight of the pile and the weight of the pile hammer striking parts should be used.
4.3.6 PLAN TIP ELEVATIONS (2013)
4.3.6.1 Friction Piles
For those piles which can be considered to act as true friction piles, i.e. no end-bearing stratum is in evidence within
reasonable depths, only an estimated tip elevation is required. In uniform soils, where a complete soil investigation has
determined the tip elevation, no further driving criteria are required, except the statement that the piles must be driven to the
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
estimated tip elevation. A variation in the expected rate of penetration at the estimated tip elevation would indicate a variable
soil layer, and a reappraisal of the tip elevation will be required.
4.3.6.2 Combined Bearing and Friction Piles, or Bearing Piles
Plans and specifications should require that all piles be driven at least down to the minimum tip elevation shown on the plans.
Driving shall be continued until the required resistance is achieved, as determined by load tests, a wave equation analysis, or a
pile driving formula specified by the Engineer. This will accommodate variations in the consistency and depth of the bearing
layer. An important judgment factor is selection of required hammer energy, hammer type, and cushion. This decision can best
be achieved by a wave equation analysis.
4.3.7 ESTIMATED PILE LENGTH (2013)
The plans should show estimated lengths which have been used for calculation of the Engineer's estimate, and will provide the
bidders with a reasonable basis for pricing the pile foundations.
4.3.8 PILE DRIVING AND LOADING TESTS (2013)
4.3.8.1 Driving Tests1
a. The following procedure is suggested for variable soil conditions. A few of the structural piles should be selected,
including at least one from each substructure unit of the bridge or structure, and they should be driven first before other
service piles are ordered. Their installations should be designated as Pile Driving Tests. A separate pay item should be
provided, to cover piles installed in the Pile Driving Tests. 1
b. Where practical, piles installed by driving tests should have their tips carried five (1520 mm) to ten feet (3040 mm)
below the tip elevation estimated according to Article 4.3.3 for the service piles at each particular location. Pile driving
shall be carefully monitored to avoid damage to the pile. Driving records for each foot (300 mm) of driving of each pile
shall be kept and plotted in the field to provide exploratory information. The plot should be on a log containing the
generalized information from the nearest geotechnical boring. This record will provide an immediate correlation of
driving resistance and subsurface conditions for the pile, hammer and cushion arrangement being used. The record will 3
also provide information on where to select suitable locations for future load tests if required.
c. Driving of test piles is recommended. The driving tests are of particular importance where load tests are not
contemplated, because in that case, they provide the only correlation between soil boring data and driving data.
d. If possible, piles installed by driving tests should be placed in a position where they can serve as production piles in the
completed structure.
4
4.3.8.2 Static Pile Load Testing2
a. Static pile load testing is considered essential for large or important projects, or in subsurface conditions where there is
little precedent for major construction. To date, they give the best knowledge of the probable capacity of an individual
pile.
b. It is preferred that load tests be carried to failure to determine the true factor of safety for the proposed design. If the
margin of safety is higher or lower than desired, driving and elevation criteria can be modified. If, due to very high
loads, tests to failure are not practicable, testing should be carried to not less than twice the design load. Test loads
should not exceed the ultimate capacity of the pile as a structural member, or the capacity of the jack frame.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

c. The test apparatus and procedure shall be in accordance with the current ASTM D1143/D1143M-07 "Standard Test
Methods for Deep Foundations Under Static Axial Compressive Load."
d. By analyzing and interpreting the load tests with the driving test data and subsoil information, it will be possible to
affirm the adequacy of the design and the installation criteria and introduce field modifications as may be necessary.
4.3.8.3 Dynamic Pile Load Testing1
a. Dynamic pile load testing is a testing method that utilizes strain and acceleration measurements obtained from small
gauges attached to the head of a pile as it is driven with a pile driving hammer. This testing can be performed during
both initial driving of the pile and during a subsequent restrike. The restrike is critical to account for possible relaxation
of the supporting soils, or “set-up” which is an increase in pile capacity over time as excess pore pressures built up
during driving are released, particularly in fine-grained soils. Restrikes are typically performed 24 hours after the initial
drive, but longer periods such as one week could be important in obtaining the true long-term pile capacity for finer-
grained soils.
b. Procedures and equipment for use in dynamic pile testing are detailed in ASTM D4945 “Standard Test Method for
High Strain Dynamic Testing of Piles.”
SECTION 4.4 PILE STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.4.1 TIMBER PILES (2013)
a. Timber piles shall conform to the AREMA specifications for wood piles, Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 1, Material
Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and
Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood and Part 4, Construction and Maintenance of
Timber Structures. If treatment is required, it shall conform to AREMA specifications for wood preservation – Chapter
30, Ties, Section 3.6, Wood Preserving.
b. For a timber pile which is primarily a friction pile, the maximum allowable load in pounds (kN) shall be computed by
multiplying the tip area (small end) in square inches (mm2) by the value 1,200 psi (8.27 MPa); the maximum load thus
being equivalent to 1,200 psi (8.27 MPa) acting at the tip.
c. For a timber pile that is primarily an end-bearing pile, the maximum allowable load shall be computed as above, but
using the value 800 psi (5.52 MPa) instead of 1,200 psi (8.27 MPa).
d. Timber piles shall be of a length which will allow driving to the specified tip elevation and which also will allow the
complete removal of timber damaged by driving.
4.4.2 STEEL PILES (2013)
4.4.2.1 Types
This type of piling shall include all steel H-section piles and steel pipe piles.
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
4.4.2.2 Material
All steel used for piles shall conform to the current ASTM designations as specified by the Engineer. Special steels may be
used for corrosion protection or other purposes, but where welding is required the ability of the material to be welded must be
determined prior to installation.
4.4.2.3 Size
a. The minimum depth of a steel H-section shall be 8 inches (200 mm). The minimum thickness of the flange or web shall
be 3/8 inch (10 mm). The flange width shall be not less than 85% of the depth of the section.
b. The minimum outside diameter of pipe piles shall be 8-5/8 inches (220 mm). The minimum wall thickness shall be 3/8
inch (10 mm).
4.4.2.4 Pile Cap Plates
In general, steel bearing cap plates are not required on steel H-piles or pipe piles embedded at least 1 foot (300 mm) in
concrete, provided the footing reinforcement is adequately designed to transmit the imposed loads.
4.4.2.5 Protection Against Corrosion1
a. Steel piles that will be exposed to corrosive environments shall be protected by concrete encasement or other suitable
means; such as specially formulated epoxy or bituminous coatings, or additional steel thickness. Protection shall be
provided at least 1 foot (300 mm) above ground surfaces or normal water lines and shall extend at least 3 feet (910
mm) below the ground surface or low-water line. Concrete protection, where provided shall have a minimum thickness
1
of 4 inches (100 mm) and shall contain nominal steel reinforcement.
b. Structural steel piles shall not be used through active corrosion-inducing material or where electrolysis may occur,
without adequate provision for the protection of such piles.
4.4.2.6 Allowable Stresses2 3

The design load per pile shall be determined as specified in Section 4.2, Design. The steel pile section shall be selected so that
the unit stresses due to axial load shall not exceed 12,600 psi (87 MPa). Due allowance shall be made for any bending stresses
caused by horizontal or eccentric loads. Combined axial and bending stress shall be limited to 0.55 Fy. Consideration shall be
given to any column action of a pile that is not fully laterally supported.
4.4.2.7 Pile Tip Reinforcement 4

Pile tip reinforcement may be required to prevent damage to piles when driving through dense gravel, boulders, or formations
known to contain obstructions, or when driving end-bearing piles. Heavy cast steel tips are recommended for this purpose.
4.4.3 PRECAST CONCRETE PILES (2013)
4.4.3.1 General
a. This type of piling includes both conventionally reinforced concrete piles and prestressed concrete piles. Both types
can be formed by either casting, centrifugal casting, or extrusion methods. They are made in various cross section
shapes such as square, octagonal, and round. Such piles may be cast with a hollow core. The piles are usually of
constant cross section but may have a tapered tip.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

b. Precast concrete piles must be designed and manufactured to withstand handling and driving stresses in addition to
service loads. The workmanship, material, and proportioning shall conform to the requirements specified in Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
4.4.3.2 Design
The minimum acceptable diameter or side dimension for driven piles is usually 8 inches (200 mm). This may be satisfactory
for short piles which are lightly loaded, however, as a general rule, it is recommended that the minimum average dimension be
10 inches (250 mm), except that the pile tip may be 8 inches (200 mm). Piles may be pointed if directed by the Engineer.
4.4.3.3 Manufacture
The manufacture of the various types of precast concrete piles shall be in accordance with the current Chapter 4 of American
Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 543R-00 report titled "Recommendations for Design, Manufacture, and Installation of
Concrete Piles."
4.4.3.4 Cut-Off
Precast piles shall be driven to or cut off within 2 inches (50 mm) of the elevation shown on the plans, but in all cases, the
cutoff shall be below any indication of fracture. If piles are cut off or driven below the required elevation, they shall be built-
up to the cutoff line as determined by the Engineer. Standard details are to be shown on the plans.
4.4.3.5 Allowable Stresses
The design load per pile shall be determined as specified in Section 4.2, Design. The cross-section of the precast pile shall be
selected so that the concrete unit stresses shall not exceed 0.3 f 'c with a maximum of 1,600 psi (11 MPa). Other stresses shall
conform to the requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete.
4.4.4 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)1
4.4.4.1 Types
Cast-in-place piles shall be cast in driven metal casings or shells which shall remain permanently in place and may or may not
serve in the design strength of the pile. They may be tapered or cylindrical, or a combination of tapered and cylindrical shapes.
4.4.4.2 Tapered Piles
Tapered piles shall not be less than 8 inches (200 mm) in diameter at the tip and shall be uniformly tapered at the rate of not
more than 1 inch in 8 feet (10 mm in 1000 mm), or step tapered, at the same average rate.
4.4.4.3 Cylindrical Piles
Cylindrical piles shall have a minimum diameter of 8 inches (200 mm).
4.4.4.4 Pipe Casings and Shells2
a. Pipe casings driven without a mandrel shall be formed of steel conforming to the current ASTM A252 requirements, or
equivalent. Metal shells driven with a mandrel shall have a thickness of not less than No. 16 USMSG which is 0.0625
inches (1.6 mm) or equivalent and minimum yield strength of 30,000 psi (210 MPa). Casings shall be in one integral
piece or adequately spliced to develop the full strength of the shell.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
b. All piles shall be equipped with approved watertight flat plates or conical points welded to the tip end of the casing.
The end closures approved for cylindrical piles shall not project beyond the diameter of the pile casing.
4.4.4.5 Placing Concrete
a. Casings or shells shall be inspected and approved by the Engineer immediately before any concrete is placed. A
suitable light shall be used to inspect the entire length. Any accumulated foreign matter or water shall be removed
before the concrete is placed. Any broken or otherwise defective shells shall be corrected by removal and replacement,
or by driving an additional pile, as directed by the Engineer. Concrete having a minimum compressive strength of at
least 3,000 psi (21 MPa) at 28 days shall be used to fill the shell. The placing of the concrete shall be carried out as a
continuous operation from the tip to the cutoff elevation, and shall be performed in such a manner as to minimize
segregation and insure complete filling of the casing or shell.
b. No pile shall be driven within 15 feet (4570 mm) of a pile that has been filled with concrete for more than 2 hours and
less than 24 hours. The driving procedure for any particular project shall be approved by the engineer in charge, before
commencing work.
The design strength of the pile shall be determined as specified in Section 4.2, Design. The pile section shall be designed so
that the unit stresses in the pile shall not exceed the following:
a. Concrete: 0.3 of the compressive strength of the concrete used (f 'c), but not to exceed 1,600 psi (11 MPa)
b. Steel: The unit stresses shall not exceed 12,600 psi (87 MPa)
1
4.4.4.7 Protection Against Corrosion
a. When the steel casing is used in computing the design strength of the pile and the piles will be exposed, they shall be
protected from corrosion as specified in Article 4.4.2.5.
3
b. If the strength of the steel is considered in computing the design strength of the pile, the pile shall not be used through
active corrosion-inducing material or where electrolysis may occur without adequate provision for the protection of
such pile.
4.4.4.8 Reinforcement
Cast-in-place piles may be reinforced to provide needed flexural strength, or for uplift anchorage. When used, the reinforcing 4
steel should be pre-assembled into cages and accurately placed in accordance with the plans. The reinforcement shall be clean
of foreign material that could affect bond, and securely positioned before concrete fill is placed.
4.4.5 AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
4.4.5.1 General
Augered Cast-In-Place Concrete Piles are primarily used as friction piles. They are installed by rotating a continuous hollow-
shaft flight auger into the ground to a predetermined pile depth. High-strength grout is pumped with sufficient pressure to fill
the resultant hole as the auger is withdrawn, preventing hole collapse and causing the lateral penetration of the grout into soft
or porous zones of the surrounding soil. Above the injection point, a grout head of at least several feet (several hundred
millimeters) is carried around the perimeter of the auger at all times during the withdrawal of the auger so that the high-
strength grout causes a displacing action, removing any loose material from the hole and ensuring consistent pile diameter.

4.4.5.2 Design1
The length of pile will be determined from the examination of soil borings using the shear strength of the soil, and preferably,
verified by static pile load tests as described in Article 4.3.8.2. Recommended pile loads for varying pile diameters, depending
on soil strengths, are given in Table 8-4-1.
Table 8-4-1. Recommended Augered Cast-In-Place Concrete Pile Loads
Nominal Normal Required Compression

Normal Loadings Range
Diameter of Pile Strength of Grout
Tons (kN)
Inches (mm) psi (MPa)
12 (300) 10-40 (90-355) 3,000 (21)
14 (350) 40-75 (355-670) 3,000 (21)
16 (400) 75-100 (670-890) 3,000-4,000 (21-28)
4.4.5.3 Materials
a. The material used to fill the holes shall consist of a mixture of Portland Cement, concrete sand, fluidifier and water
proportioned and mixed as to provide a grout capable of maintaining the solids in suspension without appreciable
water gain and which will laterally penetrate and fill any voids in the foundation material. Portland Cement shall
conform to Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.2, Cement. The fine aggregate shall
conform to Section 1.4, Aggregates, with a fineness modulus between 1.40 and 3.40. Fluidifier shall meet the
requirements of the current ASTM Designation C937.
b. The grout shall be so proportioned as to have a minimum ultimate compressive strength of 3,000 psi (21 MPa) at 28
days. A set of 6 grout cubes shall be made each day and tested in accordance with the current ASTM Designation
C109, with the exception that the grout should be restrained from expansion by a top plate.
4.4.5.4 Tension Piles
Augered cast-in-place piles should be considered for resisting uplift (tension) loads only when steel reinforcement is added,
and such loading conditions are temporary, of short duration, and with the approval of the Engineer.
4.4.6 MICROPILES (2013)2
4.4.6.1 General
Micropiles (also known as pin piles or minipiles) are usually defined as piles of less than 12 inches (300 mm) in diameter. Very
high vertical compression and tension capacities can be achieved. They are generally used for specialized applications,
particularly where there is restricted accessibility, restricted work area and/or headroom available and difficult subsurface
condition. Micropile installation is accomplished by using drilling techniques and grouting technology together to penetrate
the subsurface. Pile lengths of several hundred feet (m) have been achieved. Micropiles may be reinforced with steel
reinforcing.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
4.4.6.2 Design
Because micropiles are usually used in specialty applications, their design should be performed by engineers experienced in
the design and installation of those piles. Materials and material specifications can be selected as suitable for the particular
application.
SECTION 4.5 INSTALLATION OF PILES
4.5.1 DRIVEN PILES (2013)1
Piles shall be driven with steam, air, diesel or hydraulic impact hammers. Size of the type of hammer used should be
determined by guidelines noted in Article 4.5.1.1. The hammer shall be operated at all times at pressures and speeds
recommended by the manufacturer.
Vibratory hammers shall not be used unless authorization and specific instructions are provided by the Engineer. Use of a
gravity drop hammer for driving piles should be limited to foundations where uniform pile capacity is not critical and as
directed by the Engineer.
4.5.1.1 Selection of Hammer Cushion Combination2
a. Preliminary selection of the hammer cushion combination for driving piles can be made with the following guide: 1
(1) Steel Piles – Air, Steam, or Hydraulic Hammers.
(a) Minimum size: 170 ft-lb (230 J) of rated energy per ton of pile service load. Stiff or hard hammer cushion.
(b) Desired size: 250-340 ft-lb (340 J-460 J) of rated energy per ton of pile service load.
3
(c) Pile Cushion: None
(d) Hammer Cushion: Use standard (stiff) hammer cushion
(e) Diesel Hammers: - Use 100 to 135% of size determined for air or steam hammers.
(2) Mandrel-Driven Piles - Same as Steel. 4
(3) Precast or Prestressed Concrete Piles - Air, Steam, or Hydraulic Hammers.
(a) Desired size: 250 ft-lb (340 J) of rated energy per ton of pile service load. The weight of the ram shall
generally not be less than one-fourth of the weight of the pile being driven.
(b) Hammer Cushion:
1 Design by one-dimensional wave theory, or by experience.
2 Use manufacturer’s standard (stiff) cushion material.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

(c) Diesel Hammers: Use 100 to 135% of size determined for air or steam hammers.
(d) Pile Cushion: Design by one-dimensional wave theory, or by experience. Usually, a number of layers of
softwood or plywood cushioning are required.
(4) Timber Piles – Air, Steam, or Hydraulic Hammers.
(a) For normal capacity piles, up to 30 tons service load (270 kN) excluding abnormally large timbers or
fabricated sections use 15,000 ft-lb (20 kJ) maximum rated energy with a wood hammer cushion.
(b) Diesel hammers may be rated up to 20,000 ft-lb (27 kJ) with standard (stiff) internal cushions.
b. The foregoing preliminary selection of hammer and cushion combinations should preferably be confirmed by a wave
equation analysis of pile driving indicating that the pile shall not be damaged during driving and that the desired
capacity can be achieved.
4.5.1.2 Pile Leads
Pile drivers shall have firmly supported leads extending from the highest point to the lowest point that the hammer must travel.
The leads should be supported independently of the pile and constructed to guide and stay the pile during driving.
4.5.1.3 Splicing1
If additional length of pile is required, it shall be supplied by splicing in such a way as to develop the full strength of the
section of the pile. The splice shall be made a sufficient distance, but not less than 1 foot (300 mm), above the ground or water
surface so that the splice can be observed during subsequent driving.
4.5.1.4 Jetting
Piles may be jetted, when permitted by the Engineer, either by use of water jets alone or in combination with the hammer
except where jetting would be performed in soil required to develop friction capacity. The volume and pressure of the water at
the jet nozzles shall be sufficient to freely erode the material adjacent to the pile. Before the desired penetration is reached,
jetting shall be discontinued at the elevation specified by the Engineer and the piles driven to required penetration or
resistance.
4.5.1.5 Preboring
Where piles must be installed through strata offering high resistance to driving, or where jetting would cause damage, to
prevent excessive heaving of cohesive soils, to potentially reduce vibration on adjacent structures or facilities or for other
valid reasons, the Engineer may require or permit holes to be bored with an auger or other equipment especially designed for
the purpose. Depending upon the reasons for preboring, the diameter and depth of the hole shall be as directed by the Engineer
to obtain the proper pile penetration and carrying capacity. The pile shall be inserted into the hole immediately after boring and
be driven to required penetration or resistance.
4.5.1.6 Improperly Driven and Damaged Piles
Piles shall be driven within 3 inches (75 mm) of the plan location. Small variations of more than 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm per
1 meter) from the vertical, or from the batter line when batter piles are required, may be subject to rejection by the Engineer.
Any pile so out of line or out of plumb as to impair its usefulness shall be pulled and/or an additional pile(s) driven, as required
by the Engineer. Any pile so damaged in driving or handling as to impair its structural capacity as a pile under conditions of
use shall be replaced by a new pile, or the damaged part shall be replaced by splicing or other remedial measures, all as
directed by the Engineer.
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
4.5.1.7 Redriving of Heaved Piles
Previously driven piles shall be carefully checked during the driving of adjacent piles, and if any uplift occurs, they shall be
redriven to the required penetration or resistance as directed by the Engineer.
4.5.1.8 Underwater Driving
While it is possible to drive piles underwater by use of a follower between the pile and hammer, or by use of a submersible pile
hammer, such driving methods should be avoided when it is necessary to drive piles to obtain a predetermined bearing
capacity, unless such capacity is determined by a pile load test under similar conditions.
4.5.1.9 Interrupted Driving
When driving is interrupted or the rate of blows retarded for any reason, an accurate record shall be kept of the extent of the
incident. Any significant change in the penetration per blow immediately following such stoppage shall be cause to suspect the
interpretation of the preceding and following blows per foot.
4.5.2 AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
4.5.2.1 Augering Equipment
a. The hole through which the high-strength grout is pumped during the placement of the pile shall be located at the
bottom of the auger head below the bar containing the cutting teeth.
1
b. The auger flighting shall be continuous from the auger head to the top of auger with no gaps or other breaks. The pitch
of the auger flighting shall not exceed 9 inches (230 mm).
c. Augers over 40 feet (12200 mm) in length shall contain a middle guide. The piling leads should be prevented from
rotating by a stabilizing arm.
4.5.2.2 Mixing and Pumping of High-Strength Cement Grout 3

a. Only approved pumping, continuous mixing, and agitating equipment shall be used in the preparation and handling of
the grout. All oil or other rust inhibitors shall be removed from mixing drums and grout pumps. If ready-mix grout is
used, an agitating storage tank of sufficient size shall be used between the ready-mix truck and the grout pump to
insure a homogeneous mix and continuity in the pumping operations. All materials shall be such as to produce a
homogeneous grout of the desired consistency. If there is a lapse in the operation, the grout shall be recirculated
through the pump. 4
b. The grout pump shall be a positive displacement piston type pump capable of developing displacing pressures at the
pump of up to 350 psi (2.4 MPa).
4.5.2.3 Pile Top Encasement
Metal sleeves or casing of the proper diameter and at least 18 inches (460 mm) in length shall be placed around the pile tops.
(Special conditions may require metal sleeves of additional length.) Where the pile top elevation is above the existing grade,
the casing shall extend from the top of the pile to a minimum of 12 inches (300 mm) below the existing grade.

SECTION 4.6 INSPECTION OF PILE DRIVING1
Pile driving and augering operations shall be inspected and documented completely as directed by the Engineer.
Recommended techniques of inspection and records to be compiled can be found in the publication titled “The Performance of
Pile Driving Systems: Inspection Manual”, U.S. Department of Transportation, Report No. FHWA – 86/160, Springfield,
Virginia, 1978 (Reference 109).
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish an explanation of various articles in Part 4, Pile Foundations. In the numbering of articles
of this Section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained.
C - 4.1.1 SCOPE (2013)
a. Many texts and foundation reference sources consider drilled shafts as cast-in-place concrete piles. In view of the
special techniques required for the installation of drilled shafts as opposed to driven or augered piles, they have been
treated separately in Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.
b. Since it is not often practical to obtain definitive geotechnical information for every part of a pile foundation system,
engineering judgment and experience should be used to increase stated factors of safety where warranted by local
conditions.
c. The selection of foundation pile material must take into account many different factors as described in Article 4.1.2.1,
General. However there are additional issues that the designer must remain aware of when selecting a type of
foundation pile. Local conditions may warrant the selection of different pile material types. Events such as floods, fire,
debris flow, freeze and thaw cycles, avalanches and other similar natural occurrences should be considered at each
structure location. The effect of natural organisms such as marine organisms, insects and other wildlife need
consideration as these may vary at each location. Manmade issues such as traffic (vehicular and water), contaminated
soils, pollution and vandalism should also be given attention.
C - 4.1.2.2 Pile Categories
End-bearing piles: The capacity of end-bearing piles depends on the bearing capacity of soil or rock material underlying the
piles, and upon the structural capacity of the pile. The dynamic characteristics of the soil-hammer cushion-pile system coupled
with the installation technique will determine the ability of the pile to penetrate overlaying strata to reach the bearing stratum.
Allowable stresses for pile materials are given elsewhere in this part. When end-bearing piles pass through unconsolidated
material, consideration should be given in design to the additional load (negative skin friction) that may be imposed on the pile
as the material above the bearing stratum consolidates. The bearing stratum must be of sufficient thickness and strength to
support the entire pile group loading. The design load shall preferably be determined by pile load tests. In addition, an analysis
of the group of piles must show that the allowable load on the soil or rock supporting material is not exceeded.
Friction Piles: The capacity of friction piles depends upon the ability of the soil to support the load distributed by the piles
within the limits of settlement that can be safely tolerated by the structure.
a. The design capacity shall preferably be determined by loading test piles in accordance with the provisions of
Article 4.3.8.2. Where groups of piles are driven into plastic materials, consideration should be given not only to the
allowable load per pile, but also to the total load that can be safely assigned to the group. The design load shall be
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
determined by loading a group of piles or by making an allowance for the difference between the capacity of a single
pile and a group of piles by means of a block analysis. A single row of piles need not be considered as a group,
provided the piles are spaced at least three times their butt width.
b. In many cases, a study of the borings and the estimation of approximate soil properties will determine the ability of the
soil to support the applied loads. In foundations involving cohesive soils, the load-settlement relationship should be
investigated by recognized geotechnical methods and procedures.
C - 4.1.2.3 Pile Type Selection
f. If the possibility of damage to adjacent structures from vibration, impact or soil movement exists, all viable
alternatives with regards to type of pile and method of installation should be investigated in order to minimize or
eliminate this hazard. A survey of the adjacent structures that documents before and after conditions should be
considered.
C - SECTION 4.2 DESIGN
C - 4.2.2 LOADS (2013)
C - 4.2.2.1 General
It is not possible to accurately predict the behavior of a combined pile and soil bearing footing. In most cases, because of the
pile supporting system, little load, including that of the footing, will be transferred to the material directly under the footing
after it has been cast. Therefore, in analysis, the pile system will be considered as supporting all loads. 1
C - 4.2.2.2 Primary Loads and Forces
Live loads are separated into two cases, vertical, and horizontal due to surcharge, to ensure that these loads are considered
separately and in combination to determine the governing load combination.
C - 4.2.2.3 Secondary Loads and Forces1 3
The effect of seismic events on pile foundations may not be limited in all cases to the additional loads imposed on the piles. In
certain types of water-bearing sands, a phenomenon referred to as soil liquefaction may be precipitated by the vibrations
induced by a seismic event or other source. When this occurs, soil shear strength is eliminated and support for piles, both
vertically and laterally, is diminished. In geographical areas susceptible to seismic events, the potential for liquefaction should
be evaluated through a competent geotechnical investigation and measures to ensure the stability of foundations should be
employed. Further discussion on methods to predict the occurrence and extent of liquefaction may be found in the
4
Bibliography reference.
C - 4.2.3 LOADS ON PILES (2013)
Cases A, B, and C are listed to ensure that complete consideration is given to the possible failure modes of a pile foundation. A
safety factor of 2.0 is prescribed for Cases B and C for all primary loads or possible primary load combinations. An increase of
25% in allowable stresses or allowable load capacity is allowed for individual piles in a foundation system for combinations of
secondary loads and primary loads except for Case C for group friction pile effect. No increase is specified for this case due to
greater relative uncertainty that is associated with its analysis when compared to individual bearing pile analysis.
1
See Reference 89

C - 4.2.3.4 Batter Piles1
a. It is intended that battered piles be used to resist lateral foundation loads due to primary forces. Where this is not
practical, the lateral resistance of vertical piles can be utilized to resist horizontal forces. The Engineer should make a
careful evaluation of the pile foundation system to ascertain its lateral resistance capacity. Much research has been
done concerning the lateral resistance of vertical piles. The FHWA Manual on Design of Piles and Drilled Shafts
Under Lateral Load DP-66-1, 1986 should be consulted for the design of such pile foundations.
b. Cases A, B and C of Article 4.2.3 should be evaluated for lateral loads on vertical piles. Recent research has indicated
that under certain conditions that may be encountered during a seismic event, battered piles should not be used. The
designer should consult the AASHTO "Standard Specifications for Seismic Design" for guidance.
C - 4.2.3.5 Scour2
Research is continuing into the prediction of the occurrence and extent of scour. The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars
Evaluating Scour at Bridges (HEC-18), Stream Stability at Highway Bridges (HEC-20), Bridge Scour and Stream
Countermeasures (HEC-23) and the Countermeasurers to Protect Bridge Piers from Scour (NCHRP report 593) provide
references for scour analysis.
C - SECTION 4.3 PILE LENGTH DETERMINATION
C - 4.3.3 MINIMUM TIP ELEVATION (2013)
Piles should be monitored closely during driving to avoid damage by overdriving. Damage by overdriving may lead to
splintered piles or broomed tips in the case of timber piles which may not be readily apparent when they are being driven. For
steel H-piles, overdriving may result in separation of the flanges from the web, buckling of the pile tip, redirection of the tip
when striking a hard rock surface at an angle, and in some instances distorting the pile into a “U” or “J” configuration if
driving is continued. Concrete piles may also be crushed at the tip or cracked through overdriving. In each of these instances
the ultimate capacity of the pile may be significantly reduced. If a PDA is not employed for monitoring the driving operation
an expected rate of penetration of the pile per depth of penetration should be developed based on the stratigraphy of the
material into which it is driven or founded and the type of equipment employed. Should the actual driving of the pile differ
significantly from the expected rate of penetration, the pile driving operation should be stopped until further investigation and
the cause of the deviant driving is ascertained. The suspected pile to be relocated or replaced with a new pile at the discretion
of the Engineer.
C - 4.3.4 WAVE EQUATION (2013)3
The Wave Equation method of analyzing pile capacity and pile length was developed by Smith (1960). For a detailed
explanation of the Wave Equation methodology, the designer may consult FHWA documentation of the WEAP program.
C - 4.3.5 PILE DRIVING FORMULAS (2013)
Historically, pile driving formulas which make use of the relationship between the hammer energy and the pile movement
when driven have been used to approximate safe pile loads. Most notably, the Engineering News Formula has been used
extensively for this purpose. Tests have shown that these formulas do not give consistent results whereby excessive pile
lengths may be dictated in some instances while in others insufficient factors of safety may result from their use. For these
reasons, the use of these formulas should be limited to projects whose size and importance may justify their use in lieu of the
more elaborate Wave Equation method. When these formulas are to be used, their application should be guided by engineering
1
See References 79 and 96
2
See References 31, 32 and 38
3 See Reference 93

Pile Foundations
judgment and experience. Careful evaluation of the actual hammer energy applied to the pile through the hammer cushion-pile
cushion systems is also required.
C - 4.3.8 PILE DRIVING AND LOADING TESTS (2013)
C - 4.3.8.1 Driving Tests
Load tests should be applied only to standard service piles, not to piles installed by pile driving tests. This is because piles
installed by pile driving tests are deliberately driven to a higher nominal capacity and, therefore, are not typical of the service
piles. Test piles driven with a PDA are typically driven to allowable capacity.
C - 4.3.8.2 Static Pile Load Testing
Alternate methods for determining pile capacity are continually being developed and implemented and static pile load testing
is becoming less common. However these tests are still relevant for certain projects and pile types. Generally projects that do
not have traffic or schedule impacts are best suited for static load pile testing. It is at the Engineer’s discretion and
professional judgment to use static pile load testing to determine the probable capacity of a pile.
C - 4.3.8.3 Dynamic Pile Load Testing
Dynamic pile load testing has been utilized in the evaluation of driven piling for public and commercial projects in the US
since the early 1970s. The test method, originally developed through FHWA funding at Case Western Reserve University,
utilizes strain and acceleration measurements obtained from small gauges attached to the head of a pile as it is driven with a
pile driving hammer. Dynamic pile load testing evaluates the static pile capacity, the performance of the driving system, pile 1
driving stresses, and pile integrity. Due to tremendous advancements in the technology and with years of experience, dynamic
pile testing rivals static pile load tests in adequately determining the capacity of a driven pile.
The Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) represents the field component of the Dynamic Testing in which the attached gauges send
signals during driving to a specialized collection unit. Real time data manipulation and reporting is possible for examining pile
stresses, integrity, drive system energy and capacity. Case Western Reserve University developed the Case Pile Wave Analysis
Program (CAPWAP) numerical modeling technique that refines the PDA data to more accurately match a static load test and 3
provides accurate soil resistance distribution and soil quake and damping parameters for use with the wave equation analysis
program (WEAP).
C - SECTION 4.4 PILE STRUCTURAL DESIGN
C - 4.4.2 STEEL PILES (2013) 4

C - 4.4.2.5 Protection Against Corrosion
Corrosion of steel foundation piles and the reinforcing steel in concrete piles is known to be related to the characteristic of the
steel and the environment in which the piles are embedded. Corrosion can be avoided or mitigated by adding additional
thickness of steel to the pile, or by coating the piles with a corrosion resistant material, by installing a cathodic protection
system or most simply using concrete piles or concrete-filled steel pipe piles in marine and corrosive environments.
C - 4.4.2.6 Allowable Stresses
The compressive stress at the tip of steel H-piles has been limited to 12,600 psi (87 MPa) for design loads. It should be
recognized that stresses during driving may considerably exceed this stress. The Wave Equation formula can predict these
driving stresses. In general, driving stresses should be limited to 0.8 of the yield strength of the pile steel.

C - 4.4.4 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
Cast-in-place concrete pile types include: uniform tapered, step tapered, constant section and a combination of type pile. Piles
are constructed by placing concrete into a hole or cast into a form which consists of a thin shell or thin pipe left in the ground.
The shell or casing shall provide adequate resistance against earth pressure prior to the placement of concrete. Due to
increased stresses encountered during driving, thin shells may be required to be supported internally by a mandrel. Examples
of thin-shell mandrel driven concrete piles include: step taper mandrel-driven pile, core-driven thin-walled pipe pile with end
closed by precast concrete point, and corrugated cylindrical thin-walled pile driven by mandrel when expanded against shell
by compressed air.
C - 4.4.4.4 Pipe Casings and Shells
Where the pipe casing or shell is to serve only as a form for the cast-in-place concrete piles, the steel thickness need only be
sufficient to withstand soil pressures and driving stresses subject to the stated minimum thickness and strength for mandrel
driven piles. If the casing or shell is to be used to compute the structural capacity of the pile, the plans must show the steel
thickness to be used and also splicing details and the grade of steel to be used.
C - 4.4.5 AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
C - 4.4.5.2 Design
3,000 psi (21 MPa) grout is considered to be the commonly provided grout.
C - 4.4.6 MICROPILES (2013)
Micropiles can withstand axial (compression and tension) and/or lateral loads. Proper installation minimizes disturbance to
adjacent soil, structures and environment. They can be installed vertically or at a batter. Installation equipment is similar to that
for soil and rock anchors.
References for micropiles:
• Federal Highway Administration, Drilled and Grouted Micropiles State-of-the-Practice Review, 4 volumes,
FHWA/RD-96-016/017/018/019, Washington, DC, 1996.
• Federal Highway Administration, Micropile Design and Construction Guidelines, FHWA-SA-97-070, Washington,
DC, 2000.
• Deep Foundations Institute/International Association of Foundation Drilling, “Guide to Drafting a Specification for
Micropiles” Hawthorne, NJ/ Dallas, TX, First Edition, 2004.
• Federal Highway Administration, Micropile Design and Construction Reference Manual, FHWA-NHI-05-039,
2005.
C - SECTION 4.5 INSTALLATION OF PILES
C - 4.5.1 DRIVEN PILES (2013)
Impact pile hammers are generally classified as external or internal combustion. Recently, hydraulic hammers have been
developed to join air and steam in the external combustion category. All require separate power plants and hydraulic hammers
require an additional control apparatus. However, due to the control and sensing features of hydraulic hammers, energy can be
controlled to a greater degree and in some units an accurate measurement of energy delivered to the pile-cushion system is
available.

Pile Foundations
Research has recently been conducted to determine the vertical load bearing capacity of steel piling driven by vibratory
hammers. However, no widely accepted design procedures or capacity verification from installation are available. Thus, piling
installed by vibratory methods should be verified by a load test program, or vibrated to an elevation higher than planned with
final driving to bearing or tip elevation by an impact hammer.
The term “friction” as used for friction piles implies friction between the pile and the soil as it is driven. This is true only if
driving an “end-bearing pile on rock” and it is considered necessary to eliminate the soil-pile friction component of pile
capacity from consideration of the load-bearing capacity of the pile.
If the pile is a “friction” pile, where all or most of the pile capacity is friction between the pile wall and the soil, then friction is
not a loss.
C - 4.5.1.1 Selection of Hammer Cushion Combination
Evaluating the rated energy of hammers must be done with care as no widely accepted standard is available. Manufacturers
generally publish rated energy as the maximum without considering efficiency. Energy losses and the resulting efficiency
should be evaluated in two ways: mechanical and system.
A mechanical efficiency accounts for the energy lost within the hammer and is the ratio of the energy delivered to the pile
cushion system to the initial theoretical energy produced. This is relatively easy in single acting external hammers where
combustion energy is available at impact. When based on the manufacturer’s rated energy, diesel hammers tend to show lower
mechanical efficiencies than external combustion hammers.
System efficiency is the ratio of the energy consumed in driving the pile to the initial theoretical energy produced. System
efficiency is always lower than mechanical efficiency as it includes, in addition to the internal energy losses in the hammer,
1
losses in the cushion systems and losses due to ground quake, friction, and soil displacement. In selecting a hammer, the
characteristics of the hammer-cushion-pile-soil system should be considered. The one-dimensional wave equation has the
capability to include the interaction of these properties.
C - 4.5.1.3 Splicing
3
Piles may be spliced in a variety of methods to fully develop the strength of the pile section. The following methods may be
used:
• Steel Piles - the method of splicing shall be shown on the plans or as approved by the Engineer. Piles may be spliced
by full penetration butt welds, by the addition of welded splice plates, by a combination of these methods or by other
means approved by the Engineer which fully maintains the strength of the pile section.
4
• Concrete Piles - concrete piles shall preferably not be spliced, unless specifically provided for by the plans, special
provisions or the Engineer. Short extensions may be added to tops of reinforced concrete piles after completion of
driving when the required capacity is not attained at the planned top of pile elevation. These extensions shall be
made by exposing the pile reinforcing steel a sufficient distance to provide a full strength lap splice with the
extension segment steel. Concrete for the extension shall be of the same quality and strength of the pile concrete and
shall be placed in forms of the same shape and dimensions as the driven pile. Prior to placement of the new concrete,
the top of the driven pile shall be cleaned and coated with neat cement or an approved bonding agent. Concrete
extension is valid only for standard, conventionally reinforced concrete piles and not for prestressed piles.
C - SECTION 4.6 INSPECTION OF PILE DRIVING1
Other useful documents to aid in inspection of the pile driving may be found in:
1
See Reference 108

• The Performance of Pile Driving Systems: Inspection Manual, FHWA RD-86-160.
• Inspectors Manual for Driven Pile Foundations,1997, and A Pile Inspector's Guide to Hammers, 1995, published
by
Deep Foundation Institute

326 Lafayette Avenue
Hawthorne, NJ 07506
http://www.dfi.org

8
Part 5
Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers
— 2002 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-2

5.1.1 T ypes of Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-2
5.1.2 Scour (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-3
5.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4 1

5.2.1 Field Survey (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.2 Subsurface Exploration (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.3 Controlling Dimensions (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.4 Loads (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.5 Type of Backfill (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.6 Character of Foundation (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5 3
5.3 Computation of Applied Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5
5.3.1 Loads Exclusive of Earth Pressure (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5
5.3.2 Computation of Backfill Pressure (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-6
5.4 Stability Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7

5.4.1 Point of Intersection of Resultant Force and Base (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.4.2 Resistance Against Sliding (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.4.3 Soil Pressure (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.4.4 Settlement and Tilting (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.5 Design of Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8

5.5.1 Drainage (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.5.2 Compaction (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.6 Designing Bridges to Resist Scour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9

5.6.1 Design Philosophy and Concepts (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
5.6.2 Design Considerations (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
5.6.3 Design Procedure (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
5.7 Details of Design and Construction for Abutments and Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.7.1 General (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.7.2 Cantilever Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11

8-5-1
5.7.3 Counterfort and Buttress Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.8 Details of Design and Construction for Bridge Piers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12

5.8.1 Pier Spacing, Orientation and Type (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.2 Pier Shafts (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.3 Caissons (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.4 Bearings and Anchorage (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.5 Piers in Navigable Streams (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-13
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-13
LIST OF FIGURES
C-8-5-1 Cases 1, 2 and 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-15

C-8-5-2 Cases 4, 5 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-16
C-8-5-3 Cases 7, 8 and 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-17
C-8-5-4 Earth Pressure Computation – Walls with Heels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-20
C-8-5-5 Earth Pressure Computation – Walls without Heels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-21
C-8-5-6 Earth Pressure Charts for Walls Less than 20 Feet High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-25
LIST OF TABLES
8-5-1 Types of Backfill for Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5

8-5-2 Properties of Backfill Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-6
SECTION 5.1 DEFINITIONS
5.1.1 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS, ABUTMENTS AND PIERS (2002)
a. A retaining wall is a structure used to provide lateral support for a mass of soil which, in turn, may provide vertical
support for loads acting on or within the soil mass.
b. The principal types of retaining walls are as follows:
(1) The gravity wall, which is so proportioned that no reinforcement other than temperature steel is required.
(2) The semi-gravity wall, which is so proportioned that some steel reinforcement is required along the back and along
the lower side of the toe.

(3) The cantilever wall, which has a cross section resembling an L or an inverted T, and which requires extensive steel
reinforcement.
(4) The counterfort wall, which consists of a reinforced vertical face slab supported laterally at intervals by vertical
reinforced counterforts extending into the backfill and supported by a reinforced base slab which usually projects
in front of the face slab to form a toe.
(5) The buttress wall, which is similar to the counterfort wall except that the vertical members, called buttresses, are
exposed on the face of the wall rather than buried in the backfill.
(6) The crib wall, which consists of an earth-filled assembly of individual structural units, and which relies for its
stability on the weight and strength of the earth fill. The design of such walls is treated in Part 6, Crib Walls.
(7) Mechanically Stabilized Embankments (MSE) are covered by Part 7, Mechanically Stabilized Embankment of this
Chapter.
c. An abutment commonly consists of a retaining wall that incorporates a bridge seat in its face. It may also be of the
spill-through type in which the bridge seat rests on horizontal beams supported by piles or columns between which the
fill is permitted to extend. Preferably, abutments shall be of the gravity or semi-gravity type.
d. A pier is an intermediate support for the superstructure. The principal pier types are:
(1) Solid wall, reinforced for strength and temperature.
(2) Rigid frame, consisting of multiple columns with a cap reinforced to act as a frame.
1
(3) Bents, consisting of multiple piles extended to a cap.
(4) Hammerhead, consisting of a column supporting a cap which cantilevers beyond the column.
(5) Drilled shafts, consisting of poured concrete columns extending to a cap. 3

5.1.2 SCOUR (2002)1
Scour is the result of the erosive action of flowing water excavating and carrying away material from the bed and banks of
waterways. There are three types of scour all of which are likely to be present at a structure.
a. Aggradation and Degradation. These are long term streambed elevation changes due to natural or man induced causes 4
within the reach of the river over which the bridge is located. Aggradation involves the deposition of material eroded
from other sections of a stream reach, whereas degradation involves the lowering or scouring of the bed of a stream.
b. Contraction Scour.2 Contraction scour in a natural channel involves the removal of material from the bed and banks
across all or most of the channel width. This component of scour results from a contraction of the flow, such as a
change in downstream control of the water surface elevation. Increased velocities and a resulting increase in bed shear
stresses cause scour. Contraction of the flow by bridge approach embankments encroaching onto the floodplain and/or
into the main channel is the most common cause of contraction scour.
c. Local scour.3 Local scour involves removal of material from around piers, abutments, spurs, and embankments. It is
caused by an acceleration of flow and resulting vortices induced by flow obstructions.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

5.2.1 FIELD SURVEY (2002)
a. Sufficient information shall be furnished, in the form of a profile and cross-sections or a topographic map, to determine
the structural requirements. Present grades and alignments of tracks and roads shall be indicated, together with the
records of high water, low water, and depth of scour, the location of underground utilities, change in channel location
characteristics, site history from local sources, and information concerning the structures that may affect or be affected
by this construction.
b. For bridge construction at a new location, a complete survey is required as detailed in Part 3, Spread Footing
Foundations, Article 3.2.1.
5.2.2 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION (2002)
a. Sufficient borings shall be made along the length of the structure to determine, with a reasonable degree of certainty,
the subsurface conditions. Irregularities found during the initial soil boring program may dictate that additional
borings be taken.
b. The subsurface investigation shall be made in accordance with the provisions of Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface
Investigation.
5.2.3 CONTROLLING DIMENSIONS (1989)

Information shall be assembled concerning clearances, proposed grades of tracks and roads, and all other factors that may
influence the limiting dimensions of the proposed structure.
5.2.4 LOADS (2002)

Loads to be superimposed on piers, retaining walls, abutments, or on backfill, shall be determined and indicated on the plans.
See Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design and Chapter 9 for seismic loading.
5.2.5 TYPE OF BACKFILL (2002)1

a. Backfill is defined as all material behind the wall, whether undisturbed ground or fill, that contributes to the pressure
against the wall.
b. The backfill shall be investigated and classified with reference to the soil types described in
Table 8-5-1.
1 See Commentary

Table 8-5-1. Types of Backfill for Retaining Walls
Backfill
Backfill Description
Type
1 Coarse-grained soil without admixture of fine soil particles, very free-draining (sand,
gravel or broken stone).
2 Coarse-grained soil of low permeability due to admixture of particles of silt size.
3 Fine silty sand; granular materials with conspicuous clay content; or residual soil with
stones.
4 Soft or very soft clay, organic silt; or soft silty clay.
5 Medium or stiff clay that may be placed in such a way that a negligible amount of water
will enter the spaces between the chunks during floods or heavy rains.
c. Types 4 and 5 backfill shall be used only with the permission of the Engineer. In all cases the wall design shall be
based on the type of backfill used.
5.2.6 CHARACTER OF FOUNDATION (2002)
The character of the foundation material shall be investigated as specified under Part 3, Spread Footing Foundations of
Article 3.2.4. Where pile supported foundations are required, the provisions of Article 4.3.1 of Part 4, Pile Foundations, shall
be followed for the necessary subsurface investigation.
SECTION 5.3 COMPUTATION OF APPLIED FORCES
5.3.1 LOADS EXCLUSIVE OF EARTH PRESSURE (2002)

3
a. In the analysis of piers, retaining walls and abutments, due account shall be taken of all superimposed loads carried
directly on them, such as building walls, columns, or bridge structures; and of all loads from surcharges caused by
railroad tracks, highways, building foundations, or other loads supported on the backfill. Piers must also be designed
for stream flow pressures as well as ice flow pressures and collision forces where applicable.
b. In calculating the surcharge due to track loading on an abutment and on wingwalls that are in line with the abutment
backwalls, the entire load shall be taken as distributed uniformly on the surface of the ballast immediately below the 4
tie, over a width equal to the length of the tie. With increased depth, the width for distribution can be increased on
slopes of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical, with surcharge loads from the adjacent tracks not being permitted to overlap.
c. To account for variability in backfilling and the dynamic effects of axle loads, abutment backwalls above bridge seats
shall be designed for earth pressures and live load surcharge increased by 100%. This does not apply to the portion of
the abutment below the bridge seat nor the stability of the abutment.
d. In calculating the surcharge due to track loading above a wall and parallel, or roughly parallel, to the wall, the entire
load shall be taken as distributed uniformly over a width equal to the length of the tie.
e. The stability of the abutment or wall as a whole unit, regardless of the distribution of the loads and surcharges, shall
always be checked and shall conform to the requirement of Section 5.4, Stability Computation.

f. Live load impact shall not be considered in the design of an abutment or pier unless the bridge bearings are supported
by a structural beam, such as the seat of a spill-through abutment or a pier cap supported by individual columns, piles,
or shafts. In such a case, the impact shall be applied to the beam only, and not to footings, or piles.
g. For the design of abutments and piers, consideration must be given to all forces transmitted from the superstructure to
the substructure, depending on the bearing fixity conditions.
5.3.2 COMPUTATION OF BACKFILL PRESSURE (2002)1
a. Values of the unit weight, cohesion, and angle of internal friction of the backfill material shall be determined directly
by means of soil tests or, if the expense of such tests is not justifiable, by means of Table 8-5-2 referring to the soil
types defined in Table 8-5-1. Unless the minimum cohesive strength of the backfill material can be evaluated reliably,
the cohesion shall be neglected and only the internal friction considered. See Part 20, Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads,
Table 8-20-3.
Table 8-5-2. Properties of Backfill Materials
Soil Unit
Type of Weight Lb. Cohesion Angle of Internal
Backfill Per Cu. Ft. “c” Friction
“w”
1 105 0 32° (sand) - 38° (broken stone)
2 110 0 30°
3 125 0 28°
4 100 0 0°
5 120 240 0°
b. The magnitude, direction and point of application of the backfill pressure shall be computed on the basis of appropriate
values of the unit weight, cohesion and internal friction.
c. When the backfill is assumed to be cohesionless and when 1) the surcharge load, if any, on the backfill can be
converted into an equivalent uniform load or when 2) the surcharge can be converted into an equivalent uniform earth
surcharge, Rankine’s or Coulomb’s formulas may be used under the conditions to which each applies. Formulas and
charts given in the Commentary and the trial wedge methods given in the Commentary are both applicable.
d. When the backfill cannot be considered cohesionless, when the surcharge on the backfill is irregular, or when the
surcharge cannot be converted to an equivalent uniform earth surcharge, the trial wedge methods illustrated in the
Commentary are preferable.
e. If the wall or abutment is not more than 20 ft. high and if the backfill has been classified according to Table 8-5-1, the
charts given in the Commentary may be used.
f. If the surcharge is of a lesser width than the height of the wall, a more satisfactory design can be obtained by the use of
trial wedge methods given in the Commentary.
g. If the wall or abutment is prevented from deflecting freely at its crest, as in a rigid frame bridge, some types of U-
shaped abutments, or in laterally braced or anchored walls, the computed backfill pressure shall be increased 25%.
h. In spill-through abutments, the increase of pressure against the columns due to the shearing strength of the backfill
shall not be overlooked. If the space between columns is not greater than twice the width across the back of the
1 See Commentary

columns, no reduction in backfill pressure shall be made on account of the openings. No more than the active earth
pressure shall be considered as the resistance offered by the fill in front of the abutment. In computing the active earth
pressure of this fill, the negative or descending slope of the surface shall be taken into consideration.
i. The backfilled areas behind a wall or abutment shall be designed to dissipate water pressures by the use of free-
draining backfill material in conjunction with drains. It is preferable that the free-draining backfill material be used
within a wedge behind the wall, bounded by a plane rising at 60 degrees to the horizontal.
j. If local conditions do not permit the construction of drains and, consequently, water may accumulate behind the wall,
the resulting additional pressure shall be taken into account. Consideration should also be given to the eventual
plugging of the drains due to infiltration of soil.
SECTION 5.4 STABILITY COMPUTATION
5.4.1 POINT OF INTERSECTION OF RESULTANT FORCE AND BASE (2002)
The resultant force on the base of a wall or abutment shall fall within the middle third of the structure if founded on soil, and
within the middle half if founded on rock or piles. The resultant force on any horizontal section above the base of a solid
gravity wall should intersect this section within its middle half. If these requirements are satisfied, safety against overturning
need not be investigated.
1
5.4.2 RESISTANCE AGAINST SLIDING (2002)
a. The factor of safety against sliding at the base of the structure is defined as the sum of the forces at or above base level
available to resist horizontal movement of the structure divided by the sum of the forces at or above the same level
tending to produce horizontal movement. The numerical value of this factor of safety shall be at least 1.5. If the factor
of safety is inadequate, it shall be increased by increasing the width of the base, by the use of a key, or by the use of
batter piles.
3
b. In computing the resistance against sliding, the passive earth pressure of the soil in contact with the face of the wall
shall be neglected. The frictional resistance between the wall and a non-cohesive subsoil may be taken as the normal
force on the base times the coefficient of friction f of mass concrete on soil. For coarse-grained soil without silt, f may
be taken as 0.55; for coarse-grained soil with silt, 0.45; for silt, 0.35.
4
c. If the wall rests upon clay, the resistance against sliding shall be based upon the cohesion of the clay, which may be
taken as one-half the unconfined compressive strength. If the clay is very stiff or hard the surface of the ground shall be
roughened before the concrete is placed.
d. If the wall rests upon rock, consideration shall be given to such features of the rock structure as may constitute surfaces
of weakness. For concrete on clean sound rock the coefficient of friction may be taken as 0.60.
e. The factor of safety against sliding on other horizontal surfaces below the base shall be investigated and shall not be
less than 1.5.
5.4.3 SOIL PRESSURE (1989)
The allowable soil pressure beneath the footing shall be determined in accordance with Part 3, Spread Footing Foundations.

5.4.4 SETTLEMENT AND TILTING (2002)1
a. The soil pressure determined in accordance with Article 5.4.3 provide for adequate safety against failure of the soil
beneath the structure. If the subsoil consists of soft clay or silt, or if a layer of such material lies beneath the subsoil and
is within the pressure zone of influence generated by the base pressure, it is necessary to determine the compressibility
of the soil and to estimate the amount of settlement.
b. If the compressibility of the subsoil would lead to excessive settlement or tilting, the movement can be reduced by
designing the wall so that the resultant of the forces acting at the base of the wall intersects the base near its midpoint.
Otherwise, pile foundations shall be considered.
SECTION 5.5 DESIGN OF BACKFILL
5.5.1 DRAINAGE (2002)
a. The material immediately adjacent to the wall should be noncohesive and free draining. Cinders shall not be used. If a
special back drain is installed, the pore size within the drain shall be coarse enough to permit free flow of water, but not
so coarse that the fill material may ultimately move into it and clog it. Water from the free-draining materials shall be
removed, preferably by horizontal drain pipes or by weep holes. Horizontal drain pipes, if used, shall be installed in
such a position that they will function properly. Such drains shall be accessible for cleaning. Weep holes are considered
less satisfactory than horizontal drains. If used, they shall have diameters not less than 6 inches and shall be spaced not
over 10 feet.
b. Geocomposite and/or geotextile materials in conjunction with free draining backfill may be used as approved by the
Engineer.
5.5.2 COMPACTION (2002)
a. The backfill shall preferably be placed in loose layers not to exceed 12 inches in thickness. Each layer shall be
compacted before placing the next, but overcompaction shall be avoided.2
b. It is recommended that backfill be compacted to no less than 95% of maximum dry density per ASTM D698 and at a
moisture content within 2% of optimum.
c. No dumping of backfill material shall be permitted in such a way that the successive layers slope downward toward the
wall. The layers shall be horizontal or shall slope downward away from the wall.
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary

SECTION 5.6 DESIGNING BRIDGES TO RESIST SCOUR
5.6.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS (2002)1
Bridges shall be designed through careful evaluation of the hydraulic, structural, and geotechnical aspects of the bridge
foundation to withstand the effects of scour from the design flood.
5.6.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2002)
5.6.2.1 General
a. Scour types are additive. The design shall provide for the total of all scour types at a location. Local scour holes at
piers and abutments may overlap one another. If scour holes do overlap, the local scour shall be the total depth from
both.2
b. For pile and drilled shaft designs subject to scour, consideration shall be given to using a lesser number of longer piles
or shafts as compared with a greater number of shorter piles or shafts to develop bearing loads. This approach will
provide a greater factor of safety against pile failure due to scour.
5.6.2.2 Piers
a. Pier foundations not in the exisiting channel shall be designed in the same manner as the pier foundations in the stream
channel if there is likelihood that the channel will shift its location to include such piers.
1
b. Consideration shall be given to changes in the flow direction during floods when determining shape and orientation of
piers.3
c. The effects of ice and debris build-up shall be evaluated when considering use of piers in stream channels. Use ice and
debris deflectors where appropriate.4
5.6.2.3 Abutments
3
a. Relief openings, spur dikes, and river channelization should be used where needed to minimize the effects of adverse
flow conditions at abutments.
b. Utilize riprap or other protection devices where needed to protect abutments.

4
c. Where ice build-up is likely to be a problem, set the toe of spill-through slopes or vertical abutment walls some
distance from the edge of the channel bank to facilitate passage of the ice.
5.6.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE (2002)5
The design procedure for scour outlined in the following steps is recommended for bridge substructure units:
(1) Select the design flood event(s). Also check the overtopping flood (if less than the design flood) and other flood
events if there is evidence that such events would create deeper scour than the design flood or overtopping floods.6
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4
See Commentary
5
See Commentary
6 See Commentary

(2) Develop water surface profiles for the flood flows in Step 1, taking care to evaluate the range of potential tailwater
conditions below the bridge which could occur during these floods.
(3) Estimate total scour for the worst condition from Steps 1 and 2 above.
(4) Plot the total scour depths obtained in Step 3 on a cross section of the stream channel and flood plain at the bridge
site.
(5) Evaluate the scour depths obtained in Steps 3 and 4 for reasonableness.1
(6) Evaluate the bridge on the basis of the scour analysis performed in Steps 3-5. Modify the design as necessary.2
(7) Analyze the bridge foundation on the basis that all stream bed material in the scour prism above the total scour line
(Step 4) has been removed and is not available for bearing or lateral support. In the case of a pile foundation, the
piling shall be designed for reduced lateral restraint and column action because of the increase in unsupported pile
length after scour. In areas where the local scour is confined to the proximity of the footing, the lateral ground
stresses on the pile length that remains embedded may not be significantly reduced from the pre-local scour
conditions. The depth of local scour and volume of soil removed from above the pile group shall be considered
when computing pile embedment to sustain vertical load.
(a) Spread Footings on Soil.
Place the top of the footing below the design scour line.
The bottom of the footing shall be at least 6.0 feet below the streambed.
(b) Spread Footings on Rock Highly Resistant to Scour.3
The bottom of the footing shall be placed directly on the cleaned rock surface for massive rock formations (such as
granite) that are highly resistant to scour.
(c) Spread Footings on Erodible Rock.
Carefully assess weathered or other potentially erodible rock formations for scour prior to determining footing
elevation.
(d) Spread Footings Placed on Tremie Seals and Supported on Soil.
The tremie base shall be placed at least three feet below the scour line if the tremie is structurally capable of
sustaining the imposed structural load without lateral soil support.
(e) Deep Foundations (Piling or Drilled Shafts) with Footings.4
Preferably place the top of the footing or pile cap below the streambed a depth equal to the estimated contraction
scour depth to minimize obstruction to flood flows and resulting local scour.
(8) For certain locations and conditions it may be necessary to calculate the scour for a superflood. See the
Commentary for further discussion of superfloods.
1 See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3
See Commentary
4 See Commentary

SECTION 5.7 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR ABUTMENTS AND

RETAINING WALLS
5.7.1 GENERAL (2002)
a. The principles of design and permissible unit stresses for walls and abutments shall conform to Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design, with the modifications or additions in the following Articles:
b. The width of the stem of a semi-gravity wall, at the level of the top of the footing shall be at least one-fourth of its
height.
c. The base of a retaining wall, or abutment supported on soil shall be located below frost line, and in no case at a depth
less than 3 ft. below the surface of the ground in front of the toe. The base shall be located below the anticipated
maximum depth of scour. Where this is not practicable the base shall be supported by piles or other suitable means.
d. To reduce temperature and shrinkage cracks in exposed surfaces, reinforcement shall be provided as specified in Part 2
of this Chapter, irrespective of the type of structure.
e. The backs of retaining walls and abutments shall be damp-proofed by an approved material. Particular attention shall
be given to protection of the joint where the bottom of stem meets the top of heel.
f. At horizontal joints between the bases and stems of piers and retaining walls, raised keys should be used. In lieu of
raised shear keys, shear friction may be used.
1
g. Vertical keyed expansion joints shall be placed not over 60 ft. apart to take care of temperature changes. They shall be
protected by membrane waterproofing or noncorrosive water stops.
h. The walls above the footings shall be cast as units between expansion joints, unless construction joints are formed in
accordance with the provisions of these specifications.
3
5.7.2 CANTILEVER WALLS (2002)
a. The unsupported toe and heel of the base slab shall each be considered as a cantilever beam fixed at the edge of the
support.
b. The vertical section shall be considered as a cantilever beam fixed at the top of the base.
4
5.7.3 COUNTERFORT AND BUTTRESS WALLS (2002)
a. The face walls of counterfort and buttress walls and parts of base slabs supported by the counterforts or buttresses shall
be designed in accordance with the requirements of a continuous slab, Part 2 of this Chapter. Due allowance shall be
made for the effect of the toe moment on shears and bending moments in the heel slabs of counterfort walls.
b. Counterforts may be designed in accordance with the requirements of T-beams. As T-beams, reinforcement or stirrups
shall be provided to anchor the face slabs and the heel slabs to the counterforts. Reinforcement shall be proportioned to
carry the end shears of the slabs. Stirrups shall be anchored as near to the outside face of the face walls and as near to
the bottom of the base slab as the requirements for the protective covering permit. It is desirable to run reinforcing bars
through the loops of U-shaped stirrups.
c. Buttresses shall be designed in accordance with the requirements for rectangular beams.

SECTION 5.8 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR BRIDGE PIERS
5.8.1 PIER SPACING, ORIENTATION AND TYPE (2002)
5.8.1.1 Grade Separation Structures
a. Piers shall be located to provide the required horizontal and vertical clearances for traffic (highway, railway or other),
to accommodate underground utilities and structures, and to permit the maintenance of surface drainage and other
surface facilities.1
b. Piers supporting bridges over railways and located less than 25 feet clear from centerline of the near railroad track shall
be provided with pier protection conforming with the requirements of Part 2, this Chapter.
5.8.1.2 Structures over Waterways
a. Where possible, the bridge pier axis should be parallel to the direction of the flow. When this is not feasible, special
consideration must be given to additional loads placed on the substructure by the non-parallel flow. Consideration
shall also be given to scour effects.
b. Where piers are exposed to heavy flows, or ice and debris collisions, consideration should be given to longer span
lengths, the use of nose guards, starlings, or other systems to protect against damage to the structures.
5.8.2 PIER SHAFTS (2002)
a. Design of concrete piers shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design. Piers consisting of piles or
drilled shafts shall be in accordance with Part 4, Pile Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations of this
Chapter.
b. The bridge seat/pier cap shall be of sufficient size to keep bearing stresses within allowances and provide adequate
edge distances.2
c. The depths of a pier footing shall not be less than the depth of frost penetration in that part of the country (see Part 3,
Spread Footing Foundations of this Chapter) and not less than 3 feet below grade unless founded on solid, nonerodible
rock.
5.8.3 CAISSONS (2002)
Caisson design shall meet all of the design requirements for transferring the loads from the substructure element being
supported to the soil without exceeding allowable stresses and soil pressures. In addition, caissons shall be designed for (1)
stresses during sinking, including, but not limited to, lateral soil pressures and unequal hydrostatic pressure; (2) adequate
weight or other means of overcoming skin friction of the soil; and (3) means of support during the tremie sealing operation.
5.8.4 BEARINGS AND ANCHORAGE (2002)
The design of bearings and anchorage for steel spans shall be in accordance with Chapter 15 and Part 2, Reinforced Concrete
Design. Any uplift forces caused by buoyancy or the use of continuous spans shall be considered in the design of a pier and its
components with particular emphasis on anchorage of the superstructure. Anchorage that is subject to uplift forces shall be
designed to develop a minimum of one and one-half times the calculated force.
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary

5.8.5 PIERS IN NAVIGABLE STREAMS (2002)1
a. Consideration shall be given to collision damage. Piers shall be of sufficient size and mass to withstand a reasonable
anticipated collision or be protected in accordance with Part 23, Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable
Streams.
b. Unprotected piers shall be solid structures capable of resisting collision impacts in all directions including torsion.
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 5, Retaining Walls, Abutments and
Piers. In the numbering of articles in this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained.
C - SECTION 5.1 DEFINITIONS
C - 5.1.2 SCOUR (2002)
Different materials scour at different rates. Loose granular soils are rapidly eroded by flowing water, while cohesive or
cemented soils are more scour resistant. However, ultimate scour in cohesive or cemented soils can be as deep as scour in
sandbed streams. Scour will reach its maximum depth in sand and gravel bed material in hours; cohesive bed material in days;
glacial tills, sandstones and shales in months; limestones in years and dense granites in centuries. Massive rock formations
with few discontinuities are highly resistant to scour during the lifetime of a typical bridge. Scour holes may not be visible
during low water stages.
1
b. Contraction scour occurs when the flow area of a stream at flood stage is decreased from the normal, either by a natural
constriction or by a bridge. With the decrease in flow area there is an increase in average velocity and bed shear stress.
Hence, there is an increase in stream power at the contraction and more bed material is transported from the contracted
reach than is transported into the reach. This increase in the transport of bed material lowers the bed elevation.
3
Contraction scour is typically cyclic. That is, the bed scours during the rising stage of a runoff event, and fills on the falling
stage.
Other factors that can cause contraction scour are: (1) a natural stream constriction, (2) long embankment approaches over the
flood plain to the bridge, (3) ice formation or jams, (4) a natural berm forming along the banks due to sediment deposits, (5)
island or bar formations upstream or downstream of the bridge opening, (6) debris, and (7) the growth of vegetation in the
channel or flood plain. 4
In a natural channel, the depth of flow is always greater on the outside of a bend. In fact, there may well be deposition on the
inner portion of the bend. If a bridge is located on or close to a bend, the contraction scour will be concentrated on the outer
part of the bend.
C - 5.1.2 (c) Local Scour
Local scour is caused by the formation of vortices at the base of an abutment or pier. The formation of these vortices results
from the pileup of water on the upstream face and the acceleration of the flow around the pier or abutment. The action of the
vortex removes bed material from the area around the base of the pier. As the depth of the resulting scour hole increases, the
strength of the vortex decreases and equilibrium is eventually reached.
Factors affecting local scour are:
1 See Commentary

a. Pier width has a direct influence on depth of local scour. As width of the pier perpendicular to the flow increases, there
is an increase in scour depth.
b. Projected length of an abutment into the stream affects the depth of local scour. An increase in the projected length of
an abutment into the flow increases scour. However, there is a limit on the increase in scour depth with an increase in
length. This limit is reached when the ratio of projected length into the flow to the depth of the approach flow is 25.
c. Pier length has no appreciable effect on local scour depth as long as the pier is aligned with the flow. When the pier is
skewed to the flow, the length has a significant effect; i.e., with the same angle of attack, doubling the length of the pier
increases scour depth 33 percent.
d. Flow depth has an effect on the depth of local scour. An increase in flow depth can increase scour depth by a factor of
2 or greater for piers. With abutments the increase is from 1.1 to 2.15 depending on the shape of the abutment.
e. The approach flow velocity affects scour depth-the greater the velocity, the deeper the scour.
f. Bed material characteristics such as grain size, gradation, and cohesion can affect local scour. Variation in bed material
within the sand size range has no effect on local scour depth. Larger size bed material that can be moved by the flow or
by the vortices and turbulence created by the pier or abutment will not affect the maximum scour depth but only the
time it takes to attain it. Very large particles in the bed material, such as cobbles or boulders, may armor the scour hole.
Fine bed material (silts and clays) will have scour depths as deep as sand bed streams. This is true even if bonded
together by cohesion. The effect of cohesion is to influence the time it takes to reach the maximum scour. With sand
bed material, the maximum depth of scour is reached in hours and can result from a single flood event. With cohesive
bed materials it may take days, months, or even years to reach the maximum scour depth, the result of many flood
events.
g. The angle of attack of the flow to the pier or abutment has a significant effect on local scour, as was pointed out in the
discussion of pier length. Abutment scour is reduced when embankments are angled downstream and increased when
embankments are angled upstream.
h. Shape of the nose of a pier or an abutment has a significant effect on scour. Streamlining the front end of a pier reduces
the strength of the horseshoe vortex, thereby reducing scour depth. Streamlining the downstream end of piers reduces
the strength of the wake vortices. A square-nose pier will have maximum scour depths about 20 percent greater than a
sharp-nose pier and 10 percent greater than either a cylindrical or round nose pier.
i. Full retaining abutments with vertical walls on the streamside (parallel to the flow) will produce scour depths about
double that of spill-through abutments.
j. Ice and debris accumulations potentially increase the effective width of the piers, change the shape of piers and
abutments, increase the projected length of an abutment, and cause the flow to plunge downward against the bed. This
can increase both the local and contraction scour. The magnitude of the increase is still largely undetermined. Debris
can be taken into account in the scour equations by estimating how much debris will increase the width of the pier or
length of an abutment. Debris and ice effects on contraction scour can also be accounted for by estimating the amount
of flow blockage (decrease in width of the bridge opening) in the equations for contraction scour.
C - SECTION 5.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED
C - 5.2.5 TYPE OF BACKFILL (2002)
Type 1 backfill shall be used where feasible. Types 2 and 3, in declining order of preference, may be used due to economic or
other considerations.

C - SECTION 5.3 COMPUTATION OF APPLIED FORCES
C - 5.3.2 COMPUTATION OF BACKFILL PRESSURE (2002)
I. EARTH PRESSURE FORMULAS FROM RANKINE-COULOMB THEORIES
a. The following formulas are applicable only to materials that may be considered cohesionless.
(1) Cases 1 to 3 are for vertical walls without heels. The pressure P is the same as the pressure on a vertical plane in
the backfill (Figure C-8-5-1). Vertical walls with heels come under Cases 4 to 6.
Figure C-8-5-1. Cases 1, 2 and 3

(2) Cases 4 to 6 are for walls with heels (Figure C-8-5-2). The wall may be vertical or may lean forward, or may lean
backward as long as the upper edge of the back of the wall is in front of the vertical plane through the edge of the
heel.

(3) Cases 7 to 9 are for walls without heels, leaning backward (Figure C-8-5-3). Walls with heels come under Cases 4
to 6 as long as the upper edge of the back of the wall is in front of the vertical plane through the edge of the heel; if
the upper edge of the back of the wall extends back to the vertical plane through the edge of the heel, the problem
can be solved by combining the solutions of Cases 4 to 6 and 7 to 9.

b. For walls leaning forward or walls with the heel extending into the backfill, the pressure of the backfill on a vertical
plane through the back of the heel of the wall is to be combined with the weight of backfill contained between this
vertical plane and the back of the wall.
c. For walls leaning toward the backfill the resultant pressure P will be horizontal for a wall without surcharge, or for a
wall with uniform surcharge, if the surface of the backfill is horizontal; and will make an angle  with the horizontal
for a wall with a sloping surcharge. The values of  will vary from , where the wall is vertical, to zero, where
Rankine’s theory shows that the resultant pressure is horizontal. Values of  and values of K, where P = 1/2 wh2K, are
given in Figure C-8-5-3.
II. TRIAL WEDGE METHOD OF EARTH PRESSURE COMPUTATION
A. Scope
The trial wedge method is applicable for backfills of soils possessing cohesion, internal friction, or both; for backfills having
any configuration of ground surface; and for surcharges located at any position on the backfill. The procedure, illustrated in
Figure C-8-5-4 and Figure C-8-5-5, is outlined in the following Articles.
B. Computation of Total Pressure
(1) Make scale drawing of the wall with backfill and any surcharge loads.
(2) Locate surface AB against which earth pressure is to be computed. For walls with heels use vertical section as
shown in Figure C-8-5-4. For walls without heels use back of wall as shown in Figure C-8-5-5.
(3) Establish direction of earth pressure with respect to line AB, by the procedure described below under “Direction of
Pressure P”.
(4) Compute depth ho of tension cracks if soil has cohesion.
(5) Draw boundaries of trial wedges BC1, BD2, etc., wherein BC, BD, etc., are assumed plane surfaces of sliding.
(6) Compute weights of successive wedges ABC 1, ABD 2, etc., including any surcharge acting on the ground surface
within the limits of each wedge.
(7) Lay off weight vectors for successive wedges.
(8) Compute total cohesion on each surface of sliding BC, BD, etc.
(9) Lay off cohesion vectors from lower ends of weight vectors, each parallel to the surface of sliding on which it acts.
(10) From end of each cohesion vector draw line parallel to earth pressure P.
(11) From point B in force diagram lay off of radial lines BC, BD, etc., each making an angle  with the normal to its
respective surface of sliding (as force R on surface BF).
(12) Locate intersections of vectors R with corresponding lines drawn in paragraph 10 and connect intersections with
smooth curve. This is the earth pressure locus.
(13) Determine maximum distance between the TT and the earth pressure locus, measured parallel to line of action of
P. This distance represents the active earth pressure P.

C. Direction of Pressure P
(1) For walls with heels, the following procedure is applicable:
– Determine height h of wall, measured from point a.
– Locate point b on the surface of the backfill at the distance 2h measured horizontally from a.
– Draw line ab.
– Take direction of resultant earth pressure P as parallel to line ab.
(2) For walls without heels, where AB is the back of wall, take angle  equal to 2/3 
D. Point of Application Process
(1) The point of application of the resultant pressure P can be obtained by determining the approximate pressure-
distribution diagram (Figure C-8-5-4). The procedure is as follows:
– Subdivide the line BB into about 4 equal parts h1 below the depth h0 of tension cracking.
– Compute the active earth pressures, P1, P2, P3, etc., as if each of the points C, D, E, etc., were at the base of the
wall. The trial wedge method is used for each computation.
– Determine the average pressures P1, P2, etc., over each distance BC, CD, etc., as indicated in Figure C-8-5-4.
1
– Determine the elevation of the centroid of this approximate pressure diagram. This is the approximate elevation
of the point of application of the resultant earth pressure P.
(2) If the backfill may be considered cohesionless, the point of application of pressure may be obtained as follows:
3
– Determine the center of gravity of the earth and ballast in the wedge between the plane of rupture and the vertical
plane passing through the heel of the wall (Figure C-8-5-4) or the back of the wall (Figure C-8-5-5).
– Assume the center of gravity of the surcharge loads to be located at the surface of the backfill.
– Determine the center of gravity of the combined loads and draw a line from this point parallel to the plane of
rupture to a point of intersection with the vertical plane through the heel of the wall (Figure C-8-5-4) or the back 4
of the wall (Figure C-8-5-5).

Figure C-8-5-4. Earth Pressure Computation – Walls with Heels

Figure C-8-5-5. Earth Pressure Computation – Walls without Heels

C - SECTION 5.4 STABILITY COMPUTATION
C - 5.4.4 SETTLEMENT AND TILTING (2002)
If the pressure on a subsoil containing fairly thick layers of soft clay or peat is increased by the weight of the backfill, the wall
may tilt backward because of the compression of the clay or peat. The tilt may be estimated on the basis of a knowledge of the
compressibility of the subsoil. If the tilt is likely to be excessive, it is advisable to use backfill of lightweight material, to
replace the backfill by a structure, or otherwise to change the type of construction so as to avoid overloading the subsoil.
Progressive Creep or Movement
If the weight of the backfill is greater than one-half the ultimate bearing capacity of a clay subsoil, progressive movement of
the wall or abutment is likely to occur, irrespective of the use of a key or batter piles. In such case, it is advisable to use
backfill of lightweight material, to replace the backfill by a structure, or otherwise to change the construction so as to avoid
overloading the subsoil.
C - SECTION 5.5 DESIGN OF BACKFILL
C - 5.5.2 COMPACTION (2002)
a. For backfill type 4 and 5 a minimum number of passes is required if the moisture content is near optimum (OCM).
When the water content of clayey soil is too high, lamination sometimes occurs as the number of passes increases.
This phenomenon is harmful, so it is advisable to break up layers where this has happened.
C - SECTION 5.6 DESIGNING BRIDGES TO RESIST SCOUR
C - 5.6.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS (2002)
The principles of economic analysis and experience with actual flood damage indicate that it is almost always cost-effective to
provide a foundation that will not fail, even from a very large flood event.
C - 5.6.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2002)
C - 5.6.2.1 General
a. The top width of a local scour hole is about 2.75 times the depth of scour.
C - 5.6.2.2 Piers
b. Assess the hydraulic advantages of various pier shapes where there are complex flow patterns during flood events.
c. Streamline pier shapes to decrease scour and minimize potential for build-up of ice and debris. Where ice and debris
build-up is an obvious problem, design mulitiple pile bents as though they were a solid pier for purposes of estimating
scour. Consider various pier types and span arrangements to minimize scour effects.
C - 5.6.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE (2002)
Design measures incorporated in the original construction are almost always less costly than retrofitting scour
countermeasures.

The method used to calculate the support for a spread footing foundation on weathered or potentially erodable rock should be
based on an analysis of intact rock cores including rock quality designations and local geology, as well as hydraulic data and
anticipated structure life. An important consideration may be the existence of a high quality rock formation below a thin
weathered zone. For deep deposits of weathered rock, the potential scour depth should be estimated and the footing base
placed below that depth. Excavation into weathered rock should be made with care. If blasting is required, light, closely
spaced charges should be used to minimize overbreak beneath the footing level. Loose rock pieces should be removed and the
zone filled with lean concrete. In any event, the final footing should be poured in contact with the sides of the excavation for
the full design footing thickness to minimize water intrusion below footing level. The excavation above the top of the spread
footing should be filled with riprap sized to withstand flood flow velocities.
(1) The FHWA microcomputer software WSPRO, “Bridge Waterways Analysis Model” (21), the Corps of Engineers
HEC 2, and other current software programs are available for this task.
(5) Consider the limitations in the accuracy of the model and of the scour estimating procedures.
(6) Visualize the overall flood flow pattern at the bridge site for the design conditions. Use this mental picture to
identify those bridge elements most vulnerable to flood flows and resulting scour.
Consider any other factors that may affect scour such as prop wash, etc.
The extent of protection to be provided should be determined by:
– The degree of uncertainty in the scour prediction method.
– The potential for and consequences of failure.

1
– The added cost of making the bridge less vulnerable to scour.
(7b) Spread Footings on Rock Highly Resistant to Scour.
Small embedments (keying) should be avoided since blasting to achieve keying frequently damages the sub- 3
footing rock structure and makes it more susceptible to scour. If footings on smooth massive rock surfaces require
lateral constraint, steel dowels should be drilled and grouted into the rock below the footing level.
(7e) Deep Foundations (Piling or Drilled Shafts) with Footings.
Even lower footing elevations may be desirable for pile supported footings when the piles could be damaged by
erosion from exposure to river currents and corrosion from the elements. 4
C - SECTION 5.8 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR BRIDGE PIERS
C - 5.8.1 PIER SPACING, ORIENTATION AND TYPE (2002)
C - 5.8.1.1 Grade Separation Structures
a. “Highway Clearances for Bridges” and “Highway Clearances for Underpasses” of the Specifications of the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, and local and state clearance requirements are referred to
for appropriate highway clearance requirements.
C - 5.8.2 PIER SHAFTS (2002)
b. Consideration shall be given to providing a large enough seat to allow for jacking and blocking of the proposed
superstructure.

C - 5.8.5 PIERS IN NAVIGABLE STREAMS (2002)
The more massive the bridge pier, the less damage it will suffer in a collision.
The compressive and ultimate bending capacity of concrete piles can be significantly increased by increasing the confining
reinforcement. Battered exterior piles will improve the stability of the substructure as long as there is no seismic activity.
Vertical bar splices in pier shafts are subject to bond failure during impact. For this reason, increased development lengths or
mechnical splices are recommended. Splices should be staggered as far above the pier base as practical.
Laps should be tied at both ends to prevent initiating compression failure due to high bearing under the ends of bars.
Increasing the vertical steel reinforcement in pier shafts at the junction with the base and the cap can significantly increase
ductility as well as ultimate moment capacity, especially if combined with increased lateral reinforcement.
The use of redudant structural systems may allow for local failures without structure collapse.
Tension ties should be considered between the pile and the pier footing. Consideration should be given to designing the pier
footing block to develop the ultimate capacity of the piles without punching shear failure.
The following methods should be considered to increase the capacity of pier shafts to withstand collisions:
(1) Splice vertical bars at different elevations and double the development length for overlap or use mechanical
splices, certified to develop full strength of the bars under impact load.
(2) Tie bar laps at both ends.
(3) Provide confining spirals or ties, in an amount similar to that required for seismic design for columns. Hooks of
ties should be turned in and anchored in compressive zones.
(4) Increase the vertical steel reinforcement near the junction with the base and the cap.
(5) Design multiple shaft piers so that with the rupture of one shaft, the cap is so connected to the remaining shafts
that it can carry the dead load of the span as a cantilever without collapse.
(6) Provide shear walls between two or more shafts.
(7) Utilize keys and dowels for piers founded on firm foundation soil or rock.

3
The charts may be used for estimating the backfill pressure if the backfill material has been classified in accordance with Table 8-5-1.
NOTE: Numerals on Curves indicate soil types as described inTable 8-5-1.
For materials of Type 5 computations should be based on value of H four feet less than actual value.
4
Figure C-8-5-6. Earth Pressure Charts for Walls Less than 20 Feet High
(Sheet 1 of 2)

Figure C-8-5-6. Earth Pressure Charts for Walls Less than 20 Feet High
(Sheet 2 of 2)

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Part 10
Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe1
— 2018 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2

10.1.1 Scope (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2
10.1.2 Definitions (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2
10.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6 1

10.2.1 Pipe (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6
10.2.2 Rubber Gaskets (2016). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6
10.2.3 Acid Resistant Coatings or Liners (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6
10.3 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6

10.3.1 General (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6 3
10.3.2 References (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6
10.3.3 Loads (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-7
10.3.4 Bedding Factors (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-9
10.3.5 Minimum Pipe Strength (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-10
10.3.6 Factor of Safety (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-10
10.3.7 Pipe Strength (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-10
10.4 Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-13

10.4.1 Preparation of Subgrade (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-13
10.4.2 Pipe Installation (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-13
10.4.3 Backfill and Embankment (2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-14
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-17
Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-23
1 References, Vol. 81, 1980, p. 235; Vol 90, 1989, pp. 53, 67. Revised 1989.

LIST OF FIGURES
8-10-1 Standard Trench/Embankment Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3

8-10-2 Loads on Concrete Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-7
8-10-3 Live Load Distribution Through the Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-8
LIST OF TABLES
8-10-1 Standard Installations Soil and Minimum Compaction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4

8-10-2 Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications for Soil Designations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
8-10-3 Earth Load Bedding Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-9
8-10-4 Live Load Bedding Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-10
8-10-5 Reinforced Concrete Pipe Fill Height Tables for E 80 Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-11
SECTION 10.1 GENERAL
10.1.1 SCOPE (2016)
This part of the Manual covers the structural design and installation of reinforced concrete pipe for railway culverts.
Pipe geometry may be circular, arch, or elliptical.
10.1.2.1 Pipe Installation Conditions
a. Trench Installation. The pipe is installed in a relatively narrow trench excavated in undisturbed soil and then covered
with backfill extending to the ground surface.
b. Positive Projecting Embankment Installation. The pipe is installed on original ground or compacted fill with the top of
the pipe above the ground, or compacted fill and then covered with embankment.
c. Negative Projecting Embankment Installation. The pipe is installed within a relatively narrow trench with the top of the
pipe below the natural ground or compacted fill, and then covered with embankment.
d. Induced Trench Installation. The pipe is installed in a trench, backfilled with compressible material over the pipe, and
then covered by a high embankment.
e. Jacked or Tunneled Installation. The pipe is installed without removal of the ground above the pipe. Grouting of the
exterior annular space around the pipe may be required to ensure full contact with the soil around the pipe. If existing
soil conditions require an oversized tunnel, or if anticipated service conditions require access to the pipeline, a carrier
pipe may be installed within the tunnel or casing pipe.

Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe
10.1.2.2 Direct Bury Pipe Installation Types
Concrete Pipe may be installed in accordance with the requirements for a Type 1 through Type 4 Installation as shown in
Figure 8-10-1, and defined in Tables 8-10-1 and 8-10-2. The default installation for design shall be a Type 2 Installation,
unless otherwise designated by the Engineer.
Figure 8-10-1. Standard Trench/Embankment Installation

(Circular Pipe shown; also applies to arch and elliptical pipe) 4

Table 8-10-1. Standard Installations Soil and Minimum Compaction Requirements
Installation Haunch and Outer

Bedding Thickness Lower Side
Type Bedding
Type 1 Do/24 minimum, not less 95% Category I 90% Category I,
than 3” (75 mm) 95% Category II,
If rock foundation, use or
Do/12 minimum, not less 100% Category III
than 6” (150 mm)
Type 2 Do/24 minimum, not less 90% Category I 85% Category I,
than 3” (75 mm) or 90% Category II,
If rock foundation, use 95% Category II or
Do/12 minimum, not less 95% Category III
than 6” (150 mm)
Type 3 Do/24 minimum, not less 85% Category I, 85% Category I,
than 3” (75 mm) 90% Category II, 90% Category II,
If rock foundation, use or or
Do/12 minimum, not less 95% Category III 95% Category III
than 6” (150 mm)
Type 4 No bedding required except No compaction required, No compaction required,
if rock foundation, use except if Category III, except if Category III,
Do/12 minimum, not less use 85% use 85%
than 6” (150 mm)
Note: Compaction is a percentage of ASTM D698
Table 8-10-2. Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications for Soil Designations
Representative Soil Types
SIDD USCS AASHTO

Gravelly SW, SP, A1, A3
Sand GW, GP
(Category I)
Sandy GM, SM, ML, A2, A4
Silt Also GC, SC
(Category II) with less than
20% passing
#200 sieve
Silty CL, MH, A5, A6
Clay GC, SC
(Category III)

10.1.2.3 Symbols
Bc = Outside width of the pipe (ft)

Bd = Width of the pipe trench (ft)
Bf = Bedding factor, defined as the ratio between the supporting strength of buried pipe to the strength of the pipe
determined in the three-edge bearing test obtained according to requirements of ASTM Designation C497.
Bfe = Bedding factor for earth loads; the ratio of maximum moment in the three-edge bearing test to the maximum
moment in the buried condition when the vertical soil load and three-edge bearing load are equal.
Bfll = Bedding factor for live loads; the ratio of maximum moment in the three-edge bearing test to the maximum
moment in the buried condition when the vertical live load and the three-edge bearing load are equal.
coeffd = Coefficient of live load distribution through the pipe.
D = Inside diameter (or horizontal width) of the pipe (in)
Do = Outside diameter (or horizontal width) of the pipe (in)
D-Load = The supporting strength of a pipe loaded under the three-edge bearing test conditions, expressed in pounds per
linear foot, per foot of inside diameter or horizontal span. (lbs/ft/ft)
D0.01 = The maximum three-edge bearing test load supported by a concrete pipe before a crack having a width of 0.01
inch occurs throughout a continuous length of 1 foot. (lbs/ft/ft)
Dult = The maximum three-edge bearing test load supported by a concrete pipe.
Dist = Distribution of live load through the pipe (ft)
FS = Factor of Safety; normally taken as 1.0 for the D0.01 inch service D-load. 1
H = Height of cover over the top of the pipe (ft) taken from the base of rail to the top of the pipe (ft.)
I = The impact load applied to the top of the pipe as a fraction of the live load.
LT = Length of tie (ft)
IM = Impact load factor
P = Train Axle Load (lbs) = 80,000 lbs for Cooper E-80 Loading.
3
S = Axle spacing (ft.) = 5 ft. between 80 kip axles
Si = Inside span of pipe (in)
w = Unit weight of the backfill material (lbs per cubic foot)
WE = Earth loads transmitted to the pipe (lbs per linear foot)
4
WF = Weight of fluid carried in the pipe (lbs per linear foot)
WI = Live load at the top of the pipe (lbs per square foot)
WL = Live load including impact transmitted through the pipe (lbs per linear foot)
WS = Other loads transmitted to the pipe (lbs per linear foot)

10.2.1 PIPE (2016)
Pipe shall conform to the following ASTM Standards for type, size, shape, manufacturing, testing and strength requirements as
specified by the Engineer.
a. ASTM Designation C76, Specification for Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe.
b. ASTM Designation C506, Specification for Reinforced Concrete Arch Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe.
c. ASTM Designation C507, Specification for Reinforced Concrete Elliptical Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe.
d. ASTM Designation C655, Specification for Reinforced Concrete D-Load Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe.
10.2.2 RUBBER GASKETS (2016)
Rubber gaskets, if specified, shall conform to ASTM Designation C443, Specification for Joints for Concrete Pipe and
Manholes, Using Rubber Gaskets.
10.2.3 ACID RESISTANT COATINGS OR LINERS (2016)
Acid resistant coatings or liners shall be specified by the Engineer for the particular condition required.
SECTION 10.3 DESIGN
10.3.1 GENERAL (2016)
The design of reinforced concrete pipe culverts must take into account the type of installation and bedding, the soil constants
of the natural ground and backfill, the relative settlements of the pipe, pipe foundation, bedding, backfill and natural ground,
acidity of the flow, the physical measurements such as depth of cover and width of cut, determination of earth load, live load,
impact, and any additional loading.
10.3.2 REFERENCES (2016)
Satisfactory design methods, utilizing more exact design procedures, are referenced for the use of the Engineer:
a. American Concrete Pipe Association Concrete Pipe Design Manual.
b. American Concrete Pipe Association Concrete Pipe Handbook.
c. ASCE 15-98, Standard Practice for the Direct Design of Buried Precast Reinforced Concrete Pipe Using Standard
Installations (SIDD).

10.3.3 LOADS (2018)
a. Design loading on the pipe shall include Dead (Earth) Load, Live (Railroad) Load, Impact, and any other surcharge
loads. Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, Live (Railroad) Load shall be Cooper E 80. Earth Loads and
Cooper E 80 Live Loads may be obtained from Figure 8-10-2.
Figure 8-10-2. Loads on Concrete Pipe

4
b. The Engineer may use the equations below in order to determine the earth load transmitted to the pipe.
Other acceptable methods of analysis are given in Article 10.3.2.
WE = 1.45  Bc  H  w EQ 10-1
c. Track Loading to be supported by the pipe is shown in Figure 8-10-2. The indicated loading includes a variable
Impact Load of 40% at 1.5 feet below the base of rail, and 0% at 10 feet. The equation for this is shown below:
H – 1.5
IM = 1 –  -----------------  0.40 EQ 10-2
 8.5 
d. The Engineer may calculate the E 80 live load on the pipe in (psf) by dividing the 80 kip axle load by the 5 foot spacing
length between axles, and a total width of 8 feet for the track plus the load distribution through the height of cover
using a ratio of 1:1 as shown in Figure 8-10-3:

Figure 8-10-3. Live Load Distribution Through the Soil
e. The following equation may be used to calculate the live load at the top of the pipe in pounds per square foot:
P   1 + IM 
W l = ----------------------------------- EQ 10-3
 S   LT + H  
f. Where the live load spread from multiple tracks running side by side overlap (center-to-center spacing of tracks is less
than LT + H), the live load distribution shall consider the area that encompasses the spread from all interacting track.
That load shall be assumed uniform over the entire area of the live load spread.
g. When the live load reaches the top of the pipe, it is further dissipated through the structure of the pipe a distance of:
Coeffd = 242 Do-1.97 + 0.855 EQ 10-4
Dist = Coeffd x Do < 54 inches EQ 10-5
h. Live load pressure at the top of the pipe is independent of the direction the train travels with respect to the axis of the
pipe.

i. For track running perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pipe, the live load in pounds per linear foot for design
shall be:
Wl  BC   LT + H 
W L = ------------------------------------------------ EQ 10-6
L T + H + Dist
For track running parallel to the longitudinal axis of the pipe, the live load in pounds per linear foot for design shall be:
WL = W1  BC EQ 10-7
j. Any surface surcharges, other than track load shall be converted to additional height of fill to determine their loading
on the pipe.
k. Loading on a carrier pipe, that is within a casing pipe, shall be taken as the full Dead + Live + Impact Load without
consideration of the presence of the casing, unless the casing is permanently protected from corrosion using such
means as providing extra pipe thickness or a resistant coating.
l. If a trench design is utilized, the design trench width shall be indicated on the construction drawings as a maximum
width of trench. The minimum width of the trench shall be Bc+2 feet or 1.33 Bc, whichever is greater.
10.3.4 BEDDING FACTORS (2016)

1
a. Earth load bedding factors to be used in the equation for determination of the D-Load shall be obtained from
Table 8-10-3 or as permitted by interpolation.
Table 8-10-3. Earth Load Bedding Factors
Standard Installation Types (Note 1)

Pipe Installation Methods 3
1 2 3 4 Tunnel
Direct Bury (Note 2)
D = 12 inches 4.4 3.2 2.5 1.7 –
D = 24 inches 4.2 3.0 2.4 1.7 –
D = 36 inches 4.0 2.9 2.3 1.7 – 4
D = 72 inches 3.8 2.8 2.2 1.7 –
D = 144 inches 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.7 –
Jacked or Tunneled (all sizes) – – – – 3.0
Carrier Pipe (all sizes) 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.7 –
Casing Pipe (all sizes) – – – – 3.0
Note 1: See Figure 8-10-1 and Tables 8-10-1 and 8-10-2.
Note 2: For pipe diameters other than listed in Table 8-10-3, earth load bedding factors can be obtained by interpolation.
b. Live load bedding factors to be used in the equation for determination of the D-Load shall be obtained from
Table 8-10-4, or as permitted by interpolation.

Table 8-10-4. Live Load Bedding Factors
Fill Pipe Diameter, inches

Height
(ft) 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 144
1.0 2.2 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.1
1.5 2.2 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1
2.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3
2.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3
3.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.4
3.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.4
4.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.5
4.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7
5.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.8
5.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.9
6.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.0
6.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2
Note 1: For pipe diameters other than listed in Table 8-10-4, Bfll values can be obtained by
interpolation.
Note 2: For fill heights equal to or greater than 6.5 feet, the live load bedding factor shall be 2.2.
10.3.5 MINIMUM PIPE STRENGTH (2016)
Pipe subjected to track loads shall have a minimum strength of D0.01 = 1350 lbs/ft/ft (Class III) even if analysis indicates that
a lower D-Load is satisfactory.
10.3.6 FACTOR OF SAFETY (2016)
The standard Factor of Safety of 1.0 against a 0.01 inch crack D-Load should be used for design unless the Engineer indicates
that a higher Factor of Safety is required.
10.3.7 PIPE STRENGTH (2016)
The required D-Load of the pipe shall be determined by the following equation:
WE + WF WL FS
D 0.01 =  ---------------------- + --------   ------- EQ 10-8
 B fe B fll  D 
10.3.8 ALTERNATE DESIGN PROCEDURE (2016)
In lieu of carrying out the complete design analysis required by these guidelines, the Engineer may choose the required pipe
strength for E 80 loading based on Table 8-10-5.
Class III = 1350 lbs/ft/ft

Class IV = 2000 lbs/ft/ft
Class V = 3000 lbs/ft/ft

Table 8-10-5. Reinforced Concrete Pipe Fill Height Tables for E 80 Loading
Type 2 Fill Height (ft) - From Base of Rail to Top of Pipe

Installation 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
12 1386 1371 1342 1297 1270 1257 1255 1262 1277 1298 1326
15 1507 1319 1291 1251 1226 1215 1215 1223 1239 1261 1288
18 1290 1279 1254 1217 1196 1187 1189 1199 1216 1239 1267
24 1227 1220 1199 1170 1156 1152 1158 1172 1193 1219 1250
30 1313 1197 1157 1135 1125 1126 1136 1153 1175 1205 1236
36 1434 1183 1123 1107 1103 1108 1121 1141 1167 1197 1232
42 1463 1223 1135 1082 1082 1091 1107 1129 1156 1188 1224
48 1515 1283 1160 1067 1070 1081 1099 1123 1152 1185 1222
54 1562 1384 1212 1071 1074 1086 1104 1128 1157 1190 1227
Inside Diameter, Di (inches)
60 1614 1506 1271 1076 1080 1092 1110 1135 1164 1197 1235
66 1670 1555 1369 1138 1087 1099 1118 1142 1172 1206 1243
72 1732 1607 1487 1209 1094 1107 1126 1151 1181 1215 1253
78 1735 1611 1491 1238 1116 1112 1131 1156 1186 1221 1258 1
84 1740 1616 1496 1269 1138 1118 1138 1162 1192 1226 1264
90 1745 1673 1544 1301 1181 1125 1144 1169 1199 1233 1270
96 1750 1733 1595 1336 1227 1132 1151 1176 1205 1239 1277
102 1884 1739 1601 1403 1255 1168 1158 1182 1212 1246 1283
108 2041 1745 1607 1478 1284 1207 1165 1190 1219 1253 1290 3
114 2047 1752 1662 1485 1315 1232 1185 1197 1226 1260 1297
120 2053 1758 1721 1492 1347 1257 1206 1204 1234 1267 1305
126 2060 1824 1728 1518 1381 1274 1221 1212 1241 1275 1312
132 2067 1895 1735 1544 1416 1292 1236 1219 1249 1283 1320
138 2073 1971 1742 1572 1454 1309 1251 1227 1257 1290 1327
4
144 2081 2053 1750 1600 1493 1327 1266 1235 1264 1298 1335

Table 8-10-5. Reinforced Concrete Pipe Fill Height Tables for E 80 Loading (Continued)
Type 2 Fill Height (ft) - From Base of Rail to Top of Pipe

Installation 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
12 1381 1438 1497 1558 1621 1684 1749 1815 1882 1949
15 1343 1399 1457 1517 1578 1640 1704 1768 1833 1899
18 1321 1378 1435 1495 1556 1618 1681 1744 1809 1875
24 1305 1362 1421 1481 1542 1605 1668 1733 1798 1864
30 1292 1350 1409 1470 1532 1594 1658 1722 1788 1853
36 1289 1348 1408 1470 1532 1595 1660 1725 1791 1857
42 1282 1341 1401 1463 1526 1589 1654 1719 1784 1851
48 1280 1339 1400 1462 1525 1589 1653 1718 1784 1851
54 1286 1345 1406 1468 1531 1595 1659 1724 1790 1857
Inside Diameter, Di (inches)
60 1293 1353 1414 1476 1539 1603 1667 1733 1799 1865
66 1302 1362 1423 1485 1549 1613 1677 1743 1809 1876
72 1312 1372 1433 1496 1559 1624 1689 1754 1821 1887
78 1317 1377 1438 1500 1564 1628 1692 1758 1824 1891
84 1323 1382 1443 1505 1568 1632 1697 1762 1828 1895
90 1328 1388 1449 1511 1574 1638 1702 1767 1833 1899
96 1335 1394 1455 1517 1580 1643 1708 1773 1838 1905
102 1341 1401 1462 1523 1586 1649 1714 1779 1844 1910
108 1348 1408 1468 1530 1592 1656 1720 1785 1850 1916
114 1355 1415 1475 1537 1599 1662 1726 1791 1857 1922
120 1363 1422 1482 1544 1606 1669 1733 1798 1863 1929
126 1370 1429 1489 1551 1613 1676 1740 1805 1870 1936
132 1377 1437 1497 1558 1620 1683 1747 1812 1877 1943
138 1385 1444 1504 1566 1628 1691 1756 1819 1884 1950
144 1393 1452 1512 1573 1635 1698 1762 1826 1891 1957
Notes: Values in Table 8-10-5 are D-Load values for the D0.01, D-Load strengths of the pipe in lbs/ft/ft. The assumptions used
to determine the values in the table are:
• W = 120 pcf unit weight of soil

• Live Load = E 80
• Installation Type = Type 2 Installation using a granular soil compacted to 90% Standard Proctor
• Installation Condition = positive projected embankment condition

SECTION 10.4 INSTALLATION
10.4.1 PREPARATION OF SUBGRADE (2016)
10.4.1.1 Excavation
a. Trenches shall be excavated in accordance with bank stability requirements to a width sufficient to allow for proper
joining of the pipe and thorough compaction of the bedding and backfill material under and around the pipe. The
completed trench bottom shall be firm and cleaned for its full length and width.
b. The pipe trench bottom shall be cambered longitudinally if settlement after installation is expected. If camber of the
pipe trench is required, the indicated camber must be shown on the plans.
c. Where specified on the plans, the excavation for a pipe to be placed within embankment fill shall be made after the
embankment has been completed to the specified height above the top of the pipe.
10.4.1.2 Foundation
If the foundation is incapable of supporting the pipe loads, an adequate support shall be specified or approved by the Engineer.
10.4.2 PIPE INSTALLATION (2016)
10.4.2.1 Laying Pipe

1
a. Pipe laying shall begin at the downstream end of the culvert. The bell or groove end of the pipe shall be placed
upstream. No culvert shall be put into service until a suitable outlet is provided for the water.
b. Elliptical pipe shall be placed with the vertical axis within 5 degrees of a vertical plane through the longitudinal axis of
the culvert.
10.4.2.2 Bedding
3
a. Pipe bedding and placement shall be specified to conform to one of the Installations denoted in Table 8-10-1.
b. When pipe cannot be placed on a prepared surface but must instead be placed on an unprepared surface, the installation
shall be considered to be a Type 4 Installation. Type 4 Installations should only be used for emergency work, and are
not recommended for permanent installations unless authorized by the Engineer. For typical Type 4 Installations, see 4
Figure 8-10-1 and Table 8-10-1.
10.4.2.3 Joining Pipe
a. Pipe may either be bell and spigot or tongue and groove design unless otherwise specified. When bell pipe is used, a
shallow excavation shall be made underneath the bell of sufficient depth so that the bell does not rest on the bedding
material.
b. Pipe sections shall be joined so that the ends are fully entered and the inner surface areas are reasonably flush and even
per the manufacturer’s recommendations.
c. Joints shall be made with grout, rubber gaskets, plastic mastic compounds, or other combination of these types as
approved and specified by the Engineer. Mortar joints in pipe that is jacked into place shall not be sealed with mortar
until the culvert jacking is complete.
d. In areas where pipe sections could separate, suitable ties should be specified to prevent pipe section separation.

e. Endwalls or headwalls may be used for culverts under tracks and designed to resist pipe separations as well as to retain
the embankment.
10.4.2.4 Leak Resistance
If leak resistance joints are required, rubber gasketed pipe is recommended. When such joints are specified, the pipe should be
tested for infiltration or exfiltration as stipulated by the Engineer. The maximum rate of leakage shall conform to the following
accepted requirements, or to other standards set forth by the Engineer:
• Infiltration – 0.6 gallons per hour per inch of diameter per 100 feet of pipe.
• Exfiltration – 0.6 gallons per hour per inch of diameter per 100 feet of pipe when subjected to an internal head of 2
feet, and increased by 10% for each additional 2 feet of head.
10.4.2.5 Culverts Carrying High Acid Fluids
Where the pH of the conducted fluid is less than 4.5, the internal surfaces of the culvert shall be protected from acid attack by
a suitable permanent coating or liner. The Engineer shall specify the type of protection and the means of application.
10.4.3 BACKFILL AND EMBANKMENT (2016)
10.4.3.1 General
a. The backfill around the culvert shall be placed in accordance with the requirements denoted in Table 8-10-1 and
Figure 8-10-1, and other requirements of Chapter 8, Part 10.
b. All culverts that are to carry track load shall have the backfill thoroughly compacted to a minimum density of 95% as
determined by ASTM D698, and as specified elsewhere in the project specifications for adjacent embankment.
10.4.3.2 Embankment Bedding
a. Where rock or noncompressible foundation material is encountered, the hard unyielding material should be excavated
below the elevation of the bottom of the pipe or pipe bell to a depth in accordance with Table 8-10-1, or 1/2 inch for
each foot of fill over the top of the pipe, whichever is greater, but need not be more than 3/4 inch of the diameter (or
horizontal span) of the pipe.
b. For a negative projecting embankment condition, the width of the excavation, Bd, shall be at least 1.33 Bc and with a
minimum of 2 feet greater than the outside diameter of the pipe for thorough filling and compaction of the void space
under the pipe haunch.
10.4.3.3 Trench Bedding
a. Materials for backfill on each side of the pipe for the full width of the trench and to an elevation of 1 foot above the
pipe shall not contain frozen lumps, stones that would be retained on a 2 inch sieve, chunks, highly plastic clay, or
other objectionable material. Granular backfill material shall have 100% passing a 3/4 inch sieve, not less than 95%
passing a 1/2 inch sieve, and not less than 95% retained on a No. 16 sieve. Oversized material shall be removed at the
source of the material, except as directed by the Engineer.
b. When the top of the pipe is even with or below the top of the trench, backfill material shall be placed at or near the
optimum moisture content and compacted in layers not exceeding 6 inches (compacted) on both sides of the pipe for
the full required length.

c. Backfill material shall be placed and compacted for the full depth of the trench, unless induced trench installation is
used.
d. When the top of the pipe is above the top of the trench, backfill shall be placed at or near optimum moisture content
and compacted in layers not exceeding 6 inches (compacted) and shall be brought up evenly on both sides of the pipe
for its full length to an elevation 1 foot above the top of the pipe. The width of backfill on each side of the pipe for the
portion above the top of the trench shall be equal to twice the diameter of the pipe or 12 feet, whichever is less. The
backfill material used in the trench section and the portion above the top of the trench for a distance on each side of the
pipe equal to the horizontal diameter and to 1 foot above the top of the pipe shall conform to the requirements for
backfill in paragraph a. The remainder of the backfill shall meet the requirements for embankment construction.
e. The width of the trench, Bd, shall be 1.33 Bc, but not less than 2 feet greater than the outside diameter of the pipe in
order to completely fill the void.
10.4.3.4 Induced Trench Method (Special Design)
a. The Induced Trench method shall not be used when the pipe is subjected to track loading without making a complete
investigation of the settlements involved.
b. When the Induced Trench method is used, design and installation requirements shall follow the recommendations set
forth in the references in Article 10.3.2. The embankment shall be completed as required in Article 10.4.3.3 to a height
above the pipe equal to the vertical outside diameter of the pipe plus 1 foot. A trench equal in width to the outside
horizontal diameter of the pipe, in depth equal to the vertical outside diameter of the pipe, and to the length shown on
the plans shall then be excavated to within 1 foot of the top of the pipe, trench walls being as nearly vertical as possible.
This trench shall be loosely filled with highly compressible material. Construction of the embankment above the pipe
1
shall then proceed in a normal manner using regular fill material.
c. The length of the Induced Trench method shall be determined by the Engineer in keeping with the design assumptions
and the pipe strength being used.
d. When the Alternate Induced Trench method is used, the embankment shall be constructed in a normal manner to a 3
height above the culvert bedding elevation equal to twice the outside diameter of the pipe. A trench as required shall
then be excavated with the walls as nearly vertical as possible, and the pipe bedded and backfilled to 1 foot above the
pipe as called for in Article 10.4.3.3. The remaining portion of the trench shall then be loosely filled with highly
compressible material. Construction of embankment shall then proceed in a normal manner.
e. In no case shall the length of compressible material extend to the ends of the culvert.
4
f. Rock fill shall not be dumped over the culvert without a sufficient cushion of earth to prevent breakage of the pipe.
10.4.3.5 Jacking Pipe
a. Pipe used for jacking shall form a continuous smooth outside surface when placed in contact with the adjacent pipe.
The tongue or spigot shall preferably be at the downstream end. Jacking frames shall be so constructed as to avoid
breaking the pipe or forcing it out of alignment. The pipe shall preferably be jacked upgrade in order to provide
drainage at the heading during excavation. Satisfactory means shall be provided for maintaining the lead pipe at the
correct line and grade.
b. The pipe shall be installed according to plans and specifications. The contractor’s submittal shall document the
construction procedure, extra pipe reinforcement and jack shield (if required), jacking pit location, shoring, estimated
deformation, track monitoring procedures, and other features for the safe and satisfactory completion of the work.
Plans prepared by the contractor giving the construction details shall be submitted to the Engineer for review.

c. Voids created during jacking operations shall be filled with a suitable grout material. Grout shall be pumped through
grout ports integrally cast into the pipe, or drilled after production. Locations shall be recorded after mining is
completed.
d. Monitor elevation and alignment of the railroad track above during the jacking procedures. Jacking must be stopped
and any problems corrected if track movement is detected.
10.4.3.6 Installing Pipe in Tunnels
When it is necessary to place culvert pipe by tunneling, plans and specifications for the completed structure shall be prepared
by the Engineer. The contractor shall set forth the construction procedures and other necessary details and submit them to the
Engineer for review.

C - COMMENTARY
-2016-
C - 10.1.1 SCOPE (2016)
A culvert pipe allows flow under the railroad. The flow might consist of effluent, animals, people, or vehicular traffic. Culvert
pipes differ from bridges mainly in size and construction. They typically have a span of 12 feet or less and do not have a
superstructure separate from the substructure.
C - 10.1.2 DEFINITIONS (2016)
C - 10.1.2.1 Pipe Installation Conditions
Underground pipelines are classified into several categories dependent upon the type of installation and soil loading
conditions. This section defines the basic categories.
C - 10.1.2.2 Direct Bury Pipe Installation Types
Direct bury pipe consists of any pipe where the soil is placed directly above it during installation. This essentially consists of
all installation types except jacked or tunneled. 1
Type 1 through Type 4 Installations refer to the particular designation of a Standard Installation as developed by the American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), and first published in ASCE 15-98, "Standard Practice for Direct Design of Buried Precast
Concrete Pipe Using Standard Installations (SIDD)". A Type 1 Installation represents an installation with high quality
materials and high compaction effort. Conversely, a Type 4 Installation is utilized where there is little or no control over the
back fill materials or compaction.
3
A Type 1 Installation utilizes granular soils with 95% Standard Proctor compaction around the lower haunch area of the pipe.
More than likely, most concrete pipe installations under and near railroads will utilize an installation similar to a Type 1.
However, to allow for conservatism and the potential for less than ideal installation, a Type 2 Installation has been designated
as the default installation for this manual.
C - FIGURE 8-10-1. STANDARD TRENCH/EMBANKMENT INSTALLATION 4

This figure denotes the typical terminology used for the pipe installation. The figure also references the appropriate tables
within this manual where the Engineer can find the prescribed materials and compaction levels for the four types of
installations.
C - TABLE 8-10-1. STANDARD INSTALLATIONS SOIL AND MINIMUM COMPACTION

REQUIREMENTS
This table provides the bedding thicknesses, material categories, and compaction levels for the four types of Standard
Installations. Standard Proctor is in reference to the requirements of ASTM D698, or AASHTO T 99.

C - TABLE 8-10-2. EQUIVALENT USCS AND AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATIONS FOR

SOIL DESIGNATIONS
This table provides the soils included in each soil category used with the Standard Installations. USCS references the
Unified Soil Classification System per ASTM D 2487. AASHTO is a reference to the American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Standard M 145.
C - 10.1.2.3 Symbols
The standard definitions for terms typically used in pipe design and installation are presented. The outside diameter, or
horizontal span of the pipe can be specified in inch units (Do), or feet units (Bc).
Prior to 2014, the projection ratio "p" was defined in this section. The projection ratio defines the projection of the pipe above
the insitu surface, and was used in establishing the load on the pipe and the pipe’s bedding factor. With the incorporation of the
Standard Installations, these values are presented in tables within this manual or given in the equations supplied. Thus the
projection ratio is no longer needed. The new bedding factors provided in the manual are based on a positive projecting
embankment condition, which is the case when the pipe will be subjected to the highest loading. This condition is the default
condition used in the design guidance given in this manual. For unique designs, the Engineer may use more precise design
methods.
C - SECTION 10.2 MATERIALS
C - 10.2.1 PIPE (2016)
Reinforced concrete pipe is produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The ASTM manufacturing standards are referenced.
C - SECTION 10.3 DESIGN
C - 10.3.1 GENERAL (2016)
The load that a buried culvert pipe is subjected to depends on the surrounding soil, and the installation methods used. This
manual utilizes the Standard Installations with the indirect design method based on a positive projecting embankment
condition. The positive projecting embankment condition is conservative for typical designs, and takes into account the soil
and installation conditions.
For durability in harsh environments, the Engineer is encouraged to seek additional resources beyond this manual.
C - 10.3.2 REFERENCES (2016)
The Standard Installations were originally developed by ASCE and first published in 1998, ASCE 15-98, "Standard Practice
for Direct Design of Buried Precast Concrete Pipe Using Standard Installations (SIDD)". The installation and design
requirements are based on extensive research funded by the American Concrete Pipe Association (ACPA). ACPA
subsequently incorporated the installations and design method into their literature. Although it is not listed, the same
installation and design method can be found in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
C - 10.3.3 LOADS (2018)
Other railroad loads may be specified by the railroad, including loads higher than Cooper E 80 for heavier trains, and less than
Cooper E 80 for light rail.

An example of calculating the dead (earth) load on a concrete pipe is given in Article 10.3.3 Loads. If the Engineer chooses to
perform a more detailed calculation of either the earth load, or the supporting bedding factor, the Engineer may utilize one of
the references in Article 10.3.2.
The earth load carried by the pipe is generally greater than the soil prism above the pipe expressed as: WE = Bc x H x w. Prior
to 2014, this value was multiplied by a factor of 2.0. Research performed for the Standard Installations has shown the
maximum vertical load to be 1.45 times the soil prism load. A Type 1 or Type 2 installation will have less load than calculated
with the 1.45 factor.
The live load pressure on the horizontal plane at the top of the pipe (psf), is determined through the use of EQ 10-3. In EQ 10-
3, “P” is the train axle load in pounds. For a Cooper E 80 Load this value is 80,000 lbs. For a Cooper E 90 load, this value
would be 90,000 pounds, and likewise 60,000 pounds for an E 60 load. The axle spacing in feet is denoted as “S”, and the
length of the tie is denoted as “LT”.
The live load pressure calculation in EQ 10-3 incorporates the impact factor “I”, which is calculated from EQ 10-2, to
determine the total live load plus impact on top of the pipe.
Upon reaching the top of the concrete pipe, the live load distributes an additional length through the pipe. This distribution is a
function of the pipe diameter. EQ 10-4 and EQ 10-5 are used to calculate the load distribution. These equations are based on
testing performed by the ACPA using concentrated loads on concrete pipe. The results of this research are published in the
2012 ASCE Pipelines Proceedings, "Physical Evaluation of the Dissipation of a Concentrated Load When Applied to
Reinforced Concrete Pipe", J.W. Beakley.
The live load used for determining the D-load requirement of the concrete pipe must be expressed in pounds per linear foot.
Thus, the total live load on the pipe must be divided by the effective length of the pipe resisting the load to determine the live
1
load in pounds per linear foot of pipe. EQ 10-6 is appropriate for use in calculating the live load on the pipe when the train is
traveling perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the pipe, and EQ 10-7 is appropriate when their orientations are parallel.
C - FIGURE 8-10-2. LOADS ON CONCRETE PIPE
The graphs in this figure are based on the equations presented in Article 10.3.3, assuming a Type 2 Installation, using a soil 3
unit weight of 120 pcf and a Cooper E 80 Live Load. The equation uses an 8’ tie length.
C - 10.3.4 BEDDING FACTORS (2016)
The earth load bedding factors account for the support provided by the surrounding soil to assist the pipe in supporting the
earth loads applied to the pipe. Higher quality installations will result in a higher value for the earth load bedding factor. There
is a slight size affect on the bedding factors. Carrier pipe bedding factors are defaulted to the lowest bedding factor for a
4
particular installation. Jacked or tunneled pipe is given an earth load bedding factor of 3.0, assuming the pipe will receive
sufficient soil support from the undisturbed soil surrounding it. This also assumes that the annular space around the pipe is
grouted.
Prior to 2014, the earth and live loads used the same bedding factors. In 2014 the earth and live load bedding factors were
separated to account for how these loads have different effects on the pipe. Because of the difficulty in getting good
compaction under the lower haunches of the pipe, the location of highest moment from earth loads is typically at the invert of
the pipe. However, at shallow fills, a concentrated live load may result in a higher moment at the crown of the pipe. Thus, live
load bedding factors have been incorporated to account for shallow pipe installations. The live load bedding factors are based
on a concentrated wheel footprint, and are thus very conservative for track applications. The larger the pipe, the more localized
the effect from a concentrated load, thereby resulting in lower live load factors for larger diameter pipes.

C - 10.3.6 FACTOR OF SAFETY (2016)
The designated value of 1.0 for the factor of safety is based on the service load requirements for the pipe. The actual factor of
safety in the pipe is the ratio of its ultimate load to its 0.01 inch crack load, which for a Class III pipe is 1.5.
C - 10.3.7 PIPE STRENGTH (2016)
The pipe strength is defined as its D0.01 Service Load. This is the load the pipe must be able to support in the three-edge
bearing test at the manufacturing facility to ensure the pipe can support the soil and live loads when it is installed in the field.
The D-load is calculated from the loads on the pipe expressed in lbs/ft divided by the bedding factor for that particular load
(unitless). In order to allow a uniform application of the D-load values independent of size, the pipe load in lbs/ft is further
divided by the diameter so that it is expressed in units of lbs per foot of length, per foot of diameter.
Minimum D-load values for pipe designated in accordance with ASTM C76, “Standard Specification for Reinforced Concrete
Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe” are as follows:
Pipe Class per ASTM C76 D0.01 (lbs/ft/ft) DUlt (lbs/ft/ft)

Class I 800 1200
Class II 1000 1500
Class III 1350 2000
Class IV 2000 3000
Class V 3000 3750
Note: Pipe subjected to track loads shall be a minimum of Class III
C - 10.3.8 ALTERNATE DESIGN PROCEDURE (2016)
EQ 10-1 through EQ 10-6 of this Chapter have been utilized to develop Table 8-10-5. The use of the table applies to typical
railway pipe installations, and simplifies the design process for the Engineer. The Engineer must confirm that the assumptions
made in developing the table are consistent with the design. Table 8-10-5 is based on a soil density of 120 pcf, and a Cooper E
80 live load. It also assumes a Type 2 Installation. Thus if a Type 3 or Type 4 Installation are used, the values in the table may
be insufficient. However, a Type 3 or Type 4 Installation should generally not be used under a railway. A more likely incidence
where a design outside of the table may be required is when the railroad load exceeds a Cooper E 80.
Table 8-10-5 is shaded to indicate the Class of Pipe per ASTM C76, “Standard Specification for Reinforced Concrete Culvert,
Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe” that would be required to meet or exceed the D-load value calculated in the table.
C - 10.4.1 PREPARATION OF SUBGRADE (2016)
C - 10.4.1.1 Excavation
It is important that the trench width be sufficient to ensure good compaction around the pipe and its lower haunches.
If the pipeline is placed on weak soils, and is expected to settle to the point that there may be a dip in the line after installation,
then the Engineer may specify an initial vertical camber (rise) in the pipeline so that after experiencing settlement, the pipe
will have a smooth grade line along its length.

C - 10.4.1.2 Foundation
If the foundation consists of unsuitable material, the Engineer may need to specify removal of the foundation to a certain level
and replacement with more stable material, or the use of pilings, ground improvement, or other such means to stabilize the
foundation.
C - 10.4.2 PIPE INSTALLATION (2016)
C - 10.4.2.1 Laying Pipe
Pipe is started at the downstream end of the pipe so that a suitable outlet for the water exists in case of a rain event prior to
completion of the installation. Additionally, by bringing the spigot or tongue end of the pipe into the bell or groove end, there
is less chance for the contractor to drag soil into the joint when laying the pipe.
C - 10.4.2.2 Bedding
Bedding is crucial for the nesting of the pipe and the initial distribution of the reaction at the pipe bottom. If the proper bedding
cannot be achieved, then the Engineer should assume a Type 4 installation. The Type 4 installation does not have a required
bedding thickness (unless on rock).
C - 10.4.2.3 Joining Pipe
Joints are a critical part of the pipeline. Joint configurations can vary, and the concrete pipe manufacturer should be consulted
for allowable field tolerances for their joints. Joints typically are “soil tight” as per ASTM C990, “Standard Specification for 1
Joints for Concrete Pipe, Manholes, and Precast Box Sections Using Preformed Flexible Joint Sealants”, or “leak resistant” as
per ASTM C443, “Standard Specification for Joints for Concrete Pipe and Manholes Using Rubber Gaskets”. The joint
performance requirements are listed in the applicable ASTM joint specification.
End sections of pipes may move outward due to slope creep or undercut of the soil at the inlet or outlet. The last few sections
of pipe can be secured by a method recommended by the manufacturer if this is a concern.
3
C - 10.4.3 BACKFILL AND EMBANKMENT (2016)
C - 10.4.3.2 Embankment Bedding
A negative projecting embankment condition is when the pipe is installed in a trench, and additional embankment cover is
built above it. In this case, the trench width requirement is the same as if the pipe was installed in a complete trench condition.
4
C - 10.4.3.4 Induced Trench Method (Special Design)
The induced trench method is a special form of embankment condition, whereby the embankment is first built up around and
over the pipe, and a trench is dug down to one foot above the pipe to allow for lighter back fill material to be placed in this
area. This method reduces the soil load on the pipe over what would occur with a positive projecting embankment installation.
However, the installation requires a significant amount of care by the contractor. Thus, it may be advisable in some instances
to utilize a special design for the reinforced concrete pipe under a heavier positive projecting embankment condition than to
utilize a special design for the installation itself. The additional strength required of the special design pipe can be produced
and tested in a controlled environment, versus creating a special installation environment in the field.
C - 10.4.3.5 Jacking Pipe
Jacking operations require pipe with the ability to handle large axial compressive forces. Thus, the pipe joint is critical. A large
contact surface at the pipe end is beneficial.

Although a jacking pipe requires high axial capability, which is largely a function of the concrete compressive strength, the
vertical load on the pipe is usually much less than that required for a direct bury installation. Therefore, there is no justification
for specifying a Class V pipe for jacking purposes, unless a calculation of the load condition would require a Class V pipe. The
shearing stress and cohesion of the insitu soil may relieve a significant portion of the vertical load beyond what a direct bury
installation would require. However, the Engineer is cautioned that if there is reasonable expectation for the surrounding soil
to be disturbed at a later date, it is best to design the vertical loads on the pipe assuming a direct bury condition so that any
future disturbance of the surrounding soil is addressed in the initial design.

APPENDIX A
CONCRETE PIPE DESIGN EXAMPLE
Determine the required D-load, and Class of pipe for an 84 inch reinforced concrete pipe installed with a cover height
of 2 feet from the base of rail to the top of pipe, subjected to an E80 live load.
Method 1: Using The Fill Height Table 8-10-5
The D-load of the pipe can be directly found From Table 8-10-5. The required D-load of the 84 inch pipe is 1,496 lbs/ft/ft,
which would constitute a Class IV pipe.
Method 2: Calculate the D-load Using the Figures and Tables in Chapter 8, Part 10
The standard procedure for determining the required strength of reinforced concrete pipe is:
(1) Determine the Earth Load
(2) Determine the Fluid Load
(3) Determine the Live Load at the Top of the Pipe
(4) Determine the Impact Load at the Top of the Pipe 1

(5) Determine the Effective Supporting Length of the Live Load
(6) Determine the Live Load
(7) Determine the Earth Load Bedding Factor

3
(8) Determine the Live Load Bedding Factor
(9) Determine the D-Load
1. Determine the Dead (Earth) Load Using Figure 8-10-2
From Figure 8-10-2, the uniform Dead (Earth) Load Pressure on the pipe is approximately 300 psf. 4
Determine the Earth Load transmitted to the pipe in lbs/ft by multiplying the uniform Dead (Earth) Load pressure by
the outside diameter of the pipe.
The wall thicknesses for concrete pipe may be found in the appropriate ASTM Standard. However, as a general rule
for circular RCP, the pipe wall thickness may be estimated as D/12 +1.75 inches.
84/12 + 1.75 = 8.75 inch wall thickness
O.D. = [84 + 2(8.75)]/12 = 8.46 ft.
WE = 8.46 ft x 300 psf = 2,538 lbs/ft
2. Determine the Fluid Load

Volume of water inside the pipe in a one foot length:
V = π[84/(2x12)]2
V = 38.48 ft3
Determine the weight of fluid using the unit weight of water:
WF = 38.48 ft3 x 62.4 pcf = 2,401 lbs/ft
3. Determine the Live Load at the top of the pipe using Figure 8-10-2
From Figure 8-10-2, the live load pressure on the pipe in psf from an E 80 load is:
wl= = 1650 psf
4. Determine the Impact load at the top of the pipe Using Figure 8-10-2
From Figure 8-10-2, the impact pressure on the pipe in psf from an E 80 load is:
Il = 600 psf
Note: The total live load at the top of the pipe in pounds per square foot is:
Wl = wl + Il
Wl = 1650 psf + 600 psf = 2250 psf
5. Determine the Effective Supporting Strength of the pipe using EQ 10-4 and EQ 10-5
Using Equation EQ 10-4
Coeffd = 242[84 + 2(8.75)] -1.97 + 0.855 = 0.882
Using Equation EQ 10-5
Dist = 0.882 x [84 + 2(8.75)] = 89.5 inches = 7.46 ft
7.46 feet is greater than 4.5 feet maximum allowable distribution, so use:
Dist = 4.5 feet
6. Determine the Live Load
The live load and impact pressures in Figure 8-10-2 account for the live load distribution through the soil, but not the
distribution through the pipe itself (since this specific to a particular pipe size) so account for this when calculating the
live load by following EQ 10-6:
Wl  BC   LT + H 
W L = ------------------------------------------------
L T + H + Dist
2250psf  8.46ft   8ft + 2ft 

W L = ------------------------------------------------------------------------
8ft + 2ft + 4.5ft

WL = 13,128 lbs/ft
7. Determine the Earth Load Bedding Factor Using Table 8-10-3.
A Type 2 Installation shall be used for the purpose of design, unless otherwise designated by the Engineer.
From Table 8-10-3, the following bedding factor is determined:
Bfe = 2.8
8. Determine the Live Load Bedding Factor Using Table 8-10-4
From Table 8-10-4, the live load bedding factor at 2 feet of cover for an 84 inch pipe is:
Bfll = 1.5
9. Determine the D-load Using EQ 10-8

WE + WF WL FS
D 0.01 =  ---------------------- + --------   -------
2,538 lbs 2,401 lbs 13,128 lbs

  ft +  ft   ft 1.0
D 0.01 = --------------------------------------------------------------------- + --------------------------------  ------- 1
2.8 1.5 7ft
D0.01 = 1,502 lbs/ft/ft
Using the figures and tables found in Chapter 8, Part 10, the required D-Load of the 84 inch pipe is 1,502 lbs/ft/ft,
3
Method 3: Calculate the D-load Using the Equations in Chapter 8, Part 10
The standard procedure for determining the required strength of reinforced concrete pipe is:
(1) Determine the Earth Load 4

(2) Determine the Fluid Load
(3) Determine the Impact Factor at the Top of the Pipe
(4) Determine the Total Live Load at the Top of the Pipe
(5) Determine the Effective Supporting Length of the Live Load
(6) Determine the Live Load
(7) Determine the Earth Load Bedding Factor
(8) Determine the Live Load Bedding Factor
(9) Determine the D-Load

1. Determine the Earth Load using EQ 10-1
WE = 1.45 x Bc x H x w
The wall thicknesses for concrete pipe may be found in the appropriate ASTM Standard. However, as a general rule for
circular RCP, the pipe wall thickness may be estimated as D/12 +1.75 inches.
Bc = [84 inches + 2(8.75 inches)]/12 = 8.46 feet
WE = 1.45 x 8.46 ft x 2 ft x 120 pcf = 2,944 lbs/ft
2. Determine the Fluid Load
Volume of water inside the pipe in a one foot length:
V = π[84/(2x12)]2
V = 38.48 ft3
Determine the weight of fluid using the unit weight of water:
WF = 38.48 ft3 x 62.4 pcf = 2,401 lbs/ft
3. Determine the Impact Factor at the Top of the Pipe Using EQ 10-2
H – 1.5
IM = 1 –  -----------------  0.40
 8.5 
2 – 1.5
IM = 1 –  ----------------  0.40
 8.5 
IM = 0.376
4. Determine the Total Live Load at the Top of the Pipe in pounds per square foot Using EQ 10-3
P   1 + IM 
W l = -----------------------------------
 S   LT + H  
80000lbs   1 + 0.376 
W l = --------------------------------------------------------- = 2,202 psf
 5ft   8ft + 2ft  

5. Determine the Effective Supporting Strength of the pipe using EQ 10-4 and EQ 10-5
Using EQ 10-4
Coeffd = 242[84 + 2(8.75)] -1.97 + 0.855 = 0.882 4

Using EQ 10-5
Dist = 0.882 x [84 + 2(8.75)] = 89.5 inches = 7.46 ft
7.46 feet is greater than 4.5 feet maximum allowable distribution, so use:
Dist = 4.5 feet
6. Determine the Live Load

The live load and impact load calculated in steps 3 and 4 already account for the live load distribution through the soil,
but not through the pipe, so account for this when calculating the live load by using EQ 10-6:
Wl  BC   LT + H 
W L = ------------------------------------------------
L T + H + Dist
2202psf  8.46ft   8ft + 2ft 

W L = ------------------------------------------------------------------------ = 12,848 lbs/ft
8ft + 2ft + 4.5ft
WL = 12,848 lbs/ft
7. Determine the Earth Load Bedding Factor Using Table 8-10-3.
A Type 2 Installation shall be used for the purpose of design, unless otherwise designated by the Engineer.
From Table 8-10-3, the following bedding factor is determined:
Bfe = 2.8
8. Determine the Live Load Bedding Factor Using Table 8-10-4
From Table 8-10-4, the live load bedding factor at 2 feet of cover for an 84 inch pipe is:
Bfll = 1.5
9. Determine the D-load Using EQ 10-8
WE + WF WL FS
D 0.01 =  ---------------------- + --------   -------
2,944 lbs  ft + 2,401 lbs  ft 12,848 lbs  ft 1.0

D 0.01 = ---------------------------------------------------------------- + --------------------------------  -------
2.8 1.5 7ft
D0.01 = 1,496 lbs/ft/ft
Using the Equations and Tables found in Chapter 8, Part 10, the required D-Load of the 84 inch pipe is 1,496 lbs/ft/ft,

For information purposes, the minimum D-load values for pipe designated in accordance with ASTM C76, “Standard
Specification for Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe” are provided below
Pipe Class per ASTM C76 D0.01 (lbs/ft/ft) DUlt (lbs/ft/ft)

Class I 800 1200
Class II 1000 1500
Class III 1350 2000
Class IV 2000 3000
Class V 3000 3750
Note: Pipe subjected to track loads shall be a minimum of Class III


8
Part 11
Lining Railway Tunnels1
— 2018 –
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2

11.1.1 Scope (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2

11.2.1 Interior Dimensions (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2 1
11.2.2 Preliminary Data (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2.3 Floors (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2.4 Sidewalls and Arch (2004) R(2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-3
11.2.5 Construction and Expansion Joints (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-3
11.2.6 Drains (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.2.7 Refuge Niches (Bays) (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7 3
11.2.8 Conduit and Inserts (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7

11.3.1 General (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3.2 Filling of Forms (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3.3 Removal of Forms (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3.4 Inspection Doors (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4 Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8

11.4.1 General (2012) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.2 Order of Placing (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.3 Consolidation (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.4 Laitance and Bonding (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.5 Drainage During Placing (2004) R(2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.6 Shotcrete (2004) R(2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
1
References Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 645, 1042; Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 309, 878; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 814, 1343; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 445, 861; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 277, 687;
Vol. 74, 1973, p. 140; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 108. Rewritten 1988.

LIST OF FIGURES
8-11-1 Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Rock Section Single Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-4
8-11-2 Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Single Track Temporary Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-5
8-11-3 Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Double Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-6
11.1.1 SCOPE (2004) R(2018)
This recommended practice covers the lining of new tunnels in rock and those portions of old tunnels in rock which involve no
extraordinary side pressure or special features. The recommended practice covers linings of cast-in-place concrete and
shotcrete with steel sets.
SECTION 11.2 DESIGN
11.2.1 INTERIOR DIMENSIONS (2004) R(2018)
a. The interior dimensions of the clear space provided for single and double-track tunnels should not at any point be less
than tunnel clearances recommended by the AREMA Manual. Where legal requirements provide clearances greater
than AREMA, such legal requirements shall govern.
b. On curved track, the lateral clearance should be increased in conformance with Chapter 28, Clearances, Part 1,
Clearance Diagrams – Fixed Obstructions. The superelevation of the outer rail should be in accordance with the
recommended practice of Chapter 5, T rack.
c. To provide for drainage, minimum side clearance of 10 feet (3 m) from centerline of track should be used in tunnels
likely to be wet. Where ventilation is required, the height of single-track tunnel should be increased 1 foot (300 mm)
minimum.
11.2.2 PRELIMINARY DATA (2004) R(2018)
Information shall be obtained for design of new tunnels, consisting of field surveys showing geological formations,
groundwater conditions, environmental conditions, adjacent structures, locations of faults, core borings, hardness and
condition of rock to be encountered, together with any special features and data on existing tunnels through similar formations.
Where a new tunnel is driven adjacent to an existing tunnel, records shall be searched for data as to groundwater conditions,
fault zones, and other special features. Consideration should be given to taking core borings from existing adjacent tunnels.
11.2.3 FLOORS (2004) R(2018)
Floors should be paved, if practical, and may have a ballasted track section, direct fixation to the concrete floor, or other
suitable track design. Paved floors shall be designed for the track section to be used.

Lining Railway Tunnels
11.2.4 SIDEWALLS AND ARCH (2004) R(2018)
a. The depth of sidewalls in sound rock shall be at least 6 inches (150 mm) below the bottom of the gutter and at least 6
inches (150 mm) below the intersection of the floor surface with the sidewalls. In unsound rock, the sidewalls shall be
carried down to provide a stable foundation. At portals and vicinity, sidewalls shall extend at least 6 inches (150 mm)
below the frost line.
b. The minimum thickness of the cast-in-place sidewalls and arch shall be:
(1) Where temporary supports for excavation are not required:
• Single track – See Figure 8-11-1.

• Double track – See Figure 8-11-3.
(2) Where temporary supports are required for face of excavation see Figure 8-11-2 or Figure 8-11-3.
c. Encased timber sets are subject to decay and are not recommended. Exposed timber sets create a fire hazard and also
are not recommended.
d. Steel sets are spaced at least 8 inches (200 mm) apart, and in general not greater than 4 feet (1.2 m) apart. Solid liners
may also be considered.
e. Lagging may be wood, steel lags, steel liner plates, or steel water-diverting lagging. Where the nature of the rock and
water conditions permit, lagging shall be spaced to allow a clearance of 4 inches (100 mm) or more between lags to 1
permit free access of concrete to the face of the tunnel excavation. Prior to concreting, remove as many lags as is
possible. Where it is necessary to solid-lag for protection during excavation and where it is impractical to open up the
lagging just prior to concreting, the space between the lagging and face of excavation shall be packed with lean
concrete, crushed stone, coarse gravel, or pea gravel placed pneumatically. Consolidation grouting shall be used to fill
any voids behind lining. Where timber lagging is used, or where existing packing consists of timber, special care must
be exercised in torch cutting or welding of steel ribs or other components to eliminate the risk of fire.
3
f. Rock bolts may be considered as part of a support system.
11.2.5 CONSTRUCTION AND EXPANSION JOINTS (2004) R(2018)
a. Properly placed and consolidated construction joints do not require keyways. Waterstops shall be provided as
necessary. Monoliths shall be as long as practical to minimize the number of construction joints. 4
b. Construction joints shall not be formed at such locations where they might reduce the effectiveness of the lining to
resist pressure from surrounding earth or rock.
c. Where construction joints are provided, expansion joints are not required.

Figure 8-11-1. Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Rock Section Single Track

4
Figure 8-11-2. Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Single Track Temporary Supports

Figure 8-11-3. Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Double Track

11.2.6 DRAINS (2004) R(2018)

a. Wherever groundwater is encountered or anticipated, vertical and diagonal openings, trench drains, PVC or iron pipe
drains shall be installed between the concrete lining and rock. Adequate outlets shall be provided through sidewalls
with the outer end of the outlets not less than 12 inches (300 mm) above the bottom of the gutter. Subdrains shall be
provided under the concrete floor wherever groundwater is found. Drains shall be provided through curb to drain
ballast section.
b. Where hydrostatic pressure below the floor may be present, consideration should be given to designing the floor to
withstand the pressure.
c. Wherever groundwater drains are installed, they shall be attached to the rock so as to prevent being clogged when
concrete is poured.
d. Drain type selection should take into consideration an analysis of groundwater constituents and effects of water
aeration to discourage formation of precipitates or adverse chemical reaction which may plug or damage the drainage
system.
11.2.7 REFUGE NICHES (BAYS) (2004) R(2018)

Refuge niches shall be provided as shown on the example figures at approximate intervals of 200 feet (60 m) and staggered
with opposite sides so that spacing of niches shall be approximately 100 feet (30 m). Width of niches should accommodate the
number of people and the equipment to be protected. Bottom of niches shall be at elevation of bottom of track ties for
ballasted track sections and at elevation of intersection of invert and walls for solid track sections. For long tunnels, larger
refuge niches should be considered at appropriate intervals to accommodate equipment. 1
11.2.8 CONDUIT AND INSERTS (2004) R(2018)
Where required, provisions shall be made in the lining for conduit or hangers for cables, wires, and lights.
3
SECTION 11.3 FORMS
11.3.1 GENERAL (2004) R(2018)

a. Forms, when used, shall conform to requirements as outlined in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements, together with additional provisions given herewith.
4
b. The length of forms between construction joints shall be as long as possible to limit number of joints. Waterproofing at
joints should be considered where appropriate.
11.3.2 FILLING OF FORMS (2004) R(2018)

The space between the face of the form and face of excavation or tight lagging shall be entirely filled with concrete, except for
drainage openings, and except that large cavities back of the normal face of excavation may be packed as outlined in
Paragraph 11.2.4(e).
11.3.3 REMOVAL OF FORMS (2004) R(2018)

Forms shall not be removed until concrete has reached strength sufficient to prevent distortion and sustain the applied load.

11.3.4 INSPECTION DOORS (2004) R(2018)

Forms shall be provided with inspection doors in the arch and walls so that the concrete can be thoroughly vibrated and
inspected during the placing.
SECTION 11.4 CONCRETE
11.4.1 GENERAL (2012) R(2018)
Concrete for lining shall be proportioned and placed in accordance with Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements, together with the additional provisions given herewith. Placement of reinforcement shall be in accordance with
Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
11.4.2 ORDER OF PLACING (2004) R(2018)
A section of the wall and footing may be placed separately from the rest of the wall, but a construction joint shall not be more
than 2 feet (600 mm) above the top of ballast curb elevation. The remainder of the wall and arch shall be placed
monolithically. The floor ballast retainers shall preferably be placed in one operation.
11.4.3 CONSOLIDATION (2004) R(2018)
All concrete shall be consolidated during and immediately after placing by means of internal vibration applied in the mass of
concrete and external vibration applied to the forms.
11.4.4 LAITANCE AND BONDING (2004) R(2018)
a. Concrete surfaces receiving new concrete shall be roughened and cleaned of all laitance, dirt, and water before fresh
concrete is placed. The consistency of the concrete and method of placement shall be such that laitance seams are not
formed. If such seams are formed, they shall be completely removed before additional concrete is placed.
b. All loose or unsound rock shall be removed behind walls and below floors before concrete is placed. Where the type of
rock makes this impractical, the floor and foundations for the walls shall be reinforced.
11.4.5 DRAINAGE DURING PLACING (2004) R(2018)
Concrete shall not be placed in moving water. Separate and distinct provisions shall be provided to drain any area receiving
fresh concrete. Effective weepholes and drains shall be provided to prevent any hydrostatic pressure against the lining.
Temporary drains shall be grouted after concrete liner has attained design strength.
11.4.6 SHOTCRETE (2004) R(2018)
Shotcrete and reinforcement for shotcrete for lining shall be proportioned in accordance with Part 14, Repair and
Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures.

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8
Part 14
Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures1
— 2017 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
14.1 Scope (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.2 Determination of the Causes of Concrete Deterioration (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.3 Evaluation of the Effects of Deterioration and Damage (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4 1

14.3.1 Methods of Evaluation (2006) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4
14.3.2 Results of Evaluation (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4
14.3.3 Special Cases (2006) R(2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.3.4 Reevaluation (2006) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4 Principal Materials Used in the Repair of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5 3

14.4.1 Cement (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.2 Admixtures (2006) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.3 Aggregate (2006) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.4 Reinforcement (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.5 Polymers in Concrete (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.6 Bonding Compounds (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.7 Epoxy Materials (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.8 Non-shrink Grouts (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.9 Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP Composites) (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.5 Repair Methods (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-7

14.5.1 Surface Repairs Using Portland Cement Materials (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-7
14.5.2 Surface Repairs Using Polymer Concretes and Polymer Portland Cement
Concretes (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-12
14.5.3 T uckpointing (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-12
14.5.4 Arch Lining (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-13
14.5.5 Internal Structural Repairs (2017). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-13
14.5.6 Non-Structural Crack Repair (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-19
14.5.7 Reinforcement Splices (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-20
1
References, Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 870, 1028; Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 297, 878; Vol. 43, 1942, pp. 336, 716; Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 365, 895; Vol. 53, 1952, p. 617; Vol.
54, 1953, pp. 819, 1343; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 443, 444, 861; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 277, 688; Vol. 65, 1964, pp. 362, 758; Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 357, 360, 657; Vol.
84, 1983, p. 93; Vol. 93, 1992, pp. 78, 98.

8-14-1
14.5.8 Underwater Repairs (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
14.6 Repair Methods for Prestressed Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23

14.6.1 Cracks Exist with No Significant Section Loss and No Tendon Damage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23
14.6.2 There is Minor Section Loss, but No Tendon Damage (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23
14.6.3 Shattered Concrete and/or Significant Section Loss, but No T endon Damage (2006). . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23
14.6.4 There is Section Loss and T endon Damage (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-24
14.6.5 Member Is Damaged Beyond Reasonable Repair (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-24
14.6.6 Member Has Inadequate Strength (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-24
14.6.7 Summary (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-24
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-25
LIST OF FIGURES
8-14-1 Repair of Cracks by Stitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-17

8-14-2 Repair of Cracks by Pinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-18
8-14-3 External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-18
8-14-4 External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-19
8-14-5 Detail Copper Plate Joint Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-19
8-14-6 Detail PVC Pipe Joint Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-20
8-14-7 External Splice Sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
C-8-14-1 Preloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-32
C-8-14-2 External Post-Tensioning Section Between Corbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-33
C-8-14-3 Metal Splice Sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-34
LIST OF TABLES
8-14-1 Supporting Loads for Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-8

8-14-2 Anchor Placement – Concrete 4 Inches or More in Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-8

Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures
SECTION 14.1 SCOPE (2017)1
a. This part applies to the repair and rehabilitation of concrete or masonry structures by the following methods: patching,
encasement with concrete, shotcrete, pressure grouting, injection grouting of preplaced aggregates, tremie placement,
bagged concrete, epoxy injection, fiber-reinforced polymers, external post-tensioning, structural restoration and
strengthening, corrosion mitigation, splicing of damaged reinforcement and component replacement. They are
intended to provide means of accomplishing repairs both above and below water using a variety of materials.
b. This part also identifies some of the major causes for the deterioration of concrete and the methods of protecting
against deterioration.
c. Repair of a structure usually consists of five basic steps:
(1) Identifying the deterioration.
(2) Determining the cause.
(3) Evaluating the strength of the existing structure.
(4) Evaluating the need for repair.
(5) Selecting and implementing a repair procedure.
SECTION 14.2 DETERMINATION OF THE CAUSES OF CONCRETE

DETERIORATION (2017)2
a. In order to select the proper repair procedure for concrete, the cause of the deterioration must first be established. One
or more of the following factors may contribute to the deterioration of the concrete:
3
(1) Lack of quality in the original concrete and/or its placement.
(2) Deficiency and corrosion of reinforcement.
(3) Properties of surrounding environment. 4

(4) Inadequate structural capacity.
(5) Physical damage.
b. The investigation should try to determine the possible cause(s) and then select a repair procedure which will correct the
existing condition and prevent further deterioration by any and all of the suspect cause(s).
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary

SECTION 14.3 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF DETERIORATION AND DAMAGE

(2017)
14.3.1 METHODS OF EVALUATION (2006) R(2015)
14.3.1.1 Visual Inspection
Periodic inspections (see Part 21 Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures) should be made to detect deterioration and
damage before the structure becomes irreparable. The engineer in charge of maintenance and inspection should be experienced
in determining the parts of structures in need of repair and the extent of deterioration or damage.
14.3.1.2 Analysis of Actual Stress Condition
This method involves a stress analysis of the structure in its existing condition.
14.3.1.3 Non-Destructive Tests1
There are several common test procedures available to determine the in-place condition of the structure. The most appropriate
test should be determined by the Engineer.
14.3.1.4 Sampling
This procedure consists of removing samples of material, usually by coring, in order to analyze physical and chemical
characteristics of concrete and reinforcement.
14.3.1.5 Load Test
a. This method involves the instrumenting of a structure to measure strains or deflections as a means of determining the
capability of the structure to sustain service loads. A prescribed test load is permitted to cross the structure at a given
speed. Often it is desirable to stop the test load on the structure at a predetermined position and take measurements
under static conditions.
b. The test should be monitored as the loading progresses to verify that the observed data compares favorably with the
theoretical calculations. If a significant difference is observed the test should be stopped and further evaluated before
proceeding.
c. This method should be used only if calculations indicate a reasonable margin of safety against collapse under the test
load. Loads considerably below the desired service load level may be used initially to make a preliminary evaluation
and to predict the reaction of the structure under a full test load.
14.3.2 RESULTS OF EVALUATION (2017)2
Based on the evaluation, one or more of the following determinations can be made regarding the present condition:
a. Requires no action.
b. Requires action to arrest or minimize deterioration.
c. Requires action to repair or strengthen the structure.
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary

d. Requires reconstruction or replacement of the structure.
e. Requires restricting traffic speed and/or weight.
f. Requires closing the structure to traffic.
14.3.3 SPECIAL CASES (2006) R(2015)
In special cases (i.e. windstorm, flooding, scour, seismic activity, fire damage, etc.), the resulting damage to the structure may
not be apparent to the inspector in a visual examination of the surface. Care should be exercised in these cases to properly
evaluate all defects using, where necessary, special inspection and non-destructive testing techniques.
14.3.4 REEVALUATION (2006) R(2015)
During repair or rehabilitation of a structure it may be found that the extent of the damage or deterioration is greater than
originally determined. This further damage should be reviewed for the effectiveness of the proposed repair under these
conditions.
SECTION 14.4 PRINCIPAL MATERIALS USED IN THE REPAIR OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURES
1
NOTE: The materials used should conform in physical properties to Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements, or as hereinafter specified.
14.4.1 CEMENT (2006)
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.2 Cement and Section 1.3 Other Cementitious Materials. 3
14.4.2 ADMIXTURES (2006) R(2015)
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.7 Concrete Admixtures.
14.4.3 AGGREGATE (2006) R(2015) 4

See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.4 Aggregates.
14.4.4 REINFORCEMENT (2017)1
a. See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.6 Reinforcement.
b. Reinforcement may consist of one or more of the following materials: deformed steel bars, prestressing tendons, wire
reinforcement, fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars, or reinforcing fibers consisting of steel, glass, or plastic.
c. When increased protection from corrosion is required, coatings, corrosion inhibitors, or other forms of reinforcement
may be considered.
1 See Commentary

14.4.5 POLYMERS IN CONCRETE (2006)
a. See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.9 Bonding (1993).
b. Polymer Concrete may be used as a patching material and where high strengths are needed in a short time.
c. Polymer Cement Concrete may be used as an overlay (an example of PCC is latex-modified concrete).
14.4.6 BONDING COMPOUNDS (2006)
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.7 Concrete Admixtures.
14.4.7 EPOXY MATERIALS (2006)
Epoxy materials are manufactured with a wide range of properties for various applications and should be chosen to provide for
the requirements (i.e. viscosity, strengths, flexibility, adhesion, etc.) of the specific repair. In addition, they should meet the
requirements of ASTM Specification C881, Type 1, Epoxy Resin Base Compounds for Concrete. Epoxy materials are used for
a variety of purposes including bonding new concrete to old, repair of cracks, sealing, and patching. Selection is subject to
approval of the Engineer.
14.4.8 NON-SHRINK GROUTS (2006)1
a. Non-shrink grouts consist of either Portland cement based grouts with an expanding agent added to counter the
shrinkage from the hydration of the Portland cement grout or non-cementitious based grouts such as epoxy grouts.
b. Non-shrink grouts are generally used for setting and leveling bearings. Selection of the grout is subject to approval by
the Engineer.
c. Non-shrink grouts should conform to ASTM C1107. Design and use of portland cement non-shrink grouts should be in
conformance with ACI-223 – Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage Compensating Concrete.
14.4.9 FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERS (FRP COMPOSITES) (2017)2
a. Fiber reinforced polymers may be considered for strengthening or repairing existing reinforced or prestressed concrete.
b. Polymer resins are manufactured with a wide range of properties for various applications and should be chosen to
provide for the requirements of the specific repair. Selection is subject to the approval of the Engineer.
c. Reinforcement typically consists of carbon, glass or aramid fiber. Reinforcement is manufactured with a wide range of
properties for various applications and should be chosen to provide for the requirements of the specific repair.
Selection is subject to approval of the Engineer.
d. Fiber-reinforced polymers are typically applied in alternating layers of polymer resin and woven-fabric fiber
reinforcement. Concrete underlying repairs should be cleaned and checked for soundness prior to surface application.
e. Design and application for FRP repairs should conform to manufacturer’s recommendations and sound engineering
principles.
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary

SECTION 14.5 REPAIR METHODS (2017)
14.5.1 SURFACE REPAIRS USING PORTLAND CEMENT MATERIALS (2017)
14.5.1.1 Scope
a. Repairs should consist of removal of soft, disintegrated, broken, or honeycombed concrete or stone; cleaning and
preparing the bonding surface and exposed reinforcement; placing of anchors and reinforcement; placing of concrete
by shotcreting, handpatching, forming and placing, tremieing, grouting of preplaced aggregate; or as specified. Such
concrete is to be finished to true line and surface as shown on the plans and properly cured.
b. Concrete in the repaired area below the neutral axis in prestressed members should be repaired under an externally
applied preload. Preload may be applied by means of jacks or a known load.1
c. Materials provided for anchorage or repairs shall meet the requirements shown in this Part and be used in accordance
with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
14.5.1.2 Preparation2
a. All loose, soft, honeycombed, and disintegrated concrete or stone should be removed from the areas to be repaired by
proper tools, to expose a bonding surface of sound material. Appropriately sized equipment should be used so as not to
damage sound underlying material.
b. Following the removal of all loose, disintegrated, or otherwise defective concrete, the entire exposed surfaces of the 1
structure should be carefully inspected for locations of seepage, internal honeycombed areas, cracks, or voids.
c. In prestressed concrete, extreme care should be taken to avoid any damage to prestressing strands. Exposed strands
should be chemically cleaned by an approved method.
d. Thin or feathered edges should be avoided, and the boundaries of the areas to be repaired should be square cut or
slightly undercut to a depth of 1 inch, but should not damage the reinforcing steel. For shotcreting, the boundary edges 3
should be 45-degree bevel cuts to a depth of at least 1 inch. The maximum depth of removal shall be determined based
on an analysis of the existing structure and its condition.
e. If reinforcing steel is exposed, the concrete should be removed a minimum of 3/4 inch beyond the limit of the
reinforcing steel.
f. The bonding surface should be rough, clean, sound concrete or stone. Oil or film of any sort that may reduce the bond 4
should not be permitted. Loose particles, dust and dirt, should be removed.
g. Sand and water blasting may require containment of dust and/or runoff water. Cracks are to be prepared as specified in
Article 14.5.5.
14.5.1.3 Anchorage
a. Concrete repairs applied less than 1-1/2 inches thick will not require anchorage, unless specified by the Engineer. A
bonding compound may be specified.
b. Where new concrete greater than 1-1/2 inches thick and less than 4 inches thick is to be placed, anchorage may be
required. If the concrete is removed beyond the limit of the existing reinforcing steel by more than 3/4”, no additional
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary

anchorage is required. If no existing reinforcing is exposed, anchorage should be used. This anchorage can be in the
form of grouted reinforcing steel “L” bars, mechanical anchors, or grouted anchors.
Each anchor should have sufficient engagement in the sound concrete to resist a pull in accordance with Table 8-14-1,
and be spaced not more than 18 inches center-to-center on vertical surfaces and not more than 12 inches center to
center on overhead surfaces. When pried from the concrete surface with a bar inserted under the bend of the anchor, the
bend should straighten without slippage of the anchorage.
c. The specified spacing of anchorage should be based on supporting three times the total weight of suspended concrete
and two times the weight of concrete on vertical surfaces. Facilities should be provided for testing the supporting value
of the anchorage. Each anchor should be set in sound concrete and should be capable of supporting, without loosening,
the suspended load indicated in Table 8-14-1.
Table 8-14-1. Supporting Loads for Anchors
Diameter of Anchor Load

in Inches in lb
1/4 150
3/8 400
1/2 750
5/8 1,200
3/4 1,750
d. Any anchor failing to support such load should be reset and re-tested.
e. Where concrete 4 inches or more in thickness is to be placed, approved anchorage will be required if the existing
concrete is not reinforced. The anchorage can be in the form of grouted reinforcing steel “L” bars, mechanical anchors,
or grouted anchors. The anchorage should be set where shown on the plans, or in accordance with Table 8-14-2.
Table 8-14-2. Anchor Placement – Concrete 4 Inches or More in Thickness
Spacing in Each Direction

Thickness
of Concrete Suspended Concrete Vertical Surfaces Top Surfaces
(Inch) Inches Diameter Inches Diameter Inches Diameter
at Feet-Inch at Feet-Inch at Feet-Inch
4 3/8 @ 1-8 3/8 @ 2-0 3/8 @ 3-0
5 3/8 @ 1-5 3/8 @ 1-9 3/8 @ 3-0
6 3/8 @ 1-4 3/8 @ 1-8 3/8 @ 3-0
7 3/8 @ 1-2 3/8 @ 1-6 3/8 @ 3-0
8 1/2 @ 1-7 1/2 @ 1-11 1/2 @ 3-0
9 1/2 @ 1-6 1/2 @ 1-10 1/2 @ 3-0
10 1/2 @ 1-5 1/2 @ 1-9 1/2 @ 2-0
11 1/2 @ 1-4 1/2 @ 1-8 1/2 @ 2-0
12 1/2 @ 1-3 1/2 @ 1-6 1/2 @ 2-0
f. Where the thickness of concrete is more than 12 inches, the size, length, spacing, and embedment of anchorage should
be determined or approved by the Engineer.

g. The exposed end of each anchor should have a 90-degree, or greater, bend for engaging reinforcement.
h. No isolated area greater than 2 square feet should have fewer than 3 anchors.
i. Where only a single line of anchorage is required, the maximum spacing should be 24 inches, and the size should be
determined by the supported load shown in Table 8-14-1.
j. Anchors may consist of deformed steel bars, grouted in. When expansion bolts are used, the size, spacing and bond
capacity shall be the same as that required for dowels. Horizontal dowel holes should be drilled downward on a slope
of approximately 1 inch per foot.
k. Anchors to be used in overhead conditions should only be installed if the materials are recommended by the
manufacturer and approved by the Engineer for such applications.
l. Holes for dowels shall be cleaned of free water with an air jet or vacuum prior to grouting.
14.5.1.4 Placement of Reinforcement
14.5.1.4.1 General
Reinforcement should be securely wired to the anchors. The clear distance from the existing concrete to the first layer of
reinforcement should be 1-1/2 times the maximum aggregate size, but not less than 3/4 inch. Cover of reinforcement should
meet the requirements of Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.6.
14.5.1.4.2 Shotcrete
1
a. No reinforcement is required for shotcrete encasement less than 1-1/2 inches thick unless specified by the Engineer.
b. A layer of reinforcement is required for each 4 inches (3 inches for suspended encasement) thickness of encasement or
fraction thereof. Each layer should be 3 3 – W 1.4  W 1.4 wire reinforcement, or as directed by the Engineer.
3
c. For encasement thicknesses in excess of 4 inches (3 inches suspended), an additional two-way system of No. 3
reinforcing bars spaced the same as the anchors in both directions should be provided. The last layer of welded wire
reinforcement should be secured by wiring to the bars.
d. Each layer of welded wire reinforcement must be completely encased in the shotcrete or concrete which has taken
initial set before the succeeding layer of mesh is applied.
4
e. Welded wire reinforcement extending around corners or reentrant angles should be bent to a template before securing
to anchorage and not sprung or forced into position. At corners, double reinforcing mesh should be provided and
extended a minimum distance of 6 inches beyond the intersection of the 2 planes.
f. When splicing welded wire reinforcement is necessary, a lap of 1-1/2 mesh spacings should be provided, wired
together at intervals of not more than 18 inches.
g. Where special reinforcement is required for structural strength, engineering plans should be furnished.
14.5.1.4.3 Concrete
Reinforcement should meet the requirements of Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.12 Shrinkage and Temperature
Reinforcement (2005).

14.5.1.5 Bonding1
14.5.1.5.1 Slurry Bonding
After the bonding surfaces of the old concrete have been prepared as outlined in Article 14.5.1.2, the bonding surface should
be kept constantly wet for a minimum of 1 hour immediately prior to application of the bonding coat. In no case should fresh
material be applied to a dry surface. If required, the bonding coat should be applied to the damp bonding surface and should be
vigorously brushed on to completely fill all surface pores immediately prior to placing the new concrete. The bonding coat
should be composed of cement or one part cement to one part fine sand and sufficient water to make a creamy mixture. If
required by the Engineer, an approved shrinkage reducing material should be added. The bonding coat should not be troweled,
screeded, disturbed, or allowed to dry before the next layer of new concrete is applied.
14.5.1.5.2 Other Bonding Agents
At locations where positive bond is mandatory, an approved bonding compound should be specified. Since a large variety of
bonding products are available, surface preparation and compound application should be in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
14.5.1.6 Hand Patching
Immediately after the bonding coat has been applied, the entire cavity should be filled and finished to true line and surfaced
with an approved patching material suitable for hand patching vertically, horizontally, or overhead. Application should be in
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
14.5.1.7 Cast-in-Place Concrete
a. When restoration or encasement is accomplished by placing concrete in between forms and the old surface by gravity
or pressure placement, the forms should have sufficient strength to withstand the pressure of the new concrete without
yielding appreciably.
b. The concrete should be proportioned per Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
c. The new concrete should completely fill the space provided and present a surface comparable to the original.
d. Concrete is to be compacted per Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.6.
14.5.1.8 Shotcrete2
14.5.1.8.1 General
Shotcrete is a mixture of Portland cement, fine aggregate and water, shot into place by compressed air. There are two different
processes in use, namely the “dry mix” process and “wet mix” process.
14.5.1.8.2 Dry Mix Method
a. Shotcrete should be made of a mixture of Portland cement and sand in the proportion of one bag of cement for every 4
cubic feet of sand by volume. The amount of sand should be based on dry, loose measurement with proper correction in
quantity for effect of bulking due to moisture content. The sand and cement should be thoroughly mixed dry, passed
through a 3/8-inch screen before being placed in the pneumatic apparatus, and placed by pneumatic pressure through
shotcrete equipment with proper amount of water applied in the mixing nozzle for the necessary placement
consistency. The screened sand and cement should be applied on the surface within one hour after combining them. To
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary

avoid voids and reduce shrinkage cracks, shotcrete should be applied as dry as practicable. Suitable prepackaged
materials may be used as approved by the Engineer.
b. Shrinkage reducing and/or bonding compounds are to be applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations.
c. The air pressure in the pneumatic apparatus should be maintained uniform and not less than 35 psi while placing the
mixed material, with necessary increase in pressure for horizontal delivery distances of more than 100 feet or vertical
distances of more than 25 feet. The water pressure applied through the nozzle should be not less than 10 psi greater
than the air pressure in the shotcrete machine.
14.5.1.8.3 Wet Mix Method
The wet mix method varies from the dry mix method only in that the materials are mixed in a vessel prior to pumping the mix
to the nozzle, whereas the mixing with water occurs at the nozzle in the Dry Mix Method. This method may therefore require
variations in pressure from those required for dry mixing.
14.5.1.8.4 Application
a. Shooting strips should be employed to ensure square corners, straight lines, and a plane surface of shotcrete, except as
otherwise permitted by plans or approved by the Engineer. They should be so placed as to keep the trapping of rebound
at a minimum.
b. Where no separate bonding agent is used, the surface, particularly porous brick, to which shotcrete is to be applied
should be thoroughly wet, without free water, to facilitate bond.
1
c. At the end of each day’s work, or similar stopping periods requiring construction joints, the shotcrete should be sloped
off to a thin edge. No square joints will be allowed. In shooting vertical surfaces, care must be taken in general to begin
the shotcrete area at the bottom and complete at the top.
A sufficient number of coats should be applied to obtain the required thickness. The thickness of each coat should not
be greater than 1 inch, except as approved by the Engineer, and should be so placed that it will neither slough nor
decrease the bond of the preceding coat. Where a successive coat is applied on shotcrete, which has set more than two 3
hours, the surface should be cleaned and water blasted.
d. When placing shotcrete, the stream of flowing material from the nozzle should impinge as nearly as possible at right
angles to the surface being covered, and the nozzle should be held from 2 to 4 feet from the working surface.
e. Deposits of rebound from previous shooting, whether loose or cemented, should be removed and not covered up.
Should any such deposits be covered, they should be cut out and the area reshot.
4
f. The final surface of shotcrete should be given either:
(1) a thin finishing or flash coat;
(2) a screeded finish;
(3) a rubbed finish; or
(4) a brush finish, as specified.
14.5.1.9 Preplaced Aggregate Grouting
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.15.10e.

14.5.1.10 Tremie Placement
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.15.10a.
14.5.1.11 Pumping Concrete
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.5.
14.5.1.12 Curing and Protection1
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.18 Curing.
14.5.2 SURFACE REPAIRS USING POLYMER CONCRETES AND POLYMER PORTLAND

CEMENT CONCRETES (2017)2
14.5.2.1 Scope
a. Repair should consist of removal of soft, disintegrated, delaminated, or honeycombed concrete; cleaning and preparing
the bonding surface; placing the Polymer Concrete or Polymer Cement Concrete; and finishing to true lines and
surface.
b. Preloading. Concrete in the repaired area below the neutral axis in prestressed members should be repaired under an
externally applied preload. Preload may be applied by means of jacks or a known load.
14.5.2.2 Surface Preparation, Materials and Application
Surface preparation materials and application should be in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
14.5.3 TUCKPOINTING (2017)
14.5.3.1 Scope
Repair should consist of the removal of soft, disintegrated or loose grout between masonry units, cleaning the joints, and
filling the joints with mortar.
14.5.3.2 Preparation
All deteriorated mortar, dirt and loose particles should be removed from the masonry joints using hand tools or other
appropriate methods, followed by blast cleaning with water or oil free air.
14.5.3.3 Materials
a. Mortar should consist of one part cement to three parts sand with sufficient water to produce a workable mixture, or as
specified by the Engineer.
b. Cement should be Portland cement C150, Type I or as specified by the Engineer.
c. Sand should be fine mason sand with a fineness modulus of not more than 2.0.
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary

14.5.3.4 Procedure
a. Areas to be tuckpointed should be wet thoroughly to prevent absorption of water from the mortar.
b. All excess material should be removed and the joint tooled to a neat workmanlike appearance.
14.5.4 ARCH LINING (2006)
The lining of stone and brick masonry arches with steel liner plates is covered in Chapter 1 Roadway and Ballast, Part 4
Culverts. Lining with cast-in-place concrete or shotcrete is covered in Chapter 8, Part 11 Lining Railway Tunnels.
14.5.5 INTERNAL STRUCTURAL REPAIRS (2017)
14.5.5.1 Scope1
Internal structural repair of concrete consists of the filling of internal voids and/or restoring the cracked sections to meet
original strength with Portland cement grouts or epoxies and reinforcement where required.
14.5.5.2 Cement Grouts
14.5.5.2.1 Preparation
Before the grouting operation is started, all defective materials should be removed and the entire surface should be thoroughly
inspected for points of leakage and indications of voids. Inserts for grouting should be so located and set that the pressure grout 1
will reach all voids and paths of leakage. All defective exposed joints and cracks in the structure should be chipped out, then
thoroughly cleaned of all foreign materials by means of high pressure air or water. The joints, cracks and disintegrated areas
should be restored to the original surface with hand pointing or shotcrete.
14.5.5.2.2 Grout Holes in Stone
a. Before drilling of the grout holes is started, the test drillings should be made completely through the masonry to 3
determine the thickness of the masonry. The proper depth of grout holes should be determined from the test drillings in
order that the grout holes are not drilled completely through the masonry.
b. Grout holes should be drilled at regular intervals, staggered to include approximately 25 square feet of surface area per
hole or at such other locations as may be specified. In cases of arch rings, the holes should be drilled diagonally to
intercept the longitudinal joints (parallel to the barrel) and staggered at such intervals as to include approximately 12
square feet of surface area per hole. Holes should be 1-1/2 inches minimum diameter for Portland cement grout and
4
should be drilled to such a depth, and in such manner, as necessary to intercept joints and internal voids, to completely
consolidate the structure. Holes which have been drilled completely through the structure should not be used for
pressure grouting and these holes must be completely plugged before grouting begins.
c. On structures, or parts of structures, of one stone thickness, the grout holes should be drilled in such a manner as to
intercept the horizontal joints where possible; however, if, due to insufficient clearance, the holes cannot be drilled
through the horizontal joints, they should then be drilled so as to intercept the vertical joints. The holes in the courses
of masonry below ground line should be drilled diagonally downward at various angles to the natural foundation below
the masonry, so that the bottom courses and any underlying cavities, including cavities in or under timber grillages,
should be completely filled.
1 See Commentary

14.5.5.2.3 Grout Holes in Concrete
For Portland cement grout a minimum 1-1/2 inches diameter grout holes should be drilled to a depth and spacing as necessary
to provide maximum dissemination of the pressure grout throughout the repair areas. Prior to pressure grouting, the chipped
areas should be restored as previously specified, provisions being made to extend the grout holes through the replacement
material for grouting after the exposed surfaces are sealed.
14.5.5.2.4 Portland Cement Grout Mixture
a. For stone masonry the pressure grout mixture should generally consist of one part of cement, one-half part of sand and,
if required, an approved type of shrinkage reducing material. The amount of sand to be used in the pressure grouting
mixture should be determined by starting the grouting operation with neat cement grout and adding sand in gradually
increasing proportions until the optimum ratio of sand to cement has been reached which will give a free flowing grout.
b. If it is found through application of the above that the addition of sand retards the free flow of the grouting material, the
sand should be omitted.
c. For concrete, the pressure grout should consist of neat cement grout only, and, if required by the Engineer, an approved
type of shrinkage reducing materials.
d. Polymer grouts may be used for concrete or stone masonry, as specified by the Engineer.
e. Other suitable prepackaged materials may be used if approved by the Engineer.
14.5.5.2.5 Grouting Procedures for Portland Cement Grouts
a. Grout inserts should be set in drilled holes and the interior voids cleaned with water, prior to the application of the
pressure grout.
b. The grout should be pressure induced into the internal voids and joints of the structure to fill them completely.
c. Grout should be applied by pumping or gravity pressure.
d. Excessive pressure should be avoided to prevent damage to the structure.
e. Grouting should be started at the lowest row of holes and at the hole nearest the center line of structure.
f. If grout appears in adjacent holes at the same elevation, these holes should be temporarily plugged and grouting
continued in the original hole until grout appears at the next adjacent hole at the same elevation or at the next line of
holes above the one being grouted. When this condition occurs, grouting of the original hole should be discontinued
and the grout line moved to the last hole at the current elevation at which grout appeared. The same procedure should
be followed until all holes in the current line have been grouted, at which time grouting should proceed in a like
manner along the next line of holes above, etc., until the entire structure has been completely filled.
g. During the course of all grouting operations, extreme care should be given to observing the surrounding ground, track
subgrade, ballast, and the stream bed for the breaking out of grout. When such breaking out occurs, the grout line
should be moved to some other part of structure. Grouting may be resumed in the original location after the elapse of
24 hours. When grouting foundations, pressure grout should be applied to the various holes in sequence until the grout
is brought up into the masonry.
h. When grouting foundations founded on rock, care should be taken to watch for movement of the track structure caused
by the lifting of all or a portion of the structure.

14.5.5.3 Epoxy Injection
14.5.5.3.1 General
a. Epoxy injection is generally applicable to cracks ranging in width from 0.003 inch to 0.25 inch. Injection of epoxy into
cracks wider than 0.25 inch should be approved by the Engineer.
b. Certain members, especially prestressed members, may require preloading during injection.
c. Cold weather epoxy injection may require special procedures and materials.
14.5.5.3.2 Preparation
The area surrounding the crack should be cleaned of efflorescence, deteriorated concrete, and other contaminants that may be
detrimental to adhesion of the epoxy gel. If unsound or deteriorated concrete is located adjacent to the crack, which could
prevent the complete injection of the crack, the unsound or deteriorated concrete should be removed prior to the injection.
14.5.5.3.3 Injection Ports
a. Install the injection ports at appropriate intervals to accomplish full penetration of the injection resin. The spacing of
the injection ports should be determined by the size of the crack and the depth of the concrete substrate.
b. Injection ports should be designed for the intended use and should be acceptable to the epoxy manufacturer.
c. Injection ports should have the capability of being positively capped and sealed following the injection work.
1
d. Completely seal the exposed crack located between the injection ports and other areas, as required to prevent leaking of
the resins, using epoxy gel.
e. If the crack extends through the member and is accessible, telltale injection ports can be installed on the opposite side
and all exposed areas of the crack sealed. Generally, the spacing of the telltale injection ports should be between 12 3
inches and 24 inches.
f. The injection ports should be installed using one or more of the following methods:
(1) Surface Mounted Injection Ports:
(a) Center the injection port over the crack and secure in place using the epoxy gel. 4
(2) Drilled-In Injection Ports:1
(a) The holes should be drilled a minimum of 5/8 inch deep. Exercise care so as not to drill beyond a crack which
may be running at an angle to the surface.
(b) The injection ports should be inserted into the drilled holes about 1/2 inch, allowing for a small reservoir
below the injection port. Secure the injection ports into position using epoxy gel.
(3) Injection Ports Mounted Against a Head of Water:
(a) For cracks that have water running from them, use an hydraulic cement (fast setting) to set the injection ports,
and seal the crack.
1 See Commentary

(b) After the hydraulic cement has cured, seal the cracks and injection ports by overlapping the hydraulic cement
about 1 inch on either side using epoxy gel.
14.5.5.3.4 Curing of Epoxy Crack Surface Sealer
Allow all bonded ports and sealed cracks to cure. Should temperatures below 50 degrees F (10º C) exist, additional cure time
may be required. Under these circumstances, it will be necessary to consult the manufacturer for proper cure times. In any
event, pressure injection operations should not commence until the epoxy gel has adequately cured and has been deemed
capable of sustaining pressures of the injection process.
14.5.5.3.5 Materials and Equipment
a. The following minimum properties should be required of all epoxy used in the repair of the damaged concrete:
(1) Epoxy injection material should meet requirements of ASTM C881, Type IV, Grade 1, Class A, B, or C.
(2) Epoxy crack surface sealant gel (paste type) should meet the requirements of ASTM C881, Type 1, Grade 3, Class
A, B, or C.
(3) It is recommended that the ratio of the components should be between 1:1 and 2:1 by volume, with similar
viscosities of components.1
(4) The colors of the components should be distinctly different, and when mixed in proper ratio yield a distinctly
different third color.
(5) All injected epoxies should be wet bonding agents.
b. Epoxy injection equipment should be the automatic mixing and dispensing type. The equipment should include
positive displacement pumps inline pressure gauges, pressure gauges on the mixed materials at the point of injection,
and positive connection to the injection ports. The unit should be capable of delivering 200 psi dynamic fluid pressure
at the point of injection at a minimum flow of 2 gpm. The equipment should indicate when the supply of one
component has been exhausted to prevent injection of only a single component.
14.5.5.3.6 Injection of Epoxy
a. After proper curing of epoxy bonded ports and crack surfaces, commence pressure injection operations.
b. Take ratio checks as follows: The mixing head of the injection equipment should be disconnected and the two adhesive
components should be pumped simultaneously into separate calibrated containers. The amounts discharged into the
calibrated containers simultaneously during the same time period should be compared to determine the mix ratio.
c. After the test has been completed at a 200 psi discharge pressure the procedure should be repeated for 0 psi discharge
pressure.
d. The ratio test should be performed for each injection unit at the beginning of each day that the unit is used.
e. Samples of the mixed epoxy should be taken before commencing work each day, at least once every hour during
injection work, and each time the mixing head is flushed with solvent. Time, dates, and curing of the samples are to be
noted. The samples before work and after flushing should be from the injection nozzles. Samples during work should
be from injected ports.
1 See Commentary

f. Commence pumping at the lowest point possible, or first injection port in a line, whichever is applicable. Continue
pumping until the epoxy appears at one or more of the next ports in line. When this occurs, stop pumping, cap the port
through which liquids were being injected and move up to the next port in line from which liquids were observed to
flow. Repeat this operation until all cracks have been filled to refusal.
g. During installation, pressures should normally be limited to a maximum of 100 psi.1
14.5.5.3.7 Cure
Injected epoxies should be allowed to cure in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations for those temperatures
prevailing during application.
14.5.5.3.8 Port Removal and Clean Up
After adequate curing of injection epoxy, ports and epoxy gel can be ground smooth to eliminate any sharp edges or
protrusions.
14.5.5.3.9 Record Cores
Where the need to verify the completion of injection and bond is deemed necessary by the Engineer, record cores of sufficient
diameter (2 inches to 4 inches) and length (10 inches to 30 inches) should be obtained at locations determined by the Engineer.
Each core should be identified. All core holes should be filled prior to completion of the work at the structure.
14.5.5.4 Reinforcement of Cracks2
14.5.5.4.1 Stitching
1
The integrity of a cracked concrete section can at times be restored by stitching. The process involves the application of steel
or fiber-reinforced polymer reinforcing bars (stitching dogs or staples) across a cracked section (see Figure 8-14-1) on the
surface of the members. Where surface appearance is a consideration, the stitches may be installed below the finished surface.
The stitching dogs should be of various lengths, spacing and orientation so that a single plane is not overstressed. Their
spacing should decrease near the ends of the crack to avoid stress concentration. The ends of the stitching dogs should be
grouted with a non-shrink or expanding grout so that a proper anchorage is achieved. It should be realized that repairs of this
3
type may cause the cracking to migrate to another portion of the structure.
4
STAPLES
Figure 8-14-1. Repair of Cracks by Stitching
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary

14.5.5.4.2 Pinning
Cracks may be immobilized by drilling holes through the concrete so as to intercept the crack and grouting reinforcement into
them as specified by the Engineer. (See Figure 8-14-2.)
Figure 8-14-2. Repair of Cracks by Pinning
14.5.5.4.3 External Reinforcement
a. Placing external reinforcement across the crack and extending for a substantial length can distribute the stresses
causing the crack. The stresses at the ends of such reinforcement should be considered to eliminate simply relocating
the cracked condition.
b. Tensile stress cracks can be arrested by removing the stresses by tensioning the external reinforcement, thereby
compressing the member. Cleaned cracks can be closed by inducing a compressive force sufficient to overcome the
tension and to provide a residual compression.
c. The principle is similar to stitching and the problem of crack migration must also be considered in this process.
d. Anchorage is required for the external post-tensioning. Some form of abutment is needed, such as a strongback bolted
to the face of the concrete (see Figure 8-14-3 and Figure 8-14-4).
Figure 8-14-3. External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Slab

Figure 8-14-4. External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Beam
14.5.5.4.4 Banding
Members which are exposed around their perimeter may have steel members placed around them to arrest movement in the
crack. These bands should be anchored at regular intervals to the member.
14.5.6 NON-STRUCTURAL CRACK REPAIR (2006)

14.5.6.1 Sealing Cracks or Joints
a. Where there may be movement in the structure, by reason of expansion, contraction or vibration, structural joints
subject to leakage may be sealed by using a waterstop such as a 10 inch, 16 ounce, cold-rolled copper expansion plate, 1
preformed along the longitudinal centerline of the copper to produce a modified “V”-shape as shown in Figure 8-14-5,
or a half round 2 inches diameter PVC pipe, secured in place with straps and anchors as shown in Figure 8-14-6, or
similar noncorrosive materials with the necessary flexibility as approved by the Engineer.
Figure 8-14-5. Detail Copper Plate Joint Sealing
b. The concrete or stone should be chipped out sufficiently to provide space for installation of a watertight joint between
the waterstop and concrete and also for a channel for water seepage, properly drained at the base of crack or joint, or as
otherwise specified by the Engineer.
c. The expansion joint between the finished surface and the waterstop should be filled with a flexible joint sealing
material. The patch should be reinforced and placed as previously specified.

Figure 8-14-6. Detail PVC Pipe Joint Sealing
d. Non-leaking cracks or joints where movement in the structure by reason of expansion, contraction or vibration is
apparent, may be sealed with a flexible joint sealing material. Where it has been determined that no movement exists, a
rigid compound can be used.
14.5.6.2 Surface Crack Repairs
Routing and sealing may be used to make surface crack repairs where surface appearance is not a consideration. This method
consists of enlarging the crack along its exposed face with a concrete saw or hand pneumatic tools to open the crack
sufficiently to receive the sealant. Minimum surface width should be 1/4 inch. The surface of the routed joint should be clean
and dry before placing the sealant. Sealant and installation should be in accordance with the sealant manufacturer’s
recommendation.
14.5.7 REINFORCEMENT SPLICES (2006)
14.5.7.1 Scope
Severely damaged reinforcement in members may be repaired by splicing. Where damaged reinforcement is spliced, the
repairs should be designed so that there is no change in stress due to the damage. Preloading of the member may be required to
achieve this, depending on the repair method used. The strength of the splice should meet the required ultimate strength of the
member.
14.5.7.2 Internal Splicing of Prestressing Tendons or Conventional Reinforcement
a. Strands or bars should be spliced by attaching a coupling device to the severed ends. The ends should be trimmed to
sound, undamaged material prior to splicing. The strand or bar should be stressed by tightening the coupling device
until the desired stress is reached.
b. Consideration should be given to fatigue and space limitations in selecting this method of repair for multiple strands or
bars.

c. Splices in conventional reinforcement may be accomplished by lap splices. Sufficient bar length must be exposed for
development of the splice and preloading may be required.
14.5.7.3 External Post-Tensioning
a. External post-tensioning should consist of threaded bars or prestress strands applied to the member. The applied post-
tensioning force should be calculated based on the internal stresses required under live and dead loads. Location of the
anchorage for the post tensioning system should be based upon the stresses at the transfer of load into the original
member, and should be symmetrical about the center of the member to minimize eccentricity in the post-tensioning
system.
b. Anchorages typically consist of corbels attached to the concrete with expansion bolts and bonding agents. Care should
be taken to ensure that existing tendons or bars are not damaged in the placement of anchor bolts.
14.5.7.4 External Metal Splice Sleeves
a. Metal sleeve splices consist of bonding steel plates across the damaged area with sufficient bond length to develop both
the damaged reinforcement and the metal plates.
b. Concrete surfaces in the bond area must be clean. Metal plates are galvanized steel with the contact surface scored
vertically by wire brushing.
c. The plates are bonded to the concrete by pressure injection by epoxy resin. A 1/16 inch gap should be left between the
concrete and the steel. The gap should be maintained by use of metal spacers. The edges of the splice sleeve should be
bolted to the concrete taking care not to damage existing reinforcement. Sufficient mechanical fasteners should be used
1
to transfer the stresses from the concrete to the sleeve.
d. Damaged concrete areas within the splice area should be filled with concrete. See Figure 8-14-7.

Figure 8-14-7. External Splice Sleeve
14.5.8 UNDERWATER REPAIRS (2017)
14.5.8.1 Scope
Most methods of bridge substructure repair used above water can also be satisfactorily employed underwater. Repairs
performed below water, however, can be more difficult to accomplish, typically take longer to complete, and tend to be more
expensive than similar repairs done above water. In some instances, a means of dewatering may be possible to allow the
necessary repairs to be accomplished in the dry.
14.5.8.2 Underwater Repair of Concrete
Repairs that can be employed underwater for concrete substructure construction include spall repair, crack injection or
patching, member replacement or restoration, pile jackets or membrane wraps, and undermining cavity repair. For the
underwater repair of concrete elements, some important considerations include the following:
a. Concrete used for underwater repair can be tremied, pumped, or hand-placed depending on the particular application
and amount needed. In all instances, the use of an anti-washout admixture should be investigated to limit material
segregation.
b. Thorough preparation of the submerged surfaces subject to repair, suitable water temperatures, and proper material
placement methods are very important considerations in achieving good results with underwater repairs.
c. The use of specialized concrete mixes in conjunction with various admixtures and/or other additives can produce
concrete with low permeability properties, which in turn will afford higher durability for the concrete to be placed
underwater.

d. When reinforcing of the concrete to be repaired is necessary, sufficient concrete cover for the reinforcement is very
important. Corrosion-resistant reinforcement options could also be considered.
e. Grout bags and/or pre-placed stone can be used along with concrete to fill undermined cavities under substructure
foundations. In all instances, the proposed repair details should be analyzed so as to not make a scour induced situation
worse.
SECTION 14.6 REPAIR METHODS FOR PRESTRESSED MEMBERS
14.6.1 CRACKS EXIST WITH NO SIGNIFICANT SECTION LOSS AND NO TENDON

DAMAGE (2006)1
Cracks should be repaired by epoxy injection. Cracks in the precompression zone should be repaired under preload if live load
alone applied to the section produces a tensile stress exceeding the bond strength or the base concrete allowable tension.
14.6.2 THERE IS MINOR SECTION LOSS, BUT NO T ENDON DAMAGE (2017)
14.6.2.1 Minor Concrete Nicks, Spalls, or Scrapes (Adequate cover remains and no significant section
loss)2
Clean and seal minor defects with two coats of a penetrating sealer to prevent moisture intrusion.
1
14.6.2.2 Gouges Across Bottom Flange with Loss of Cover (No Significant Section Loss)3
a. Minor defects in girders designed for zero tension in bottom flange concrete under live load should be cleaned and
sealed with penetrating sealer to prevent moisture intrusion. Additional protection may be provided by patching with
an acceptable concrete patching material. 3
b. Minor defects in girders designed for tension in bottom flange concrete under live load should also be cleaned and
sealed with penetrating sealer to prevent moisture intrusion. If patching is used to provide additional protection, the
patch should be applied under preload. If under preload it is found that a crack has propagated from the gouge, either
the cracked concrete should be removed or the crack repaired by epoxy injection. The gouge should be patched with an
approved concrete patching mortar and the preload removed after the patch has reached adequate strength. (This
applies to existing girders that may have tension in the bottom flanges. Current standards do not allow this design.) 4
14.6.3 SHATTERED CONCRETE AND/OR SIGNIFICANT SECTION LOSS, BUT NO
TENDON DAMAGE (2006)
a. Replacement of lost concrete should be executed under preload if the repaired section would be subject to tensile
stresses when live load is applied.
b. In preparation of the surface for placement of repair material and in removal of damaged concrete extreme care must be
taken to avoid any damage to prestressing tendons. Tendons should be chemically cleaned.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

14.6.4 THERE IS SECTION LOSS AND TENDON DAMAGE (2017)
14.6.4.1 General1
Repairs should be designed so there is no change in stress due to the damage. Preloading the member may be required to
achieve this end. The ultimate strength of the splice should always meet or exceed the required ultimate strength. Splicing of
reinforcement is covered in Article 14.5.7 Reinforcement Splices (2006).
14.6.4.2 Few Tendons Are Damaged2
a. Tendons should be repaired by internal splicing. After tendons are repaired the concrete is repaired, usually under
preload.
b. Repair of more than 2-4 tendons by this method is usually difficult.
14.6.4.3 Several Tendons Are Damaged (6-8 Tendons)3
The span may be repaired with external post-tensioning. Due to the externally applied tensioning, preload may not be required.
The damaged concrete may be repaired utilizing appropriate patching methods. Protection of the post-tensioning system must
be considered.
14.6.4.4 Multiple Tendon Damage with Large Section Losses4
Repairs can be accomplished with metal splice sleeves. The damaged concrete areas within the splice area are filled with
concrete. Preloading is not required if the stresses at the top and the end of the sleeve do not exceed the allowable maximum.
14.6.5 MEMBER IS DAMAGED BEYOND REASONABLE REPAIR (2006)
Replacement of some severely damaged members may be the only solution.
14.6.6 MEMBER HAS INADEQUATE STRENGTH (2006)
External post-tensioning and metal sleeve splices may be used to increase the strength of members.
14.6.7 SUMMARY (2006)5
The type of repair must be determined by the extent and type of damage, the time the structure will be out of service, the repair
cost, durability, and the ultimate load capacity of the repair. Combinations of repairs such as internal splicing with external
post-tensioning should also be considered.
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary
3
See Commentary
4
See Commentary
5 See Commentary

C - COMMENTARY
-2017-
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 14 Repair and Rehabilitation of
Concrete Structures. In the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the
section/paragraph being explained.
C - SECTION 14.1 SCOPE (2017) (REFERENCES 6 AND 30)
a. The techniques and materials described in this chapter are applicable to cast-in-place and precast concrete, stone, and
concrete and brick masonry.
(1) UNDERWATER REPAIRS
General - Repairs to submerged concrete elements can generally be performed by divers working underwater or by
dewatering the work area and using conventional above water repair techniques. Most repairs can be satisfactorily
completed below water, if appropriate preparation and installation procedures are followed. Underwater repairs,
however, will generally take longer and be more expensive than comparable work done in the dry. Regardless,
underwater repairs are often more cost-effective in consideration of the costs to dewater the repair site.
The primary techniques available to permit work to be carried out under dry conditions are sheet pile cofferdams,
earthen dikes, and portable dams. Because underwater repairs are specialized and more difficult to inspect,
prequalification of the underwater contractor is recommended. Whether repairs are performed submerged or in the dry,
1
all environmental regulations should be complied with. Final acceptance of below water repairs should be made in
conjunction with an independent underwater inspection.
(2) UNDERWATER REPAIR OF CONCRETE
Materials - For underwater placement of concrete, durability and workability are usually as important as strength and 3
those properties can be enhanced with the proper admixtures. For below water applications, the most important factor
in achieving concrete durability is low permeability. This is accomplished with a low water/cement ratio, the use of
pozzolans, and good consolidation. Improper concrete workability will also adversely affect durability.
Specialized concrete mix designs, which differ for marine or freshwater applications, should be used to provide a
durable, long lasting repair. Aggregates should themselves be durable, non-reactive and of the appropriate size for the
means of concrete placement. Admixtures, including water reducers, air entrainers, pozzolans, retarders, and anti- 4
washout additives, are available to assist concrete mixes in satisfying particular requirements. However, their use
should be checked for the compatibility of those to be used together, as well as suitability for the means of concrete
placement and the specific repair parameters. The implementation of trial mixes and placement is recommended prior
to the performance of the repairs. Water reducers are usually used to obtain low water / cement ratios. Air entraining
should be used for freeze-thaw exposures; however, it may not be suitable for other applications since it can increase
permeability. The use of pozzolans (such as fly ash and silica fume) will aid in reducing permeability and
susceptibility to sulfate attack; however, rate of strength gain will vary and moist curing will be needed for a dewatered
application. Anti-washout admixtures (AWA) assist in retaining concrete mix fines during underwater placement, and
can be used in conjunction with water reducers, rich mixes, and pozzolans to obtain maximum benefits. AWA's can
have disadvantages, including high cost, sensitivity to mix changes, and incompatibility with other admixtures, so their
use should be thoroughly investigated.
When steel reinforcement is used for concrete repairs in water related applications, a dense concrete and adequate
cover are imperative. Potential problems related to the concrete reinforcement can also be lessened with the use of
epoxy coated, galvanized, stainless steel, fiberglass or composite reinforcement. Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium
nitrite, can also be added to the concrete to lower the corrosion potential of the reinforcement.

Methods - Concrete substructure repairs made underwater can address material deterioration and/or undermining. For
relatively small and shallow areas of concrete deterioration, hand-patching techniques can be used for placement of
repair mortar above and below water. Materials commonly used for hand patching applications include mortars made
with Portland cement, hydraulic cement, epoxies, or polymers, with the hydraulic mortars often having the smallest
reduction from their dry bond strength when used underwater. For larger areas to be repaired, rigid or flexible forms,
constructed from a variety of materials and designed to either stay-in-place or be removed, can be used for the
placement of the mortar. Materials used for rigid forms include wood, steel, fiberglass and concrete, whereas flexible
forms include fabric pile jackets, fabric bags and plastic membranes typically intended to be left in place. Grout filled
fabric bags can be used to fill large irregularly shaped voids, including those created by undermining, when outward
appearance is not a concern.
Prior to any placement of repair materials, the affected area should be properly prepared by removing all unsound
concrete and cleaning corrosion from any exposed reinforcement. Preparation techniques are similar to those used
above water, including pneumatic and hand hammers, wire brushes, and water or abrasive blasting which can be used
below water. Proper preparation may also include the installation of replacement or supplemental reinforcement and
expansion or grouted anchorage mechanisms for the repair mortar/concrete. Underwater placement of concrete can be
accomplished by tremie or pumping methods, with the incorporation of anti-washout admixtures in the concrete.
Preplaced aggregate within the forms may also be used with a pumping application to enhance durability and reduce
shrinkage of the repair.
Cracks below water can be structurally repaired with the injection of specially formulated, water insensitive resins that
contain particular polymers not found in true epoxies. The same injection techniques used above water are applicable
underwater; however, cracks must be adequately flushed with clean water or cleaning agents for proper resin bond and
penetration. Special resin compositions are required for water temperatures below 55°F (13°C). Hand applied or
formed mortar repairs and crack injection can also be used for concrete piles below water.
Synthetic membrane pile wraps can be used to inhibit further deterioration of concrete piles by creating a barrier
against chloride penetration and chemically aggressive waters. The structural repair of a concrete pile can be
accomplished with any of a number of pile jackets or encasements. Jacket repairs should typically incorporate
reinforcement around the pile within the forming system, which can consist of either rigid or flexible forms usually
intended to stay-in-place. Ideally, the forms should be filled by pumping of the grout from the bottom up, with
underwater monitoring to ensure uniform consolidation during placement.
Undermining of substructure footings caused by channel bottom scour can be repaired with grout bags, grouted stone,
or formed concrete used to fill the void under the footing. Grout bags can be used to occupy the void entirely, or
assembled as a form to contain the concrete that is placed behind to fill the void. Stone of the appropriate size can also
be used to fill around and within the void, with grout again being placed behind and among the stone. Placement of the
cement grout within the forms, bags or stones at the undermining can be accomplished by either a tremie or pumping
process, with anti-washout admixtures and underwater monitoring for leakage being incorporated. Repairs to
undermined substructures should be analyzed for effects on scour potential and the structural stability. The installation
of scour countermeasures in conjunction with the repairs should be considered.
(3) UNDERWATER REPAIR OF MASONRY
Materials - For underwater repair of masonry, stone of good, durable quality should be specified. Specifications for
stone should include minimum allowable compressive strengths, and limits on maximum porosity and bedding planes
or cracks. Cut stone replacement blocks should be aged to allow stress relaxation and moisture equilibrium, as well as
to allow time for the development of any cracks, which can occur in stone quarried by blasting. Mortars for masonry
joints are typically made of sand, cement, and lime, with newer compositions incorporating polymers and/or fine
aggregates. Older mortars were generally softer than those used in current practice, and new mortars should attempt to
match existing properties to maintain structure flexibility. Hard mortars should be avoided since they are more
inclined to crack or cause edge spalls.

Methods - Underwater masonry repairs can address both stone and mortar joint deterioration. Common repair
techniques include stone replacement with concrete to fill voids created by missing stones; mortar joint repointing; and
encasement of a masonry substructure unit with concrete. Stone replacement is typically incorporated when
appearance is a concern. Stones can also be replaced with concrete which is less expensive, but also less attractive.
The stone void can be filled by pumping concrete behind formwork that should include a venting mechanism to
completely fill the void.
The repair of deteriorated masonry joints can be accomplished by hand-applied mortar. The joints should first be
cleaned of all loose and unsound material, dirt and marine growth. Hand-applied mortar repairs below water are
conducted in the same manner as above water, with repointing accomplished with a trowel or squeeze bag, although
hydraulic cement mortars are often used underwater. Where joint strength is not a concern, caulk may be used in the
joint to arrest further deterioration of the mortar. For deeper joint problems, joints can also be pressure-grouted with
cement grout or epoxy after an exterior seal is installed along the joints. To restore deteriorated areas, as well as to
afford future protection, masonry substructure units can be encased with concrete, either partially or completely.
Dowels should be used to hold and aid in supporting the encasement. The methods for the placement of concrete for
encasements, as well as for stone replacements, should be consistent with the recommendations for underwater
concrete repairs.
C - SECTION 14.2 DETERMINATION OF THE CAUSES OF CONCRETE

DETERIORATION (2017)
a. Several factors contribute to the deterioration of concrete. These include: 1

(1) Lack of quality in the original concrete and/or its placement can be caused by deficiencies in:
(a) Quality of materials such as: improperly stored or handled cement; reactive, porous or soft aggregates;
contaminated water; or inappropriate admixtures or combinations of admixtures
(b) Mix design and proportioning 3

(c) Workmanship, placing, finishing or curing
(2) Deficiency of reinforcement such as:
(a) Corrosion of reinforcing steel

4
Corrosion of reinforcing steel is the largest cause of deterioration of reinforced concrete structures.
Corrosion of reinforcing steel can cause it to expand up to eight times its original volume, and the pressure
of this expansion can cause the concrete to crack and eventually delaminate.
(b) Design deficiencies
(c) Inadequate or improper details
(d) Insufficient concrete cover
(3) Properties of surrounding environment including:
(a) Use of deicing agents

(b) Alkali soil or water
(c) Industrial chemicals
(d) Marine environment
(4) Inadequate structural capacity due to:
(a) Excessive loads
(b) Design deficiencies
(c) Inadequate or improper details
(d) Inadequate consolidation
(5) Physical damage due to:
(a) Impact
(b) Abrasion from ice, stream flow, traffic
(c) Settlement of the foundation
(d) Freeze-thaw cycles
(e) Fire
(f) Seismic activity
(g) Wind
(h) Storm
C - SECTION 14.3 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF DETERIORATION AND

DAMAGE (2017)
C - 14.3.1.3 Non-Destructive Tests
a. For determining the extent of concrete or masonry deterioration, the following are some of the non-destructive
techniques available.
(1) For surface conditions, visual inspection can be used to identify the location and size of cracks, voids, scaling,
spalls, delaminations, and exposed (corroded) reinforcement.
(2) For internal conditions and subsurface deterioration, a list of conventional testing methods follows:
(a) Audio methods for detection of cracks, voids and delaminations require the use of hand tools, including
hammers, steel rods and chains, which are used for striking the structure to detect sound differentials between
good and defective ("hollow" sounding) material.

(b) Electrical methods for evaluation of reinforcement corrosion activity include the use of half-cells or multiple
electrode systems, which measure resistance and potential differences. The method requires a connection be
made to an exposed section of steel reinforcement.
(c) Impulse radar uses electromagnetic wave (radar) reflection to detect voids, measure material thickness, and
evaluate the presence and location of embedments (reinforcement) in structures. This method is affected by
moisture in the concrete or masonry, and relative measurements should be correlated to known dimensions.
(d) Infrared thermography uses heat flow through structures to determine anomalies such as voids and
delaminations.
(e) Magnetic methods for determining location, size and depth of reinforcement include the use of pachometers
or R-meters that make measurements based on the principles of induction.
(f) Stress wave reflection/refraction methods, including pulse-echo, impact-echo and stress wave refraction,
introduce a stress pulse into the structure, and reflections of the stress waves denote material flaws or
interfaces such as voids, cracks, and delaminations.
(g) Rebound (impact) hammers use a spring-loaded weight impacted against the structure, with the amount of
rebound being a measurement of material hardness and strength. This commonly used method is inexpensive,
but results can be affected by surface conditions, material moisture content and aggregate type.
(h) Ultrasonic pulse velocity methods use measurements of the time for a sound wave to travel to and from a
reflection surface (backside of a structure or internal discontinuity) to determine material thickness and to
identify the presence and location of voids, cracks or delaminations. This method is affected by material
1
density and component make-up, and relative measurements should be correlated to known dimensions.
C - 14.3.2 RESULTS OF EVALUATION (2017)
Both cost-effectiveness of the repair and the business costs of the time impacts on rail operations should be considered in
evaluating a course of action. 3
C - SECTION 14.4 PRINCIPAL MATERIALS USED IN THE REPAIR OF CONCRETE
STRUCTURES
C - 14.4.4 REINFORCEMENT (2017)

4
b. Reinforcement made of fiberglass and carbon fiber should conform to the American Concrete Institute (ACI) 440.1R-
15 Guide for the Design and Construction of Structural Concrete Reinforced with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Bars.
c. Coatings on the reinforcing steel can slow down corrosion if they are applied before the concrete is contaminated or
damaged. These coatings can protect the reinforcing steel inside the repaired area. Cathodic protection (both galvanic
and impressed current) can be used to halt on-going corrosion (even if the concrete is contaminated or damaged) both
inside and outside the repair area.
Cathodic protection of steel reinforcement comes in two main forms:
a. Galvanic cathodic protection, where a metal dissimilar to steel (usually zinc) encapsulated in an activating
mortar or solution is connected to the reinforcing steel to provide protection from future corrosion. Galvanic
cathodic protection comes in several forms: individual anodes, distributed anodes, and surface applied
systems.

b. Impressed current cathodic protection, where an external power source supplied through an AC/DC
conversion rectifier is applied to the reinforcing steel to protect it from future corrosion. Impressed current
cathodic protection comes in two main forms: individual discrete anodes and surface applied systems.
C - 14.4.8 NON-SHRINK GROUTS (2006)
Non-shrink grouts are available in a wide variety of compositions for special purposes. This results in highly variable
properties of the products. The variables include flowability, resistance to chemical attack, set time, rate of strength gain,
ultimate strength and impact resistance. No single product is applicable for all cases. Product should be checked for
suitability of application.
C - 14.4.9 FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERS (FRP COMPOSITES) (2017)
Fiber-reinforced polymers can be used as internal reinforcing and can be externally applied to strengthen existing structures.
For the selection of materials and design of FRP reinforcement, refer to the latest editions of ACI documents:
a. 440.1R Guide for the Design and Construction of Structural Concrete Reinforced with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
(FRP) Bars
b. 440.2R Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete
Structures
c. 440.5 Specification for Construction with Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Reinforcing Bars
d. 440.6 Specification for Carbon and Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bar Materials for Concrete Reinforcement
e. 440.8 Specification for Carbon and Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Materials Made by Wet Layup for External
Strengthening of Concrete and Masonry Structures
C - SECTION 14.5 REPAIR METHODS (2017)
C - 14.5.1 SURFACE REPAIRS USING PORTLAND CEMENT MATERIALS (2017)
C - 14.5.1.1 Scope
b. Preload consists of the application of external loads during the repair process to restore the prestressing forces in
members where the prestress has been lost due to damage. If the prestress is restored to a level less than the original
design level, the capacity of the member should be evaluated at the reduced level of prestressing.
C - 14.5.1.2 Preparation
Proper preparation of the surfaces to be repaired is critical to the success of the repair. Failure to provide a sound, clean
surface prior to application of repair material is a common cause of failure of repairs.
Reference International Concrete Repair Institute, Inc. (ICRI) No. 310.1R Guide for Surface Preparation for the Repair of
Deteriorated Concrete Resulting from Reinforcing Steel Corrosion. This document provides information on preparing the
concrete repair area for installing the repair material.
C - 14.5.1.5 Bonding
When using bonding agents, timing can be critical. Extended exposure of the bonding agent prior to application of the new
material may cause failure of the bond.

C - 14.5.1.8 Shotcrete
The successful application of shotcrete requires experience and knowledge. The use of an experienced, qualified crew is
necessary, especially in the nozzleman position.
C - 14.5.1.12 Curing and Protection
Curing of cast-in-place concrete and shotcrete repairs may be more critical than for concrete in new construction. Where there
is an existing concrete or masonry substrate, shrinkage is limited to the repair material only and cracking may result. In
addition, the substrate may pull water from the repair material, reducing the available water in the mix. In the case of
shotcrete, which has a low water cement ratio, there is no form to reduce moisture loss further increasing the need for
protection from drying during the curing process.
C - 14.5.2 SURFACE REPAIRS USING POLYMER CONCRETES AND POLYMER

PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETES (2017)
Polymer concrete mixes may contain unpolymerized chemicals that can be hazardous. Particular attention should be given to
the ingredients and handling instructions. Many of these materials have a very rapid strength gain, high strengths and high
impact capacity. These features make these materials useful where load bearing concrete must be replaced in short time
frames. The particular characteristics of the materials vary from product to product. The characteristics of the product should
be evaluated before use.
C - 14.5.5 INTERNAL STRUCTURAL REPAIRS (2017)

1
C - 14.5.5.1 Scope
Care should be taken in the choice of whether to use portland cement grouts or epoxy for injection. The two materials have
different characteristics and costs. Cement grouts are generally thicker and considerably less expensive, making them
appropriate for applications where large internal voids, large cracks and a pathway to the earth fill behind the member are
present. Where high strength is important, cracks are thin and the material can be well contained in the crack, epoxy materials
are appropriate.
3
C - 14.5.5.3 Epoxy Injection
C - 14.5.5.3.3 Injection Ports
d. (2) Care should be taken to prevent concrete dust generated during drilling from plugging the crack. A vacuum 4
attached to the drill and hollow drill bits should be used to remove the dust as drilling occurs and prevent it from
blocking the flow of the epoxy.
C - 14.5.5.3.5 Materials and Equipment
a. (3) Where one component is used in a high ratio to the other component it is difficult to assure even mixing and pockets
of unmixed materials may result. When this occurs the epoxy may never gel or reach the desired strength.
C - 14.5.5.3.6 Injection of Epoxy
g. Injection pressures above 100 psi (0.7 MPa) are not recommended as the pressure could cause further damage to the
member. If the normal pressures are not sufficient to cause penetration of the materials into the cracks, a lower
viscosity epoxy should be considered.

C - 14.5.5.4 Reinforcement of Cracks
Injection of materials into a crack should not be considered to restore the tensile capacity of the concrete. Where tension is to
be transferred across the crack, reinforcement should be installed to resist the tension. The selection of the type of
reinforcement should consider where the tension forces are to be transferred. The reinforcement should continue to a point
where the existing capacity of the structure can resist the forces, with proper consideration to development of reinforcement.
C - SECTION 14.6 REPAIR METHODS FOR PRESTRESSED MEMBERS

(REFERENCES 61 AND 62)
C - 14.6.1 CRACKS EXIST WITH NO SIGNIFICANT SECTION LOSS AND NO TENDON

DAMAGE (2006)
The application of preload should be investigated in conjunction with concrete repairs. Applying preload prior to epoxy
injection can result in live load stresses no greater than original.
Figure C-8-14-1. Preloading
C - 14.6.2 THERE IS MINOR SECTION LOSS, BUT NO TENDON DAMAGE (2017)
C - 14.6.2.1 Minor Concrete Nicks, Spalls, or Scrapes (Adequate cover remains and no significant section
loss)
The application of two coats of a penetrating sealer is recommended to prevent moisture intrusion or other corrosive elements
to the prestressing steel.

C - 14.6.2.2 Gouges Across Bottom Flange with Loss of Cover (No Significant Section Loss)
Gouge patches should attain required strength prior to removal of preload.
C - 14.6.4 THERE IS SECTION LOSS AND TENDON DAMAGE (2017)
Impact damage may cause sweep (lateral curvature in the bottom flange) or abrupt lateral curvature caused by the combination
of torsional and transverse flexural stress induced by tendon eccentricities when strands are broken on one side of a girder. It
may be possible to jack the tension flange into alignment and hold it using an additional diaphragm.
C - 14.6.4.2 Few Tendons Are Damaged
One advantage of internal strand splices is that they restore strength internally. Combined with preloading, the girder should be
restored to its original condition.
Repair of more than 2-4 tendons by this method is usually difficult.
C - 14.6.4.3 Several Tendons Are Damaged (6-8 Tendons)
Jacking corbels may be used to secure the ends of post-tensioned rods. The strength of the corbels will generally control the
number of severed strands that can be spliced by post-tensioning. Between corbels, the post-tensioning rods should be grouted
after post-tensioning inside of a conduit to protect the rods. 1
Figure C-8-14-2. External Post-Tensioning Section Between Corbels
C - 14.6.4.4 Multiple Tendon Damage with Large Section Losses
The use of metal splice sleeves does not restore prestress unless preloading is used. Intermediate cracks which are covered by
the splice should not reduce structural integrity or durability.

Figure C-8-14-3. Metal Splice Sleeve
C - 14.6.7 SUMMARY (2006)
For independent precast members, replacement of the member may be the most effective solution.

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Table 8-19-1. Maximum Allowable Stresses
0(75,&81,76 ,03(5,$/81,76
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Table 8-19-2. Reinforcing Steel - Unknown Yield Strength
0,1,080<,(/'675(1*7+I\
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Table 8-19-3. Prestressing Steel - Unknown Yield Strength
0,1,080<,(/'675(1*7+IS\
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Table 8-19-4. Welded Wire Fabric or Cold Drawn Steel Wire - Unknown Yield Strength
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Table 8-19-4. Welded Wire Fabric or Cold Drawn Steel Wire - Unknown Yield Strength
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8
Part 21
Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures1
— 2018 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
21.1 General (2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1
21.2 Reporting of Defects (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
21.3 Inspection (2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2 1

21.3.1 General (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
21.3.2 Structural Protection (2018). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-6
21.3.3 Evaluating Fire Damaged Concrete Railway Bridges (2018) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-7
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-22
3
SECTION 21.1 GENERAL (2018)2
a. All concrete and masonry structures and components should be given thorough, detailed condition inspections at
scheduled intervals. For timber and steel components, refer to Chapter 7 and Chapter 15, respectively. The scope and
detail of the inspection should be based on the condition and age of the structure, and traffic type and tonnage in order
to determine that the physical condition of each structure is suitable for the imposed loading and to determine
maintenance or rehabilitation needs. A record of physical conditions shall be kept.
b. A special inspection may be required when the structure is subjected to abnormal conditions which may affect the
capacity of the structure such as: floods, storms, fires, earthquakes, collisions, overloads and evidence of recent
movement.
c. The inspector should review prior inspection reports before making the inspection. Previously noted defects should be
examined in the field and any changes in conditions recorded. Field book, sketch pad, inspection form, camera,
monitoring gages, etc., should be used to record the inspection data. Appropriate personal safety equipment should be
used throughout the inspection.
1
References, Vol. 71, 1970, p. 246; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 53.
2
See Commentary

SECTION 21.2 REPORTING OF DEFECTS (2018)
a. Upon completion of the inspection, documentation covering the inspection should be forwarded to the engineer or
designated representative in charge of maintenance. Upon receipt of the report, a review should be made to determine
the need for remedial action. The documentation should be kept as part of the permanent structure record as
appropriate.
b. When the inspector finds defects that appear to be of such a nature as to make the passage of traffic unsafe, the
condition should immediately be protected and reported. After steps have been taken to protect traffic, appropriate
representatives should be notified, consistent with established policies, recommending a speed limit and briefly
describing the conditions which prompted the action. The inspector should follow this immediately with a report so
that a detailed investigation and repair can be made. The report should include the location and description of the
defect, photos of the defect – including enough detail to identify the location – and/or sketches of the defect and
location.
c. Sample inspection forms for concrete and masonry structures are included at the end of this Part.
SECTION 21.3 INSPECTION1 (2018)
21.3.1 GENERAL (2018)
a. The inspection of concrete and masonry structures should be performed in a methodical manner. Of primary
importance in all structures is evidence of distress, misalignment, deflection, settlement, cracks, and general
deterioration. Evidence of deterioration of concrete such as width and length of structural cracks, size and location of
spalling and scaling, and location and extent of water-saturation of concrete should be recorded. Cleaning of the
structure or component parts may be necessary to perform a thorough inspection.
b. The inspector should report indications of failure in any portion of the structure and any conditions which could
contribute to a future failure.
c. Reference points should be established for monitoring misalignment, deflection, settlement, and cracks. The amount of
tilt, separation between components, width and length of cracks, efflorescence and rust-staining, and other
measurements necessary for future checking should be recorded.
d. The inspection should include the structure and all related features that could affect the structure.
e. There are many common defects that occur on concrete structures. The following definitions are provided as a
guideline for consistency in reporting of defects.
Abrasion – Abrasion damage is the result of external forces acting on the surface of the concrete member. Erosive
action of silt-laden water running over a concrete surface and ice floe in rivers and streams can cause considerable
damage to concrete.
Cold joint displacement or deterioration – Unbonded concrete resulting from intended separate concrete placement
or by lack of consolidation.
1
See Commentary

Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures
Cracking – A crack is a linear fracture that may extend partially or completely through the concrete member. When
recording cracks, the inspector should describe the type, width, depth, length, direction, location, and appearance of the
crack appropriate for the inspection.
Delamination – Delamination occurs when layers of concrete separate at or near the level of the outermost layer of
reinforcing steel. The major cause of delamination is expansion of corroding reinforcing steel. Delaminated areas can
generally be identified by a hollow sound when tapped with a hammer.
Efflorescence – Efflorescence is a white deposit on concrete caused by crystallization of soluble salts (calcium
chloride) brought to the surface by moisture in the concrete.
Freeze-Thaw Damage – The deterioration of concrete, typically a crack or spall, due to the introduction of moisture
and the subsequent alternate freezing and thawing of the retained moisture.
Honeycombs – Honeycombs are hollow spaces or voids that may be present within the concrete. Honeycombs are
caused by improper consolidation during construction, resulting in the segregation of the coarse aggregates from the
fine aggregates and cement paste.
Pop-Outs – Pop-outs are conical fragments that break out of the surface of the concrete, leaving small holes.
Generally, a shattered aggregate particle will be found at the bottom of the hole, with a part of the fragment still
adhering to the small end of the pop-out cone.
Scaling – Scaling is the gradual and continuing loss of surface mortar and aggregate over an area. When reporting
scaling, the inspector should note the location of the defect, the size of the area, and the depth of penetration of the
defect.
1
Spalling – A spall is a roughly circular or oval depression in the concrete. Spalls result from the separation and
removal of a portion of the surface concrete, revealing a fracture roughly parallel to the surface. Spalls can be caused
by corroding reinforcement and friction from thermal movement. Reinforcement is often exposed after spalling. When
reporting spalls, the inspector should note the location of the defect, the size of the area, and the depth of the defect.
3
21.3.1.1 Track1
The inspector should note the alignment, profile and surface of the track on the structure, its approaches and bridge ends. Any
irregularities in line or surface should be noted along with their magnitude, location and any other information that may
indicate the cause of the irregularities. Depth of ballast and condition of ballast, ties and hardware should be noted.
21.3.1.2 Site and Crossing2

4
a. Where a structure crosses over a waterway, the inspector should note the condition and alignment of the waterway. The
condition of the slopes and any slope protection (such as riprap) should be noted along with any indication of debris
accumulation. The inspector should note any indication of damage from marine collision, ice, or debris.
b. Where scour is possible, the channel bottom at piers and abutments should be checked by sounding, probing, or other
means.
c. The inspector should note any indication of collision damage from railroad equipment or loads crossing the structure.
d. Where a structure carries tracks over a roadway, waterway, or another track, the inspector should note any indication of
collision damage from high or wide loads to the structure. Horizontal and vertical clearances should be measured and
signage verified for accuracy.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

21.3.1.3 Foundations, Piers and Abutments and Retaining Walls1
a. The type of foundation, and type and condition of material used in the various structural components should be noted.
The inspector should note any settlement and/or rotation of foundations, piers, abutments, retaining walls, or their
component parts. Reference points should be established for monitoring structural movements as appropriate.
Electronic devices, such as inclinometers, may also be used.
b. Location and extent of exposed and/or corroded reinforcing steel should be reported. The condition of the structure at
the bridge seats, bearings, and near the waterline should also be investigated.
c. Crack width, orientation, and location should be noted. Widths and lengths of structural cracks should be marked and
dated to monitor crack progression. On masonry structures, cracked, shifted, or missing stones, and condition of mortar
should be noted.
d. Location, size and description of unsound areas, spalling, scaling, or other deterioration should be noted.
e. Condition of retained fill, drainage, and slope protection at abutments and retaining walls should be inspected. Water-
saturated masonry or concrete, and extent of efflorescence and rust-staining should be noted. Check weep holes and
drains for proper functioning.
f. Changes in wall alignment or cracks in earth embankment which parallel the walls should be noted.
21.3.1.4 Pile and Pile Bents
a. Inspection of piles and pile bents should be in general conformance with Article 21.3.1.3. For timber and steel
components, refer to Chapter 7 and Chapter 15, respectively.
b. Alignment and condition of piles should be recorded. Impact damage from debris, vessels or vehicles should also be
noted.
c. Condition of piles should be investigated for soundness. Loss of section and cracking should be noted. These may be
especially severe in a marine environment, particularly in the tidal zone.
d. Condition of connections between the pile cap and piles should be noted.
e. Condition of bracing members and their connections should be noted.
21.3.1.5 Underwater Inspections2
The need and frequency for underwater inspections should be evaluated for every structure having submerged components.
These inspections should identify the channel bottom conditions and presence of any scour, extent of any foundation exposure
and undermining, and all deterioration and damage below water.
a. Divers should be experienced in the inspection of bridge substructures.
b. Inspection data should be recorded by written description, sketches, reports, photography and/or video.
c. Channel activity should be monitored during high water events when scour conditions may be expected. Monitoring
may include the use of sonar readings until more thorough inspections can be performed.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

21.3.1.6 Slabs and Beams1
a. The inspector should note if prestressed or conventionally reinforced concrete is used in the structure. The method of
construction (cast-in-place or precast, simple or continuous) should also be recorded.
b. Any cracks that open and close under traffic, diagonal cracks near supports, or wide or numerous cracks in any location
should be reported immediately to the proper authority, and the structure shall be protected as appropriate. Acute
corners of skewed bridges should be examined for cracks, delaminations and spalls.
c. Structural members should be inspected for excessive deflection, misalignment or collision damage.
d. Curbs, ballast retainers, walkways, and handrails should be inspected, noting the condition as to soundness and security
of fastening devices. Soundness, uniformity, and condition of bearings and bearing areas should also be noted. Areas
exposed to drainage should be checked for spalls and cracks.
21.3.1.7 Box Girders2
a. Type of box construction (precast, cast-in-place, segmental, pre-tensioned, post-tensioned, simple or continuous spans)
should be recorded.
b. General inspection guidelines should be as outlined in Article 21.3.1.6. Top flanges, bottom flanges, and webs should
be inspected when accessible. Chamfers of boxes should be inspected for cracking which may extend along the sides or
bottom of the girders.
c. Shear transfer devices between adjacent box girders should be inspected, where accessible. Condition of grout, 1
hardware, tie rods, and other materials used in tying together adjacent box girders should be noted. Evidence of
differential box deflections or misalignments should be recorded.
d. Condition of void drain holes and evidence of leakage between adjacent boxes should be noted.
21.3.1.8 Arches3
a. Type of arch construction, such as segmental, open spandrel, closed spandrel, single or multiple span, should be noted.
3
Shape of arch span (circular, elliptical or parabolic) should be recorded, if known. Type and general condition of
material (brick, stone, mortar or concrete) should also be recorded.
b. Arch foundations should be investigated for settlement, shifting, scour, and undermining.
c. Arch ribs and bearing areas of arches at springings (spring lines) should be inspected for loss of cross section due to 4
spalling or cracking.
d. Open spandrel columns and walls should be inspected, with particular attention to areas near the interface with the arch
rib and cap.
e. Arch ribs connected with struts should be inspected for diagonal cracking due to torsional shear.
f. Floor systems of open spandrel arches and closed spandrel arches with no fill material should be inspected as outlined
in Article 21.3.1.6.
g. Inspect areas exposed to drainage and seepage for deteriorated and contaminated areas. For closed spandrel arches, it
should be noted whether drains and weepholes are working properly.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

21.3.1.9 Culvert1
a. Inspection of concrete or masonry culverts should be in general conformance with Article 21.3.1.3.
b. The inspector should note any settlement, variations in cross-sectional shape, and misalignment along the horizontal
axis of a culvert. All joints between end treatments and within the culvert itself should be examined for differential
movement, seepage, and leaks. All transverse or longitudinal cracking within a culvert should be noted.
c. A culvert should be inspected for any scour or undermining at either end. Any embankment damage around the culvert
openings and debris or vegetation within the culvert should be noted. All submerged portions of a culvert should be
inspected underwater based on the recommendations set forth in Article 21.3.1.5.
21.3.1.10 Tunnels
a. Important features of a tunnel might be obscured by a shield or lining; therefore, the inspector should review plans, if
available, prior to the inspection. The structural configuration, provisions for drainage, ventilation, lighting, and
secondary passageways that would provide additional access for inspection should be noted.
b. Concrete and masonry inspection should be in general conformance with Article 21.3.1.3. In exposed masonry
construction, special note should be made of bulges in walls, and displacement, shifting, or loss of masonry or mortar.
c. Walls should be inspected for indications of water leakage or ice buildup. The condition and effectiveness of drainage
systems should be noted.
d. The inspector should note whether ancillary systems for lighting, ventilation, and fire prevention are in working order,
if discernible.
e. The accumulation of trash or foreign debris, or the blockage of safety niches should be noted.
f. Any new construction above or adjacent to the tunnel should be noted.
g. Horizontal and vertical clearances should be verified. Items causing changes in clearance should be noted.
h. The inspector should note the alignment, profile, and surface of the track, and clearance of the tunnel.
21.3.2 STRUCTURAL PROTECTION (2018)
The inspection of structural protection devices should note any aspects which may present a hazard to marine, railroad,
highway, or other operations, and identify the necessary measures to correct the situation. Structural protection devices,
including crash walls, cellular dolphins, pile clusters, shear fences, floating shear booms, anchored pontoons, fender systems,
navigation lights, and warning mechanisms, should be inspected as part of the scheduled inspection of their related foundation
or substructure element. The inspection should identify all deterioration, damage, displacement, misalignment, instability,
undermining, and any other detrimental conditions which would inhibit these devices from protecting the structure or cause
them to create an obstruction. All submerged portions of structural protection devices should be inspected underwater based on
the recommendations set forth in Article 21.3.1.5.
1
See Commentary

21.3.3 EVALUATING FIRE DAMAGED CONCRETE RAILWAY BRIDGES (2018)
21.3.3.1 General
Concrete structures exposed to fire may experience a permanent loss of strength, formation of structural cracks, delamination,
surface spalling, and reinforcing damage. However, concrete structures exposed to fire generally perform well and usually are
repairable. The heat conductivity of concrete is low and thus heat from a fire is usually confined to shallow depths. The extent
of structural damage is related to the intensity and duration of the fire, and the mass and details of the concrete structure.
The exposure of concrete to a temperature of 572°F (300°C) is significant for two reasons:
• Below this temperature the effects of heat on concrete are likely to be insignificant.
• Above this temperature concrete coloration changes may indicate permanent damage.
Water directed on hot concrete may cause spalling, crack development, and the embrittlement of reinforcing steel. Firefighting
efforts should be directed to extinguishing the combustible material and not cooling the structure.
Traffic should not cross the structure if significant deflection or distortion is noted or if there are reasons to question that
adequate strength remains.
21.3.3.2 Inspection
a. Prior to the inspection of a damaged concrete structure, it should be determined whether the site is safe for entry.
b. Damage may include the deflection of concrete beams and slabs, distortion of columns, cracking, spalling, and 1
unsightly appearance.
c. Inspection observations should include identifying and measuring any unusual component deflection, and recording
the location and extent of structural cracks, spalls, and exposed reinforcing steel. Fire-exposed surfaces should be
mapped to indicate those areas having structural and cosmetic damage. If fire-exposed surfaces exhibit colorations of
pink, white or buff, those surfaces should be mapped and color noted. Surfaces may need to be cleaned of soot to make
these observations. 3
d. Information concerning the combustible material, duration, intensity indicators, and method for extinguishing should
be obtained from eyewitnesses or other reliable sources for assistance in evaluating the damage. Although any concrete
coloration from the fire may provide sufficient information concerning the intensity of the fire, if coloration is not
evident, to a lesser degree other materials associated with the fire site may have melted and may provide some
indication of the fire intensity, such as: lead 621°F (327°C), plastics 572-842°F (300-450°C), glass 752-932°F (400-
500°C), aluminum 1218°F (660°C), and copper 1981°F (1083°C). Other information concerning the original concrete 4
strength, age, reinforcing details, and types of aggregates may be obtained from structural plans, specifications and
construction records.
21.3.3.3 Evaluation
a. Generally, all concrete that has coloration changes (pink, white, buff) is considered damaged. The pink coloration
572°F (300°C) experienced by heating concrete is the formation of ferrous salts and is more pronounced in concrete
with siliceous aggregates. At approximately 1110°F (600°C), concrete may have a whitish coloration from the
hydration of lime. At 1650°F (900°C) the coloration may be grey-buff.
b. Indications of possible structural damage may be evident by visual examination, but the extent of damage will require
tests and analysis. Evaluation tools for testing include: surface hammer sounding, impact hammers, coring and/or
drilling, and pulse-echo non-destructive testing. Sounding the concrete surface with hammers may be sufficient to
determine if there is any internal concrete delamination. Calibrated impact hammers can give direct measurements of
the concrete compressive strength and may be used on sound and unsound concrete for quick strength comparisons.
Coring will assist in determining the depth of damage, and cores destructively tested will ascertain accurate

compressive strength. A petrographic analysis of cored samples will give a detailed analysis of the concrete condition,
but the analysis is time consuming. Pulse-echo testing can give a rapid and accurate determination of internal concrete
conditions relative to micro-cracking and bond loss. Additional testing may be needed for prestressed concrete.
c. Concrete strength decreases as temperature is increased and further decreases on cooling as a result of micro-cracking.
Approximately 75% residual strength remains in most concrete after exposure to fire. This loss may be offset by excess
residual strength of mature concrete. Internal induced stresses from differential heating may result in the formation of
cracks. Young concrete may experience more damage than mature concrete due to larger amounts of internal moisture
that may convert to steam and increase internal tensile stresses.
d. Damage may result from aggregate spalls due to physical or chemical changes. Explosive spalling may occur from the
release of tensile stresses by the formation of steam within aggregates. Slough-off or the detachment of layers of
concrete may occur where reinforcement is restrained. Igneous aggregates (granite, basalt) generally perform well
when exposed to fire, carbonate aggregates (limestone) perform well to about 1290°F (700°C), and siliceous
aggregates (quartz) do not perform well due to expansion and cracking.
e. The absence of deflection or distortion in any element may indicate that the reinforcing steel was not damaged.
Reinforcing steel usually recovers in strength unless exposed to temperatures over 1110°F (600°C). Anchorages of
post-tensioned members may require special evaluation. The tension in pretensioned steel or post-tensioned ducts
exposed by spalling should generally be assumed to be zero. Prestressed members may experience substantial
relaxation losses, additional to those allowed by normal design. Low-relaxation strands may have improved fire
performance. At 572°F (300°C) the residual bond strength is approximately 85% and at 932°F (500°C) the bond
strength is approximately 50% of initial bond. Bond strength losses of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel subjected to fire
may require special evaluation.
f. Resins used in construction bonding of concrete elements and in repairs may not perform well in the presence of
elevated temperatures.
g. Hydrochloric acid fumes occurring in fires involving PVC and other plastic ducts may react with hardened cement
paste to form calcium chloride which may constitute a hazard to the reinforcement. A silver/chromate test can confirm
the presence of calcium chloride ions.
21.3.3.4 Repairs
a. Repair procedures, as applicable, are outlined in Part 14.
b. Pulse-echo or other nondestructive testing may be used to confirm that all damaged concrete is removed and can be
used to confirm proper bonding of new concrete to old concrete and bonding to reinforcement.

RECORD OF INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES
Division ___________________________________ Date: _____________________________________
Bridge No. ____________________________ (MP) Inspector __________________________________
Weather ___________________________________ Temperature _______________________________
Description of Structure:
NOTE: Remarks should include an estimate of the severity and urgency to repair the structure.
TRACK CONDITION
1.Surface of track on structure and approaches
2.Alignment of track and its location with reference to the structure
1
3.Location, amount and probable causes of any track out of line or surface
4.Ballast, condition and depth

3
5.Remarks
4
SUBSTRUCTURE
1. General:
Alignment of unit (horizontal, vertical)
Evidence of structural movement (settlement, rotation, inclination)
Evidence of scour (wingwalls, abutments, piers)

RECORD OF INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES (Continued)
SUBSTRUCTURE (Continued)
Condition of retained fill (drainage, slope protection)
Alignment of waterway and evidence of debris
Changes apparent since last inspection
2. Piers and Abutments:

Material (brick, stone, concrete)
Condition of backwall (plumb, clearance of structure)
Condition of bridge seat
Condition of bearings (level, bedding)
Brick and Stone:

Condition of mortar joints
Condition of bricks or stones
Conditions at waterline
Concrete:
Cracks (location, size, description)

Delamination, spalling, or scaling (location, size, description)
Condition of reinforcing steel (exposed, corroded - location)
Condition at waterline
3. Bents and Pile Piers:

Type of Piles
(prestressed concrete, conventional concrete, concrete filled, metal shells, steel H, timber, other)
Alignment of piles (horizontal and vertical)
1
Cracks, corrosion and decay (location, size, description)
Delamination, spalling, or scaling (location, size, description)

3
Condition of reinforcing steel (exposed, corroded – location and description)
Condition of pile shells (corroded – location, size and description) 4
Condition of pile at waterline
Caps, Bracing and Collars

Cracks (location, size and description)
Delamination, spalling, or scaling (location, size and description)

Condition of bridge seat
Condition of bearings (level, bedding)
4. Remarks
PRESTRESSED AND REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS

1. General:
Type of construction (prestressed or reinforced concrete)
Condition of reinforcing steel (exposed, corroded, rust around cracks – location and description)
Condition of end blocks (voids draining)
Condition of bearings
Condition of expansion joints

PRESTRESSED AND REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

AND SLABS (Continued)
Condition of curbs (cracks, spalls)
Condition of handrail (fastenings)
Indications of movement
Other deterioration (location and description)
1
2. Remarks
ARCHES – SOLID AND OPEN SPANDREL

1. General: 3
Materials (stone or concrete)
Headwalls and wingwalls

4
Barrel of arch
Alignment of unit (horizontal, vertical)
Evidence of structural movement (settlement, rotation, inclination)

ARCHES – SOLID AND OPEN SPANDREL (Continued)

Leakage through barrel of arch
Condition of expansion joints
2. Headwalls and Wingwalls:

Condition of embankment (spilling over, drainage, cavities)
Indications of wingwall movement
Evidence of scour
Headwall pulling away from barrel of arch
Stone:
Condition of stones
Concrete:

ARCHES – SOLID AND OPEN SPANDREL (Continued)

3. Stone Arch Barrel:

Condition of stones
4. Concrete Arch Barrel:


1
5. Remarks 3
CULVERTS
1. General:
Type (box, pipe, arch) 4
Material
Condition of channel (open)
Culvert undermined

CULVERTS (Continued)
Indications of structural movement (settlement, rotation, inclination)
Cracks or open joints (location and description)
Condition of embankment (spilling over, drainage, cavities)
Condition of headwalls and wingwalls
Indications of wingwall movement
Water leaking into embankment
2. Remarks
TUNNELS
1. General:
Material
Portals
Lining (or unlined)

TUNNELS (Continued)
Track alignment
Condition of side ditches and drainage
2. Portals
Conditions of overburden (spilling over, drainage, cavities)
Sealing required
1
Evidence of washing
Portal pulling away from tunnel

3
3. Tunnel lining
Lined:
Bulges, cracks, open joints, flaking (location, size and description)
4
Seepage through walls (weep holes functioning)
Deterioration of lining material (location, size and description)
Unlined:
Condition of rock (loose)

TUNNELS (Continued)
Seepage into tunnel
Condition of rock anchors (if present)
4. Remarks
RETAINING WALLS
1. General:
Material and type
Indicated movement (settling, sliding, leaning)
Condition of fill (spilling over, cavities, stability)
Washing or scouring
Condition of drainage (weep holes functioning, ditches open)
Cracks, deterioration or open joints (location, size and description)
Condition of prefabricated members (broken, misaligned)
Changes apparent since last inspection (wall movement)

RETAINING WALLS (Continued)

2. Remarks
PIER PROTECTION
1. General:
Type
Materials
General condition of alignment
Collision damage
1
Evidence of scour
Condition of navigation channel 3
Condition of navigation aids (lighting, fog horn)
4
Debris trapped on system
Apparent ability to protect pier

PIER PROTECTION (Continued)

2. Integral:
Condition of energy absorbing devices
Condition of rubbing strips (non-sparking)
Condition of fasteners and splicing materials
Condition of pier adjacent to fender
3. Dolphins:
Pile clusters
Type of piles
Condition of piles
Location relative to planned position
Condition of lashings or connections
Cellular dolphins:
Type of construction (sheet piles, steel rings, etc.)
Condition of piles or rings
Type and condition of fill material


4. Floating shear booms:

Condition of floating material
Condition of boom material
Condition of anchoring system
1
5. Hydraulic devices:
Condition of suspended cylinder
Condition of suspension system 3
Condition of supporting piles, caissons, or piers
4
Changes in water level affecting cylinder engagement
6. Independent Fenders:
Condition of pile supports
Condition of energy absorbers


Condition of longitudinal wales
Condition of rubbing strips
7. Remarks
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 21, Inspection of Concrete and
Masonry Structures. In the numbering of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article
being explained.
C - 21.3.1.1 Track
Line swings may be an indication of pier movement. Sags in the track over the structure may indicate settlement. Effects of
creep and strand relaxation may affect track profile.
C - 21.3.1.2 Site and Crossing
c. The inspector should note any changes in the alignment of a waterway, both upstream and downstream, and the
resulting effect that they may have on the structure. A major change in the alignment of a waterway may place it
outside the spans intended for the crossing.
d. Sedimentation deposits may fill scour holes after high water events. Underwater investigations may be required as per
Article C - 21.3.1.5. Structures located downstream of spillways or locks may be subject to increased scour potential.
C - 21.3.1.3 Foundations, Piers, Abutments, and Retaining Walls
Concrete and masonry structures are placed on foundations of earth, piles, cribbing, rock or other similar material. Cracks may
be evidence of settlement which has occurred during consolidation of the foundation material. Settlement may occur without
cracking. Noticeable changes in track surfaces and alignment, plumbness or elevation may indicate foundation settlement.
Changes in backwall alignment or cracks in the earth embankment parallel to the backwall may indicate movement. Constant
wetting may indicate swelling, premature loss of mortar, deterioration of facing, or excessive water pressure behind backwalls.
Exposure of timber mats or untreated timber piles may lead to rapid deterioration of the timber.
In addition to structural deficiencies, retaining wall failures may result from:
e. Softening of the supporting material by excessive moisture.

f. Overloading of the embankment behind the wall.
g. Scour or erosion beneath the foundation or in front of the wall.
h. Expansive backfills.
i. Hydrostatic pressure behind the wall.
j. Seismic event.
k. Cracks in the earth embankment parallel to the wall (which may be signs of wall movement).
C - 21.3.1.5 Underwater Inspections
In evaluating the need for an underwater inspection, consideration should be given to type and depth of foundation, depth of
water, normal and peak flow rates, nature of channel bottom and susceptibility to and history of scour, type of aquatic
environment, typical extent of drift and ice accumulation, and amount and type of watercraft traffic. The inspections should be
performed with sufficient frequency to provide early detection of any detrimental conditions, and between inspections, the
measuring of water depths should be considered to monitor channel bottom activity. In the event of a high water and/or flow
occurrence, an excessive accumulation of ice or drift, a watercraft collision, a significant change in channel bottom
configuration, or any submerged component movement, consideration should be given to performing an emergency inspection
as soon as conditions will safely permit.
C - 21.3.1.6 Slabs and Beams

1
a. Transverse cracks in the bottom of simple span slabs and beams can indicate overload, particularly if cracks open and
close during passage of a train. Hairline cracks on the tops of simple span prestressed beams are generally due to
shrinkage of the concrete. Hairline cracks on the top or bottom of simple span reinforced concrete slabs and beams are
generally not significant. Diagonal cracks running up the sides of the slab or beam from near the supports may indicate
excessive shear stress in the member or the beginning of shear failure.
3
b. Transverse cracks on the top of continuous beams over support locations or on the bottom of continuous beams within
the span can indicate overload.
c. Sagging or excess deflection may indicate a loss of prestress. Loss of prestress may be caused by strand slippage,
which may be visible at the ends of beams.
d. End spalling can lead to a loss of bond in the prestressing tendons. Any deterioration that has exposed or damaged 4
prestressing tendons should be noted.
C - 21.3.1.7 Box Girders
a. Horizontal or vertical cracks in the top of girder ends are frequently due to stresses created at the transfer of
prestressing forces. Flexural cracks in the lower portion of the girders, particularly at mid-span, may indicate a problem
resulting from overload or loss of prestress.
b. Individual girder deflection under live load may indicate that shear keys between boxes have been broken and that
boxes are acting independently of each other.
C - 21.3.1.8 Arches
a. A true arch has an elliptical shape and functions in a state of pure compression. Many arches are not elliptical and resist
loads by a combination of axial compression and bending moment.

b. Changes in horizontal alignment, sags in the arch crown, bulges in the sidewalls, transverse cracks, longitudinal cracks,
and expansion joint failures may be signs of settlement, overload, or impending arch failure.
c. The area between the arches and the deck is called the spandrel. Open spandrel concrete arches receive traffic loads
through spandrel bents which support a slab or tee beam floor system. Horizontal cracks in spandrel columns within
several feet of the arch indicate excessive bending in the column, which may be caused by overloads and differential
arch rib deflection.
d. The spandrel area in closed spandrel arches is typically occupied by fill retained by vertical walls. Surface water should
drain properly and not penetrate the fill material.
C - 21.3.1.9 Culverts
a. Horizontal alignment of a culvert can be inspected by sighting along one of the culvert walls. A sag in the culvert axis
may be identified by a location of sediment buildup on the culvert floor. Spalls or cracking in the vicinity of a joint may
be a sign of movement at the joint. Both longitudinal and transverse cracking may be an indication of differential
settlement. Longitudinal cracks can also be caused by a structural overloading of the culvert. Holes appearing in the
track structure may be an indication of open culvert joints. For culvert extensions, integrity of the connections should
be noted.
b. Insufficient hydraulic capacity, either by design or due to obstructions, may cause upstream ponding and lateral flow
movements which can erode the embankments and supporting material around the culvert end treatments. Culverts
often convey short-term, high volume flows, and consequently, all culverts should be carefully inspected for scour and
undermining. Tipping, cracking or separation of the headwalls, wingwalls, or apron may indicate the presence of
undermining. For arch and frame-type culverts with earthen floors, undermining beneath the wall foundations along
their full length should also be investigated.

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8
Part 24
Drilled Shaft Foundations1
— 2010 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
24.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-2

24.1.1 Scope (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-2
24.1.2 Purpose and Necessity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-3
24.1.3 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-3
24.1.4 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-3 1
24.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5

24.2.1 Field Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.2.2 Subsurface Investigation (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5 3

24.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3.2 The Transfer of Load from the Drilled Shaft to the Rock or Soil Bearing Strata (2010) . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3.3 Connection Between Supported Structure and Drilled Shaft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-7
24.3.4 Group Action of Drilled Shafts (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-7
24.4 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8

24.4.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8
24.4.2 Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8
24.4.3 Permanent Steel Casing Material (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.4.4 Temporary Casing Material (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9

24.5.1 Contractor Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5.2 Shaft Excavation (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5.3 Casing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5.4 Bells or Underreams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.5 Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.6 Tolerances (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.7 Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.8 Inspection (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
1
References, Vol. 85, 1984, p. 29.

8-24-1
24.5.9 Placing Reinforcing Steel (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10

24.5.10 Placing Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.5.11 Casing Removal (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.5.12 Continuity of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.5.13 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.6 Testing ............................................................................... 8-24-12

24.6.1 Material Testing (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
24.6.2 Capacity Testing (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
24.6.3 Integrity Testing (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
LIST OF FIGURES
8-24-1 Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-4
24.1.1 SCOPE (2010)1
a. This part covers the description and general aspects of design, installation, inspection and testing of drilled shafts, also
frequently referred to as drilled caissons, drilled piers, or bored piles.
b. This part is intended to serve as guidelines in developing specific designs and construction specifications on a project
basis.
c. For the purpose of this part, the minimum diameter of these units shall be 30 inches (760 mm). Drilled shafts with
smaller diameters have been constructed, but are not included in this specification.
d. This part relates primarily to single, vertical drilled shafts.
e. Factors to be used in modifying the capacities of single drilled shafts for determination of the capacity of a group of
drilled shafts which support a common rigid cap are included elsewhere in this part.
f. The use of battered drilled shafts to accommodate lateral loads by the horizontal component of the shaft’s axial
resistance is not recommended and is not addressed by this part. Lateral loads applied to drilled shafts are to be resisted
by the effect of soil/rock interaction between the shaft and ground.
1
See C - Commentary (2010).

Drilled Shaft Foundations
24.1.2 PURPOSE AND NECESSITY
a. Drilled shafts are used to transmit loads through soils of poor bearing capacity into rock or soil formations having
adequate bearing capacity. Generally, single drilled shafts have load capacities much larger than piling due to their
larger size and capability of belling to increase the bearing area without enlarging either the footing or the drilled shaft.
b. The selection of foundation treatment for a given site should be determined by subsurface conditions, and by economic
considerations as there is often a choice of several types of foundations for a structure.
24.1.3 TERMS
Drilled Shaft — A machine and/or hand excavated shaft, concrete filled, with or without steel reinforcing, for the
purpose of transferring structural loads to bearing strata below the structure.
Protective Casing — Protective steel unit, usually cylindrical in shape lowered into the excavation to protect
workmen and inspectors from collapse or cave-in of the side wall.
Bell or Underream — An enlargement at the bottom of the drilled shaft made by hand excavation or mechanical
underreaming with drilling equipment for the purpose of spreading the load over a larger area.
Socket — A shaft of equal or smaller diameter extended into the bearing material.
Toe — Vertical section at bottom of bell.
Permanent Casing — A steel cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from the 1
excavations. It is used as a form to contain concrete placed for the drilled shaft and remains in place.
Temporary Casing — A cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from the excavations. It
may also be used as a form for the shaft concrete, but is withdrawn as the shaft concrete is placed.
24.1.4 DESIGN LOADS

3
a. Loading for drilled shafts shall be the design loads from the supported structure without application of load factors
used for Load Factor design procedure. Design loads shall include the following:
• Primary Forces:
– Dead Load
4
– Live Load
– Centrifugal Force
– Earth Pressure
– Buoyancy
– Negative Soil Friction
• Secondary Forces (Occasional):
– Wind and Other Lateral Forces
– Ice and Stream Flow

– Longitudinal Forces
– Seismic Forces

Figure 8-24-1. Drilled Shaft
b. When drilled shaft foundations are designed for both primary and secondary forces, the allowable load on the drilled
shafts may be increased by 25 percent, provided that the size or number of drilled shafts is not less than that required
for primary forces alone. In soils where downward movements of surrounding soil relative to the drilled shaft are
expected to occur, axial loads shall include negative soil friction forces, acting downward on the drilled shaft. Under
special conditions swelling soils can produce upward forces, with fluctuation of the water table, which should also be
considered in design.

24.2.1 FIELD SURVEY
Sufficient information shall be furnished in the form of profile and cross sections to determine general design and structural
requirements. The location of overhead and underground utilities, existing foundations, roads, tracks, or other structures shall
be indicated. Records pertaining to high and low water levels and depth of scour shall be provided for stream crossings.
24.2.2 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION (2010)
a. Foundation material shall be investigated as specified under Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation, in order to
determine soil or rock properties, ground water elevations, and any other pertinent conditions.
b. Where a large portion of the required shaft capacity is to be generated from tip resistance of the shaft or rock socket,
the geotechnical investigation shall be of sufficient scope to permit the determination that the strata in which the tip is
founded is of sufficient depth and strength to carry the loads to which it is subjected.
c. Reference is also made to Article 4.3.1, Part 4, for additional information.
SECTION 24.3 DESIGN

1
24.3.1 GENERAL
The design is divided into three basic parts:
a. The transfer of load from the drilled shaft to the rock and/or soil bearing strata.
3
b. The drilled shaft itself.
c. The connection between the supported structure and the drilled shaft.
24.3.2 THE TRANSFER OF LOAD FROM THE DRILLED SHAFT TO THE ROCK OR SOIL
BEARING STRATA (2010)1 4
24.3.2.1 Drilled shafts transfer load to the bearing strata as follows:
a. An end bearing-type drilled shaft transfers essentially all of its load through weaker soils to a layer of soil or rock with
adequate bearing capacity.
b. A friction-type shaft is one whereby the drilled shaft load is transferred to the surrounding material primarily through
friction between the shaft wall and the adjacent material.
c. A combination end bearing and friction-type drilled shaft is a shaft in which some of the load is transferred into the
stratum by soil friction and the remainder by end bearing.
1

24.3.2.2 Lateral Loads and Moment
When the drilled shaft is subjected to lateral load and moments, as well as axial load, the distribution of soil pressures and the
variation of moments and shear in the shaft must be determined.
24.3.2.3 Belled Shafts
a. Where the bearing strata has insufficient strength to support the load on the base of the shaft, the shaft bottom may be
enlarged by belling or underreaming to reduce the pressure by distributing the load over a greater area. Belled shafts
shall be used only where the soil in which the bell is placed will not collapse due to the underreaming. Bells are
normally unreinforced. The base diameter of the bell shall not exceed three times the shaft diameter and the sides shall
not be less than 60 degrees from the horizontal. The toe height of bottom edge shall not be less than 6 inches (150 mm).
b. The ultimate axial capacity of a drilled shaft (Qult) shall be based on the summation of the ultimate shaft tip capacity
and ultimate side resistance capacity minus the weight of the shaft. The allowable shaft capacity shall be the ultimate
capacity divided by a factor of safety.
c. The ultimate shaft tip capacity (QT) shall be QT = qT · AT, where qT is the ultimate unit soil tip resistance determined
by geotechnical analysis and AT is the area of the shaft tip.
d. The ultimate side resistance (QS) of the shaft in a layer of uniform unit side resistance (qS) shall be equal to the
circumference of the shaft multiplied by the embedment length in a soil layer of uniform unit side resistance (qS)
multiplied by qS. The value(s) of qS shall be determined by geotechnical analysis. Where a shaft passes through
stratified soil having different values of qS for the various soil type layers, the value of QS shall be the shaft
circumference multiplied by the summation of various qS values multiplied by the depth of the respective layer. In
general, the top five feet (1,520 mm) of an embedded shaft and a bottom length equal to the diameter of the shaft tip or
perimeter of the bell shall be considered as noncontributing to the side resistance of the shaft. Where the drilled shaft is
located in scour susceptible areas, the probable depth of scour shall also be deducted when calculating the ultimate
shaft side resistance.
e. Where rock sockets having a diameter equal to or less than the nominal diameter of the shaft are used, the ultimate tip
capacity of the shaft shall be equal to the area of the socket tip multiplied by the uniaxial ultimate unit rock capacity.
The ultimate socket side resistance shall be the product of the socket circumference, socket embedment and ultimate
unit side shear resistance along the socket/rock interface.
f. Unless an analysis is used which accounts for the load/deflection relationship of the various soil or rock strata
encountered, the ultimate capacity of a drilled shaft which utilizes a rock socket shall be based on the sum of the
ultimate tip and side resistance capacities of the rock socket only, neglecting side resistance of the shaft in the soil
overburden.
24.3.2.4 Uplift Capacity
The ultimate uplift capacity of a drilled shaft shall be equal to or less than the weight of the shaft plus 0.7 times the ultimate
side resistance of the shaft. If belled, the uplift capacity of the shaft may be increased by taking into consideration the
reinforcement details of the shaft and bell together with the strength characteristics of the adjacent soil.
24.3.2.5 Factors of Safety
For drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock, a minimum design factor of safety of 2.5 shall be used against bearing capacity
failure. A factor of safety of 2.5 shall be used when designing for conditions which produce uplift.

24.3.2.6 Shafts Under Water1
a. Wherever practicable, the drilled shaft shall be designed to permit the placing of the concrete in the dry, and for visual
inspection of the hole, the bearing strata, and the rock socket.
b. When it is impractical to dewater the excavation for rock-socketed shafts, the concrete may be placed under water by
means of a tremie or pumped concrete and appropriate allowances made in the concrete mix design. The water level
shall have reached a static condition before concrete placement begins.
c. When concrete cannot be placed in the dry and a thorough visual inspection cannot be made by television or by divers,
the Design Engineer shall reduce the allowable bearing and side resistance stress appropriately.
24.3.2.7 The Drilled Shaft
a. The drilled shaft is generally designed as a short column for axial loads due to the lateral support provided by the
soil/rock. In muck or water, slenderness effects of the column must be taken into consideration.
b. When the drilled shaft is subjected to moment and lateral forces at the connection to the supported structure, the shaft
must be designed for bending and shear in addition to axial force. Moment and shear along the length of the shaft must
be calculated, and adequate reinforcement provided.
c. The shaft shall satisfy the design requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design of this Chapter.
24.3.3 CONNECTION BETWEEN SUPPORTED STRUCTURE AND DRILLED SHAFT 1

The connection between the drilled shaft and the supported structure (parts above the top of shaft) shall be capable of
transferring the design loads, including direct load, shear and moment. This can be accomplished by the following means:
a. When the supported structure at the top of shaft is of concrete, the reinforcing steel cage shall be extended into the cap
so that the load is transferred into the reinforcing steel of the drilled shaft by bond and into the concrete by
compression. 3
b. When the cap section is a steel element, appropriate design shall be developed to transmit all loads, conforming to the
requirements of Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Part 1, Design or Part 3, Fabrication.
24.3.4 GROUP ACTION OF DRILLED SHAFTS (2010)
Evaluation of group shaft capacity assumes the effects of negative soil friction (if any) are negligible.
4
24.3.4.1 Cohesive Soil
a. Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil shall consider the presence and contact of a cap with the ground
surface and the spacing between adjacent shafts.
b. If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, or if the soil at the surface is loose or soft, the individual capacity of
each shaft having a diameter B should be reduced by a reduction factor times QT for an isolated shaft. This factor
equals 0.67 for a center-to-center (CTC) spacing of 3B and 1.0 for a CTC spacing of 6B. For intermediate spacings, the
reduction factor may be determined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may then be computed as the lesser of:
• the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, and
1

• the capacity of an equivalent pier defined as the perimeter area of the group.
For a shaft group with a cap in firm contact with the ground, Qult may be computed as the lesser of:
• the sum of the individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or
• the capacity of an equivalent pier as described above.
For the equivalent pier, the shear strength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor to determine the QS component of
Qult. The total base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to determine the QT component of Qult and the additional
capacity of the cap shall be ignored.
24.3.4.2 Cohesionless Soil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts. Regardless of
cap contact with the ground, the individual capacity of each shaft should be reduced by a reduction factor times QT for an
isolated shaft. This factor equals 0.67 or a center-to-center (CTC) spacing of 3B and 1.0 for a CTC spacing of 8B. For
intermediate spacings, the reduction factor may be determined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may be computed as
the lesser of:
a. the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or
b. the capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the group, including resistance over the entire perimeter and base
areas.
24.3.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Soil
a. If a group of shafts which are embedded in a strong soil deposit overlies a weaker deposit (cohesionless or cohesive
soil), consideration shall be given to the potential for a punching failure of the tip into the weaker soil strata.
b. If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil strata, careful consideration shall be given to the potential for large
settlements in the weaker layer.
SECTION 24.4 MATERIAL
24.4.1 CONCRETE
Unless otherwise stipulated in this specification, concrete shall be produced and placed in accordance with Part 1 of this
Chapter. Concrete shall have a minimum compressive strength of 3,000 psi (21 MPa) in 28 days. Approved additives, such as
set retarders, may be used to improve workability. Slump at time of placement shall be not less than 4 inches (100 mm), and
not more than 6 inches (150 mm). If temporary casing is to be used, the slump should be not less than 5 inches (125 mm), and
a set retarder may be necessary.
24.4.2 REINFORCING STEEL
Unless otherwise stipulated in this specification, any required reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of
this Chapter.

24.4.3 PERMANENT STEEL CASING MATERIAL (2010)
If the steel casing is relied upon as a structural element, the steel casing material shall conform to the requirements of ASTM
A252 or ASTM A709, Grade 36.
24.4.4 TEMPORARY CASING MATERIAL (2010)
Casing that is not intended to be a structural element of the shaft or that is to be removed shall be considered temporary casing.
Temporary casing may be metal, fiber or other material that possesses adequate strength for its intended purpose and is not
detrimental to the design function of the shaft.
SECTION 24.5 CONSTRUCTION
24.5.1 CONTRACTOR QUALIFICATIONS
Drilled shafts shall be installed by the Owner with experienced personnel, or by a Contractor or Subcontractor who specializes
in such work. Availability of all required special equipment, tools, and experienced personnel are important items to be
considered when determining Owner installation or selecting an installation contractor.
24.5.2 SHAFT EXCAVATION (2010) 1

a. When excavating a drilled shaft, earth walls shall be adequately and securely protected against cave-in, subsidence
and/or displacement of surrounding earth, and for the exclusion of groundwater by means of temporary or permanent
steel casings.
b. Whenever personnel are required to enter the shaft, a protective casing shall be used and there shall be adequate
provisions for fresh air, light and protection from falling objects and toxic gases. 3
c. Rock grapples or special tools for removal of boulders or other obstructions must be readily available for use. Blasting
will be permitted only upon obtaining written approval from the Engineer.
d. Inspection of the shaft base, and any socket, by a qualified inspector is highly recommended and should be omitted
only with the approval of the Engineer.
4
e. No shaft excavation shall be made within 15 feet (4,570 mm) of an uncased shaft filled with concrete that is less than
one day old. The construction procedure used shall be approved by the Engineer before commencing work.
24.5.3 CASING
a. Where called for, permanent steel casing shall be installed to the plan elevation or to the elevation designated by the
Engineer in the field. When the top of the drilled shaft is below the surface of the ground, installation of additional
large diameter casing may be required to extend above the working level to minimize the possibility of foreign
materials or water entering the top of the shaft.
b. Casings shall be of adequate size and thickness to safely retain the adjacent earth materials and water from entering the
shaft excavation, without exceeding allowable steel stresses, distortion, or collapse of the casing.
c. A protective casing is also to be provided, where required, to serve as protection for personnel entering the shaft
excavations not provided with casings as specified above. Casing size and thickness shall meet the requirements stated

above. The outside diameter of the protective casing shall be as large as possible, yet small enough to be lowered and
removed without damage to the sides of the shaft.
d. If conditions are such that casing withdrawal will cause dislocation of the reinforcing steel or permit sloughing soils to
enter the shaft, a double casing should be used. By this method, the shaft is drilled oversize and a temporary casing
installed. A light gage permanent inner casing the same size as the required shaft diameter is then installed. This inner
casing shall be of sufficient strength to serve as a form for the concrete shaft, but need not be designed for soil pressure.
Concrete is then placed within the permanent inner casing. After the concrete has set, the annular space between the
permanent casing and surrounding soil is filled with grout, lean concrete, sand or by another approved method and the
temporary outer casing is withdrawn.
24.5.4 BELLS OR UNDERREAMS
Before belling, the Engineer shall determine that the formation encountered at the plan elevation is adequate. When shafts are
required to be belled, the bells shall be formed either by hand or by use of special belling equipment to the angle and slope
called for on the drawings. The bottoms of bells shall be thoroughly cleaned of all loose materials and inspected before the
concrete is placed.
24.5.5 SOCKETS
When sockets are required, they shall be formed by machine or by hand to the proper size and depth called for in the plans.
Sides and bottom of sockets must be thoroughly cleaned of all loose material since the bond of the concrete to the socket sides
is used in design.
24.5.6 TOLERANCES (2010)
The center of the top of each shaft shall not vary from its design location by more than 1/24 of the shaft diameter, or 3 inches
(75 mm), whichever is less, and the shaft shall not be out of plumb by more than 1.5 percent of the length, not exceeding 12.5
percent of shaft diameter.
24.5.7 DEWATERING
Suitable dewatering procedures shall be as agreed upon between the Engineer and Contractor as determined at such time as
conditions warrant. Unless otherwise agreed, the shaft at the time of placement of steel reinforcing cage, if any, and concrete
shall be essentially free of standing water in excess of 2 inches (50 mm) deep.
24.5.8 INSPECTION (2010)1
Immediately prior to placement of any reinforcement or concrete, each shaft shall be thoroughly inspected as directed by the
Engineer to ascertain that the shaft has been properly prepared, that the bearing material is compatible with design
requirements, and whether additional investigation of the bottom is required. If conditions vary from the assumed conditions
determined by the borings, additional investigation shall be conducted as directed by the Engineer.
24.5.9 PLACING REINFORCING STEEL (2010)
Reinforcing steel shall be prefabricated and placed as a unit immediately prior to concrete operations. In order to minimize
displacement of reinforcing steel cage when casing is pulled, the cage may be reinforced by welding horizontal bands to the
cage at about 5 feet (1,520 mm) intervals. When concrete is placed by tremie methods, temporary hold-down devices shall be
employed to prevent uplift of the cage during concrete placement.
1

24.5.10 PLACING CONCRETE
24.5.10.1 Dry Hole
Prevent segregation of concrete through use of tube, sectionalized pipe or other means to direct the free fall of concrete, so that
it does not strike the sides of reinforcement in the shaft.
24.5.10.2 Under Water
Utilize a tremie or pumped concrete in accordance with Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements,
Article 1.15.10 and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations, Article 24.3.2.6.
24.5.10.3 Consolidation
Rodding or mechanical vibrating is necessary only for the top 5 feet (1,520 mm) of shaft. Any special requirements for
concrete placement shall be approved by the Engineer.
24.5.11 CASING REMOVAL (2010)
a. In situations where temporary casing is to be removed, the head of concrete inside the casing must be adequate to
preclude infiltration of water and sluffage of the shaft face and sides.
b. Elapsed time from beginning of concrete placement in cased portion of shaft, until extraction of casing is begun, shall
not exceed one hour. 1
c. Extreme care shall be taken when a casing is removed to prevent subsidence of the surrounding ground.
d. Elevation of top of the steel cage should be carefully checked before and after casing extraction. The top of the
concrete shall not raise during extraction of the casing.
e. The exterior temporary casing, if a double-cased shaft, shall not be removed until three (3) days after the shaft is 3
poured.
24.5.12 CONTINUITY OF WORK
Drilled shaft construction work shall be planned so that all required operations proceed in a continuous manner until the shaft
is complete. A precise time schedule agreement between the Contractor and the Engineer should be established. Provision 4
shall be made for protecting the shaft and adjacent construction in case of unforeseen interruptions. Such provisions shall be
approved by the Engineer before drilling begins.
24.5.13 RECORDS
An accurate record shall be kept of each drilled shaft as installed. The record shall show the top and bottom elevations, shaft
and bell diameters, depths of test holes if required, date the shaft is excavated, inspection report of the bearing stratum, depth
of water in excavation at time of placing steel and concrete, quantity of concrete placed compared with theoretical quantity,
and any other pertinent data. Records shall be made and signed by both the project superintendent and inspector and
distributed to proper authorities daily.

SECTION 24.6 TESTING
24.6.1 MATERIAL TESTING (2010)
Materials used in construction of drilled shafts should be sampled and tested as designated elsewhere in Part 1 of this Chapter.
At least two (2) concrete test cylinders shall be taken for each shaft. When permanent steel casing is used in determining the
capacity of the shaft, certified mill test reports in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 15 shall be provided to document
the adequacy of the material properties of the casing.
24.6.2 CAPACITY TESTING (2010)1
Drilled shafts may be static load tested per ASTM D1143 “Standard Method of Testing Piles under Axial Compressive Load.”
As an alternate, drilled shafts may be tested by use of a hydraulic load cell or other method as approved by the Engineer.
24.6.3 INTEGRITY TESTING (2010)2
It is essential that the excavation for drilled shafts, placement of permanent casing or placement and extraction of temporary
casing, placement of reinforcing steel and placement of concrete be conducted in a manner such that all construction
operations are under close supervision to verify that completed shaft will not contain any voids, deleterious or other extraneous
material or other defects that may reduce the ability of the shaft to support its design loading. When shafts are constructed
under conditions where all elements of the shaft’s construction cannot be reliably inspected, the use of Crosshole Sonic Log
(CSL) testing shall be employed to verify the integrity of the shaft(s).
CSL testing shall be performed by firms specializing in such testing and having a minimum of 5 years prior documented
related experience. Prior to testing, testing personnel, their qualifications and all elements of the testing process shall be
submitted to the Engineer for approval. All CSL testing procedures and equipment shall conform to the requirements of
ASTM D6760. CSL testing shall not commence until a minimum of 24 hours has elapsed after placement of the shaft
concrete.
C - COMMENTARY
-2010-
C - 24.1.1 SCOPE (2010) (Reference 80)
f. Vertical drilled shafts, adequately reinforced, can accommodate significant lateral loading. Internal moments and
shears are highly dependent not only on the loading condition, but also on the physical properties of the material
through which the shaft passes. For additional information see Handbook on Design of Piles and Drilled Shafts Under
Lateral Load, U.S. DOT Report No. FHWA–IP-84-11 and Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and Design
Methods, U.S. DOT Report No. FHWA-IF-99-025.
C - 24.3.2 THE TRANSFER OF LOAD FROM THE DRILLED SHAFT TO THE ROCK OR SOIL
BEARING STRATA (2010)
For drilled shafts it is very important that the Engineer work closely with the geotechnical engineer in order that both have a
clear understanding of what portion of the applied load to the drilled shaft is resisted by side friction and what is resisted by
end bearing. The interaction of side friction with end bearing is often very complex and the possibility of large and possibly
unsafe settlement occurring prior to complete mobilization of the anticipated end bearing resistance must be considered.
1
2

C - 24.3.2.6 SHAFTS UNDER WATER
When drilled shafts are to be constructed under water the concrete as it is placed in the casing may carry miscellaneous debris
(rock cuttings, sediment, diluted concrete, etc.) to the top of the shaft. Therefore, the top portion of the shaft in this situation
may contain poor quality concrete. It is recommended for such conditions that concrete in the casing be carried 1 to 2 feet
(300 to 600 mm) above the final top of shaft elevation to allow for the careful removal of that portion of the shaft which may
contain such deleterious material.
C - 24.5.8 INSPECTION (2010)
For further information on the inspection of drilled shafts, the following document is available.
Drilled Shaft Inspector’s Manual

Deep Foundations Institute
326 Lafayette Avenue
Hawthorne, NJ 07506
C - 24.6.2 CAPACITY TESTING (2010)
In lieu of a static load test which may be inefficient due to the typical large capacity of drilled shafts relative to driven piles,
consideration may be given to the use of a hydraulic load cell referred to as an Osterberg Cell®. This test method uses an
instrumented hydraulic cell placed typically near the tip of the shaft. After placement and curing of the shaft concrete the cell
is activated, loading the tip of the shaft and providing an upward force on the shaft above the cell. The use of the cell thus can
provide a measurement of tip base capacity as well as the frictional force developed along the side of the shaft. After testing, 1
the hydraulic fluid is replaced with a high strength grout. Use of this test method should be reserved for experienced specialty
contractors and requires the submission and approval of proposed test details.
C - 24.6.3 INTEGRITY TESTING (2010)1
In the past the taking of concrete cores of drilled shafts was the primary means of ascertaining the quality and consolidation of 3
the shaft concrete. As an alternate to coring for determination of the quality of drilled shaft concrete, the measurement of the
response of ultrasonic pulse waves as they pass from a signal source to a receiver source within the shaft concrete will provide
an indication of the soundness of shaft. This method of testing is often referred to as Crosshole Sonic Log (CSL) Testing.
This method utilizes a number of tubes placed within the shaft to allow for transmission and reception of the ultrasonic pulse
waves. After testing, the tubes are fully grouted.
As opposed to coring, which verifies the concrete quality in the immediate vicinity of the core only, CSL Testing provides for 4
greater coverage of the shaft. CSL Testing is, however, limited to the area of the shaft within the arrangement of the CSL tubes
and therefore does not provide an assessment of concrete quality outside of the interior of the reinforcing steel cage. Also the
decision to use CSL Testing must be made before concrete placement. Therefore, if anomalies occur during the placement of
the shaft concrete, which may lead to questioning of the concrete integrity, coring remains the only viable test for such
situations.
Use of Crosshole Sonic Log Testing should be reserved for specialty firms with satisfactory experience in the use of this
method. Prior to testing, submittals detailing the materials to be used, the number of tubes, the vertical spacing of the tests and
the procedures to be employed should be made to the engineer for review and approval, if acceptable.
Where the CSL test indicates void or other anomalies present in the shaft, or when supplementary testing when the concrete
for the shaft is placed under water or where the use of a slurry is employed, the use of sample cores of approximate 2 inches
1
See Reference 148.

(50 mm) in diameter and extending the entire length of the shaft may be employed to verify the adequate consolidation and
composition of the concrete. After coring, the hole shall be filled with a cement grout compatible with the shaft concrete.

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Figure C-8-25-1. Marsh Funnel
8
Part 26
Recommendations for the Design of
Segmental Bridges1
— 1996 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

26.1 General Requirements and Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.1.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.1.2 Notations (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.1.3 Terms (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-7 1
26.1.4 Concrete (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.1.5 Segmental Bridges, Design Reinforcement (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2.2 Strut-and-Tie-Models (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2.3 Effective Flange Width (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8 3
26.2.4 Transverse Analysis (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-11
26.2.5 Longitudinal Analysis (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3 Design Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3.2 Dead Loads (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3.3 Erection Loads (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-13
26.3.4 Thermal Effects (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-13
26.3.5 Creep and Shrinkage (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.3.6 Post-Tensioning Force (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4.2 Service Load Combinations for Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4 (1996) . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4.3 Strength Reduction Factors (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-17
26.4.4 Construction Load Combinations, Stresses and Stability (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-18
26.5 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
26.5.1 Prestressing Steel (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
26.5.2 Prestressed Concrete (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
1
References, Vol. 97, p. 60. Adopted 1996.

8-26-1

26.6 Prestress Losses (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-22
26.7 Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.7.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.7.2 Strain Compatibility (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.7.3 Center of Gravity Correction for Strand Tendons (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8 Shear and Torsion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8.1 Scope (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8.2 General Requirements (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-24
26.8.3 Traditional Shear and Torsion Design for Plane Section Type Regions (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-27
26.8.4 Strut-and-Tie Truss Model Design for Either Beam Type or Discontinuity Regions (1996) . . . . 8-26-28
26.8.5 Special Requirement for Diaphragms, Deep Beams, Corbels and Brackets (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-30
26.8.6 Shear Transfer at Interfaces (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-31
26.8.7 Two-way Punching Shear (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.9 Fatigue Stress Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.9.1 Fatigue Stress Limits for Bonded Nonprestressed Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.9.2 Fatigue Stress Limits for Prestressed Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10 Design of Local and General Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation Saddles . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10.2 Forces and Reinforcement in General Anchorage Zones (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-33
26.10.3 Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-33
26.10.4 Reinforcement Detailing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-33
26.10.5 Anchorages in Special Blisters (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.6 Anchorages in Diaphragms (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.7 Anchorage Bearing Reaction Force (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.8 Deviation Saddles (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11 Provisional Post-Tensioning Ducts and Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11.2 Bridges with Internal Ducts (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11.3 Provision for Future Dead Load or Deflection Adjustment (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12 Duct Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.1 Material Thickness (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.2 Duct Area (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.3 Minimum Radius of Curvature (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.4 Duct Supports (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-37
26.12.5 Duct Size, Clearance and Detailing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-37
26.12.6 Duct Confinement Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.13 Couplers (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.14 Connection of Secondary Beams (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.15 Concrete Cover and Reinforcement Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.15.1 Cover and Spacing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.15.2 Reinforcement Details for Erection Loads (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40

Recommendations for the Design of Segmental Bridges
26.16 Inspection Access (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40

26.17 Box Girder Cross Section Dimensions and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17.1 Minimum Flange Thickness (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17.2 Minimum Web Thickness (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17.3 Length of Top Flange Cantilever (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
26.17.4 Overall Cross Section Dimensions (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
LIST OF FIGURES
8-26-1 Cross Sections and Corresponding Effective Flange Widths, bm, for Bending and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-9
8-26-2 Pattern of the Effective Flange Width bm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-10
8-26-3 Effective Flange Width bm/b Coefficients bf bs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-10
8-26-4 Effective Flange Widths bn for Normal Faces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-11
8-26-5 Normal Daily Minimum Temperatures (Degrees F) for January . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-14
8-26-6 Normal Daily Maximum temperatures (Degrees F) for July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-15 1
8-26-7 Negative Moment Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
8-26-8 Reinforcement Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-39
C-8-26-1Relative Joint Displacement Shear Key Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-45
C-8-26-2Stress Trajectories in a B-Region and Near Discontinuities (D-Regions)1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-47
C-8-26-3Beam with Direct Supports1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-47
C-8-26-4T-beam1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-48
C-8-26-5Longitudinal Shear Transfer by Bottom Slab to Web Haunches1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-48 3
C-8-26-6Truss Model of a Beam with Cantilever1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-51
C-8-26-7The Two Most Frequent and Most Useful Strut-and-Tie Models1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-52
C-8-26-8The Compression Strut in the Web with the Stirrups1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-53
C-8-26-9Examples of the Basic Types of Nodes1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-54
C-8-26-10Diaphragm of a Box Girder Bridge1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-55
C-8-26-11Fan Action1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-56
C-8-26-12Different Support Conditions Lead to Different Strut-and-Tie Models and Different
4
Reinforcement Arrangements of Corbels1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-57
C-8-26-13Bursting Stresses Under Bearing Plate Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-59
C-8-26-14A Typical D-Region1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-59
C-8-26-15Schematic Drawing of Different Types of “Hanger” Reinforcement1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-63
C-8-26-16Extent of the Intersection Zone for the Connection of Secondary Beams1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-63
LIST OF TABLES
8-26-1 Strength Reduction FactorI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-18

8-26-2 Allowable Tensile Stresses for Construction Load Combinations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-20
1 Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute PCI Journal, see individual figure for volume and page number.

SECTION 26.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIAL
26.1.1 GENERAL (1996)1
The specifications of this part are intended for design of longitudinally and/or transversely post-tensioned bridges utilizing
normal weight concrete constructed with either precast or cast-in-place box segments of single or multiple cells, or
combinations thereof, as well as simple span and continuous segmental beam-type bridges. The specifications pertain to
bridges of all sizes and are restricted to bridge span lengths of 200 feet or less. Unless otherwise stated or superseded by these
specifications, the provisions of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering are intended to apply to the design of
segmental concrete bridges.
26.1.2 NOTATIONS (1996)
Notations are in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete and the following:
A = area of concrete surrounding a bar, (see Article 26.15.2) square inch.

Ab = bearing area of tendon anchorage, square inch.
A' = maximum area of the portion of the concrete anchorage surface that is geometrically similar to and concentric with
b
the bearing area of the tendon anchorage, square inch.
Acc = area of concrete in compression chord, square inch.
Acn = area of one face of a truss node region, square inch.
Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross section, square inch.
Acs = area of inclined compression strut, square inch.
Ag = gross area of concrete cross section, square inch.
Al = total area of additional longitudinal reinforcement to resist torsion, square inch.
Ao = area enclosed by shear flow path, See Article 26.8.2j, square inch.
As = area of nonprestressed tensile reinforcement, square inch.
A's = area of compression reinforcement, square inch.
A *s = area of prestressed reinforcement in tension zone, square inch.
At = area of one leg of continuous, closed transverse torsion reinforcement within a distances, square inch.
AV = area of transverse shear reinforcement within a distance s, square inch.
a = portion of single span, end span, or span adjacent cantilever arm subject to shear lag effects (see Figure C-8-26-2),
feet.
b = top or bottom flange width either side of web (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
be = minimum effective shear flow web or flange width to resist torsional stresses, (see Article 26.8.2j, Article 26.8.2e
and Article 26.8.3a), feet.
bf = effective flange width coefficient for interior portion of span (see Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3), unitless.
bm = effective width of flange (see Figure C-8-26-2), feet.
bm1 = effective width of cantilever flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bm2 = effective width of half of interior top flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bm3 = effective width of half of bottom flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bmf = effective width for center portion of span (see Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3), feet.
bms = effective width at support or for cantilever arm (see Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3), feet.
bn = effective flange width for lateral distribution of post-tensioning force (see Figure C-8-26-4), feet.
1
See Commentary

bno = web width at anchorage of post-tensioning force (see Figure C-8-26-4), feet.
bo = web width (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bs = effective top or bottom flange width coefficient at supports and for cantilever arms (see Figure C-8-26-2 and
Figure C-8-26-3), feet.
bw = minimum web width, (see Article 26.8.2e), inches.
b1 = width of cantilever flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
b2 = width of half of interior top flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
b3 = width of half of interior bottom flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
CE = weight of specialized construction equipment, kips.
CLE = longitudinal construction equipment load, kips.
CLL = construction live load, psf, normally taken as 10 psf.
c = portion of continuous span adjacent to interior support subject to shear lag effects (see Figure C-8-26-2), feet.
D = sum of dead load of structure (DL), superimposed dead load (SDL), and permanent effects of erection loads (EL),
kips.
DIFF = differential (unbalanced) dead load from one cantilever, kips.
DL = dead load of structure only, kips.
DT = thermal differential from centerline of top flange to centerline of bottom slab, degrees F.
d = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement, inches. For
prestressed concrete members, the greater of the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
prestressed tension reinforcement or 0.8h may be used, feet.
1
da = depth of anchor plate, inches.
dc = thickness of cover from tension fiber to center of bar, (see Article 26.15.2) inches.
do = total depth of section (see Figure C-8-26-2), feet.
dON = construction height of secondary beam (see Figure C-8-26-8), feet.
dOH = construction height of main beam (see Figure C-8-26-8), feet.
dsp = total depth of symmetric concrete prism above and below the anchor plate (also assumed to be the length of the 3
anchorage zone), inches.
Ecm = secant modulus of elasticity, psi or ksf.
Eeff = effective modulus of elasticity for long term loads considering creep deformations, psi or ksf.
EL = permanent effect of erection loads (final state), psi or ksf.
e = base of Naperian logarithms
4
Fbst = total bursting force (tensile) due to a tendon anchorage, kips.
Fr = radial force due to tendon curvature, lb per foot.
f c' = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi or ksf.
f c' = square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, (see Article 26.8.2f for limit) psi or ksf.
f ci
' = compressive strength of concrete at time of initial prestress, psi or ksf.
fcn = compressive stress in the concrete node regions, psi or ksf.

fcp = permissible concrete compressive stress under anchorage, psi or ksf.
fcu = crushing strength of diagonally cracked concrete, psi or ksf.

fpc = compressive strength in concrete after allowance for all prestress losses, psi or ksf. Critical stress to be determined
at:
(a) the centroid of the cross section resisting external loads, or
(b) the junction of the web and compression flange when the centroid lies within the flange, or
(c) in composite members, the stress at (a) or (b) for stresses due to both prestress and the moments resisted by the
precast member acting alone.
fpP = ultimate strength of prestressing steel, psi.
fs = stress in nonprestressed reinforcement under erection loads, (see Article 26.15.2), psi.
f s' = stress in compression reinforcement, psi.
fst = steel stress at beginning of time intervals tl, psi.
*
f su = average stress in prestressed reinforcement at ultimate load, psi.
fsy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed reinforcement, psi.
f y* = yield point stress of prestressing steel, psi.
h = overall thickness of member, inches.
IE = impact load from equipment
f pc
K = - , factor for torsional cracking moment (see Article 26.8.2j and l)
1 + -------------
2 f cc
l = span length, (see Figure C-8-26-2) feet.

li = span length for use in determining effective flange width, (see Figure C-8-26-2) feet.
Mu = factored moment at section, in-lb or ft-lb.
Nuc = factored compressive axial force normal to cross section, lb.
Nut = factored tensile axial force normal to cross section, lb.
P = tendon force, (see Article 26.12.3 and Article 26.12.6.1) lb.
pcp = outside perimeter of the concrete cross section, inches.
Pj = tendon jacking force, kips.
ph = perimeter of centerline of outermost continuous closed transverse reinforcement, inches.
R = tendon radius of curvature, (Article 26.12.3) feet.
R = rib shortening and creep effects, (see Article 26.4.2 and Article 26.4.4.1) kips.
Rlr = loss of prestress due to steel relaxation, low relaxation strand, psi.
Rsr = loss of prestress due to steel relaxation, stress relieved steel, psi.
S = shrinkage effects, (see Article 26.4.4.1) kips.
Su = force in a truss member due to factored ultimate loads, lb.
SDL = superimposed dead load, kips.
s = spacing of shear or torsion reinforcement measured parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member, inches.
s = bar spacing, inches (see Article 26.15.2).
T = sum of effects of thermal rise or fall (TRF) and thermal differential (DT), kips.
TRF = thermal rise or fall, degrees F.
Tc = torsional cracking moment, (see Article 26.8.2j) in-lb.
Tn = nominal torsion resistance, in-lb.
To = tendon stress at jacking end, psi.
Tu = factored torsion at section, in-lb.
U = load due to segment unbalance on opposite cantilever ends, kips.
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete, lb.

Vn = nominal shear force resisted by member, lb.

Vp = component of the effective prestressing which acts in the direction of the applied shear (see Article 26.8.1g and
Article 26.8.2h).
Vs = nominal shear resisted by the 45 degrees truss model as measured by the stirrup capacity, lb.
VU = factored shear force at section, lb.
WTdl = area of concrete surrounding a bar, (see Article 26.15.2), square inch.
WUP = wind uplift on cantilever, kips.
Z = correction dimension for location of center of gravity of tendon bundle in duct, (see Article 26.7.3) inch.
Z = quantity for detailing of reinforcement to control flexural cracking during erection, (see Article 26.15.2) kips per
inch.
Vo = average compressive stress in the concrete section due to the post-tensioning anchorage force after the force is
distributed over the depth, d, of the section, psi.
Vy = transverse tensile stress in the concrete section due to the post-tensioning anchorage force, psi (see Figure C-8-26-
13).
I = strength reduction factor (see Article 26.4.3).
Ib = strength reduction factor for bearing (see Article 26.4.3).
Ic = creep coefficient, ratio of creep strain to elastic strain.
If = strength reduction factor for flexure (see Article 26.4.3).
Iv = strength reduction factor for shear and diagonal tension (see Article 26.4.3).
P = friction coefficient (per radian)
1
D = total angular deviation from jacking end to point x, radians.
3
8 26
26.1.3 TERMS (1996)
Terms are in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete and the following. Refer
to the Chapter 8 Glossary located at the end of the chapter for definitions. 4
Anchorage Blister General Zone Secondary Moment
Closure Internal Tendon Strut-and-Tie Model
Confinement Anchorage Local Zone Temperature Gradient
Deviation Saddle Launching Bearing Type A Joints
External Tendon Launching Nose Type B Joints
General Bursting Forces Low Relaxation Steel

26.1.4 CONCRETE (1996)

Structural concrete used in segmental construction shall have a minimum 28-day strength of 4,500 psi, or greater as specified
by the Engineer. The required concrete strength at the time of stressing shall be determined in accordance with Article 26.5.2.
26.1.5 SEGMENTAL BRIDGES, DESIGN REINFORCEMENT (1996)1

26.1.5.1 Prestressing Steel
As per Part 17, Prestressed Concrete.
26.1.5.2 Reinforcing Steel
a. ASTM Grade 60 unless otherwise specified.
b. All bridge deck reinforcement, including any reinforcement projecting from the web into the deck, shall be provided
with a corrosion protective system in aggressive environments.
SECTION 26.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS
26.2.1 GENERAL (1996)2

Elastic analysis and beam theory may be used to determine design moments, shears, and deflections. The effects of creep,
shrinkage, and temperature differentials shall be considered, as well as the effects of shear lag. Shear lag shall be considered in
accordance with the provisions of Article 26.2.3.
26.2.2 STRUT-AND-TIE-MODELS (1996)3

Strut-and-tie-models may be used for analysis when tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of the concrete, and for areas
where strain distribution is non-linear.
26.2.3 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH (1996)

26.2.3.1 General4
Effective flange width may be determined by elastic analysis procedures (Reference 87 and 88), by the provisions of Section
3-10.2 of the 1983 Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (Reference 63) or by the provisions of Article 26.2.3.2.
26.2.3.2 Effective Flange Width for Analysis, and for Calculation of Section Capacity and Stresses5
a. Section properties for analysis and for calculation of the effects of bending moments and shear forces may be based on
the flange widths specified in this section, or may be based on flange widths determined by other procedures listed in
Article 26.2.3.1. The effects of unsymmetrical loading on effective flange width may be disregarded. For flange width,
b, less than or equal to 0.3 do, bm may be assumed equal to b, where do is taken as the web height in accordance with
Figure C-8-26-1. For flange widths, b, greater than 0.3 do, the effective width may be determined in accordance with
Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3. The value of bs shall be determined using the greater of the effective span
lengths adjacent to the support. If bmf is less than bms in a span, the pattern of the effective width within the span may
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
5 See Commentary

be determined by the connecting line of the effective width bms at adjoining support points. However, bm shall not be
greater than b.
Figure 8-26-1. Cross Sections and Corresponding Effective Flange Widths, bm, for Bending and Shear
4
b. The section properties for normal forces may be based on the pattern according to Figure C-8-26-4, or may be
determined by more rigorous analytical procedures.
c. Stresses due to bending, shear and normal forces may be determined by using their corresponding section properties.
d. For the superposition of the bending stresses of the main load-bearing structure over the slab bending stresses
generated by local loads, the former may be assumed to have a straight line pattern in accordance with Figure C-8-26-
1. The linear stress distribution is determined from the constant stress distribution under the condition that the flange
force remains unchanged.
e. The capacity of a cross-section at the ultimate state may be determined by considering the full flange width effective.

Figure 8-26-2. Pattern of the Effective Flange Width bm
Figure 8-26-3. Effective Flange Width bm/b Coefficients bf bs

Figure 8-26-4. Effective Flange Widths bn for Normal Faces

4
26.2.4 TRANSVERSE ANALYSIS (1996)1
a. The transverse design of box girder segments for flexure shall consider the segment as a rigid box frame. Flanges shall
be analyzed as variable depth sections considering the fillets between the flange and webs. Combinations of track
loads, if the structure may support more than one track, shall be positioned to provide maximum moments, and elastic
analysis shall be used to determine the effective longitudinal distribution of wheel loads for each load location. Tracks
shall be positioned on the structure in accordance with clearance policies. Consideration shall be given to the increase
in web shear and other effects on the cross-section resulting from eccentric loading or unsymmetrical structure
geometry.
b. Influence surfaces (Reference 41, 42 and 74) or other elastic analysis procedures may be used to evaluate live load plus
impact moment effects in the top flange of the box section.
1
See Commentary

c. Transverse elastic and creep shortening due to prestressing and shrinkage shall be considered in the transverse analysis.
d. The secondary effects due to prestressing shall be included in stress calculations at working load. In calculating
ultimate strength moment and shear requirements, the secondary moments or shears induced by prestressing (with a
load factor of 1.0) shall be added algebraically to the moments and shears due to factored ultimate dead and live loads.
26.2.5 LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS (1996)
26.2.5.1 General1
a. Longitudinal analysis shall be in accordance with the provisions of Article 26.2.1. Longitudinal analysis of segmental
concrete bridges shall consider a specific construction method and construction schedule, as well as the time-related
effects of concrete creep, shrinkage, and prestress losses.
b. The secondary effects due to prestressing shall be included in stress calculations at working load. In calculating
ultimate moments and shear requirements, the secondary moments or shears induced by prestressing (with a load factor
of 1.0) shall be added algebraically to moments and shears due to factored dead and live loads.
c. Internal Tendons shall be designed and constructed as bonded tendons. Details of construction methods resulting in
unbonded or partially unbonded internal tendons are not allowed.
26.2.5.2 Erection Analysis
Analysis of the structure during the construction stage, shall consider the construction load combinations, stresses, and
stability considerations outlined in Article 26.4.4.
26.2.5.3 Analysis of the Final Structural System
The final structural system shall be analyzed for redistribution of erection stage moments resulting from the effects of creep
and shrinkage, and from any change in the statical system, including the closure of joints. Thermal effects on the final
structural system shall be considered in accordance with Article 26.3.4. The effect of prestress losses occurring after closure
shall be evaluated in accordance with Section 26.6, Prestress Losses (1996). The maximum moments resulting from the above
analyses shall be utilized in conjunction with the combinations of loads specified in Article 2.2.4 for determination of required
flexural strength.
SECTION 26.3 DESIGN LOADS
26.3.1 GENERAL (1996)
All loadings shall be in accordance with the latest edition of the Manual For Railway Engineering except as provided below.
26.3.2 DEAD LOADS (1996)2
Unit weight of concrete (including reinforcing steel) – 155 pcf or as determined for the project. Weight of diaphragms, anchor
blocks, or any other deviations from the typical cross section shall be included in the dead load calculations.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

26.3.3 ERECTION LOADS (1996)1
a. Erection loads comprise all loadings arising from the designer’s anticipated system of temporary supporting works
and/or special erection equipment to be used in accordance with the assumed construction sequence and schedule. The
assumed erection loads (magnitude and configuration) and acceptable closure forces due to misalignment corrections
shall be stated on the drawings. Due allowance shall be made for all effects of any changes to the statical structural
scheme during construction. The application, changes or removal of the assumed temporary supports or special
equipment shall be considered by taking into account residual “built-in” forces, moments, deformations, secondary
post-tensioning effects, creep, shrinkage and any other strain induced effects.
b. All elements of the bridge shall be designed for the anticipated construction system assumed by the Engineer and
shown on the plans. Any accepted contractor proposals which present differing construction loads shall be evaluated,
by the Engineer, for effects upon the structure.
26.3.4 THERMAL EFFECTS (1996)
26.3.4.1 Normal Mean Temperature
Unless more precise local data are available, normal mean temperature for the location shall be taken as the average of the
January and July values from Figure C-8-26-5 and Figure C-8-26-6, (Reference 43) respectively.
26.3.4.2 Seasonal Variation
a. For the purposes of design of the structure, the minimum and maximum overall temperatures shall be taken from 1
Figure C-8-26-5 and Figure C-8-26-6, respectively, unless more precise local data is available.
b. The temperature setting variations for bearings and expansion joints shall be stated on the bridge plans.
26.3.4.3 Thermal Coefficient2
The coefficient of thermal expansion used to determine temperature effects shall be taken as 6.0 u 10-6 per degree F, unless 3
more precise data are available.
26.3.4.4 Differential Temperature3
Positive and negative differential superstructure temperature gradients shall be considered in accordance with Appendix A of
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 276 “Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Superstructures.”
(Reference 43) More precise data may be used if available. 4
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

Figure 8-26-5. Normal Daily Minimum Temperatures (Degrees F) for January

45

Figure 8-26-6. Normal Daily Maximum temperatures (Degrees F) for July

26.3.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE (1996)1
Effects due to creep and shrinkage strains shall be calculated in accordance with provisions of Article 26.2.5.3. The creep
coefficient Ic may be evaluated in accordance with the provisions of the ACI Committee 209 Report, (Reference 2) the CEB-
FIP Model Code, (Reference 15) or by a comprehensive test program. Creep strains and prestress losses (Reference 14) which
occur after closure of the structure causes a redistribution of the forces. Stresses shall be calculated for this effect based on an
assumed construction schedule stated on the plans.
26.3.6 POST-TENSIONING FORCE (1996)2
The structure shall be designed for both initial and final post-tensioning forces. Prestress losses shall be calculated for the
construction schedule stated on the plans. The final post-tensioning forces used in service load stress calculations shall be
based on the most severe condition at each location along the structure.
SECTION 26.4 LOAD FACTORS
26.4.1 GENERAL (1996)
In the final working condition, service or load factor load combinations shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design as amended below. Allowable stresses shall be in accordance with Section 26.5, Allowable Stresses. When
checking tensile stresses for service load, Groups II through IX, the variable load effects shall be divided by the allowable
stress increases in Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4. Strength reduction factors, I, shall be in accordance with
Article 26.4.3. During construction, load case combinations, allowable stresses and stability shall be in accordance with
Article 26.4.4.
26.4.2 SERVICE LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR PART 2, REINFORCED CONCRETE

DESIGN, ARTICLE 2.2.4 (1996)
26.4.2.1 Creep and Shrinkage
a. The permanent effects of creep and shrinkage shall be added to all specified loading combinations with a load factor of
1.0.
b. For the group loading combinations listed in Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4, the following
abbreviations shall apply:
D = DL + SDL + EL and
OF = TRF + DT + R where:
EL = Erection Loads (final state)
NOTE: See Article 26.4.2.2.
TRF = Thermal – Rise or Fall
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

DT = Thermal – Differential
R = Creep Effects
NOTE: Creep effects to be considered, in conjunction with any rib shortening, shrinkage and anticipated
support settlement effects as loading designation R.
A thermal differential of 0.5DT is permissible when the load combination includes full live load + impact.
26.4.2.2 Erection Loads at End of Construction
The final state erection loads are defined as the final accumulated “built-in” forces and moments resulting from the
construction process.
26.4.2.3 Additional Thermal Loading Combination
In addition to Group Loads IV, V, and VI at service load, the following combination and stress shall apply:
(DL + SDL + EL) + E + B + SF + R + S + (DT) @ 100% Allowable Stress
NOTE: Letters in parenthesis are as per Article 26.1.2, others are as per Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.2.3.
26.4.3 STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS (1996)1 1

a. The basic strength reduction factors, If and Iv for flexure and shear, respectively, shall consider both the type of joint
between segments and the degree of bonding of the post-tensioning system provided. The appropriate value of Iv listed
below shall be used for torsional effect calculations in Section 26.8, Shear and Torsion.
b. Since the post-tensioning provided may be a mixture of fully bonded tendons and unbonded or partially bonded
tendons, the strength reduction factor at any section shall be based upon the bonding conditions for the tendons 3
providing the majority of the prestressing force at the section. All internal tendons shall be designed and constructed as
bonded tendons.
c. In order for a tendon to be considered as fully bonded to the cross-section at a section, it must be bonded beyond the
critical section for a development length. The development length shall be calculated by a rational approach based
upon tendon pull out tests.
4
d. Cast-in-place concrete joints and wet concrete joints shall be considered as Type A joints.
e. Epoxy joints between precast units shall be considered as Type B joints.
f. Dry joints between precast units shall be considered as Type B joints.
g. Strength reduction factor, I, shall be taken as shown in Table 8-26-1.
1
See Commentary

Table 8-26-1. Strength Reduction FactorI
If Iv
Type
Flexure Shear
Fully Bonded Tendons

Type A Joints 0.95 0.85
Type B Joints 0.90 0.80
Unbonded or Partially Bonded External
Tendons
Type A Joints 0.90 0.90
Type B Joints 0.85 0.75
NOTE: The appropriate value of Iv from Table 8-26-1 shall be used for torsional effect calculations in Section
26.8, Shear and Torsion.
h. The strength reduction factor for bearing, Ib shall be taken as 0.70 for all types of construction. This value shall not be
applied to bearing stresses under anchorage plates for post-tensioning tendons.
26.4.4 CONSTRUCTION LOAD COMBINATIONS, STRESSES AND STABILITY (1996)
26.4.4.1 Erection Loads During Construction1
a. Erection Loads as defined by AREMA and as stated on the plans shall be as follows:
(1) Dead load of structure (DL). Unit weight of concrete (including rebar) 155 pcf or as determined for the project.
Weight of diaphragms, anchor blocks, or any other deviations from the typical cross-section shall be included in
the dead load calculations.
(2) Differential load from one cantilever (DIFF). This only applies to balanced cantilever construction. The load is
2% of the dead load applied to one cantilever.
(3) Superimposed dead load (SDL). This does not normally apply during construction. If it does, it should be
considered as part of the dead load (DL).
(4) Distributed construction live load (CLL). This is an allowance for miscellaneous items of plant, machinery and
other equipment apart from the major specialized erection equipment. The following magnitudes shall be used as
minimum unless loads of different magnitudes can be verified. Distributed load allowance 10 psf. In cantilever
construction, distributed load shall be taken as 10 psf on one cantilever and 5 psf on the other. For bridges built by
incremental launching, construction live load may be taken as zero.
(5) Specialized construction equipment (CE). This is the load from any special equipment such as a launching gantry,
beam and winch, truss or similar major item. This also includes segment delivery trucks and the maximum loads
applied to the structure by the equipment during the lifting of segments.
(6) Impact Load from equipment (IE). To be determined according to the type of machinery anticipated. For very
gradual lifting of segments, where the load involves small dynamic effects, the impact load may be taken as 10%.
1
See Commentary

(7) Longitudinal construction equipment load (CLE). The longitudinal force from the construction equipment.
(8) Segment unbalance (U). This applies primarily to balanced cantilever construction but can be extended to include
any “unusual” lifting sequence which may not be a primary feature of the generic construction system. The load
“U” is the effect of any out of balance segments or other unusual condition as applicable.
(9) Wind uplift on cantilever (WUP). 5 psf minimum (balanced cantilever construction applied to one side only).
(10) Accidental release or application of a precast segment load or other sudden impact from an otherwise static
segment load of WTd1. Force plus Impact = 2WT1.
(11) Creep (R). In accordance with Article 26.3.5. Creep effects shall be considered as part of rib shortening (R).
(12) Shrinkage (S). In accordance with Article 26.3.5.
(13) Thermal (T). The sum of the effects due to thermal rise and fall (TRF) and differential temperature (DT) from
Article 26.3.4.
26.4.4.2 Construction Load Combinations and Allowable Stresses
a. Stresses shall be checked under the service load combinations given in Table 8-26-2. The distribution and application
of the individual erection loads (Article 26.4.4.1) appropriate to a construction phase shall be such as to produce the
most unfavorable effects. Table 8-26-2 is a guide; if more unfavorable conditions may occur with the particular
construction system, these shall be taken into account. The maximum allowable construction load compressive stress
shall be 0.5 f c' .
1
b. Load factor design need not be used for construction conditions with the exception of Article 26.4.4.3.
26.4.4.3 Construction Load Combinations Load Factor Design Check
Using strength reduction factors (I) in accordance with Article 26.4.3, the strength provided shall not be less than required by 3
the following load factor combinations:
a. For maximum forces and moments:
1.1 (DL + DIFF) + 1.3CE + 2A
b. For minimum forces and moments: 4

DL + CE + 2A

Table 8-26-2. Allowable Tensile Stresses for Construction Load Combinations
8-26-20
Super-
Segmental
Dead Loads Live Loads Wind Loads structure
Substructure Only
Only
(1)
Allowable (2) EE
(R+S+T) Including B SF (3) (4)
Stress (Note 3) Excluding Including
(R+S+T)
Comments
DL DIFF U CLL CE IE CLE W WUP WE (Note 4) (R+S+T) (R+S+T)
Combination
Allowable
Allowable Allowable
Stress
Stress Stress
(Note 4)
a 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 f c' 1 7 f c' EE 1 1 6 f c' 7 f c'
b 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 EE 1 1
6 f c' 7 f c' 6 f c' 7 f c'

0.7
c 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.7 0 6 f c' 1 7 f c' 1 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 1)
0.7 Equipment
d 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0.7 7 f c' 1 7 f c' EE 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 1) not working
0.3 Normal
e 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0.3 7 f c' 1 7 f c' EE 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 2) Erection
0.3 Moving
f 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0.3 7 f c' 1 7 f c' EE 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 2) Equipment
The allowable stresses in Columns (1) and (2) apply to the summation of all the loads multiplied by their tabulated coefficients in all the columns to the left. Similarly
for Columns (3) and (4) with the exceptions of (R+S+T) as noted.
Note 1: Reduction is to allow for lesser probability of maximum wind during construction period.
Note 2: Reduction is to allow for limiting wind beyond which construction is halted.
Note 3: The EE term is as defined in AASHTO Section 3.22.
Note 4: When less than 50% of the tendon capacity is provided by internal tendons, the maximum allowable construction stresses shall be 3 f c' for Type A joints,
and 0 for Type B joints.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

SECTION 26.5 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
26.5.1 PRESTRESSING STEEL (1996)
The allowable stresses for prestressing steel shall be in accordance with the provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete.
26.5.2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (1996)
26.5.2.1 Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due to Creep and Shrinkage, at the Time of Application of the
Prestress
a. Maximum Compression:
0.55 f ci' .
b. Longitudinal stresses in the PRECOMPRESSED tensile zone:
(1) Type A joints with minimum bonded mild steel auxiliary reinforcement through the joints sufficient to carry the
calculated tensile force at a stress of 0.5 fsy; internal tendons.
3 f ci' maximum tension
(2) Type A joints without the minimum bonded mild steel auxiliary reinforcement through the joints; internal or
1
external tendons: 0 tension
(3) Type B joints, external tendons not less than: 200 psi minimum compression
(4) Tension in other areas without bonded nonprestressed reinforcement: 0 tension.

3
(5) Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds the allowable tensile value, bonded reinforcement shall be provided at
a stress of 0.5 fsy to resist the total tensile force in concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section.
In such cases, the maximum tensile stress shall not exceed
6 f ci' .
4
26.5.2.2 Stresses at the Service Level After Losses
a. Maximum Compression:
0.4 f c'
b. Longitudinal stresses in the PRECOMPRESSED tensile zone:
(1) Type A joints with minimum bonded auxiliary reinforcement through the joints sufficient to carry the calculated
tensile force at a stress of 0.5 fsy; internal tendons:
3 f c' maximum tension
(2) Type A joints without minimum bonded auxiliary reinforcement through joints: 0 tension

(3) Type B joints, external tendons, not less than: 200 psi minimum compression
(4) Tension in other areas without bonded reinforcement: zero tension
(5) Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds this value, bonded reinforcement shall be provided at a stress of 0.5 fsy
to resist the total tensile force in the concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section. In such cases,
the maximum tensile stress shall not exceed
6 f c' .
c. Transverse tension in the precompressed tensile zone:
3 f c' maximum tension
26.5.2.3 Anchorage
a. The bearing stresses under the anchor plates shall be in accordance with the provisions of Part 17, Prestressed
Concrete, Article 17.16.2.4 as modified by this section. The stresses calculated at application of the post-tensioning
force and at the service load shall be limited to 5,000 psi and 6,250 psi, respectively.
b. Anchorage devices which function on the basis of confinement reinforcing need not conform to the bearing stress
limitations for plate type anchorage devices specified in paragraph a. Acceptance of such anchorage devices shall be
based on review of test data or on the basis of documented performance on major bridge projects.1
c. The concrete splitting force shall be calculated in accordance with Article 26.10.2; by test results based on similar
anchorages, tendon trajectory, and concrete section geometry; or by more rigorous analytical procedures.2
d. Reinforcement shall be provided to resist the anchorage splitting forces.
e. Tensile stress in anchorage splitting reinforcement at the time of application of the prestress: 0.6 fsy , where fsy shall not
exceed 60,000 psi.
SECTION 26.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES (1996)
Prestress losses shall be computed in accordance with the provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete. Lump sum losses shall
only be used for preliminary design purposes. Losses due to creep, shrinkage, and elastic shortening of the concrete as well as
friction, wobble, anchor set and relaxation in the tendon shall be calculated for the construction method and schedule shown
on the plans in accordance with time-related procedures for calculation of prestress losses.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

SECTION 26.7 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
26.7.1 GENERAL (1996)1
Flexural strength of segmental concrete bridges shall be calculated in conjunction with Part 17, Prestressed Concrete. The
flexural capacity required by the load factor provisions of Article 26.4.1 shall be less than or equal to If times the flexural
capacity provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete. The values of If shall be taken from Article 26.4.3.
26.7.2 STRAIN COMPATIBILITY (1996)
As an alternative to use of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete, flexural strength of bonded tendon bridges may be calculated in
accordance with the strain compatibility provisions of Section 10.2 of the ACI 318 Building Code (Reference 5). Strain
compatibility analysis may also be used for computation of bridges with unbonded tendons provided that the analysis correctly
recognizes the differences in strain between the tendons and the concrete section, and provided that the analysis recognizes the
effect of tendon anchorage lateral restraints and deflection geometry changes on the effective stress in the tendons.
26.7.3 CENTER OF GRAVITY CORRECTION FOR STRAND TENDONS (1996)
Draped strand tendons shall be assumed to be at the bottom of the duct in negative moment areas, and at the top of the duct in
positive moment areas. For both strength and allowable stress calculations, the location of the tendon center of gravity with
respect to the center line of the duct shall be assumed as illustrated by Figure C-8-26-7 (negative moment area shown).
z
3
Figure 8-26-7. Negative Moment Region

4
SECTION 26.8 SHEAR AND TORSION
26.8.1 SCOPE (1996)2
a. The provisions of this section shall apply to the design of prestressed concrete segmental bridges subjected to shear or
combined shear and torsion. Design for shear of combined shear and torsion shall be based on ultimate load conditions.
The provisions of Article 26.8.2 shall apply to all parts of this section.
b. Regions with one-way beam or thin plate type action or similar conditions in which the plane sections assumption of
flexural theory can be applied shall be designed for shear or shear and torsion according to Article 26.8.1, and either
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

the traditional approach of Article 26.8.3 or the strut-and-tie model approach of Article 26.8.4. Detailing of all shear
and torsion reinforcement must meet the requirements of Article 26.8.2.1
c. Discontinuity regions where the plane sections assumption of flexural theory is not applicable such as regions adjacent
to abrupt changes in cross sections, openings, dapped ends, regions where large concentrated loads, reactions, or post-
tensioning forces are applied or deviated, diaphragms, deep beams, corbels or joints shall be designed for the applied
forces causing shear or shear and torsion according to Article 26.8.2 and the strut-and-tie model approach of
Article 26.8.4. In addition, special discontinuity regions like deep beams, brackets and corbels should be designed for
the applicable parts of Article 26.8.5.2
d. Interfaces between elements such as webs and flanges, between dissimilar materials, between concretes cast at
different times, or at an existing or potential major crack shall be designed for shear transfer in accordance with
Article 26.8.6.3
e. Slab type regions subjected to local concentrated forces such as concentrated loads or column reactions shall be
designed for two-way punching shear in accordance with Article 26.8.7.
f. The applied shear on a cross section shall consist of the shear due to factored ultimate dead load (VuDL) including
continuity effects, factored ultimate live load (VuLL) and any other factored ultimate load cases specified. Torsional
moments (Tu) shall be included in design for factored ultimate load when their magnitude exceeds the value specified
in Article 26.8.2j.4
g. The applied shear due to the component of the effective longitudinal prestress force which acts in the direction of the
section being examined (Vp) shall be considered as a load effect.
h. The vertical component of inclined tendons shall only be considered to reduce the applied shear on the webs for
tendons which cross the webs and are anchored or fully developed by anchorages, deviators, or internal ducts located
in the outer 1/3 of the webs.
a. For members subjected to combined shear and torsion, the resulting shear forces in the different elements of the
structure from the combined shear flows from shear and from torsion shall be considered. The individual elements
shall be designed for the resultant shear forces.
b. The effects of axial tension due to creep, shrinkage and thermal effects in restrained members shall be considered
wherever applicable.
c. The component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the shear force shall be considered in accordance
with Article 26.8.1f.
d. The components of inclined flexural compression or tension in variable depth members shall be considered.
e. The effects of any openings or ducts in members shall be considered. In determining the effective web width, bw or be
the diameters of ungrouted ducts or one-half the diameters of grouted ducts shall be subtracted from the web width at
the level of these ducts.
f. The values of f c' used in any part of this section shall not exceed 100 psi.5
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
5 See Commentary

g. The design yield strength of nonprestressed transverse shear or torsion reinforcement shall not exceed 60 ksi. The shear
and torsion resistance contribution of prestressed transverse shear or torsion reinforcement shall be based on
substitution of the effective stress after allowance for all prestress losses plus 60 ksi, but not to exceed f y* , in place of
fsy in transverse reinforcement expressions.
h. In pretensioned elements, the reduced prestress in the transfer length of the prestressing tendons shall be considered
when computing fpc and Vp. The prestress force due to a given tendon shall be assumed to vary linearly from zero at
the point at which bonding commences to a maximum at a transfer length which may be assumed as 50 diameters for
1/2 inch diameter strand.1
i. Shear effects may be neglected in areas of members where the factored shear force Vu is less than IV c / 2 (Vc is
defined in this article (Reference 4). Nominal minimum stirrup capacity of not less than the equivalent of two No. 4
Grade 60 bars at 1 foot on centers shall be provided per web in such areas or the minimum shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement required by Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.12.2
j. Torsional effects may be neglected in members where the factored torsional moment Tu is less than IT c / 3. In lieu of a
more detailed calculation, Tc may be taken as
T c = 2K f c' 2A o b e
K shall be computed as
1 + f pc e 2 f c' but K d 2.0 1
However, K shall not exceed 1.0 at any section where the stress in the extreme tension fiber due to factored load and
effective prestress force exceeds 6 f c' in tension. The influence of axial tension, Nut, shall be accounted for by
replacing fpc by (f p c – N u t / A g ). The influence of axial compression, Nuc, shall be accounted for by replacing fpc by
the term (f p c + N u c / A g ). Ao is the area enclosed by the shear flow path defined by the centroids of the longitudinal
chords of the space truss model resisting the applied torsion. In lieu of a more precise analysis, Ao may be taken as
3
85% of the area enclosed by the centerline of the exterior closed transverse torsion reinforcement. be is the effective
width of the shear flow path of the elements making up the space truss model resisting torsion. In box girders be may
be taken as A c p / p c p , where Acp is the area enclosed by the outside perimeter of the concrete cross section and Pcp is
the outside perimeter of the concrete cross section. The effects of openings and ducts must be considered as required in
paragraph e.
4
k. In a statically indeterminate structure where significant reduction of torsional moment in a member can occur due to
redistribution of internal forces upon cracking, the factored torsion moment Tu may be reduced to ITc [Tc is defined in
paragraph j], provided that moments and forces in the member and in adjoining members are adjusted to account for
the redistribution. In lieu of a more exact analysis, the torsional loading from a slab may be assumed as linearly
distributed along the member.
l. Transverse reinforcement shall be provided in all elements except for slabs and footings, and elements where Vu is less
than 0.5 IVc. In lieu of more detailed calculations, Vc may be taken as:
V c = 2K f c' b w d
K shall be computed in accordance with paragraph j.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

m. Where transverse reinforcement is required, the minimum tensile capacity of the transverse reinforcement shall be 50
bws, where bw and s are in inches. Greater amounts may be required to carry shear and torsion to meet the requirements
of Article 26.8.3 or Article 26.8.5.
n. Transverse reinforcement may consist of:
(1) Stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the longitudinal
tension reinforcement, inclined to intercept potential cracks.
(2) Welded wire fabric sheets or cages with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the member.
(3) Longitudinal bars bent to provide an inclined portion making an angle of 30 degrees or more with the longitudinal
tension reinforcement and inclined to intercept potential diagonal cracks.
(4) Well-anchored prestressed tendons which are carefully detailed and constructed to minimize seating and time
dependent losses.
(5) Combinations of stirrups, tendons, and bent longitudinal bars.
(6) Spirals.
o. Transverse reinforcement shall be detailed so that the shear forces between the different elements or zones of a member
are effectively transferred. Transverse shear or torsion reinforcement shall extend as a continuous tie from the extreme
compression fiber (less cover) to the outermost tension reinforcement. All transverse reinforcement shall be fully
anchored according to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.13.1.
p. Torsion reinforcement shall consist of longitudinal bars or tendons and:
(1) Closed stirrups or closed ties, perpendicular to the axis of the member;
(2) A closed cage of welded wire fabric with transverse wires perpendicular to the axis of the member:
(3) Spirals.
q. Transverse torsion reinforcement shall be made fully continuous and shall be anchored according to Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design, Section 2.21b(1), where the concrete surrounding the anchorage is restrained against spalling by
flange or slab or similar element. Anchorage shall be by 135 degrees standard hooks around longitudinal reinforcement
where the concrete surrounding the anchorage is unrestrained against spalling. Spacing of closed stirrups or closed ties
shall not exceed one-half of the shortest dimension of the cross section, nor 12 inches.
r. At any place on the cross section where the axial tension due to torsion and bending exceeds the axial compression due
to prestressing and bending, either supplementary tendons to counter the tension must be added or local longitudinal
reinforcement which is continuous across the joints between segments is required.
s. If supplementary tendons are added, they shall be distributed around the perimeter of the precompressed tension zone
inside the closed stirrups. At least one tendon shall be placed near each corner of the stirrups in the precompressed
tension zone.
t. If longitudinal reinforcement is added, the bars shall be distributed around the perimeter formed by the closed stirrups.
Perimeter bar spacing shall not exceed 18 inches. At least one longitudinal bar shall be placed in each corner of the
stirrups. The minimum diameter of the corner bars shall be 1/24 of the stirrup spacing but no less than that of a #5 bar.
u. Maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 0.5d in nonprestressed elements, 0.75h in prestressed
elements nor 36 inches. When Vu exceeds 6I f c' b w d , these maximum spacings shall be reduced by one-half.

v. Flexural reinforcement, including tendons, shall be extended beyond the theoretical termination or deviation points for
a distance of at least h/ 2 . Transverse reinforcement for shear and torsion shall be provided for a distance at least h/ 2
beyond the point theoretically required.1
w. Shear keys in webs of precast segmental bridges shall extend for as much of the web height as is compatible with other
detailing requirements. Alignment shear keys shall also be provided in top and bottom flanges.
26.8.3 TRADITIONAL SHEAR AND TORSION DESIGN FOR PLANE SECTION TYPE
REGIONS (1996)2
a. The design of beam-type members or regions for shear and torsion may be carried out according to this article
provided:
(1) Vn does not exceed 10 f c' b w d
2 2
(2) V n e b w d + T n e 2A o b e does not exceed 15 f c' .
(3) There are no significant discontinuities such as abrupt changes in cross section or openings.
(4) No concentrated load located within 2d of a support causes more than one-third of the shear at that support.
(5) Where required, shear reinforcement consists of tendons and stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or
welded wire fabric sheets or cages with wires perpendicular to the axis of the member, and conforms to
Article 26.8.2.
1
(6) Where required, torsion reinforcement consists of longitudinal bars, and closed stirrups perpendicular to the axis
of the member, and conforms to Article 26.8.2.
b. The design of cross sections subject to shear shall be based on Vu d IVn where Vu is the factored shear force and Vn is
the nominal shear strength. Vu shall consider any unfavorable effects of prestressing and may consider favorable
effects of prestressing in accordance with Article 26.8.1f. For the purposes of this section, Vn may be computed as: 3
Vn = Vc + Vs
where:
Vc = may be determined from Article 26.8.2l 4

Vs = may be determined from paragraph d.
In equations for Vc and Vs, d shall be the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressed
reinforcement in the tension chord or 0.8h, whichever is greater.
c. The applied shear Vu in regions near supports may be reduced to the value computed at a distance h/ 2 from the support
when both of the following conditions are satisfied:
(1) The support reaction, in the direction of the applied shear, introduces compression into the support region of the
member, and
(2) No concentrated load occurs within a distance h from the face of the support.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

d. The nominal shear contribution of the truss model with concrete diagonals at 45 degrees inclination as determined by
the shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of the member is
V s = A v f sy d / s
e. Where required by Article 26.8.2j, torsion reinforcement shall be provided in addition to the reinforcement required to
resist the factored shear, flexure and axial forces that act in combination with the torsion.
f. The longitudinal and transverse reinforcement required for torsion shall be determined from:
Tu d ITn
g. The nominal torsional resistance provided by a space truss with concrete diagonals at 45 degrees inclination and the
indicated transverse reinforcement for torsion is:
T n = 2A o A t f sy / s
where:
Ao = defined in Article 26.8.2j
h. The additional longitudinal reinforcement for torsion shall not be less than:
Al = (Tnph) / (2Aofsy)
where:
ph = the perimeter of the polygon defined by the centroids of the longitudinal chords of the space truss
resisting torsion.
ph may be taken as the perimeter of the centerline of the outermost closed stirrups. Al shall be distributed around the
perimeter of the closed stirrups in accordance with Article 26.8.2t.1
i. The area of additional longitudinal torsion reinforcement in the flexural compression zone may be reduced by an
amount equal to M u /(0.9d f sy ) where Mu is the factored bending moment acting at that section except that the
reinforcement provided shall not be less than required by Article 26.8.2t.
26.8.4 STRUT-AND-TIE TRUSS MODEL DESIGN FOR EITHER BEAM TYPE OR

DISCONTINUITY REGIONS (1996)2
a. The design of any region for shear and torsion may be carried out according to this article based on an analysis of the
internal load paths for all forces acting on the member or region. The effects of the prestress force shall be included in
accordance with Article 26.8.1f. The internal load paths shall be idealized using appropriate strut-and-tie or space truss
models consisting of:
(1) Concrete and compressive reinforcement compression chords.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

(2) Inclined concrete compressive struts.
(3) Longitudinal reinforcement tension chords or ties.
(4) Transverse reinforcement tension members or ties.
(5) Node regions at all joints of chords, struts and ties.1
b. The proportions of the elements and the reinforcement shall be selected so that the tension ties yield before the
compression chords or struts crush. Chord capacities shall be based on underreinforced sections for flexure.
c. The size of the members and joint regions in the truss shall be chosen so that the computed forces in the struts, ties, and
truss members, Su, due to factored loads shall satisfy:
(1) Compression chords
I f 0.85f c' A cc + A's f s' t S u
where:
If = the appropriate I value for flexure
(2) Inclined compressive struts

1
Iv(fcuAcs) t Su
where:
Iv = the appropriate I value for shear and diagonal tension

fcu = the limiting strut compressive stress from paragraph d
3
(3) Reinforcement tension chords
I f A s f sy + A *s f su
* tS
u
where: 4
If = the appropriate I value for flexure
* = the average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate load considering the anchorage and bonding
f su
conditions
(4) Transverse reinforcement tension members or ties:
Iv(Avfsy) t Su
where:
Iv = the appropriate I value for shear and diagonal tension
1
See Commentary

When such members or ties are prestressed, the effective stress after prestress losses shall be used in place of fsy.
(5) Node regions
Ib(fcnAcn) t Su
where:
Ib = the appropriate I value for bearing

fcn = the limiting compressive stress in a node region from paragraph f
d. The compressive stress in an inclined compressive strut, fcu shall not exceed:
(1) For essentially undisturbed, uniaxial compressive stress states 0.6 f’c.
(2) For compressive stress states where tensile strains in the cross-direction or transverse tensile reinforcement may
cause cracking of normal crack width parallel to the strut 0.45 f’c.
(3) For compressive stress states with skew cracking or skew transverse reinforcement 0.35 f’c.
(4) For compressive stress states with very wide skew cracks when the strut orientation differs appreciably from the
elastic orientation of the internal load path 0.25 f’c.
e. The tension chord and all tension ties shall be effectively anchored to transfer the required tension to the truss node
regions in accordance with the ordinary requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design for development of
reinforcement (Section 2.14) and shall be detailed to satisfy the stress limits of paragraph f.
f. Unless special confining reinforcement is provided, the concrete compressive stress fcn in the node regions shall not
exceed:
(1) 0.85f c' in node regions bounded by compressive struts and bearing areas,
(2) 0.70f c' in node regions anchoring only one tension tie, or
(3) 0.60f c' in node regions anchoring tension ties in more than one direction.
26.8.5 SPECIAL REQUIREMENT FOR DIAPHRAGMS, DEEP BEAMS, CORBELS AND

BRACKETS (1996)
26.8.5.1 General
All discontinuity regions must be proportioned using the strut-and-tie model approach of Article 26.8.4. Special discontinuity
regions like diaphragms, deep beams, corbels, brackets must also satisfy the special provision of Article 26.8.5.
26.8.5.2 Diaphragms and Deep Beams
a. Diaphragms are ordinarily required in pier and abutment superstructure segments to distribute the high shear forces to
the bearings. Vertical and transverse post-tensioning shall be analyzed using the strut-and-tie model of Article 26.8.4
and the effective prestress forces of Article 26.8.1f. The diaphragm tendons must be effectively tied into the
diaphragms with bonded nonprestressed reinforcement to resist tendon forces at the corners of openings in the
diaphragms.1

b. Deep beams are members in which the distance from the point of zero shear to the face of the support is less than 2d or
members in which a load causing more than one-third of the shear at a support is closer than 2d from the face of the
support.
(1) The strut-and-tie model of Article 26.8.4 shall be used to analyze and design deep beams.1
(2) The minimum tensile capacity of transverse reinforcement shall be 120bws in lbs, and s shall not exceed d/4 nor 12
inches.
(3) Bonded longitudinal bars shall be well distributed over each face of the vertical elements in pairs. The minimum
tensile capacity of this bonded reinforcement pair shall be 120bws in lbs. The vertical spacing between each pair, s,
shall not exceed d/ 3 nor 12 inches.
(4) In deep beam vertical elements with a width less than 10 inches, the pairs of bonded bars required by paragraph (3)
may be replaced by a single bar with the required tensile capacity.
26.8.5.3 Brackets and Corbels
a. The strut-and-tie model of Article 26.8.4 shall be used to analyze and design brackets and corbels.2
b. The depth at the outside edge of the bearing area shall be at least half the depth at the face of the support.
c. Corbels and brackets shall be designed to resist the calculated external tensile force Nut acting on the bearing area, but
Nut shall not be less than 0.2 Vu unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces. Therefore, Nut shall be
regarded as a live load even when tension results from creep, shrinkage or temperature change.
1
d. The steel ratio A s / bd at the face of the support shall be at least 0.04f c' e f sy , where d is measured at the face of the
support.
e. Closed stirrups or ties parallel to the primary tensile tie reinforcement, As, with a total area not less than 0.5 As shall be
uniformly distributed within 2/3 of the effective depth adjacent to As. 3
f. At the front face of a bracket or corbel, the primary tension reinforcement As shall be effectively anchored to develop
the specified yield strength, fsy, by:
(1) A structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size, or;
(2) Bending the primary bars, As back to form a continuous loop, or; 4
(3) Some other positive means of anchorage.
g. The bearing area of the load on a bracket or corbel shall not project beyond the interior portion of the primary tension
bars, As, nor project beyond the interior face of any transverse anchor bar.
26.8.6 SHEAR TRANSFER AT INTERFACES (1996)
Shear transfer at interfaces shall be designed in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.35.4 using the f
values found in this Part.
1
See Commentary
1
See Commentary
2 See Commentary

26.8.7 TWO-WAY PUNCHING SHEAR (1996)
Two-way punching shear slab type elements shall be designed in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.35.6 using the appropriate I values from this Specification.
SECTION 26.9 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS
26.9.1 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR BONDED NONPRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT

(1996)1
Design of bonded nonprestressed reinforcement for fatigue shall conform to the provisions of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete
Design, Article 2.26.2.
26.9.2 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT (1996)2
Fatigue of prestressed reinforcement need not be considered for bridges designed in accordance with this Specification.
SECTION 26.10 DESIGN OF LOCAL AND GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES, ANCHORAGE

BLISTERS AND DEVIATION SADDLES
26.10.1 GENERAL (1996)3
a. Anchorage zones for post-tensioning tendons are regions of complex stresses. The post-tensioned anchorages zone
may be considered as comprised of two zones.
b. The local zone is the region immediately surrounding each anchorage device. It may be taken as a cylinder or prism
with transverse dimensions approximately equal to the sum of the projected size of the bearing plate plus the
manufacturer’s specified minimum side or edge cover. The length of the local zone extends for the length of the
anchorage device plus an additional distance in front of the anchor equal to at least the maximum lateral dimensions of
the anchor. Performance of the anchorage device and furnishing of any supplementary reinforcement required in this
local zone is the responsibility of the constructor and material suppliers. These responsibilities shall be set forth in the
project plans and specifications.
c. The general zone is the region in front of the anchor which extends along the tendon axis for a distance equal to the
overall depth of the member. The height of the general zone is taken as the overall depth of the member. In the case of
intermediate anchorages which are not at the end of a member, the general zone shall be considered to also extend
along the projection of the tendon axis for about the same distance before the anchor.
d. Design and specification of any supplementary reinforcement required in the general zone (in addition to the required
local zone reinforcement) is the responsibility of the engineer of record. Proper installation of such supplementary
reinforcement is the responsibility of the constructor.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

e. Reinforcement shall be provided for bursting, splitting, and spalling tensile stresses generated by tendon anchorages
and deviation saddles in accordance with the following provisions of this Section. The method of analysis shall
consider anchorage eccentricity, tendon inclination, and tendon curvature.
f. The proportions and supplementary reinforcement of the local zone containing the tendon anchors must be adequate to
transfer the tendon force into the mass of the concrete structure. The load transfer may be achieved by either bearing
plate type anchors or by special anchorage devices which in combination with special anchor reinforcement (such as
spirals, stirrups or other reinforcement) transfer the local zone loads from the anchors into the general anchorage zone
of the structure.
26.10.2 FORCES AND REINFORCEMENT IN GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES (1996)1
a. The general distribution of forces and the reinforcement required to provide the necessary general anchorage zone
tensile capacity to counteract the bursting forces of the anchorages may be determined using the strut-and-tie model
approach of Article 26.8.4.
b. In lieu of analysis using the strut-and-tie approach, the total bursting force, Fbst, for an individual anchorage shall be
taken as:
F bst = 0.30 1 – d a e d sp P j

1
26.10.3.1 Local Zones
The local zone shall be reinforced for the bursting forces as required for the anchor type used in accordance with the
provisions of Article 26.5.2.3 and Article 26.10.2. The reinforcement may consist of stirrups, ties, spirals, or combinations of
these.
26.10.3.2 General Anchorage Zone Bursting and Directional Forces2 3

The structure shall be reinforced with stirrups or ties to resist general anchorage zone bursting forces and directional forces
due to total post-tensioning forces anchored at a section in accordance with the provisions of Article 26.5.2.3 and
Article 26.10.2.
26.10.3.3 Stress in Reinforcement for Bursting Forces3

4
Reinforcement for bursting forces shall be designed for maximum jacking forces at time of stressing with
fs = 0.6 fsy where fsy shall not exceed 60 ksi.
26.10.3.4 Post-Tensioning
Post-tensioning may be provided to supplement reinforcement restraint against anchorage bursting or directional forces.
26.10.4 REINFORCEMENT DETAILING (1996)
Reinforcement may be in the form of spirals, stirrups, orthogonal reinforcement, or combinations of these. Groups of
anchorages shall be restrained by reinforcement stirrups or lateral post-tensioning enclosing the entire group. All orthogonal
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

reinforcement must be mechanically anchored around reinforcement running parallel with tendons. All spirals, stirrups, or
orthogonal reinforcement shall have sufficient extra length to develop full bond with the concrete, or shall be mechanically
anchored by 135 degrees bends around reinforcement. The clear distance between bars or pitch of spirals used as anchorage
zone reinforcement shall be at least the maximum size of the coarse aggregate plus 1/2 inch but not less than 1-1/2 inches.
26.10.5 ANCHORAGES IN SPECIAL BLISTERS (1996)
26.10.5.1 Design
In addition to reinforcements provided for tensile stresses perpendicular to the tendon trajectory, blisters shall also be designed
for shear and bending between the blister and web/flange interface. For these purposes, the strut-and-tie models of Section
26.8, Shear and Torsion, or the rules for shear friction and special provisions brackets and corbels as set out in Part 2,
Reinforced Concrete Design shall be applied. The reinforcement required for anchorage zone tensile stress may also be used
for shear friction calculations if full bond development or mechanical anchorage within the web and slab is provided for the
reinforcement.
26.10.5.2 Local Bending
When blisters are used, a check shall be made for the localized bending induced into the web and/or flange in the region
surrounding the anchorage. Reinforcement shall be provided equivalent to the force represented by the concrete tensile stress
block proportioned at a stress of not more than 0.6 fsy, where fsy shall not exceed 60 ksi.
26.10.5.3 Local Tensile Stresses Behind Anchorage Blisters
Blisters should preferably be located at the juncture of the flange and the web. Calculations shall be made to assure that
sufficient residual compression exists behind anchorage blisters that no localized tensile stresses occur, or sufficient
reinforcement shall be provided at an allowable stress of 0.6 fsy (maximum value of fsy to be 60 ksi) to take all the tensile
force. Use of anchorage blisters projecting from one surface only, such as a flange, should preferably be restricted to
anchorage of small tendons and bars. Blisters shall preferably be located sufficiently far from a joint to allow dispersal of local
tensile stress effects through the reinforced slab. Minimum reinforcement shall be provided to carry 25-50% of the anchor load
into the concrete behind the anchor. The amount of reinforcement provided shall be based on evaluation of the compressive
stress level due to other tendons or loads in the local area behind the anchor, and shall increase to an amount of reinforcement
sufficient to carry 50% of the tendon force whenever local net tensile stresses might be generated behind the anchorage.
26.10.6 ANCHORAGES IN DIAPHRAGMS (1996)
Reinforcement shall be provided to ensure a full transfer of shear load from the diaphragm to the webs and flanges. The
diaphragm shall be designed and reinforced for any localized bending effects due to concentrated anchorage loads. Anchorage
zones in diaphragms shall be reinforced in accordance with Article 26.10.2.
26.10.7 ANCHORAGE BEARING REACTION FORCE (1996)
In situations where the anchorage reaction force is not parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam, it is necessary to take into
account the magnitude and direction of the anchorage bearing reaction. Reinforcement or post-tensioning shall be provided as
required to contain the component of the anchorage reaction perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the girder. The
reinforcement stress may be taken as 0.6 fsy but not greater than 36 ksi (for Grade 60 steel).

26.10.8 DEVIATION SADDLES (1996)
26.10.8.1 General
Deviation saddles are blisters external to the webs and flanges, normally on the inside of a box at the junction of web and
flange where tendons placed external to the concrete are deviated in direction to produce the required tendon profile.
26.10.8.2 Design
Reinforcement shall be provided in the form of fully anchored reinforcement and bent bars in webs or flanges to take the
* from the deviated tendon(s) at a service stress of 0.5 f . Additional reinforcement
resultant pull out force computed at f su sy
shall be provided to take any out of balance longitudinal forces by shear friction action according to the ACI 318-86 Standard
Building Code, Article 11.7. Reinforcement shall also be provided to take any localized bending and axial effects transmitted
from the deviation saddles to the webs and/or flanges.
26.10.8.3 Detailing
All reinforcements shall have a full effective development length measured from the tendon axis or shall otherwise be fully
mechanically anchored around longitudinal reinforcement located at the outside of the (box) section. Consideration shall be
given to constructibility and clearances between reinforcement for adequate concrete compaction. Not more than two
reinforcing bars shall be bundled and the clear distance between reinforcement shall be at least 1/2 inch greater than the
maximum coarse aggregate size and in no case less than 1-1/2 inches.
26.10.8.4 Localized Effects on Transverse Design 1

The transverse design of the section shall be checked for the transverse force imparted through deviation saddles, including
any unsymmetrical effects due to sequential post-tensioning. Additional bonded reinforcement proportioned at a tensile stress
of 0.6 fsy, where fsy shall not be taken as greater than 60 ksi, or transverse post-tensioning shall be provided equivalent to the
tensile force induced in the slab.
SECTION 26.11 PROVISIONAL POST-TENSIONING DUCTS AND ANCHORAGES
26.11.1 GENERAL (1996)

In accordance with Article 26.11.2, the design of ducts and anchorages for bridges with internal tendons shall provide for
4
increases in the post-tensioning force at selected locations along the bridge during construction to compensate for excessive
friction and wobble losses during stressing. For bridges with either internal or external tendons, the design shall provide for
future addition of external unbonded tendons in accordance with provisions of Article 26.11.3 as an allowance for addition of
future dead load, or to adjust for deflection of the bridge.
26.11.2 BRIDGES WITH INTERNAL DUCTS (1996)1

At intervals of not more than three segments, provisional anchorage and duct capacity for negative and positive moment
tendons located symmetrically about the bridge centerline shall provide for an increase in the post-tensioning force. The total
provisional force potential of both positive and negative moment anchorages and ducts shall not be less than 5% of the total
positive and negative moment forces, respectively, and shall be distributed uniformly at three segment intervals along the
length of the bridge. At least one empty duct per web shall be provided with anchorages at appropriate locations. Except for
non-continuous bridges, and the minimum empty duct capacity noted above, provisional positive moment duct and anchorage
1
See Commentary

capacity shall not be required for 25% of the span length either side of pier supports. Any provisional ducts not utilized for
adjustment of the post-tensioning force shall be grouted at the same time as other ducts in the span.
26.11.3 PROVISION FOR FUTURE DEAD LOAD OR DEFLECTION ADJUSTMENT (1996)1

Specific provisions shall be made for access and for anchorage attachments, pass through openings, and deviation block
attachments to permit future addition of unbonded external tendons symmetrically about the bridge centerline for a post-
tensioning force of not less than 5% of the total positive moment and negative moment post-tensioning force.
SECTION 26.12 DUCT DETAILS
26.12.1 MATERIAL THICKNESS (1996)

26.12.1.1 Metal Ducts2
Metal ducts shall be galvanized corrugated semi-rigid conduit. For strand and wire tendons, the duct thickness shall be 26 gage
up to 2-5/8 inches diameter. Ducts larger than 2-5/8 inches diameter shall be 24 gage. For bar tendons, the duct thickness shall
not be less than 31 gage.
26.12.1.2 Polyethylene Duct3
Polyethylene duct or rigid pipe used as external duct shall be high density polyethylene conforming to ASTM D3350. Internal
polyethylene duct shall have spiral corrugations. Rigid pipe may be manufactured in accordance with ASTM D2447, ASTM
F714, or ASTM D2239. Material thickness shall be as follows:
a. Internal polyethylene duct = 0.050 inches ± 0.010 inch.
b. External polyethylene duct shall have a minimum external diameter to wall thickness ratio of 21 or less.
26.12.2 DUCT AREA (1996)4
Duct for strand and wire tendons shall be sized so that the area of the duct is at least 2-1/2 times the area of the prestressing
steel it contains.
26.12.3 MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE (1996)5
a. Tendon ducts shall preferably be installed with a radius of curvature of 20 feet or more. Ducts with sharper curvature
down to a minimum of 10 feet shall have confinement reinforcement detailed to tie the duct into the concrete. Duct
curvature with radii less than 10 feet may be approved by the Engineer based on review of test data. The minimum
radius for corrugated polyethylene duct shall be 30 feet. The confinement reinforcement shall be proportioned to resist
radial forces calculated as:
Fr = P/ R
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
5 See Commentary

where:
P = the tendon force in pounds per foot

R = the radius of curvature, in feet
Fr = the radial force in pounds per foot
Confinement reinforcement shall be proportioned at 0.6 fsy where fsy shall not exceed 60 ksi. Spacing of confinement
reinforcement shall not exceed 12inches. Closer spacing shall be used for duct with radius of curvature less than 15
feet.
b. When the tendon profile radius of curvature is less than 20 feet, design consideration shall also be given to lateral
forces exerted by multistrand tendons on thin webs due to bunching of the strand at the top or bottom of circular ducts.
Confinement reinforcement, preferably in the form of spirals, shall be provided whenever the nominal shear stress due
to tendon jacking forces in the concrete cover beside the tendon exceeds 2 f c' .
26.12.4 DUCT SUPPORTS (1996)
26.12.4.1 Internal Supports1
a. Internal ducts shall be rigidly supported by ties to reinforcing steel as follows:
(1) Transverse slab tendons in metal duct: 2 feet.

1
(2) Transverse slab tendons in polyethylene duct: 2 feet.
(3) Longitudinal slab or web tendons in metal duct: 4 feet.
(4) Longitudinal slab or web tendons in polyethylene duct: 2 feet.

3
26.12.4.2 External Ducts2
External ducts shall have a maximum unsupported length of 25 feet unless a vibration analysis is made.
26.12.5 DUCT SIZE, CLEARANCE AND DETAILING (1996)
a. Maximum size of ducts shall not exceed 0.4 u web thickness. 4

b. Where two curved tendons run parallel such that the outer one is bearing inwards toward the inner one, a minimum
clearance of one duct diameter shall preferably be maintained between the ducts. If this is not possible, reinforcement
shall be provided between the ducts to fully restrain the outer tendon if it has to be stressed before the inner tendon has
been stressed and grouted. In cases where longitudinal tendons cross each other, at least one-half duct diameter but not
less than 2 inches clear space shall be provided. This restriction does not apply to transverse ducts crossing longitudinal
ducts at approximately 90 degrees.
c. Curved tendons should not be placed around re-entrant corners or voids. If this is unavoidable, then the tendons must
be provided with well anchored, full reinforcement restraint proportioned as per Article 26.12.6.1. In no case shall the
distance between the re-entrant corner or void and the edge of the duct be less than 1.5 duct diameters.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

26.12.6 DUCT CONFINEMENT REINFORCEMENT (1996)
26.12.6.1 Ducts in Webs of Curved Bridges
a. When curved tendons are located in thin webs or close to internal voids reinforcement shall be provided to prevent the
tendon from bursting through the concrete into the void whenever the nominal shear stress in the cover beside the
tendon due to tendon jacking forces exceeds 2 f c' . The area of steel required may be estimated from:
A s = P/(R u 0.6 f sy )
where:
Asy = Area of steel required, inches2/foot
b. The lateral force exerted on the concrete by the tendons may be calculated by dividing the tendon force by the radius of
curvature in accordance with Article 26.12.3.
26.12.6.2 Ducts in Flanges1
a. Ducts in bottom slabs shall be located between top and bottom layers of transverse and longitudinal slab reinforcement.
For ducts in the bottom flanges of variable depth segments, nominal confinement reinforcing shall be provided around
the duct at each segment face. The reinforcement shall not be less than two rows of #4 hairpin bars at both sides of each
duct with vertical dimensions equal to the slab thickness less top and bottom cover dimensions.
b. When closely spaced transverse or longitudinal ducts are located in top or bottom flanges, the top and bottom
nonprestressed reinforcement mats shall be tied together with vertical reinforcement consisting of #4 hairpin bars with
spacing not to exceed 18 inches or 1-1/2 times the slab thickness in each direction, whichever is the lesser.
SECTION 26.13 COUPLERS (1996)2
Not more than 50% of the longitudinal post-tensioning tendons shall be coupled at one section. The spacing between adjacent
coupler locations shall not be closer than the segment length or twice the segment depth. The void areas around couplers shall
be deducted from the gross section area and moment of inertia when computing stresses at the time of application of the post-
tensioning force.
SECTION 26.14 CONNECTION OF SECONDARY BEAMS (1996)3
a. The load from secondary beams connected to the main beam (indirect support) shall be resisted by suspension stirrups
or inclined bars. Not less than 2/3 of this suspension reinforcement shall be located in the immediate area of the
intersection. The entire load shall be transmitted within the intersection zone specified in Figure C-8-26-8. Existing
shear reinforcement within the intersection zone may be considered as part of the suspension reinforcement provided
that the secondary beam extends for the full height of the main beam. Suspension stirrups and inclined bars shall be
anchored in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.21.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

b. Detailing of the connection may be accomplished by use of the strut-and-tie procedures outlined in Article i.
Figure 8-26-8. Reinforcement Details

SECTION 26.15 CONCRETE COVER AND REINFORCEMENT SPACING
26.15.1 COVER AND SPACING (1996)
Reinforcement cover and spacing shall conform to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.6 and to Article 26.15.2.
26.15.2 REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR ERECTION LOADS (1996)1
The transverse analysis of the box girder shall include an evaluation of the quantity Z of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Section 2.39, EQ 60, for any loads applied prior to attainment of full design strength. The value of Z calculated for flanges and
webs shall not exceed 130 kips per inch.
SECTION 26.16 INSPECTION ACCESS (1996)
Inspectability of the structure shall be assured by providing secured access hatches with minimum dimensions of 2c-6s u 4c-0s.
Interior diaphragms shall be provided with openings larger than the dimensions specified for access hatches. The box section
shall be vented by drains or screened vents in webs at intervals not greater than 50 feet. Such venting is to prevent the build up
of potential hazardous gas which might endanger inspection personnel.
SECTION 26.17 BOX GIRDER CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS AND DETAILS
26.17.1 MINIMUM FLANGE THICKNESS (1996)2
Top and bottom flange thickness shall not be less than any of the following:
a. 1/30 the clear span between webs or haunches, a lesser dimension will require transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the
clear span between webs or haunches.
b. Top flange, 9 inches where transverse post-tensioning is anchored. Transverse post-tensioning or pretensioning shall be
used where the clear span between webs or haunches is 15 feet or larger. Strand used for transverse pretensioning shall
be 0.5 inch diameter or less.
26.17.2 MINIMUM WEB THICKNESS (1996)3
a. Webs with no longitudinal or vertical post-tensioning tendons – 8 inches.
b. Webs with only longitudinal (or vertical) post-tensioning tendons – 12 inches.
c. Webs with both longitudinal and vertical post-tensioning tendons – 15 inches.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

26.17.3 LENGTH OF TOP FLANGE CANTILEVER (1996)
The cantilever length of the top flange measured from the centerline of web should preferably not exceed 0.45 the interior span
of the top flange measured between the centerline of the webs.
26.17.4 OVERALL CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS (1996)1
Overall dimensions of the box girder cross section should preferably not be less than required to limit live load plus impact
deflection calculated using the gross section moment of inertia and the secant modulus of elasticity to 1/1800 of the span. The
live loading shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.3c. The live loading shall be
considered to be uniformly distributed to all longitudinal flexural members.
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 26, Recommendations for the Design
of Segmental Bridges. In the numbering of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article
being explained.
C - SECTION 26.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIAL

1
C - 26.1.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. Segmental bridges contemplated under this Article include but are not limited to those erected by the following
methods:
(1) Balanced cantilever

3
(2) Span-by-span with truss or falsework
(3) Span-by-span lifting
(4) Incremental launching
(5) Progressive placement 4

b. The span length of bridges considered by these specifications ranges to approximately 800 feet. Bridges supported by
stay cables are not specifically covered although many of the specification provisions are applicable to cable-stayed
bridges.
c. Lightweight concrete has been infrequently used for segmental bridge construction. Provision for the use of
lightweight aggregates represents a significant complication of both design and construction specifications. For these
reasons, as well as questions concerning the economic benefit of use of lightweight aggregates for segmental bridges,
their use is not explicitly covered in these specifications.
1
See Commentary

C - 26.1.5 SEGMENTAL BRIDGES, DESIGN REINFORCEMENT (1996)
a. Special corrosion protection is considered necessary for all bridge deck reinforcement in areas of contamination or
where de-icer or other harmful chemicals may be applied. Corrosion protection should also be provided for all
reinforcement of bridges located in coastal areas or over sea water, or in heavily industrialized areas.
b. See the ACI Committee 222 report “Corrosion of Metals in Concrete” (Reference 4) for a comprehensive discussion of
methods of corrosion protection.
C - SECTION 26.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS
C - 26.2.1 GENERAL (1996)
Results of elastic analyses should be evaluated with consideration of possible variations in the modulus of elasticity of the
concrete, and variations on the concrete creep and shrinkage properties, as well as the impact of variations in the construction
schedule on these (and other) design parameters.
C - 26.2.2 STRUT-AND-TIE-MODELS (1996)
Strut-and-tie models provide one means of analyzing areas near concentrated loads, bearing areas, diaphragms, corners, bends,
openings, anchorage zones for post-tensioning tendons, and other areas where non-linear strains exist, as well as the cracked
global structural system. Morsch proposed an extension of this concept in 1989. (Reference 18, 56 and 85)
The procedures of Article 3-10.2 of the 1983 Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code provides an equation for determining the
effective flange width for use in calculating bending resistances and bending stresses.
C - 26.2.3.2 Effective Flange Width for Analysis, and for Calculation of Section Capacity and Stresses
a. Note that b as used in this Article is the flange width on either side of the web. (b1, b2, or b3 in
Figure C-8-26-1).
b. The pattern of stress distribution in Figure C-8-26-4 is intended only for calculation of stresses due to anchorage of
post-tensioning tendons, and may be disregarded in the general analysis to determine design moments, shears and
deflections.
c. Superposition of local slab bending stresses due to track loads (two-way slab action) and the primary longitudinal
bending stresses is not normally required.
C - 26.2.4 TRANSVERSE ANALYSIS (1996)
See references (Reference 73 and 86) for background on transverse analysis of concrete box girder bridges.
a. Analysis of concrete segmental bridges requires consideration of variation of design parameters with time, as well as a
specific construction schedule and method of erection. This, in turn, requires the use of a computer program developed
to trace the time-dependent response of segmentally erected prestressed concrete bridges through construction, and
under service loads. Among the many programs developed for this purpose, several are in the public domain, and may
be purchased for a nominal amount. (Reference 21, 46 and 90)

b. A comprehensive series of equations for evaluating the time-related effects of creep and shrinkage is presented in the
ACI Committee 209 report, “Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures.”
(Reference 3) A procedure based on graphical values for creep and shrinkage parameters is presented in the CEB-FIP
Model Code. (Reference 15)
c. Recent research results (Reference 14) have suggested that the ACI 209 predictions underestimate the creep and
shrinkage strains for the large scale specimens used in segmental bridges. The ACI 209 creep predictions were
consistently about 65% of the experimental results in these tests. The report suggests modifications of the ACI 209
equations based on the size or thickness of the members.
C - SECTION 26.3 DESIGN LOADS
C - 26.3.2 DEAD LOADS (1996)
a. The use of lightweight concrete is not covered in these specifications for the reasons outlined in the commentary to
Article 26.1.1.
b. The value of 155 pcf for the unit weight of concrete is intended to provide for more heavily reinforced sections than
would be anticipated in more conventional concrete superstructures.
C - 26.3.3 ERECTION LOADS (1996)
Erection loads may be imposed on opposing cantilever ends by use of the Formtraveler, diagonal alignment bars, a jacking
tower, or by external weights. Cooling of one cantilever with water has also been used to provide adjustment of misalignment.
1
Any misalignment of interior cantilevers should be corrected at both ends before constructing either closure. The frame
connecting cantilever ends at closure pours should be detailed to prevent differential vertical movement between cantilevers
due to forces including thermal gradient until the final structural connection is complete. The magnitude of closure forces
should not induce stresses in the structure in excess of those stipulated in these specifications.
C - 26.3.4.3 Thermal Coefficient 3

For major bridges, tests or use of previous test data to determine more precise thermal coefficients is recommended.
C - 26.3.4.4 Differential Temperature
a. Additional field research is recommended to verify the temperature gradients specified in the referenced NCHRP
report for four temperature zones in the United States. Railroad bridges differ from highway bridges when the deck is 4
ballasted and require special attention. While the need for consideration of thermal gradients in design of concrete box
girder bridges has been clearly demonstrated, opinion is divided as to the need for use of complex gradients and
relatively high temperature differentials outlined in NCHRP Report 276. However, the use of the provisions of
Appendix A of NCHRP Report 276 is conservative and is recommended for unballasted decks until such time as
additional research data on thermal gradients and temperature differentials becomes available.
b. Transverse analysis for the effects of differential temperature outside and inside box girder Articles is not considered
generally necessary. However, such an analysis may be necessary for relatively shallow bridges with thick webs.
(Reference 44, 50, 51 and 74) In that case, a ±10 degrees F temperature differential is recommended. Additional field
research is recommended to determine temperature differentials between the inside and outside surfaces of segmental
concrete box girder Articles in U. S. temperature zones.
C - 26.3.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE (1996)

a. A variety of computer programs and analytical procedures have been published to evaluate creep and shrinkage effects
in segmental concrete bridges. (Reference 2, 15, 21, 27, 46 and 90)

b. For permanent loads, the behavior of segmental bridges after closure may be approximated by use of an effective
modulus of elasticity, Eeff, which may be calculated as:
E e ff = E c m /I c
where:
Ic = the creep coefficient

Ecm = the 28 day secant modulus of elasticity of the concrete calculated from:
E cm = 57 000 f c'
where:
Ecm, Eeff and f c' are all in psi.
C - 26.3.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE (1996)

Prestress losses vary significantly with different values of the creep coefficient, type of prestressing steel (low relaxation steel
is recommended), and with the creep model (ACI 209 or CEB-FIP). Further, the prestress losses vary significantly at different
sections along the superstructure.
C - SECTION 26.4 LOAD FACTORS
C - 26.4.3 STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS (1996)

a. The values of If and Iv presented in Article 26.4.3 are based on consideration of relatively limited test results
(Reference 4, 47 and 76 and Figure C-8-26-1) and are considered interim provisions until further comprehensive tests,
analyses, and experience with completed structures are obtained.
b. The proposed If values for flexure for segmental bridges with fully bonded tendons with cast-in-place concrete joints,
wet concrete joints or epoxy joints are based on the current AASHTO value of 0.95 for monolithic post-tensioned
construction. This specification assumes the practice of requiring epoxy for all joints having internal tendons passing
through them is valid. Comprehensive tests (Reference 95) of a large continuous three span model of a twin cell box
girder bridge built from precast segments with fully bonded internal tendons and epoxy joints indicated that cracking
was well distributed throughout the segment lengths, no epoxy joint opened at failure, and the load-deflection curve
was identical to that calculated for a monolithic specimen. The complete ultimate strength of the tendons was
developed at failure. The model had substantial ductility and full development of calculated deflection at failure.
Recent tests (Reference 40 and 76) on single span segmental girders with varied tendon arrangements (internal, mixed
and external tendons) and with dry joints indicate that the deflection at failure was less than would be expected for
monolithic girders. Flexural cracking concentrated at joints, and final failure came with a central joint opening widely
and crushing occurring at the top of the joint. The somewhat limited ductility is reflected in the reduced I factors for
Type B (dry) joints as well as reduced I factors with unbonded tendons which allow the concentration of articulation at
a single joint opening. The reduction in nominal strength for unbonded construction is adequately reflected in the
determination of unbonded tendon stress at ultimate using AREMA calculation procedures.
c. The proposed Iv values for shear utilize the current AREMA value of 0.85 for monolithic construction as the accepted
value for Type A joints (cast-in-place, wet concrete or epoxy joints) in bonded tendon construction based on the very
favorable experience in the ultimate shear tests reported in Reference 95. Comparative shear tests of epoxy and dry
joints indicate the epoxied joints develop the full strength of monolithically cast specimens. However, dry joints
developed less strength and allowed appreciable slip along the joint. Because of this, lower Iv factors are specified for
dry joints (Type B).

Figure C-8-26-1. Relative Joint Displacement Shear Key Behavior 1

(Reference 5)
d. The development length computation for defining a bonded tendon assumes that the duct is completely filled with
grout and the grout completely surrounds all the strands. Therefore, the development length of a tendon is similar to
that of an individual strand.
C - 26.4.4.1 Erection Loads During Construction 3

The differential load between cantilevers is to allow for possible variations in cross-section weight.
C - SECTION 26.5 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
C - 26.5.2.3 paragraph b 4
The bell anchor for threadbar tendons is an example of a confinement anchorage device that has demonstrated satisfactory
performance over many years on major bridge projects. Other confinement anchorages which have demonstrated satisfactory
performance utilize spiral reinforcement in conjunction with plate or casting type anchorages which do not comply with the
bearing stress limitations of Article 26.5.2.3a.
C - 26.5.2.3 paragraph c
a. NCHRP Project 10-29, “Anchorage Zone Reinforcement for Post-Tensioned Concrete Girders” is now underway at the
University of Texas at Austin to develop more comprehensive recommendations for proportioning reinforcement for
anchorage splitting stresses. Previous work at the University of Texas at Austin (Reference 70, 95 and 96) includes
recommendations for design of anchorage zone reinforcement that may be utilized until NCHRP Project 10-29 is
completed.
b. Bursting or splitting forces occur in front of individual anchors inside the local zone. The magnitude of these forces
depends on the shape and design of the particular anchor. For plate type anchors these bursting forces and the required

reinforcement can be determined by computation or by test. For confinement anchors, bursting forces in the local zone
are normally not accessible by computations. Their adequacy can only be determined by representative tests. It is the
suppliers responsibility to determine the required bursting reinforcement in the local zone for such special anchors.
c. General zone bursting forces exist beyond the individual tendon local zones. The general zone bursting forces are
dependent primarily on the overall concrete dimensions and the magnitude, direction and location (eccentricity) of
total prestressing force anchored and not on the particular anchor design. The reinforcement for these general zone
bursting forces is part of the overall structural design, and is the responsibility of the Engineer. For design purposes, it
may be conservatively assumed that any local zone reinforcement provided does not contribute to the strength of the
general zone.
C - SECTION 26.7 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
C - 26.7.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. The minimum reinforcement provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete were developed to avoid a brittle failure in a
grossly under-reinforced simple span precast, prestressed section. Application to segmental concrete bridges results in
requirements of more bonded reinforcement for bridges with more conservative (arbitrary) design tensile stress levels
which is contrary to load requirements. Minimum reinforcement requirements are adequately covered by the allowable
stresses and load factor requirements of these specifications.
* unbonded members. The German DIN Specification

b. Additional research is recommended to verify the value of f su
allows a stress increase of only 6 ksi for unbonded cantilever tendons, and no stress increase for fully continuous
unbonded tendons.
C - SECTION 26.8 SHEAR AND TORSION
C - 26.8.1 SCOPE (1996)
All design for shear and torsion of prestressed concrete segmental bridges is based on ultimate load conditions because little
information is available concerning actual shear stress distributions at working or service load levels.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph b
Regions with beam-type action are basically those where the Bernoulli hypotheses that linear strain profiles exist are valid. See
B-regions in Figure C-8-26-2, Figure C-8-26-3, and Figure C-8-26-4.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph c
Discontinuity regions, where the assumption that strain profiles are linear is invalid, usually exist for about a distance h from a
concentrated load or point of geometrical discontinuity. See D-regions in Figure C-8-26-2, Figure C-8-26-3, and Figure C-8-
26-4. Moving wheel loads need not be considered as large concentrated loads. The use of strut-and-tie models in design is well
described in “Towards a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete,” by J. Schlaich, K. Schafer, and M. Jennewein, Vol. 32, No.
3 PCI Journal, May/June 1987, pp. 74–150. (Reference 85) Note that a structure can be made up of both beam-type and
discontinuity regions. The strut-and-tie model procedures must be used in the discontinuity regions. Either the traditional
beam approach of the strut-and-tie approach can be used in the beam-type regions.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph d
a. In addition for obvious checks for shear transfer when dissimilar materials are utilized, adequate shear transfer
reinforcement must be provided perpendicular to the vertical planes of web/slab interfaces to transfer flange

Figure C-8-26-2. Stress Trajectories in a B-Region and Near Discontinuities (D-Regions)1
Figure C-8-26-3. Beam with Direct Supports1
1 Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp. 74-150.

(a) real structure
(b) loads and reactions applied in

accordance with Bernoulli
hypothesis
(c) self equilibrating state of stress,

and
(d) real structure with B- and

D-regions
Figure C-8-26-4. T-beam1
Figure C-8-26-5. Longitudinal Shear Transfer by Bottom Slab to Web Haunches1
1
Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3 May-June 1987, p. 1.

longitudinal forces at ultimate conditions. This shear transfer shall account for the shear force, F, as shown in Figure C-
8-26-5, as well as any localized shear effects due to prestress anchorages at that Article.
b. Article 11.7 of ACI 318 is generally termed the “shear-friction” method but does provide in Article 11.7.3 that a wide
range of shear transfer design methods may be utilized. In some cases, the designer may find the strut-and-tie method
of Article i useful in proportioning transverse reinforcement to assist in transfer of horizontal shear between elements.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph f
a. The shear effect of moving vehicle loads may be considered by development of maximum factored shear envelopes
and the use of these values in determining the factored ultimate live load shear on the section.
b. Prestressing is considered as an applied load with a carefully controlled magnitude and direction. The components of
the prestress force can add to or subtract from the shear on a cross section. In cantilevered segmental construction, the
prestress vertical component can reverse the applied shear direction near the supports.
C - 26.8.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (1996)
C - 26.8.2 paragraph f
The limitation on the effective diagonal tension and aggregate interlock components of shear strength contributed by the
concrete has been adopted by ACI Committee 318.
C - 26.8.2 paragraph h 1
Research is recommended on the transfer length of 0.6 inch diameter strand.
C - 26.8.2 paragraph i
A simplified determination of Vc is presented which eliminates the need to check Vci and Vcw as in the present AREMA
Specifications and which eliminates the complex V u d / M u term. This expression has been checked against a wide range of test 3
data and has been found to be a conservative yet simpler expression.
C - 26.8.2 paragraph v
In place of requiring additional longitudinal reinforcement for shear as indicated by the mechanics of the truss model, the
requirement of extending all flexural reinforcement beyond the theoretical bend or cut off points for a distance of h/ 2
automatically satisfies this need. Since actual shear and torsion may vary from the assumed calculation, it is also 4
recommended that transverse reinforcement be provided for the same distance beyond the zone theoretically required.
C - 26.8.3 TRADITIONAL SHEAR AND TORSION DESIGN FOR PLANE SECTION TYPE
REGIONS (1996)
This Article is a simplified version of the present AREMA approach for section design in beam-type regions. It is based on the
simplified Vc term introduced in Article 26.8.2l. Provision of a “traditional” but less complex approach for beam-type regions
is desirable since designers may find its application easier than strut-and-tie models for moving loads.
C - 26.8.3 paragraph h
In determining the required amount of longitudinal reinforcement, the beneficial effect of longitudinal prestressing may be
taken into account by considering it equivalent to an area of reinforcing steel with a yield force equal to the effective
prestressing force.

C - i. The area of additional longitudinal torsion reinforcement in the flexural compression zone may be reduced by an amount
equal to Mu/(0.9d fsy) where Mu is the factored bending moment acting at that section except that the reinforcement
provided shall not be less than required by Article 26.8.2t.
This Article combines the recommendations of Schlaich, Schafer, and Jennewein with recommendations of Marti
(Reference 56) as developed by ACI Committee 318, Subcommittee E for a future edition of the ACI Building Code. The
proposed stress limits on struts and nodes may be subject to further refinement.
C - i paragraph a
Figure C-8-26-6 (Reference 85) and Figure C-8-26-7 (Reference 85) illustrate the analysis using strut-and-tie models.
Figure C-8-26-8 (Reference 85) shows a compression strut in a web with a tension tie in the stirrups. Figure C-8-26-9
(Reference 86) gives examples of basic types of nodes. An inclination angle I (Figure C-8-26-6) of 30 to 35 degrees is
recommended for the inclined compressive struts in prestressed members.
C - 26.8.5.2 Diaphragms and Deep Beams
C - 26.8.5.2 paragraph a
Figure C-8-26-10 (Reference 85) illustrates application of the strut-and-tie model to analysis of forces in the diaphragm of a
box girder bridge.
C - 26.8.5.2b paragraph (1)
Figure C-8-26-11 (Reference 85) shows application of the strut-and-tie model to analysis of deep beams.
C - 26.8.5.3 paragraph a
Figure C-8-26-12 (Reference 85) illustrates application of strut-and-tie models to analysis of corbels.
C - SECTION 26.9 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS
C - 26.9.1 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR BONDED NONPRESTRESSED

REINFORCEMENT (1996)
Calculation of fatigue stress limits in bonded reinforcement is necessary only for cracked sections.
C - 26.9.2 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT (1996)
Bridges designed under the allowable stresses of this specification should be uncracked at service load levels. Fatigue of
prestressed reinforcement will not occur in uncracked sections due to the related small stress range. Fretting fatigue due to
rubbing between duct and strand also does not occur in uncracked sections.
C - SECTION 26.10 DESIGN OF LOCAL AND GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES,

ANCHORAGE BLISTERS AND DEVIATION SADDLES
C - 26.10.1 GENERAL (1996)
See Article 26.5.2.3a for allowable local zone bearing stresses under anchorage plates, and allowable general zone tensile
stress in reinforcement for the anchorage splitting force. The Commentary to Article 26.5.2.3a provides references for
anchorage zone analysis and design. The pattern of splitting stresses due to bearing plate anchorages the same width as the
web is illustrated by Figure C-8-26-13. Note that the maximum splitting stress occurs at 1/4 d to 1/2 d in front of the anchor.

(a) Model
(b) Distribution of inner

1
forces
(c) Magnitude of inner

forces derived from
equilibrium of a
beam element 3
Figure C-8-26-6. Truss Model of a Beam with Cantilever1

(a) and (b) Most frequent and useful

strut-and-tie Models
(c), (d), and (e) variations of above
Figure C-8-26-7. The Two Most Frequent and Most Useful Strut-and-Tie Models1
1
Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp. 74-150.

Figure C-8-26-8. The Compression Strut in the Web with the Stirrups1

(a) CCC-nodes. Idealized “hydrostatic” singular nodes transfer the concentrated loads from an anchor plate (a1) or
bearing plate (a2) into (bottle shaped) compression fields
(b) CCT-nodes. A diagonal compression strut and the vertical support reaction are balanced by reinforcement which is
anchored by an anchor plate behind the node (b1), bond with the node (b2), bond within and behind the node (b3),
bond and radial pressure (b4)
Figure C-8-26-9. Examples of the Basic Types of Nodes1

(a) D-regions and model of the web near the diaphragm

(b) Diaphragm and model
(c) Prestressing of the web and the diaphragm
Figure C-8-26-10. Diaphragm of a Box Girder Bridge1
1

(a) Strut-and-tie model of uniformly loaded deep beam
(b) Fan-shaped stress field
(c) Strut-and-tie system for equivalent single load R replacing distributed load q
(d) Continuous fan developed from discrete strut
Figure C-8-26-11. Fan Action1
1

Figure C-8-26-12. Different Support Conditions Lead to Different Strut-and-Tie Models and Different
Reinforcement Arrangements of Corbels1
3
1

The value of the total bursting force in Article 26.10.2a is an approximation of the area under the splitting stress curve in
Figure C-8-26-13.
C - 26.10.2 FORCES AND REINFORCEMENT IN GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES (1996)
a. The strut-and-tie approach suggested by Schlaich et al. (Reference 85) will give a good approximation of the
reinforcement quantity and distribution required to counteract the general anchorage zone tensile forces set up both
directly in advance of the anchorages (see Figure C-8-26-7) and in the outer regions of general anchorage zones with
eccentrically located anchorages (see Figure C-8-26-14). The anchorage local zone becomes a node for the strut-and-
tie model and the adequacy of the node must be checked by appropriate analysis or full scale testing as required under
Article 26.5.2.3b.
b. The center of the bursting force is located approximately 3/8 of the depth of the section in front of the anchorage (see
Figure C-8-26-13).
c. Tendon inclination, tendon curvature, and the blockout to achieve tendon inclination at the face of the anchorage all
increase the bursting stresses. (Reference 70)
C - 26.10.3.2 General Anchorage Zone Bursting and Directional Forces
Local anchorage zone reinforcement supplied as part of a proprietary post-tensioning system shall be shown on post-
tensioning system shop drawings. Adjustment of general anchorage zone tensile reinforcement due to reinforcement supplied
as part of a proprietary post-tensioning system may be considered as part of the shop drawing approval process. The
responsibility for design of general anchor zone reinforcement remains with the Engineer of Record.
C - 26.10.3.3 Stress in Reinforcement for Bursting Forces
For flange thickness ranging from 5 to 9 inches, an upper limit of 12 - 1/2 inches I 270 k strand is recommended for tendons
anchored in blisters supported only by the flange. The anchorage force of 347 kips for a tendon of this size must be carefully
distributed to the flange by reinforcement.
C - SECTION 26.11 PROVISIONAL POST-TENSIONING DUCTS AND ANCHORAGES
C - 26.11.2 BRIDGES WITH INTERNAL DUCTS (1996)
Excess capacity may be provided by use of oversize ducts and oversize anchorage hardware at selected anchorage locations.
C - 26.11.3 PROVISION FOR FUTURE DEAD LOAD OR DEFLECTION ADJUSTMENT

(1996)
This provides for future addition if internal unbonded post-tensioning tendons draped from the top of the diaphragm at piers to
the intersection of the web and bottom slab at midspan. Tendons from adjacent spans have to be lapped at opposite faces of the
diaphragm to provide negative moment capacity. The requirement of a force of 5% of the total positive moment and negative
moment post-tensioning force is an arbitrary value. Provision for larger amounts of post-tensioning might be developed as
necessary to carry specific amounts of additional dead load as considered appropriate for the structure.
C - SECTION 26.12 DUCT DETAILS
C - 26.12.1.1 Metal Ducts
Thickness of metal duct material is related to duct diameter and the method of installing the tendon. Strand tendons are
normally installed in the duct after the concrete is placed, requiring a stiffer duct. Bar tendons are preassembled inside small

Figure C-8-26-13. Bursting Stresses Under Bearing Plate Anchorages1
(a) Elastic trajectories
(b) Elastic stresses
(c) Strut-and-tie models
Figure C-8-26-14. A Typical D-Region1
1

diameter ducts and placed as a unit. The bar fills most of the void and helps to prevent duct damage. The use of epoxy coated
metal duct is not recommended due to questionable bond characteristics.
C - 26.12.1.2 Polyethylene Duct
a. Ontario Ministry of Transportation tests indicate a tendency for air entrapment for ducts with concentric corrugations.
b. ASTM D2239 relates to rigid pipe manufactured by a process based on controlled inside diameter. ASTM D2447 and
ASTM F714 relate to rigid pipe manufactured by a process based on controlled outside diameter. All three
specifications produce pipe satisfactory for bridge applications.
C - 26.12.2 DUCT AREA (1996)
Placement of tendons by the pull-through method requires duct area of 2-1/2 times the prestressing steel area specified for
grouting.
C - 26.12.3 MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE (1996)
Polyethylene duct abrades at curvature radii less than 30 feet.
C - 26.12.4.1 Internal Supports
It is recommended that duct support requirements be stipulated or shown in the contract documents.
C - 26.12.4.2 External Ducts
External ducts are normally polyethylene.
C - 26.12.6.2 Ducts in Flanges
a. The hairpin bars tie the slab together in event of spalling forces at slab joints.
b. Ducts spaced closer than 12 inches on center in either direction should be considered as closely spaced. The hairpin
bars are provided to prevent slab delamination along the plane of the post-tensioning ducts. The hairpin bars are not
required in areas where duct congestion does not exist.
C - SECTION 26.13 COUPLERS (1996)
European experience indicates that the prestressing force decreases locally in the region of a coupler. This is believed to result
partially from increased creep caused by high compressive stresses in the reduced concrete Article due to coupling of tendons.
Cracking has not been observed in bridges where the number of tendons coupled at an Article has been limited to 50% of the
total number of tendons.
C - SECTION 26.14 CONNECTION OF SECONDARY BEAMS (1996)
Figure C-8-26-15 and Figure C-8-26-16 (Reference 49) provides schematic illustration of various methods of transmitting
load from secondary beams to the main beam.

C - SECTION 26.15 CONCRETE COVER AND REINFORCEMENT SPACING
C - 26.15.2 REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR ERECTION LOADS (1996)
The quantity Z provides reinforcement detailing that will reasonably control flexural cracking. Crack potentials are largest
when handling and storing segments for precast construction and when stripping forms and supports from cast-in-place
construction.
C - 26.17.1 MINIMUM FLANGE THICKNESS (1996)
a. The top flange thickness of 9 inches is preferable in the area of anchorages for transverse post-tensioning tendons.
b. Further research is recommended on the transfer length of 0.6 inch diameter strand before such strand is used for
transverse pretensioning in thin sections of segmental bridges.
C - 26.17.2 MINIMUM WEB THICKNESS (1996)
Ribbed webs may be reduced to 7 inches thickness.
C - 26.17.4 OVERALL CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS (1996)
Girder depth and web spacing determined in accordance with the following will generally provide satisfactory deflection
behavior: 1
a. Constant depth girder
1/15 > d o / L > 1/30 (optimum 1/18 to 1/20)
where:
3
do = girder depth, feet
L = span length between supports, feet
In case of incrementally launched girders, the girder depth should preferably be between the following limits:
L = 100 feet, = 1/15 < d o / L < 1/12 4

L = 200 feet, = 1/13.5 < d o / L < 1/11.5
L = 300 feet, = 1/12 < d o / L < 1/11
b. Variable Depth Girder with Straight Haunches
at pier 1/16 > d o / L > 1/20 (optimum 1/18)
at center of span 1/22 > d o / L > 1/28 (optimum 1/24)
NOTE: A diaphragm will be required at the point where the bottom flange changes direction.
c. Variable Depth Girder with Circular or Parabolic Haunches
at pier 1/16 > d o / L > 1/20 (optimum 1/18)

at center of span 1/30 > d o / L > 1/50
d. Depth to Width Ratio
A single cell box should preferably be used when
d o / b t
A two cell box should preferably be used when
d o / b < 1/6
where:
b = width of the top flange
If in a single cell box the limit of depth to width ratio given above is exceeded, a more rigorous analysis is required and
may require longitudinal edge beams at the tip of the cantilever to distribute loads acting on the cantilevers. An
analysis for shear lag should be made in such cases. Transverse load distribution is not substantially increased by the
use of three or more cells.

Figure C-8-26-15. Schematic Drawing of Different Types of “Hanger” Reinforcement1
Figure C-8-26-16. Extent of the Intersection Zone for the Connection of Secondary Beams1


8
Part 27
Concrete Slab Track
8
— 2011 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
27.1 Scope and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3

27.1.1 Scope (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.1.2 Notations (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.2 Application and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3

27.2.1 Application (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3 1
27.2.2 Definitions (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-5
27.3 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-6

27.3.1 Introduction (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-6
27.3.2 Loading Conditions (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
3
27.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.4.1 General (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.4.2 Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.4.3 Stabilized Subbase (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.4.4 Concrete Slab (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.4.5 Metal Reinforcement (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.5 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8

27.5.1 Design Considerations (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.5.2 Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.5.3 Subbase (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.5.4 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Slab (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.5.5 Drainage (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.6 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10

27.6.1 Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.2 Subbase (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.3 Construction Methods (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.4 Reinforcement Placement (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.5 Concrete Placement (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-11
27.6.6 Curing (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-11
27.6.8 Installation of Fastener Inserts (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-11

8-27-1
27.6.9 Testing Anchor Inserts (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-13

27.6.10 Placement of Rail Fasteners (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.6.11 Installation of Running Rail (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.7 Direct Fixation Fastening System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14

27.7.1 Rail Fastening Requirements (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.7.2 Types of Rail Fasteners (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-15
27.7.3 Design Features (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
27.7.4 Laboratory Testing of Fasteners for Acceptance (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
27.8 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16

27.8.1 Transition Areas (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
27.8.2 Treatment at Slab Ends (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-17
27.8.3 Continuity of Slab Track Over Bridge Deck (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-19
27.8.4 Modification of Existing Tunnel Concrete Invert to Slab Track (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-19
27.8.5 New Tunnel - Slab Track (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-20
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-24
LIST OF FIGURES
8-27-1 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Slab Track System (Typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-4

8-27-2 Fastener Insert Attachment to the Slab Track (Typical). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-12
8-27-3 Restrained Test (Not to Scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-13
8-27-4 A Typical Direct Fixation Fastener Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-15
8-27-5 Detail for Termination of Slab Track at Approach to a Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-18
8-27-6 Typical Direct Fixation Fastener System for Existing Tunnel Invert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-21
8-27-7 Single-Pour Method for New Tunnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-22
8-27-8 New Tunnel Floating Slab Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-23
LIST OF TABLES
C-8-27-1 Example of Computer Static Analysis of Concrete Slab Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-26

Concrete Slab Track
SECTION 27.1 SCOPE AND NOTATIONS
27.1.1 SCOPE1 (2011)
a. These recommendations for design and construction of continuously reinforced concrete slab track system provide
guidelines to railroads, rail transit systems, public agencies, consultants, contractors and other interested professionals.
A typical continuously reinforced concrete slab track system is shown in Figure 8-27-1.
27.1.2 NOTATIONS (2011)
CWR = Continuous Welded Rail
CRC = Continuously Reinforced Concrete
ks = Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, lb/in³ (N/mm³)
DFF = Direct Fixation Fastener
K = Fastener Vertical Spring Rate, lb/in (N/mm)
u = Track Modulus, lb/in/in (N/mm/mm)
SECTION 27.2 APPLICATION AND DEFINITIONS
a. The concrete slab track system described herein is suitable for:

3
(1) At-grade guideways
(2) Existing or new embankments
(3) Existing or new tunnels 4

b. These recommendations state minimum performance requirements and are applicable for both moderate rolling stock
speed up to 125 mph (200 km/h) and high speed over 125 mph (200 km/h), low axle loads (light rail transit, rail transit
system), medium axle loads (commuter rail-electric or diesel system) and heavy axle loads (freight).
c. Other types of concrete2 slab tracks which have been used but are not addressed in these recommendations include:
(1) Cast-In-Place Unreinforced or Conventionally Reinforced
(2) Cast-In-Place Post-Tensioned
(3) Precast Reinforced
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

Figure 8-27-1. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Slab Track System (Typical).

Concrete Slab Track
(4) Precast Reinforced
(5) Floating Slab
(6) Embedded Slab
(7) Independent Dual Block
The following terms are defined for general use in Part 27.
BROKEN RAIL - The fracture of a continuous welded rail which has been directly fastened to the concrete slab.
CROSS TIE - A transverse component of a track system whose functions are the control of track gage and the
transmitting of rail loads to ballast.
CONVENTIONAL TRACK - Two rails seated on tie plates or pads fastened to ties embedded in a ballast layer.
CONCRETE SLAB TRACK SYSTEM - A continuously reinforced concrete (CRC) slab supported on a stabilized
subbase and compacted subgrade.
CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL - Running rails that act as a continuous structural element as a result of full
penetration welding and connection of individual sections of rail in lengths of 400 feet (122 m) or longer.
DIRECT FIXATION FASTENING SYSTEM - A group of components of track structure which directly attaches the
rail to the concrete slab.
FLEXURAL STRENGTH - The maximum resistance to bending of a given cross section.
INSERT - A component of the fastening system which is embedded in the concrete slab. The insert may be installed
by presetting it in the formwork prior to placement of concrete, or inserting it in a hole either drilled, cored or formed
in the slab after concrete has hardened.
LATERAL LOAD - A load or a component of a load at the gage side of the rail parallel to the transverse axis of the
slab and perpendicular to the rail. The lateral load shall be assumed to be applied at the base of rail.
LONGITUDINAL LOAD - A load acting along the longitudinal axis of a rail. The longitudinal load shall be assumed
to be applied at the base of rail.
MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION (ks) - The modulus of subgrade reaction (also soil "spring" constant or
coefficient of subgrade reaction) is expressed as:
ks = q/y with units of force/length³, lb/in³ (N/mm³)
where q = intensity of contact pressure, psi (MPa)
y = soil deformation, in (mm)
The modulus of subgrade reaction can be obtained by performing a plate load test (ASTM D1196) and plotting a curve
of q versus y.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TIE - A tie utilizing precompressed concrete and prestressing tendons.

RAIL SEAT - The area of the slab surface on which the rail rests.
TRACK MODULUS (u) - is defined as:
(PY ) (EI)
4
u= 1 3
d
lb/in/in (N/mm/mm)
4 o
where,
Pd = Dynamic wheel load, lb (N)
E = Modulus of elasticity of rail steel, psi (MPa)
I = Moment of Inertia of Rail Section, in4 (mm4)
Yo = Maximum rail deflection under single wheel load, in (mm).1
VERTICAL LOAD - A load or a component of a load at right angles to a line joining the two opposite rail seats and
normal to the longitudinal axis of the rail.
SECTION 27.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
27.3.1 INTRODUCTION2 (1999)
a. In supporting and guiding railway rolling stock, the track structure shall be adequate to sustain repeated longitudinal,
vertical and lateral forces. Hence, in the design of a concrete slab track system, the concrete slab shall be considered
interconnected with other components of the track structure.
b. Items to consider in the design of the concrete slab track system are:
(1) The concrete slab, rail, fasteners, subbase and subgrade.
(2) The quality of each component, method of manufacture, installation and maintenance.
(3) The direction, magnitude and frequency of traffic induced loads, the effect of environmental factors such as
temperature and weather.
(4) The need to adequately support and safely guide railway rolling stock while sustaining repeated longitudinal,
vertical and lateral forces.
(5) Overall economics of installation and maintenance.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

Concrete Slab Track
27.3.2 LOADING CONDITIONS (1999)
27.3.2.1 Load Distribution
a. A properly designed concrete slab track system shall distribute the load uniformly through a layered system of three
distinct materials: compacted subgrade (low stiffness), stabilized subbase (medium stiffness), and reinforced concrete
slab (high stiffness).
27.3.2.2 Rail, Lateral and Longitudinal Loads
a. Rail, lateral and longitudinal loads shall be as formulated in AREMA Manual Chapter 30, Part 4, Concrete Ties, and
modified as deemed appropriate by the Engineer.
27.3.2.3 Slab Dimensions1
a. The width of the slab is a function of the number of tracks, the distance between tracks, and the gage of the tracks.
Other components such as third rail for electrification may affect the width of the slab. For a single track layout with
standard gage, a minimum width dimension of 10.5 feet (3.2 m) is recommended. The thickness of the slab shall be
based on requirements stated in Article 27.5.4.
27.3.2.4 Subbase Pressure
a. The subbase pressure on stabilized asphaltic subbase shall not exceed 30 psi (0.2MPa).
1
27.3.2.5 Subgrade Pressure2
a. The subgrade pressure on well compacted subgrade shall not exceed 20 psi (0.14MPa).
27.3.2.6 Impact Factor3
a. An impact factor of 200 percent shall be used for design of continuously reinforced concrete slab track.
27.4.1 GENERAL (1999)
a. The properties and characteristics of the existing foundation conditions shall be investigated as specified in Part 22,
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.
27.4.2 SUBGRADE (2011)
a. The subgrade material shall preferably be cohesionless, well draining gravel-sand material. The top 24 inches (610
mm) shall be free from organic material, and be suitable to distribute the loads to stratum below. In case of
construction on either existing or new embankment, it is recommended to limit the sandy material to a 1/4 inch (6 mm)
maximum size. However, the No. 200 fines shall be limited to a maximum of 15 percent by weight to reduce
possibility of pumping action and to mitigate frost heave in cold regions.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

27.4.3 STABILIZED SUBBASE (1999)
a. Stabilized subbases that have been used successfully include stabilized bituminous (asphalt). Some of the other types
of subbase materials which have been used and may be appropriate, are the following:
(1) Crushed Stone
(2) Granite Stone
(3) Lean Concrete
(4) Cement-Treated Gravel
(5) Cement-Treated Crushed Stone
(6) Expanded Polystyrene Concrete
27.4.4 CONCRETE SLAB (1999)
a. The minimum 28-day compressive strength of concrete shall be 4000 psi (28MPa) as determined by ASTM C39.
b. Cement shall be portland cement and shall meet the requirements of ASTM Specification C150. Aggregates and mix
water shall meet the requirements of Chapter 8, Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements. Air entraining
admixtures shall be used in freeze-thaw environments. Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not be used.
c. Based on requirements of Part 1, consideration shall be given to selection of concrete ingredients and properties that
affect the durability of the concrete slab. These include alkali-aggregate reaction, freezing and thawing, air entraining
agents and other admixtures, and sulfate and adverse chemical reactions.
27.4.5 METAL REINFORCEMENT (1999)
a. Reinforcement shall meet the requirements as stipulated in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
b. When the concrete is subjected to aggressive environments, the top mat of reinforcing steel shall be provided with a
corrosion protection system.
SECTION 27.5 DESIGN
27.5.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS1 (1999)
a. The design procedures shall be as per Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design. Moreover, the design of the continuously
reinforced concrete (CRC) slab shall be based on the existing construction technology available in North America for
CRC highway and airfield pavements.
b. The design can be formulated by using the modulus of subgrade reaction (ks), and elastic theory analytical techniques.
The slab track system generally involves three distinct materials. The compacted subgrade with a low stiffness is
overlaid with a stabilized subbase followed by the CRC slab, which is a stiff structure. This will ensure that the
stresses induced by the rolling stock are minimized in the various layers, enabling the entire track system to perform
1
See Commentary

Concrete Slab Track
satisfactorily. However, in case of subgrade material being sound rock1, the subbase can be eliminated.
c. The following design considerations should be established for any concrete slab track system:
(1) Track must be structurally adequate and capable of maintaining alignment and profile.
(2) The system must be capable of being constructed efficiently and economically.
(3) A fastening assembly with the capability of allowing lateral and vertical adjustments shall be utilized.
(4) Concrete slab must have provision for attaching contact (third) rail assembly for electrification, if required or
expected in the future.
27.5.2 SUBGRADE (2011)
a. A minimum of 350 lb/in³ (0.09 N/mm³) is suggested as the modulus of subgrade reaction (ks) for subgrade, on which
the slab track is to be constructed.
27.5.3 SUBBASE2 (1999)
a. A subbase of one of the types listed in Article 27.4.3 shall be provided between the concrete slab and the finished
subgrade.
27.5.4 CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB3 (2011) 1
a. The thickness of the concrete slab shall be established by considering both the fatigue effect and the static wheel load,
for 50,000 Cooper E-80 (EM-360) loadings for 50 years, or loading as deemed appropriate by the Engineer.
b. In calculating the longitudinal bending stiffness (EI) of the concrete slab about the neutral axis of the slab cross section,
the tensile strength of concrete shall be assumed to be zero. 3
c. Slab thickness shall be computed so as to be adequate and rigid enough to withstand:
(1) Bending and shear stresses produced by wheel loads (live load plus impact).
(2) Longitudinal stresses induced as a result of anchoring continuous welded rail (CWR) to the concrete slab.
4
(3) Warping stresses (temperature differential between the top and bottom of the slab).
d. Adequate reinforcement shall be provided to ensure that the cracks in concrete do not exceed 0.012 inch (0.30 mm), so
that the passage of water or moisture to reinforcement is minimized. In addition, longitudinal reinforcement shall be
sufficient to maintain aggregate interlock for transfer of the load at the crack locations.
27.5.5 DRAINAGE (1999)
a. The slab track shall be designed to provide for transverse drainage to the edges of the slab. To reduce infiltration of
water under the slab, a paved ditch shall be provided between individual slab tracks.
1
Rock quality shall be as defined in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation, sub-article 22.4.3 (d), of Chapter 8.
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

b. Drainage water shall be collected in a paved ditch. Water shall be discharged through sub-invert pipes to an external
discharge system for an at-grade concrete slab.
c. For concrete slab on embankment, drop inlets shall be provided in the embankment discharging to a positive drainage
system. To reduce embankment erosion, paved ditches shall be installed adjacent to the slab.
d. In tunnel construction, a trough shall be provided in the center of the slab with a longitudinal slope to drain through
sub-invert pipe(s), which discharge to a positive drainage system.
27.6.1 SUBGRADE (2011)
a. All materials susceptible to frost heave shall be removed to at least 24 inches (610 mm) depth below subbase and
replaced with frost free cohesionless material. The subgrade should be compacted in order to achieve a minimum ks
value of 350 lb/in³ (0.09 N/mm³).
b. If the construction is on a new embankment, the top 24 inches (610 mm) at a minimum shall be granular material. Soil
for embankment shall be placed in layers not thicker than 9 inches (230 mm) and compacted to 95 percent of maximum
density obtained by the Standard Proctor Method (ASTM 698). Soils having a moisture content in excess of 2 percent
above optimum moisture content as determined by Modified Proctor Method (ASTM 1557), shall be unacceptable as
an embankment material. When the construction entails placement on an existing embankment, all load bearing soil
material in the frost zone shall be removed and replaced with cohesionless granular material. The top 24 inches (610
mm) shall be compacted to achieve the specified ks value.
27.6.2 SUBBASE (1999)
a. A minimum 4 inches (100 mm) thick subbase material as determined by geotechnical evaluation, shall be laid over the
finished subgrade. The subbase shall project 2 feet (610 mm) beyond each side of the concrete slab.
27.6.3 CONSTRUCTION METHODS (2011)
a. The contractor shall be responsible for means and methods of construction. There are basically two types of
construction methods used for installing direct-fixation fastener system on concrete surfaces: “Bottom-Up” and “Top-
Down”.
The bottom-up construction is generally used when the concrete slab track has already been poured. This conventional
approach involves installing formwork and reinforcements in place, placing concrete, coring/drilling for fastener
inserts, fitting rail fasteners to cast concrete and shimming/adjusting rail to final position.
The top-down construction entails pre-assembling (skeletonized) track and setting the rail and the fasteners to a final
line and surface on temporary supports and then pouring the concrete as a final operation.
27.6.4 REINFORCEMENT PLACEMENT (1999)
a. Steel reinforcement shall be placed on chairs in two layers, with the main longitudinal reinforcement divided between
the bottom and top layers. Longitudinal steel shall be spliced in tension only as specified under Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design, of Chapter 8. Transverse bars shall be spaced as necessary in the top and bottom layers. Steel
reinforcing bars shall be placed so as to be clear of the drilling/coring areas, using special templates for marking hole

Concrete Slab Track
locations, both before and after concrete placement. This technique will minimize damage or cutting of reinforcing
steel which may be encountered during the concrete drilling or coring operation.
27.6.5 CONCRETE PLACEMENT (2011)
a. It is recommended that in order to achieve the proper tolerances, conventional highway paving forms be utilized. For
large projects, the use of slipform paving equipment may be warranted, for obtaining higher production rates for
concrete placement. Paving equipment shall include vibrating screed and associated components necessary to obtain
the required slab cross section. The paving equipment train can be mounted on adjustable screed rails, accurately set
by a surveyor for both horizontal and vertical alignments. Concrete should be consolidated by internal vibrators.
b. In order to minimize shimming and/or grinding of concrete, it is recommended that tight vertical tolerance of +0 inches
(+0 mm) and -1/4 inches (-6 mm) be required of the finished concrete. Careful attention should be paid to obtain the
required finish tolerances when using slipform paving equipment.
c. The concrete can be placed either in a single pour method, a two separate pour sequence, or a recessed two pour
method, which can maximize clearance in tunnel construction.
d. The two pours (sections) shall be adequately attached to each other by dowels and an adhesive bonding material.
27.6.6 CURING (1999)
a. The curing of concrete shall be as specified under Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
1
a. The following provisions shall be specified, when construction joints are required at the end of a day's concrete
placement.
(1) Construction joints shall not be closer than 5 feet (1.5 m) from splices in longitudinal reinforcement. 3
(2) Transverse reinforcement shall be doubled for a 10 feet (3 m) distance each side of a construction joint.
(3) Longitudinal reinforcement shall be increased by one third for a 10 feet (3 m) distance each side of a construction
joint.
(4) Formed keys or dowel bars can also be used to prevent differential settlement. 4
27.6.8 INSTALLATION OF FASTENER INSERTS (1999)
a. Inserts may be installed by presetting them in the formwork, by means of a template, prior to the placement of
concrete. Accurately locate female inserts, into which fastener hold down bolts can be threaded, prior to casting the
slab. After casting, the tops of the inserts must be flush with the slab surface. The surface around the inserts shall be
smooth and flat, providing a satisfactory bearing area for the rail fasteners. A variation of this method would be to cast-
in-place rail holding devices (shoulders).
b. An alternative method is the installation of inserts after placement and curing of concrete, either by drilling or coring
holes. Percussion drilling is not permitted. Precision must be exercised in locating and drilling/coring of holes into
which inserts (or anchor bolts) are installed.

c. It is recommended that slab drilling or coring for fastener inserts be performed after the initial shrinkage of the
concrete has occurred and the 28 day specified compressive strength has been obtained. Slight adjustment in spacing of
inserts may be permitted to avoid existing shrinkage cracks.
d. The inserts shall be held plumb in the hole, either by templates or other means, and the hole filled with an adhesive
material. Fastener inserts may be epoxy coated to provide additional electrical insulation.
e. Figure 8-27-2 depicts fastener insert attachment to the slab track.
Figure 8-27-2. Fastener Insert Attachment to the Slab Track (Typical).

Concrete Slab Track
27.6.9 TESTING ANCHOR INSERTS (2011)
a. The inserts which attach the rail fastener to the slab track are subject to pull-out forces generated by bolt torque,
vertical uplift forces produced by a passing train, and forces produced by thermal conditions.
27.6.9.1 Insert Pull-Out Testing
a. For rail fastener bolts, or female inserts that are embedded in concrete and rely on concrete tensile strength for pull-out
resistance, the tensile stress in the concrete at maximum pull-out load shall not exceed 6 percent fc’, where fc’ =
compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa).
b. In order to determine the load capacity of an anchoring system, tests shall be performed in accordance with ASTM
E1512. A mock-up test shall be required to simulate the in-situ conditions, with satisfactory results.
c. A minimum of 10 percent of the inserts shall be randomly tested for a pull-out force of not less than 14,000 lb (62,300
N). In case of inserts failing pull-out testing, the percentage of inserts being tested shall be increased, as per judgement
of the Engineer. The test load shall be applied in three equal increments. The final load shall be held constant for one
minute and the epoxy, concrete and insert inspected for distress.
d. If no drop in gage pressure occurs after one minute, the insert shall be accepted. If the insert fails to meet the pull-out
strength, then it shall be cored out and replaced with a new insert. The pull-out tests shall be performed using the
Restrained Test as shown in Figure 8-27-3.
Figure 8-27-3. Restrained Test (Not to Scale).

27.6.9.2 Insert Torque Testing
a. Screw anchor bolt into insert, tight against lock nut. Apply 600 foot-pounds (813 N-m) torque to the anchor bolt head.
b. The insert shall be considered acceptable, if it shows no evidence of rotational movement in the concrete.
27.6.10 PLACEMENT OF RAIL FASTENERS (1999)
a. After installation of inserts, the finished surface of concrete shall be surveyed, and if necessary, grinding the high spots
of concrete may be required. If the concrete finished surface is lower than that required, then shim pads up to a
maximum height of 3/8 in (9 mm) can be placed under the fastener at the discretion of the Engineer. The inserts
(anchor bolts) shall be checked for vertical plumbness and correct location prior to the placement of rail fasteners. Rail
fasteners shall then be installed.
27.6.11 INSTALLATION OF RUNNING RAIL1 (1999)
a. Continuous welded rail (CWR), the weight and type to be determined by the individual agency, may be delivered on
work trains with factory welded sections and shall be carefully placed on the fasteners. As an alternative, the rail can
be entirely field welded at the project site to form continuous welded rails.
b. Changes in temperature of CWR will develop stresses in the rail and the concrete slab. Rail is typically installed at a
high neutral temperature, to reduce the risk of rail buckling at high temperatures and rail pull-apart at low
temperatures.
c. The suggested procedure, during low temperatures, is that each section of the CWR be heated at installation to a
predetermined temperature, in order to ensure that the rail will remain in tension a large percentage of the time. The
base of the rail shall be secured to the direct fixation fastener, with elastic clips.
d. It is suggested that the Engineer should refer to the detail guidelines of Chapter 5, Track, for the handling, transporting,
laying and construction of CWR.
SECTION 27.7 DIRECT FIXATION FASTENING SYSTEM
27.7.1 RAIL FASTENING REQUIREMENTS (1999)
a. Rail fasteners for installation under the continuous welded rail shall satisfy the following:
(1) Allow for vertical and lateral adjustment, if required.
(2) Provide resilience that will reduce the effect of dynamic impact on the track structure, minimize vibrations, absorb
energy and reduce noise.
(3) Maintain a consistent clamping force on the rail to provide resistance to rail creep, and maintain rail alignment.
(4) Provide the required electrical insulation for electrified and/or signalized railways.
(5) Exhibit resistance to track environment (weather, oil, etc.).
1
See Commentary

Concrete Slab Track
27.7.2 TYPES OF RAIL FASTENERS1 (2011)
a. There are a variety of rail fasteners of different design and capabilities available. It is recommended that for slab track
construction the direct fixation fasteners with satisfactory in-service performance history be installed. As an
alternative, new direct fixation fasteners which have satisfactory passed extensive laboratory testing may be used.
b. The type of direct fixation fastener to be specified shall be a function of the slab track operating environment (main
line, yard, etc.), axle load, train speeds and maintenance considerations. Figure 8-27-4 shows a typical direct fixation
fastener envelope.
Figure 8-27-4. A Typical Direct Fixation Fastener Envelope.
1
See Commentary

27.7.3 DESIGN FEATURES (2011)
27.7.3.1 Fastener Vertical Spring Rate1
a. The vertical spring rate, K, of direct fixation fasteners normally ranges from 90,000 pounds/inch (15.8 kN/mm) which
is considered as soft pad to 300,000 pounds/inch (52.5 kN/mm) which is considered a hard pad. The slope of the load-
deflection curve (the fastener spring rate) shall be within 20 percent of a constant slope calculated at each 1000 pounds
(4450 N) increment (secant modulus between two given load points).
b. The selection of a spring rate for a fastener shall be determined by the individual railroad based on its operating needs,
requirements and practice.
27.7.3.2 Elastic Clips2
a. Elastic clips shall be used in combination with direct fixation fasteners, in order to attach the base of the rail to the
fasteners.
b. The recommended toe load for elastic clips shall be in the range of 2200 pounds (9800 N) to 3200 pounds (14,240 N).
27.7.4 LABORATORY TESTING OF FASTENERS FOR ACCEPTANCE (1999)
a. The laboratory testing requirements are comprehensively covered in AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering,
Chapter 30, Part 4, Concrete Ties.
b. It is recommended that the Engineer adhere to Chapter 30, with modifications as deemed appropriate.
SECTION 27.8 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
27.8.1 TRANSITION AREAS3 (2011)
a. Transition areas such as behind abutments at bridge approaches or at change of track structure from slab track to wood
tie track require special considerations.
b. Factors to be considered in the design of transition areas are: susceptibility of backfill soil material to settlement
behind bridge abutments, difference in track modulus between stiff (concrete slab) track, and soft (wood tie) track,
respectively.
c. In the case of bridge abutments, a sub-surface approach slab adequately reinforced and varying in thickness from 18 in
(450 mm) at bridge abutment to 12 in (300 mm) at the opposite end, for a length of 25 feet (7.5 m), may be installed as
detailed in Figure 8-27-5.
d. Where change of track structure from concrete slab to wood tie track occurs, a sub-surface concrete slab of similar
design features as in (c) above, may be installed starting from the end of the concrete slab track and carried below the
wood track structure a length of at least 20 ft (6 meters).
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

Concrete Slab Track
27.8.2 TREATMENT AT SLAB ENDS (1999)
a. Expansion joints are recommended at slab ends to handle slab movements at bridge sites and at ends of the slab track
construction.
b. The slab track can be terminated 25 feet (7.5 m) from bridge abutment approaches, if the bridge is at the end of the slab
track. Transverse reinforcing steel shall be doubled for a 15 feet (4.5 m) distance from slab ends. A galvanized
structural steel inverted T-section shall be installed in a 10 feet (3 m) long reinforced concrete slab that supports one
end of the slab track. The structural steel inverted T-section shall have expansion joints that permit up to a 3 in (75
mm) expansion and a 2 in (50 mm) contraction. Expansion material shall be installed in the expansion joints. Refer to
Figure 8-27-5 as one example for design details.

Figure 8-27-5. Detail for Termination of Slab Track at Approach to a Bridge.

Concrete Slab Track
27.8.3 CONTINUITY OF SLAB TRACK OVER BRIDGE DECK1 (1999)
a. This section is applicable to straight, simply supported concrete deck bridges of spans up to 75 feet (23 m). If it is
required to continue the concrete slab track over a bridge deck, the following provisions shall be addressed:
(1) In order to minimize slab cracking and to permit sliding of bridge deck under the concrete slab track, it is
imperative to reduce friction at the interface between the bottom of the slab track and top of the bridge deck
concrete.
(2) Provide two layers of bituminous material separated by two sheets of polyethylene between slab and bridge
decking.
(3) As an alternative, teflon may be used as a friction reducing material, if additional cost considerations are
acceptable.
27.8.4 MODIFICATION OF EXISTING TUNNEL CONCRETE INVERT TO SLAB TRACK

(1999)
a. In existing tunnels, the following two types of track structures are generally encountered:
(1) Type (A) Concrete tunnel invert with ballast and ties.
(2) Type (B) Half wood ties embedded in concrete tunnel invert.
1
b. The following reconstruction methodology can be used to modify the tunnel invert:
(1) Type (A) Tunnel Invert:
(a) Remove ballast and cross ties.
(b) If additional vertical clearance is required or the top section of concrete invert consists of unsuitable or 3
deteriorated concrete, it shall be removed until sound matrix of concrete is reached. If reinforcing steel is
encountered, remove the steel and replace it with new bars.
(c) Apply bonding material.
(d) If required by the Engineer, drill and grout vertical dowels into existing concrete for mechanical anchorage.
4
(e) Place concrete grouting material to achieve the required elevation.
(f) Drill or core holes for anchor bolts.
(g) Install fasteners, lay rail and secure clips as stipulated in the previous sections.
(2) Type (B) Tunnel Invert:
(a) Remove the embedded ties and concrete section to at least one inch (25mm) below the ties.
(b) Follow the same procedure as detailed above in Type (A) Concrete Tunnel Invert.
1
See Commentary

One type of Direct Fixation Fastener System for modifying existing tunnel invert is depicted in
Figure 8-27-6.
27.8.5 NEW TUNNEL - SLAB TRACK (2011)
Slab Track in a new tunnel can be constructed in any of the following four ways:
a. Single-pour method
b. Recessed single-pour method
c. Two-pour method
d. Recessed two-pour method
Figure 8-27-6 shows Direct Fixation Fastener System for modifying existing Tunnel Invert.
Figure 8-27-7 shows Single-Pour method of construction of a new Tunnel Slab Track.
Figure 8-27-8 shows a New Tunnel Floating Slab Track.

Concrete Slab Track
Figure 8-27-6. Typical Direct Fixation Fastener System for Existing Tunnel Invert.

Figure 8-27-7. Single-Pour Method for New Tunnel.

Concrete Slab Track
Figure 8-27-8. New Tunnel Floating Slab Track.

C - COMMENTARY
C - 27.1.1 Scope (2011)
A concrete slab track can provide improvements over a conventional track system, and solutions to the problems of costly
track maintenance, increasing axle loads, and faster operating speed.
A concrete slab track system consisting of a continuously reinforced concrete slab, supported on a subbase and compacted
subgrade, is one example of an improved track structure.
A slab track system provides the following advantages:
(1) Elimination of those components with inherent weakness that require periodic maintenance such as ballast, ties, tie
plates and spikes.
(2) Rail fasteners with better lateral and longitudinal restraint characteristics are used.
(3) Load is distributed more uniformly on the subgrade, thus settlement is reduced.
(4) Proper line and surface are maintained, thus reducing need for surfacing and lining.
(5) When combined with continuous welded rail, ride quality is improved, and faster operating speeds are possible.
(6) Reduced maintenance results in less traffic disruption.
(7) Due to improved track structure, rolling stock encounters less wear and tear, and thus, requires less maintenance.
C - 27.2.1 (c) Other Types of Concrete Slab Tracks (2011)
A Floating slab design incorporates elastomeric pads which separate, and therefore isolate and dampen, the rail support slab
from the underlying concrete sub-slab. Floating slab track system as show in Figure 8-27-8 is an effective and reliable
solution for mitigating mechanical vibrations and ground-borne noise generated by rolling stock.
An Embedded Slab Track system, consists of dual tie blocks, set in rubber boots using microcellular pads locked-in with a
second pour of concrete.
Some of the slab track systems in use are proprietary in nature, such as: Individual Dual Block Track and Precast Reinforced
and Precast Pretensioned both developed in Europe and used in various systems around the world.
C - 27.2.2 Definitions (1999)
Track Modulus (u)
The value of modulus of elasticity of rail support (u) for directly fixed track is dependent upon the moment of inertia of the rail
section and the amount of deflection obtained by the compression of the fastener pad.
The allowable deflection of a rubber pad is limited to 15 percent of it’s uncompressed thickness. Direct fixation fasteners
presently in service use 1/2 in (12 mm) pads. These pads allow a maximum deflection of 0.075 in (2 mm).
Track Modulus for slab track systems are generally in the range of 8,000 lb/in/in (55 N/mm/mm) to 10,000 lb/in/in (70
N/mm/mm).

Concrete Slab Track
C - 27.3.1 Introduction (1999)
The concrete slab as part of the track structure system, is subjected to loads from the rails through the direct fixation fastening,
and in turn concrete slab transfers loads to the subbase and subgrade.
C - 27.3.2.3 Slab Dimensions (2011)
The use of a 10.5-ft (3.2-m) wide slab is recommended. This will minimize or eliminate the development of punchout failure,
which is predominantly due to edge loading. For the 10.5-ft. (3.2-m) wide slab track, the loading under the rail is about 34
inches (863 mm) from the slab edge and this loading is considered an interior loading condition, which is far less damaging
than an edge load. Also, this loading is channeled, that is, the loading is always maintained along the same location within the
slab. There is no lateral wander of the loading, for example, as for highway CRC pavements. However, if the slab width were
less, a concern may develop due to the edge loading conditions. Edge loading conditions include higher concrete stresses and
higher slab deflections. These may lead to progressive cracking in the slab and deflection related failures such as slab
settlement.
C - 27.3.2.5 Subgrade Pressure (1999)
Due to the reduction of number of load pulses on subgrade, a well constructed slab track structure minimizes the subgrade
pressure.
C - 27.3.2.6 Impact Factor (2011)
The requirements are based on calculations including an assumed impact factor. This factor is a percentage increase over
static vertical loads, intended to estimate the dynamic effect of wheel and rail irregularities. The Impact Factor is comparable
1
to that used in Chapter 30, for Concrete Ties.
C - 27.5.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2011)
The following criteria provide a guideline for slab track system design:
3
(1) Rail vertical deflection not to exceed 0.25 inches (6 mm).
(2) Rail bending stress not to exceed 11000 psi (77 MPa).
(3) Subbase pressure not to exceed 30 psi (0.21 MPa).
(4) Subgrade pressure not to exceed 20 psi (0.14 MPa). 4
C - 27.5.3 SUBBASE (1999)
A subbase shall be provided to serve the following functions:
(1) Prevent mud pumping
(2) Increase the modulus of subgrade reaction.
(3) Serve as a working platform for erection of concrete slab formwork.
(4) Distribute pressure to subgrade more uniformly.

C - 27.5.4 CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB TRACK (1999)
Computer Analysis (1999)
The static analysis of the concrete slab track is based on a longitudinal structure which is represented as a continuous beam
(rail) on a continuous uniform support (resilient fasteners) in turn resting on another continuous beam (concrete slab) resting
on another continuous uniform support (stabilized subbase and compacted subgrade).
Reference numbers 26 and 57 in the References refer to the computer program which was written to facilitate the analysis.
The outputs from the program include rail deflection and bending moment, fastener deflection and loads, slab deflection and
bending moment, and subgrade deflection and bearing pressure.
For illustration purpose, based on the computer program, in case of 35000lb (155,750 N) wheel load, 136 lb (61.2 kg) rail and
6 foot (1.8 m) axle spacing, the output in Table C-8-27-1 on the following page was obtained:
Table C-8-27-1. Example of Computer Static Analysis of Concrete Slab Track
Given: 8 foot (2.4 m) slab, ks = 500lb/in3 (0.135 N/mm3 )

Fastener spacing = 30 in (762mm)
Slab
Slab Rail Peak Rail Slab Slab Slab Bearing
Stiffness
Depth Deflection Stress Deflection Stress Pressure
EI
inches inches psi inches psi psi
lb-in2
(mm) (mm) (MPa) (mm) (MPa) (MPa)
(N-m2)
6 516 x 107 0.047 9600 0.022 1025 10.85

(152) (1.19) (67.2) (0.55) (7.17) (0.076)
(1.48 x107)
18 13,380 x107 0.044 9150 0.018 800 9.15

(457) (1.11) (64.0) (0.46) (5.6) (0.064)
(3.971 x107)
Design Procedure (1999)
The following is a guideline for a simplified design procedure for the major design elements:
Background: A continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) is a portland cement concrete pavement with continuous
longitudinal reinforcement and no intermediate expansion or contraction joints. Transverse reinforcement is also required at
intervals corresponding to the rail fastener spacing to absorb the loads transmitted into the slab at the rail fastener attachment
points. It also aids in construction by supporting and maintaining longitudinal reinforcement spacing.
Slab thickness and longitudinal reinforcement design must be considered simultaneously in a continuously reinforced concrete
pavement. If too small an amount of steel is used, transverse cracks will open an excessive amount and aggregate interlock
will be lost, resulting in appreciable slab deflections and ultimate slab deterioration and failure.
A properly designed CRC slab typically develops regularly spaced, hairline transverse cracks at 3 feet (0.9 m) to 10 feet (3 m)
intervals. The resultant pavement is composed of a series of short slabs held tightly together by the longitudinal
reinforcement. With a sufficient amount of reinforcement, a high degree of shear transfer across the cracks is assured because
the cracks are held tightly closed.

Concrete Slab Track
Slab Bending Stiffness (EI) (1999)

Compute bending stiffness, assuming slab width, depth, fc' and weight of concrete.
Reference number 58 has additional information on bending stiffness trade-offs (deeper concrete section versus less
percentage of reinforcement), and track structure cost as a function of bending stiffness.
Stresses in Slab (2011)

Assume: 50,000 Cooper E-80 (or equivalent) loading for 50 years.
Say spacing between fasteners is 24 inches (610 mm) to 30 inches (760 mm). Use contact area between rail fastener
and slab as 7 inches (178 mm) x 14 inchs (356 mm).
Use fc' = 4000 psi (28 MPa), MR = 475 psi (3.3 MPa)
Assume ks = 450 lb/in3 (12451.5 N/mm3), includes
4 in (102 mm) stabilized bituminous subbase.
Using "Influence charts for concrete pavements", ASCE, Vol.116, and "Thickness design for concrete pavements", PCA,
compute
• pavement thickness
• stresses in slab
1
Longitudinal Reinforcement (2011)
Selection of percentage of steel should be based on the following considerations:
• The reinforcement should help the slab resist train loads. 3

• Crack width not to exceed 0.012 inch (0.30 mm), in order to limit corrosion by minimizing passage of water or
moisture to reinforcement.
• Given contraction of the slab, the tensile stresses in the reinforcement should be within elastic range.
a. Longitudinal reinforcement to resist train loads. 4

Use Mstatic, ft-lbs (N-m)
Add 200% impact
Therefore, M = 3Mstatic, ft-lbs (N-m)
Say: fc' = 4000 psi (28 MPa), n = 7.5,

total slab thickness = Say 12 inches (305 mm)
d = 12 inches (305 mm) - 3 inches (76 mm) = 9 inches (229 mm)
fs = 20,000 psi (140 MPa)
Using trial and error:

Say fc = 0.3 fc'

f ck
Compute k, p = -------
- , As, and Moment M, ft-lbs (N-m)
2f s
When Moment available = Moment Imposed
Use that area of reinforcement (% steel) at the bottom of slab.
Use 2/3 of lower reinforcement to resist negative moment at top.
Total percent steel = percent steel at bottom + percent steelat top.
b. Longitudinal reinforcement to prevent cracks from widening and reinforcement at the crack location must be less than
its yield point, say fsy = 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
Based on the axle loads, operating considerations, and if mitigation of noise and vibrations along the right-of-way is
required, the use of softer pads may be more desirable However, if the track structure is subjected to higher axle loads,
and the objective is to minimize fastener replacement cycles and associated costs, then the selection of harder pads may
be more appropriate.
C - 27.6.11 (b) Installation of Runnng Rail (2011)
The neutral temperature is defined as the temperature at which the axial forces in a rail are zero. Usually it is the rail
temperature at which the stressless rail is anchored to the track.
Given that the rail in tunnels is not exposed to a wide range of temperature variations being underground as compared to at-
grade or elevated structures, the thermal effects of CWR are considerably less.
C - 27.7.2 TYPES OF RAIL FASTENERS (2011)
Proprietary products primarily developed for transit, commuter, and high speed application drive the direct fixation fastener
market. These fasteners are comprised of elastomeric pads, steel plates, insulating components, and anchoring devices. Direct
fixation fasteners are either unbonded or bonded. An unbonded fastener is made of a steel plate resting on an elastomeric pad.
Whereas a bonded fastener utilizes one or two steel plates bonded to an elastomeric pad. Some of the new designs developed
come from the containment design philosophy. Unlike the typical sandwich type DFF that depends on the rubber-to-metal
bond to secure the top plate to the base plate, this design contains the top plate inside an outside containment frame. While the
elastomer bonds the two castings together there are internal design features to restrain the top plate in all lateral and
longitudinal directions.
As a general criteria for slow speeds and light axle loads, a light duty single plate fastener with or without bonded elastomer
can be used. However, for higher axle loads and faster operating speeds, it is recommended that heavy duty fasteners with a
double plate and bonded elastomer be utilized. Elastic clips are recommended to hold the base of running rail to the fasteners.
C - 27.7.3.1 Fastener Vertical Spring Rate (1999)
Based on the axle loads, operating considerations, and if mitigation of noise and vibrations along the right-of-way is required,
the use of softer pads may be more desirable. However, if the track structure is subjected to higher axle loads, and the
objective is to minimize fastener replacement cycles and associated costs, then the selection of harder pads may be more
appropriate.

Concrete Slab Track
C - 27.7.3.2 Elastic Clips (1999)
In the selection of the elastic clips, it should be recognized that the clip toe load requirement must be adequate to
longitudinally restrain the rail under braking or tractive forces of rolling stock wheels, and also in case of rail breakage be
capable of resisting the pull-apart forces in continuous welded rail, and thus prevent a potential derailment condition.
C - 27.8.1 TRANSITION AREAS (1999)
These installations will help in minimizing maintenance costs generally associated with these transition areas, and also provide
continuity of ride comfort to train passengers.
C - 27.8.3 CONTINUITY OF SLAB TRACK OVER BRIDGE DECK (1999)
In case of long bridges, horizontally curved bridges, etc. an independent analysis should be undertaken and appropriate design
features incorporated.
C - 27.8.4 MODIFICATION OF EXISTING TUNNEL CONCRETE INVERT TO SLAB TRACK

(2011) C - 27.8.5 NEW TUNNEL - SLAB TRACK (2011)
Some of the considerations in selection of the final design option are:
(a) Clearances
1
(b) Tolerances during construction
(c) Construction equipment mobility
(d) Maintenance considerations in terms of CWR and DFF renewals
3
FINAL ACCEPTANCE (2011)
At the completion of slab track project, Rail properties having access to a Track Geometry Car (TGC), can employ the TGC as
a quality control, as part of the final acceptance of slab track construction, to check track gauge, alignment, cross level,
superelevation, and profile.
4
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES (2011)
1 Slab Track Field Test and Demonstration Program for Shared Freight and High Speed Passenger Service,
PCA, R & D Serial No. 2988, 2007.
2 Performance of Direct-Fixation Track Structure, Design Guidelines, Battelle, Ohio, April 1999.
3 Paving Alternatives to Ballasted Track, Heiner H. Moehren, AREA, Volume 98, Bulletin 762, December
1997.


8
Part 28
Temporary Structures for Construction
8
— 2015 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
28.1 General ............................................................................... 8-28-2

28.1.1 Scope (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.1.2 Criteria (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.1.3 Qualifications (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.1.4 Responsibility (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.1.5 Types of Temporary Structures (2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-3
28.1.6 Falsework (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-3
28.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4

28.2.1 Field Surveys and Records (2002) R(2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.2 Soil Investigation (2002) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.3 Loads (2002) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4 3
28.2.4 Drainage (2002) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.5 Soil Properties (2002) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.3 Computation of Lateral Forces (2002) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.4 Stability (2002) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.5 Design of Shoring Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5

28.5.1 Design of Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.5.2 Design of Anchored Sheet Pile Walls (2002) R(2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-6
28.5.3 Design of Cantilever Soldier Beam and Lagging Walls (2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-6
28.5.4 Design of Anchored Soldier Beam with Lagging Walls (2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-7
28.5.5 Design of Braced Excavations (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-9
28.5.6 Design of Cofferdams (2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-9
28.6 Design of Falsework Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-13

28.6.1 Review and Approval of Falsework Drawings (2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-13
28.6.2 Design Loads (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-14
28.6.3 Design Stresses, Loadings, and Deflections (2015). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-15
28.6.4 Special Conditions (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-16
28.6.5 Falsework Construction (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-17
28.6.6 Removing Falsework (2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-17

8-28-1
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-18
LIST OF FIGURES
8-1 Apparent Earth Pressure Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-7
28.1.1 SCOPE (2015)
a. This Part provides a recommended practice for the design of the most commonly used temporary structures. Other
types of temporary structures may be used with the approval of the Engineer. This Part is intended for SERVICE
LOAD DESIGN only.
b. Temporary structures are defined as those structures used to facilitate the construction of a permanent structure. The
temporary structures addressed by this Part are primarily shoring and falsework systems. This Part is intended for
evaluating earth pressure loading, tieback anchor design, wall design, stability considerations and corrosion protection
requirements.
c. All temporary structures anticipated to be in service for more than an 18-month period are not within the scope of this
Part.
d. Temporary bridges to carry railroad traffic shall be designed as permanent structures and are not included in this Part.
28.1.2 CRITERIA (2015)
a. All temporary structures shall be designed and constructed to provide safe support and adequate rigidity for the loads
imposed.
b. All temporary structures shall be constructed with minimal interference to the operating tracks.
28.1.3 QUALIFICATIONS (2015)
The performance of temporary support structures is strongly influenced not only by the methods and materials used but also
the experience of the constructor. The constructor should be able to show sufficient expertise, through past projects and
experience and in addition, be able to demonstrate that proper design capabilities are available and will be used for the project,
as required.
28.1.4 RESPONSIBILITY (2015)
a. The Contractor shall be solely responsible for the design, construction and performance of a temporary structure unless
it is provided by others.

b. Designs completed by the Contractor shall be submitted to the Engineer, including working drawings and design
calculations for the temporary structures. The drawings and calculations shall be signed and sealed by a Registered
Professional Engineer. The temporary structure(s) shall follow the lines, grades and location as shown on the plans.
The temporary structure(s) shall be designed to conform to the right-of-way and easement restrictions provided and
shall protect facilities and utilities shown on the plans or known to exist.
c. Review by the Engineer of the Contractor’s designs and working drawings shall in no way relieve the Contractor of full
responsibility for the temporary structure, or its effect upon other adjacent facilities.
28.1.5 TYPES OF TEMPORARY STRUCTURES (2015)
28.1.5.1 Shoring Systems
a. A cantilever sheet pile wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from
passive resistance of the soil in which the sheet pile is embedded.
b. An anchored sheet pile wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from
passive resistance of the soil in which the sheet pile is embedded and the tensile resistance of the anchor. Anchors may
be cement-grouted tiebacks or other types of anchors acceptable to the Engineer.
A cantilever soldier beam with lagging wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and
derives stability from passive resistance of the soil in which the soldier beam is embedded.
c. Soldier beams include steel H-piles, wide flange sections or other fabricated sections that are driven or set in concrete 1
in drilled holes. Lagging refers to the members spanning between soldier beams.
An anchored soldier beam and lagging wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives
stability from passive resistance of the soil in which the soldier beam is embedded and the tensile resistance of the
anchors.
d. Anchored soldier beam with lagging walls are generally designed as flexible structures which have sufficient lateral 3
movement to mobilize active earth pressures and a portion of the passive pressure.
e. A braced excavation is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from passive
resistance of the soil in which the vertical members are embedded and from the structural capacity of the bracing
members. The vertical members of the braced excavation system include steel sheet piling or soldier beams comprised
of steel H-piles, wide-flange sections, or other fabricated sections that are driven or installed in drilled holes. Wales are
horizontal structural members designed to transfer lateral loads from the vertical members to the struts. Struts are 4
structural compression members that support the lateral loads from the wales.
f. A cofferdam is an enclosed temporary structure used to keep water and soil out of an excavation for a permanent
structure such as a bridge pier or abutment or similar structure. Cofferdams may be constructed of timber, steel,
concrete or a combination of these. This Part considers cofferdams primarily constructed with steel sheet piles.
28.1.6 FALSEWORK (2015)
a. Falsework is defined in general terms as a temporary construction work on which a main or permanent work is wholly
or partially supported until it becomes self-supporting.
b. Falsework for roll-in/roll-out construction methods is not covered in this Part.

28.1.6.1 Types of Falsework Systems
a. Conventional falsework typically consists of timber posts and caps, timber bracing, and either timber or steel stringers
and timber joists. Foundation support is usually provided by timber pads or sills set on the surface of the ground,
although poor soil conditions may require the use of concrete footings, or by steel sills designed to distribute the loads
to adequate timber pads or cribbing.
b. Large-diameter, typically 20 inches (500 mm) or more, welded steel pipe columns are occasionally used to support
steel caps and girders. When properly braced, pipe columns may provide an economical design when falsework is tall
and spans are long.
c. Patented steel shoring typically consists of individual components that may be assembled into modular units and
erected in place to make any desired falsework configuration. When erected, the shoring consists of a series of
internally-braced steel towers which, either directly or through a cap system, support the load-carrying members.
d. Depending on load-carrying capacity, steel shoring systems are classified as pipe-frame shoring, heavy-duty shoring or
intermediate strength shoring. For bridge falsework the use of pipe-frame shoring is limited to installations where
tower leg loads do not exceed 11 kips (49 kN). In contrast, a properly designed heavy-duty shoring system will be
capable of supporting loads of 100 kips (445 kN) per tower leg. Intermediate strength shoring will have a load carrying
capacity of up to 25 kips (111 kN) per tower leg. Typically, timber caps and stringers are used with pipe-frame
intermediate strength systems, whereas rolled-beams or welded plate girders will be more economical for the longer
spans which are possible with heavy-duty shoring. Pipe-frame shoring is usually supported on timber pads; however,
the larger leg loads associated with heavy-duty shoring will require, depending on soil conditions, solid timber cribbing
or reinforced concrete footings.
28.2.1 FIELD SURVEYS AND RECORDS (2002) R(2015)
Sufficient information shall be furnished in the form of profiles and cross sections, or topographical maps to determine general
design and structural requirements. Existing and proposed grades and alignment of tracks and roads shall be indicated together
with records of reference datum, maximum and minimum high water, minimum and mean low water, existing ground water
level, location of utilities, construction history of the area, indication of any conditions which might hamper proper installation
of the piling, soldier beams, ground anchors, depth of scour, allowance for over dredging, and wave heights.
28.2.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION (2002) R(2015)
The characteristics of the foundation soils shall be investigated as indicated in Part 22, this Chapter with the investigation
being done specifically for the temporary structure being designed.
28.2.3 LOADS (2002) R(2015)
Loads shall be as indicated in Part 20, Article 20.2.3, this Chapter.
28.2.4 DRAINAGE (2002) R(2015)
Drainage shall be as indicated in Part 20, Article 20.2.4, this Chapter.

28.2.5 SOIL PROPERTIES (2002) R(2015)
Soil properties shall be determined and soils classified as indicated in Part 20, Article 20.2.5, this Chapter.
SECTION 28.3 COMPUTATION OF LATERAL FORCES (2002) R(2015)
Computation of lateral forces shall be as indicated in Part 20, Section 20.3, this Chapter.
SECTION 28.4 STABILITY (2002) R(2015)
The stability of the system shall be investigated as indicated in Part 20, Section 20.4, this Chapter or as indicated in
Article 28.5.6.5 for cellular cofferdams.
SECTION 28.5 DESIGN OF SHORING SYSTEMS

1
28.5.1 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS (2015)
28.5.1.1 Restrictions on Use1
a. Cantilever sheet pile walls shall not exceed 12 feet (3.7 m) in height and shall be used only in granular soils or stiff
clays. 3
b. If used for shoring adjacent to an operating track the wall should be at least 10 feet (3 m) away from the centerline of
track, and its maximum height should not exceed 10 feet (3 m). Depth of disturbed soil shall not be considered for
passive resistance.
28.5.1.2 Depth of Embedment2

4
a. The total depth of embedment D shall be determined as indicated in Part 20, Section 20.3 of this Chapter. The
coefficient of passive resistance Kp shall be multiplied by 0.66 to provide a factor of safety of 1.5.
b. Conditions such as unrealistically short penetration requirements into relatively strong layers, potential for overall
instability, scour or erosion shall be taken into account, and the depth of embedment increased to not less than the
height of the wall.
28.5.1.3 Maximum Moment (2002)3 R(2015)
Determine the depth at which the shear in the wall is zero by starting from the top of the wall and finding the point at which the
areas of the driving and resisting pressure diagrams are equivalent. Calculate the maximum bending moment at the point of
zero shear.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

28.5.1.4 Allowable Stresses (2015)
The allowable stresses shall be determined on the following basis:
a. Sheet Pile Section: 2/3 tensile yield strength for new steel. Allowable stresses shall be reduced depending on the extent
of usage for reused material.
b. All other structural material shall comply with applicable parts of this AREMA Manual.
28.5.2 DESIGN OF ANCHORED SHEET PILE WALLS (2002) R(2015)
The design of anchored sheet pile wall systems shall be as indicated in Part 20, this Chapter. Requirements of Article 28.5.4.1,
28.5.4.1, 28.5.4.1, 28.5.4.4, and 28.5.4.5 shall be satisfied as applicable to the anchored sheet pile walls.
28.5.3 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SOLDIER BEAM AND LAGGING WALLS (2015)
28.5.3.1 Restrictions of Use1
a. Cantilever soldier beam with lagging walls shall not exceed 12 feet (3.7 m) in height and shall be used only in granular
soils or stiff clays.
b. If used for shoring adjacent to an operating track, the wall should be at least 13 feet (4.0 m) away from the centerline of
track, and its maximum height shall not exceed 8 feet (2.4 m).
28.5.3.2 Depth of Embedment2
a. The total depth of embedment D shall be determined using the guidelines given in Article 28.5.1.2 except that the
pressure distribution on the soldier piles below the excavation elevation shall be adjusted based on their equivalent
width. The equivalent width for passive pressure shall be assumed to equal the width of the soldier pile multiplied by a
factor of 3 for granular soils and a factor of 2 for cohesive soils. The width of the soldier piles shall be taken as the
width of the flange or diameter for driven sections and the diameter of the concrete-filled hole for sections encased in
concrete. Also, when determining the passive pressure distribution on the soldier piles, a depth of 1.5 times the width
of the soldier pile in soil, and a depth of one foot in rock below the excavation elevation, shall not be considered in
providing passive lateral support.
b. For conditions such as unrealistically short penetration requirements into relatively strong layers, the potential for
overall instability, scour or erosion, shall be taken into account and the depth of embedment increased.
28.5.3.3 Maximum Moment
Determine the depth at which the shear in the soldier piles is zero by starting from the top of the wall and finding the point at
which the areas of the driving and resisting pressure diagrams are equivalent. Calculate the maximum bending moment at the
point of zero shear.
Allowable stresses shall comply with applicable sections of the AREMA Manual.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

28.5.3.5 Lagging
a. The design load on the lagging is the theoretical pressure computed to act on it. When arch action can form in the soil
behind the lagging (i.e., in granular or stiff cohesive soils where there is sufficient space to permit the in-place soil to
arch and the back side of the soldier piles bear directly against the soil) the moment computed based on simple end
supports may be reduced by one third.
b. Well-compacted fill shall be provided behind the lagging.
28.5.4 DESIGN OF ANCHORED SOLDIER BEAM WITH LAGGING WALLS (2015)
28.5.4.1 Design Criteria
a. The lateral earth pressures shall be computed as indicated below:
(1) For single tier anchored walls, lateral earth pressures shall be computed using Part 20, this Chapter.
(2) For earth masses which do not have a history of sliding, the magnitude of lateral pressures on multi-tiered
anchored walls shall be computed following the guidelines on Figure 8-28-1.
(3) Refer to Part 20, this Chapter, for the application of live load surcharge.
pa pa pa 1
Ka
Figure 8-28-1. Apparent Earth Pressure Diagrams

b. The width of the soldier beam shall be assumed to be equal to the width of the flange for driven sections and the shaft
diameter of the drilled sections. The resultant passive resistance of a soldier beam assumes that passive resistance is
mobilized across an equivalent width described in Article 28.5.3.2, Paragraph a. The effects of backfill compaction and
surcharge loads applied to the surface behind the wall shall be considered in the design earth pressure. The design
stresses shall be in accordance with the current edition of Chapter 15 of the Manual.
c. The unbonded tendon length shall extend beyond the critical failure surface and be a minimum of 15 feet (4.6 m) in
length. The critical failure surface starts at the bottom of the excavation. The wall-anchor system shall be checked for
adequate stability. The overall stability of the earth mass being retained shall be checked and shall have a minimum
factor of safety of 1.3.
28.5.4.2 Submittals
The drawings shall include all details, dimensions, cross-sections, and sequence of construction necessary to construct the
wall. The drawings and calculations shall include, but not be limited to:
a. A description of the tieback installation including drilling, grouting and stressing information;
b. Anchor capacity, type of tendon, anchorage hardware, minimum unbonded lengths, minimum anchor lengths, angle of
installation and tieback locations and spacings;
c. Testing schedule and procedures for tiebacks;
d. A section view indicating the elevation at the top and bottom of the wall and the centerline of track including all
horizontal and vertical dimensions;
e. A plan view of the wall indicating the offset from the construction and track centerlines to the face of the wall at all
changes in horizontal alignment;
f. All details for construction of drainage facilities associated with the wall clearly indicated;
g. The relationship between existing and proposed utilities; and
h. A top of rail monitoring plan.
28.5.4.3 Soldier Beam Installation
a. Soldier beams may be installed by driving with impact or vibration hammers or set in predrilled holes and encased with
concrete below subgrade elevation and with lean concrete backfill above subgrade elevation. Encasement below
subgrade level shall be concrete with a minimum 28-day compressive strength of 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa). Methods and
equipment used for soldier beam installations shall be determined by the Contractor. The effect on existing structures
should be considered.
b. For driven soldier beams, leads or spuds shall be centered in such a manner as to afford freedom of movement to the
hammer and shall be rigged to hold the soldier beam and hammer in alignment during driving. The soldier beam shall
be driven with equipment which will ensure a properly distributed hammer impact on the soldier beam and prevent
damage while driving.
c. For drilled-in soldier beams, side wall stability shall be maintained during drilling. If required by soil and water
conditions, provide casing for hole excavation. Provide casing of sufficient strength to withstand handling stresses,
lean concrete backfill pressure and surrounding earth and/or water pressure. Drilling mud may also be used to maintain
side wall stability of soldier beam holes subject to the approval of the Railroad. Pump water from drill holes.
Contractors may use tremie methods in lieu of pumping water.

Above subgrade elevation, the soldier beam shall be fully encased in lean concrete backfill after completion of soldier
beam hole excavation. The soldier beam may be set prior to, or after, concrete placement at the option of the
Contractor. Free fall lean concrete backfill may be used. Vibrating of lean concrete backfill mix is not required.
d. Soldier beams may be furnished in full-length sections or may be spliced according to the method of splicing as shown
on the plans. Field welding will be allowed only in accordance with the requirements for welding as specified in AWS
D1.1, except as amended on the plans.
e. Structural welding of steel, steel reinforcement and soldier beams shall be made by personnel qualified to perform the
type of welding involved in accordance with the qualification procedure of AWS D1.1 and D1.4, except as amended on
the plans.
28.5.4.4 Ground Anchors (Tiebacks)
Unless otherwise directed, the Contractor shall select the tieback type and the installation method, and determine the bond
length, anchor length and anchor diameter in accordance with Article 20.5.5 Anchorages, this Chapter.
Allowable stresses shall be in accordance with Article 20.5.7, this Chapter.
28.5.5 DESIGN OF BRACED EXCAVATIONS (2015)
Braced excavations shall be designed using the apparent earth pressure diagram, based on soil type, shown in Figure 8-28-1. 1
28.5.6 DESIGN OF COFFERDAMS (2015)
28.5.6.1 General
a. This section deals primarily with cofferdams constructed with steel sheet piles. This section applies to the case where
the water level lies above the soil or rock level such as in rivers, lakes and bays. 3
b. A single-wall cofferdam consists of a single wall of sheet piling driven in the form of an enclosure. Single-walled
cofferdams shall be designed as flexible sheet pile bulkheads or braced excavations.
c. A double-walled cofferdam consists of two rows of steel sheet piling driven parallel to each other and tied to each other
with anchors and wales. Double wall cofferdams shall be designed similar to single-wall cofferdams. The two rows of
sheet piles shall not be assumed to share equally in resisting the outside pressure unless concrete fill or rigid bracing is
4
used between them. The use of double-wall cofferdams over single-wall cofferdams is usually to provide increased
water tightness.
d. A cellular cofferdam consists of soil-filled interconnected circular or diaphragm cells constructed of steel sheet piling.
Cellular cofferdams are designed as gravity retaining structures.
28.5.6.2 Required Data
The required information about the site includes the following:
•High water elevation
•Velocity of water flow
•Wave height and period

•Distance to existing piers and foundation type of existing piers
•Ice conditions
•Scour potential
•Ground line cross-sections and profiles
•Existing soil types, layer thicknesses, and properties
•Properties of backfill materials
•Ground water conditions
•Navigation and lighting requirements
•Vessel impact potential
28.5.6.3 Design Stresses and Factors of Safety1
The maximum stresses for cofferdam materials shall be in accordance with Article 20.5.7, this Chapter. The minimum factors
of safety for stability of cofferdams shall be 1.25. The factors of safety shall be calculated as the sum of the resisting forces or
moments divided by the sum of the applied forces or moments. The factors of safety may be calculated on a unit length of
cofferdam. An analysis shall be conducted to determine the stability of the bottom of the excavation.
28.5.6.4 Applied Forces
In determining the stability of cofferdams, the applied forces shall include the following as applicable:
•Hydrostatic water pressure
•Seepage force
•Stream flow pressure
•Wave forces
•Active earth pressure
•Vessel impact
•Ice forces
28.5.6.5 Design of Cellular Cofferdams
28.5.6.5.1 Equivalent Width
The stability of cellular cofferdams may be determined using an equivalent width. The equivalent width of a cofferdam is
defined as the width of an equivalent rectangular section having an area equal to that of the actual cofferdam.
1
See Commentary

28.5.6.5.2 Saturation Line
The location of the line of saturation or phreatic surface within a cofferdam cell may be taken as a straight line sloping
downward from the water surface level on the outboard side to the inboard side. The slope of the saturation line may be
assumed as shown below. A horizontal line representing the average level of saturation may be assumed for stability
calculations.
Cell Fill Material Slope (Horizontal to Vertical)

Free draining coarse-grained 1 to 1
Silty coarse-grained 2 to 1
Fine-grained 3 to 1
28.5.6.5.3 Sliding
Cofferdams shall be investigated for sliding at the base. The resisting forces shall consist of the frictional resistance of the soil
along the bottom of the cofferdam, the passive resistance of soil on the inboard face, and the passive resistance of a berm, if
any, on the inboard face. The unit weight of the soil below the saturation line shall be the submerged unit weight.
28.5.6.5.4 Overturning
Cofferdams shall be investigated for overturning about the inboard toe. The resultant of the applied forces and the cell weight 1
shall lie within the middle one-third of the cofferdam.
28.5.6.5.5 Piling Uplift
Cofferdams shall be investigated for uplift of the outboard piling. The moments shall be summed about the inboard toe. The
resisting moments shall be those due to the frictional forces on the inner and outer surfaces of the outboard sheeting plus the
effective passive resistance of the soil and berm, if any, on the outboard face. The weight of the cell fill shall not be used for 3
resisting moment.
28.5.6.5.6 Vertical Shear
a. Cofferdam cells shall be investigated for vertical shear failure on the centerline of the cells. The total shearing force, Q,
on the neutral plane at the centerline of the cell shall be as follows:
4
Q = 3M/2E
Q = total shearing force per unit length of cofferdam
M = net overturning moment per unit length of cofferdam
E = equivalent width of cofferdam
b. The shearing force, Q, shall be resisted by vertical shear within the cell fill and friction in the interlocks of the sheeting.
In computing the vertical shear resistance of the fill material, the coefficient of earth pressure, K, shall be as follows:
2
coscos I 2I
K = ----------------------
-
2-cos2I
2 – cos I
I = angle of internal friction of cell fill

c. The total centerline shear force resistance of the cell fill per unit length of cofferdam shall be the resultant lateral force
due to soil fill material multiplied by tanI. The frictional resistance of the sheet pile interlocks per unit length of
cofferdam shall be the interlock tension multiplied by the coefficient of friction of the interlocks.
28.5.6.5.7 Horizontal Shear
a. Cofferdam cells shall be investigated for tilting failure through horizontal shear in the cell fill material. The resisting
moments shall be those due to the lateral resistance of the cell fill, the frictional resistance of the sheet pile interlocks,
and the passive resistance of the berm if one is used.
b. The lateral resisting moment, M, of the cell fill about the base of the cofferdam shall be:
M = Ȗs (H - EtanI) (EtanI)2 + (EtanI)3

[ 2 3
]
M = resisting moment per unit length of cofferdam
H = height of cofferdam
E = equivalent width of cofferdam
Ȗs = submerged unit weight of fill material
I = angle of internal friction of fill material
c. The resisting moment due to frictional resistance of the interlocks shall be the interlock tension multiplied by the
coefficient of friction of the interlocks multiplied by the equivalent width of the cofferdam.
28.5.6.5.8 Interlock Tension
a. The hoop or interlock forces for circular cells and connecting arcs shall be calculated by the following equation:
T = PR
T = hoop or interlock force
P = maximum lateral pressure from cell fill and water
R = radius of circle or arc
b. The lateral pressure may be taken as maximum at 1/4 the height from the mudline to the top of the cofferdam.
c. The interlock force at the connection of arc to circular cell shall be calculated by the following equation:
Tc = PLsec )
Tc = hoop or interlock force at connection
P = maximum lateral pressure from cell fill and water
L = ½ the center-to-center distance of full circular cells
) = angle between centerline of cells and a line from center of cell to point on cell
periphery where connecting arc is attached.

d. The interlock tension shall not exceed the manufacturer's recommended values.
e. The maximum coefficient of friction of steel on steel at the interlocks shall not exceed 0.3.
28.5.6.6 Construction Requirements
a. Cofferdams for foundation construction shall be carried well below the bottom of the excavation or as far below the
bottom of the excavation as conditions will permit and shall be well braced and as watertight as practical. The interior
dimensions of cofferdams shall provide sufficient clearance inside the wales for constructing forms, driving piles,
pumping outside the forms, and inspection.
b. Cofferdams which are tilted or moved out of position by any cause during the process of construction shall be righted
or enlarged as necessary.
c. No bracing which will induce stress, shock, or vibration in the permanent structure will be permitted in cofferdams.
d. Cellular cofferdams with diaphragm walls shall be filled equally on each side of the diaphragm walls to avoid
distortion of the cells.
e. After completion of the construction, the cofferdams with all sheeting and bracing shall be removed as directed by the
Engineer or as shown on the plans. Such removal shall be done in a manner that will not disturb or mar the permanent
structure.
SECTION 28.6 DESIGN OF FALSEWORK SYSTEMS
28.6.1 REVIEW AND APPROVAL OF FALSEWORK DRAWINGS (2015)
a. Falsework design drawings and calculations prepared by, or for an outside agency covering falsework adjacent to or 3
over Railroad's operating tracks shall be certified to be complete and satisfactory to the submitting agency prior to
being submitted to the Railroad.
b. There shall be sufficient detail in the drawings to permit a complete stress analysis. In particular, the drawings shall
show the size of all load-supporting members; all lateral and longitudinal bracing, including connections; the method
of adjustment; and similar design features.
4
c. All design-controlling dimensions shall be shown, including, but not limited to, beam length; beam spacing; post
location and spacing; vertical distance between connectors in diagonal bracing; overall height of falsework bents; and
similar dimensions critical to the analysis.
d. Minimum horizontal and vertical clearances to the centerline of all tracks, tops of rails and adjacent facilities shall be
shown on the plans.
Where cast-in-place concrete will be supported by falsework, a diagram showing the placing sequence and
construction joint locations shall be provided. When a schedule of placing concrete is shown on the contract plans, no
deviation will be permitted without the approval of the design engineer.
e. When footing type foundations are to be used, the Contractor shall determine the bearing value of the soil and shall
show the values assumed in the design of the falsework on the falsework drawings.
f. Anticipated total settlements of the falsework and forms shall be shown on the falsework drawings.

g. Falsework footings shall be designed to carry the load imposed upon them without exceeding the estimated soil
bearing values and anticipated settlements. Refer to Part 3 of this Chapter for allowable soil pressures of various
material and settlements.
h. When falsework will be supported on pile bents, the required pile capacity and the maximum allowable driving
tolerances shall be shown.
i. The support systems for form panels supporting concrete deck slabs and overhangs on girder bridges shall also be
considered to be falsework and designed as such.
j. The falsework drawings shall show all openings which are required through the falsework. Horizontal and vertical
clearances shall be adequate and be shown on the plans.
k. Temporary bracing shall be provided to all falsework bents adjacent to the operating tracks, and shall be designed to
withstand all imposed loads during erection, construction and removal. Wind loads shall be included in the design of
such bracing.
l. In addition to the falsework drawings, the design engineer shall submit a copy of design calculations. The design
calculations shall show the stresses and deflections of all load-supporting members. Calculations furnished by the
design engineer are for information only, rather than for review and acceptance. Accordingly, design and/or
construction details, which may be shown in the form of sketches with the calculation sheets, shall be shown on the
falsework drawings as well; otherwise the drawings will not be considered complete.
28.6.2 DESIGN LOADS (2015)
a. The design loads for falsework shall consist of the sum of dead and live vertical loads, and the assumed horizontal
load. The minimum total design load for any falsework shall be not less than 100 pounds per square foot (4.8 kPa) for
the combined live and dead load regardless of slab thickness.
b. Dead load shall include the weight of concrete, reinforcing steel, forms and falsework. The weight (mass density) of
concrete, reinforcing steel and forms shall be assumed to be not less than 160 pounds per cubic foot (2600 kg/m3) for
normal concrete.
c. Live loads shall consist of the actual weight of equipment to be supported by the falsework applied as concentrated
loads at the points of contact and a uniform load of not less than 20 pounds per square foot (960 Pa) applied over the
area supported, plus 75 pounds per linear foot (1100 N/m) applied at the outside edge of deck overhangs.
d. The assumed horizontal load to be resisted by the falsework bracing system shall be the sum of the actual horizontal
loads due to equipment, construction sequence or other causes and an allowance for wind, but in no case shall the
assumed horizontal load to be resisted in any direction be less than 2 percent of the total dead load.
e. The falsework shall be designed so that it will have sufficient rigidity to resist the assumed horizontal load without
considering the weight of the supported structure.
f. The minimum horizontal load to be allowed for wind on each heavy-duty steel shore having a vertical load carrying
capacity exceeding 30 kips (133 kN) per leg shall be the sum of the products of the wind impact area, shape factor, and
the applicable wind pressure value for each height zone. The wind impact area is the total projected area of all the
elements in the tower face normal to the applied wind. The shape factor for heavy-duty shoring shall be taken as 2.2.
Wind pressure values shall be determined from the following table:

WIND PRESSURE
Height Zone Shores Adjacent to At Other Locations
Distance above ground Traffic Openings
0 to 30 ft. (0 to 9 m) 20 psf (960 Pa) 15 psf (720 Pa)
Over 100 ft. (30 m) 35 psf (1680 Pa) 30 psf (1440 Pa)
g. The minimum horizontal load to be allowed for wind on all other types of falsework, including falsework supported on
heavy-duty shoring, shall be the sum of the products of the wind impact area and the applicable wind pressure value for
each height zone. The wind impact area is the gross projected area of the falsework and any unrestrained portion of the
permanent structure, excluding the areas between falsework posts or towers where diagonal bracing is not used. Wind
pressure values shall be determined from the following table:
WIND PRESSURE VALUE

Height Zone For Members over and Bents Adjacent to At Other Locations
(Feet above ground) Traffic Openings
0 to 30 (0 to 9 m) 2.0 Q 1.5 Q 1
30 to 50 (9 to 16 m) 2.5 Q 2.0 Q
50 to 100 (16 to 30 m) 3.0 Q 2.5 Q
Over 100 (30 m) 3.5 Q 3.0 Q
The value of Q in the above tabulation shall be determined as follows: 3

Q = 1 + 0.2W psf (Q = 48(1 + .656W) Pa); but shall not be more than 10 psf (480 Pa).
In the preceding formula, W is the width of the falsework system in feet (meters), measured in the direction of the wind
force being considered.
h. The entire superstructure cross-section, except railing, shall be considered to be placed at one time. If the concrete is to 4
be prestressed, the falsework shall be designed to support any increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing
forces.
28.6.3 DESIGN STRESSES, LOADINGS, AND DEFLECTIONS (2015)
a. The maximum allowable design stresses and loadings listed are based on the use of undamaged, high-quality structural
grade material. Stresses and loadings shall be reduced by the design engineer if lesser quality materials are to be used.
b. The maximum allowable stresses, loadings and deflections used in the design of the falsework shall be as follows:
28.6.3.1 Timber
a. Allowable stresses shall be in accordance with Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 2, Design of Wood Railway Bridges
and Trestles for Railway Loading, or Chapter 7, Appendix 4 - Temporary Structures, of this Manual.

b. Deflection due to the weight of concrete shall not exceed L/240 of the span irrespective of the fact that the deflection
may be compensated for by camber strips.
c. The maximum modulus of elasticity, E, for timber shall be 1.6 x 106 psi (11.0 x 103 MPa).
d. The maximum loading on timber piles shall be 45 tons (400 kN).
e. Timber connections shall be designed in accordance with the stress and loads allowed in the National Design
Specification of Wood Construction, as published by the National Forest Products Association except that (1)
reductions in allowable loads required therein for high moisture condition of the lumber and service conditions shall
not apply, and (2) the design value of bolts in two member connections (single shear) when used for falsework bracing
shall be 0.75 of the tabulated design value.
28.6.3.2 Steel
a. For identified grades of steel, design stresses shall not exceed those specified in Chapter 15 of this Manual.
When the grade of steel cannot be positively identified, design stresses shall not exceed those specified for ASTM
Designation A36.
b. For compression members L/r shall not exceed 120.
c. For all grades of steel, deflections due to the weight of concrete shall not exceed L/240 irrespective of the fact that the
deflection may be compensated for by camber strips.
d. The modulus of elasticity, E, used for steel shall be 29x106 psi (2.0x103 MPa).
28.6.3.3 Manufactured Assemblies
a. The maximum loadings and deflections used on jacks, brackets, columns, joists and other manufactured devices shall
not exceed the manufacturer's recommendations except that the dead load deflection of such joists used at locations
other than under deck slabs between girders shall not exceed L/240. If requested by the Engineer, the design engineer
shall furnish engineering data from the manufacturer verifying the manufacturer's recommendations or shall perform
tests as necessary to demonstrate the adequacy of any such device proposed for use.
28.6.4 SPECIAL CONDITIONS (2015)
a. In addition to the minimum requirements specified in Section 28.6.2 falsework over or adjacent to the railroad tracks
which are open to traffic shall be protected from impact by motor vehicles and construction equipment. The falsework
design shall include, but not be limited to, the following minimum provisions:
b. The vertical load used for design of falsework posts and towers, but not footings, which support the portion of the
falsework over openings, shall be the greater of the following:
(1) 150 percent of the design load calculated in accordance with the provisions for the design load previously
specified but not including any increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing forces, or
(2) The increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing forces.
c. Falsework posts adjacent to railroads shall consist of either steel with a minimum section modulus about each axis of
9.5 inches cubed (156,000 mm3) or sound timbers with a minimum section modulus about each axis of 250 inches
cubed (4,100,000 mm3).

d. Each falsework post adjacent to railroad shall be mechanically connected to its supporting footing at its base, or
otherwise laterally restrained, so as to withstand a force of not less than 2,000 pounds (8.90 kN) applied at the base of
the post in any direction except toward the railroad track. Such posts also shall be mechanically connected to the
falsework cap or stringer. Such mechanical connection shall be capable of resisting a load in any horizontal direction of
not less than 1,000 pounds (4.45 kN).
e. For falsework spans over railroads all stringers shall be mechanically connected to falsework cap or framing. Such
mechanical connections shall be capable of resisting a load in any direction, including uplift on the stringer, of not less
than 500 pounds (2.22 kN).
f. When timber members are used to brace falsework bents which are located adjacent to railroads, all connections for
such timber bracing shall be bolted type using 5/8 inch (16 mm) diameter or larger bolt.
g. Falsework bents adjacent to tracks shall have a minimum horizontal clearance of 12 feet (3.7 m) from centerline of
track or as required by the Engineer. Falsework shall be sheathed solid on the side adjacent to track between 3 feet (0.9
m) and 17 feet (5.2 m) above the top of rail elevation. Sheathing shall consist of plywood not less than 5/8 inch (16
mm) thick or lumber not less than one inch thick (25 mm), nominal. Bracing on such bents shall be adequate so that the
bent will resist the required assumed horizontal load or 5,000 pounds (22.2 kN) whichever is greater. Collision posts
and sheathing shall not be required if horizontal clearances to falsework is 18 feet (5.5 m) or greater.
h. A minimum vertical clearance of 22'-6" (6.9 m), or as established by the Railroad, above top of higher rail shall be
maintained at all times.
28.6.5 FALSEWORK CONSTRUCTION (2015) 1

a. The falsework shall be constructed to conform to the falsework drawings. The materials used in the falsework
construction shall be of quality necessary to sustain the stress required by the falsework design. The workmanship used
in falsework construction shall be of such quality that the falsework will support the loads imposed on it without
excessive settlement or take-up beyond that shown on the falsework drawings.
b. Falsework shall be founded on solid footings, safe against undermining, protected from softening, and capable of 3
supporting the loads imposed on it. When requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall demonstrate by suitable load
tests that the soil bearing values assumed for the design of the falsework do not exceed the supporting capacity of the
soil.
c. When falsework is to be supported on piles, the piles shall be driven until the required pile capacity is obtained as
shown on the falsework drawings.
4
d. For falsework over or adjacent railroad tracks, all details of the falsework system which contribute to the horizontal
stability and resistance to impact, except for bolts in bracing, shall be installed at the time each element of the
falsework is erected and shall remain in place until the falsework is removed.
e. Falsework shall be designed to compensate for falsework deflection, vertical alignment and anticipated structure
deflection.
f. Contractor shall provide tell-tales attached to the soffit forms and readable from the ground in enough systematically
placed locations to determine the total settlement of the entire portion of the structure where concrete is being placed.
28.6.6 REMOVING FALSEWORK (2015)
a. Falsework supporting any span of a simple span concrete bridge shall not be released before 10 days after the last
concrete, excluding concrete above the bridge deck, has been placed in that span and in the adjacent portions of each
adjoining span of a length equal to at least ½ the length of the span where falsework is to be released.

b. Falsework for cast-in-place prestressed portions of structures shall not be removed until after the prestressing tendons
have been tensioned and released.
c. Falsework supporting any span of a continuous or rigid frame bridge shall not be removed until all required
prestressing has been completed in that span and in the adjacent portions of each adjoining span for a length equal to at
least ½ the length of the span where falsework is to be removed.
d. Falsework supporting overhangs, deck slabs between girders and girder stems which slope 45 degrees or more off
vertical shall not be removed before 7 days after the deck concrete has been placed.
e. In addition to the above requirements, no falsework for bridge spans shall be removed until the supported concrete has
attained a compressive strength of 2,600 pounds per square inch (17.9 MPa) or 80 percent of the specified strength,
whichever is higher.
f. When falsework piling are used to support falsework within the limits of the railroad right-of-way, such piling within
this area shall be removed to at least 2 feet (0.6 m) below the finished grades or as required by the Engineer.
g. All debris and refuse resulting from the work shall be removed and the premises left in a neat and presentable
condition.
COMMENTARY
C - SECTION 28.5 DESIGN OF SHORING SYSTEMS
C - 28.5.1 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS (2015)
C - 28.5.1.1 Restrictions on Use
A cantilever wall derives support from the passive resistance below the excavation line to support the active pressure from the
soil above excavation elevation without an anchorage. Cantilever walls undergo large lateral deflections, and the member
stresses increase rapidly with height. Therefore, it is important to restrict the maximum height of the wall and require good
quality soil below the excavation line that can provide adequate passive resistance.
C - 28.5.1.2 Depth of Embedment
The large moment and deflections that need to be resisted in cantilever type walls may require quite large penetration depths.
Penetration depths of 2 or more times the height of the wall may be necessary.
C - 28.5.1.3 Maximum Moment (2002) R(2015)
See Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual, US Steel, 1984, for charts that may be used to obtain preliminary values for the depth of
penetration D and the maximum moment for the case of a cantilever sheet pile wall in homogeneous granular soil and in a
cohesive soil with granular soil behind above the excavation elevation. The D values obtained from the charts should be
increased by 20 percent.
C - 28.5.3 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SOLDIER BEAM AND LAGGING WALLS (2015)
C - 28.5.3.1 Restrictions of Use
A cantilever soldier pile wall behaves similarly to a cantilever sheet pile wall. The active soil pressure and surcharge loadings
are transmitted through the lagging to the soldier piles above the excavation elevation. Below the excavation the soldier piles

utilize the soils passive resistance to resist the driving pressures. Due to the rapid increase in deflections and moments with the
wall height, maximum height restrictions needed to be imposed.
C - 28.5.3.2 Depth of Embedment
The depth of embedment of the soldier piles must be sufficient to mobilize the passive resistance. The arching capability of
soils allows the use of an equivalent width for the soldier pile below the excavation.
C - 28.5.6 DESIGN OF COFFERDAMS (2015)
C - 28.5.6.3 Design Stresses and Factors of Safety
Flow nets may be used for this analysis.


8
Part 29
Waterproofing
8
— 2005 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
29.1 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4

29.1.1 Purpose (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.1.2 Scope (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.2 Waterproofing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4

1
29.3 Dampproofing (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4 Specific Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5

29.4.1 Abutments and Retaining Walls (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4.2 Short Single-Span Arches and Box Culverts (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4.3 Pedestrian Subways (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6 3
29.4.4 Arches – Long Single-Span and Multiple-Span with Spandrel Fill (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.5 Precast Slabs for Bridge Decks and Floors (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.6 Cast-in-Place Concrete Bridge Decks or Floors (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.7 Pump Pits for Subways and Basements (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.8 Pipe Manholes and Pipe Tunnels (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.9 Water Containers (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.10 Walls and Floors of Buildings (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.11 Platforms, Walkways and Roadways (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.4.12 Grain Elevator Pits and Similar Underground Structures (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.4.13 Scale Pits and Other Similar Structures Below Grade (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.5 Terms (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.6 Applicable ASTM Designations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8

29.6.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.2 ASTM D41 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.3 ASTM D43 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.4 ASTM D173 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.5 ASTM D226 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.6 ASTM D227 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.7 ASTM D312 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.8 ASTM D449 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-9
29.6.9 ASTM D450 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-9

8-29-1
29.6.10 ASTM D517 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10

29.6.11 ASTM D692 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.12 ASTM D946 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.13 ASTM D1187 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.14 ASTM D1190 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.15 ASTM D1227 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.16 ASTM D1327 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.17 ASTM D1668 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.18 ASTM D2178 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.19 ASTM D2823 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.20 ASTM D3515 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.21 ASTM D4215 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.22 ASTM D4479 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.23 ASTM D4586 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.6.24 ASTM D6134 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.7 General Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12

29.7.1 Design (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.7.2 Types (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.8 Primers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

29.8.1 General (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.8.2 Primer (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9 Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

29.9.1 Asphalt for Mopping (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9.2 Coal-Tar Pitch for Mopping (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9.3 Fabric (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9.4 Felt (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-14
29.9.5 Butyl Rubber (Butyl-based IIR) or EPDM (Ethylene-propylene-diene-monomers) (2001) . . . . . . 8-29-14
29.9.6 Adhesive (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.7 Cement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.8 Butyl Gum Tape (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.9 Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board Membrane (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.10 Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-16
29.10 Membrane Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17

29.10.1 Portland Cement Concrete (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.10.2 Asphalt Plank (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.10.3 Asphaltic Panels (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.11 Sealing Compounds for Joints and Edges of Membrane Protection (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.12 Anti-Bonding Paper (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.13 Inspection and Tests (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.14 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20

29.14.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20

Waterproofing
29.14.2 Primer (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-21

29.14.3 Membrane (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-21
29.14.4 Protective Cover (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-26
29.15 Introduction to Dampproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27

29.15.1 Dampproofing Scope (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16 Materials for Dampproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27

29.16.1 Asphalt Primer (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16.2 Creosote Primer (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16.3 Woven Cotton Fabrics (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.4 Coal-Tar Saturated Organic Felt (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.5 Asphalt (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.6 Coal-Tar Pitch (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.7 Emulsified Asphalt Coatings (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.8 Emulsified Asphalt Protective Coating (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.9 Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coatings (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.10 Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coating (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.11 Inspection and Tests (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
1
29.17 Application of Dampproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
29.17.1 Preparation of Surfaces (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
29.17.2 Temperature (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
29.17.3 Method of Application (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
3
LIST OF FIGURES
8-29-1 Joint Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7

8-29-2 Lapping of Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-22
8-29-3 Recommended Butyl Membrane Field Seam Assembly Recommended in Order Listed for Field Assembly 8-29-24
4
LIST OF TABLES
8-29-1 ASTM D6134 Physical Requirements for Vulcanized Rubber Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-14
8-29-2 Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-16
8-29-3 Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
8-29-4 Degree of Resistance to Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-19

SECTION 29.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
29.1.1 PURPOSE (2001)
These recommended practices are intended to be used for work carried out by railroad companies or their selected contractors
when requested by the Engineer. These recommended practices apply to bridges and other structures constructed of either
concrete or steel.
29.1.2 SCOPE (2005)
These recommended practices describe the selection, sampling and testing of materials to be used, material properties and
construction requirements under specific conditions. They also apply to materials and construction methods for impervious
membranes and auxilliary components to protect structures or parts of structures, except roofs of buildings, from the harmful
effects of water.
SECTION 29.2 WATERPROOFING (2001)
a. Adequate and effective drainage should be provided to remove free water and lessen the possibilities of the
development of a hydrostatic pressure head.
b. Where the range of temperature varies from above freezing to below freezing, the disintegrating effect of frost action
on water-saturated concrete and masonry should be recognized and adequately protected against.
c. All surfaces of concrete, masonry, or steel structures that are or will be in contact with ballast, fill or water or will be
inaccessible for inspection, shall be considered for waterproofing to eliminate the corrosive action of liquids upon the
structural members.
d. All waterproofing materials shall be applied when surface and air temperature are both above 40 degrees F (4 degrees
C) and rain is not likely before completion of material application, unless specifically recommended by the material
manufacturer and with written approval of the Engineer.
e. The materials for waterproofing and the methods of application must ensure that the bond is permanently maintained to
the concrete, masonry, or steel interface.
f. Where the waterproofing membrane is subject to potential injury or violation from abrasion, pressure, puncture, or
other job-site abuse, a protection course is required.
g. Waterproofing shall be applied where required to protect and extend the service life of the structure.
h. The type of waterproofing should be determined by the use and probable life of the structure as related to the potential
future cost of renewal of the waterproofing.
i. Waterproofing of the most durable and effective type should be used on all concrete, steel and masonry structures:1
(1) In locations subject to water or other liquids under a hydrostatic head.
(2) Where repair or removal is impractical or prohibitive in cost.
1
See C - Commentary

Waterproofing
(3) Where certainty of watertightness must be positive because of heavy damage if water enters.
(4) For the protection of structural members from corrosive action caused by liquid infiltration.
j. Waterproofing specially designed for the purpose should be used where the structure must be protected against liquids
containing corrosive or deleterious substances.
k. A waterproofing membrane on the surface adjacent to the water source is the most effective externally applied
waterproofing.
SECTION 29.3 DAMPPROOFING (1994)
a. Dampproofing is effective in preventing the accumulation of surface moisture from condensation only in proportion to
its temperature-insulating value.
b. Dampproofing is not effective where masonry is subject to moisture saturation accompanied by cycles of freezing and
thawing.
c. Dampproofing is not effective where cracks may occur in concrete or masonry walls as it does not have the ability to
bridge those cracks.
1
d. A frequent fault of one-coat dampproofing is failure to produce a continuous covering free from pin holes. This should
be considered in deciding upon the number of coats that should be applied.
e. The purpose and character of dampproofing should not require special protection or covering. Where protection or
covering is necessary, the conditions will usually warrant the use of a waterproofing membrane.
f. A prime requisite of a dampproof coating is that it must remain in place. Bond with the surface is therefore essential. 3
g. The selection of materials for dampproofing should include consideration of the effect of temperature extremes, the
effect of ultraviolet exposure, and the physical and chemical effects of the liquid to which they will be subjected.
4
SECTION 29.4 SPECIFIC APPLICATION
29.4.1 ABUTMENTS AND RETAINING WALLS (2001)
Once effective drainage has been provided, waterproofing on the back of an abutment or retaining wall is generally not
necessary, but dampproofing should be provided above the footings. Where it is desired to prevent the passage of water
through expansion joints, contraction joints or construction joints, a suitable waterstop shall be installed.
29.4.2 SHORT SINGLE-SPAN ARCHES AND BOX CULVERTS (1994)
Short single-span arches and box culverts should be dampproofed on the surfaces in contact with the fill.

29.4.3 PEDESTRIAN SUBWAYS (1994)
Pedestrian subways should be waterproofed on surfaces in contact with the fill.
29.4.4 ARCHES – LONG SINGLE-SPAN AND MULTIPLE-SPAN WITH SPANDREL FILL

(1994)
Long single-span arches and arches of multiple span with spandrel fill should be fully waterproofed on all surfaces in contact
with the fill, including the parapets. Special attention should be given to the drainage and to the position of the fill in order to
prevent the pocketing of water.
29.4.5 PRECAST SLABS FOR BRIDGE DECKS AND FLOORS (2001)
a. The top surface of reinforced slabs and the backs of parapets should be dampproofed or waterproofed. When
construction is over streets or walkways, waterproofing shall be applied.
b. Prior to the application of hot-poured rubberized asphalt joint sealing material in joints between precast units, a heat-
resistant backer rod should be inserted to a minimum depth of 1/2 inch (13 mm) below the slab surface ss shown in
Figure 8-29-1. The remaining reservoir should then be filled with hot-poured rubberized asphalt joint sealing
compound. Fill flush with the slab surface. The joint width should be twice the joint depth.
29.4.6 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE BRIDGE DECKS OR FLOORS (1994)
a. The top surface of slabs and the backs of parapets should be waterproofed or dampproofed and the construction joints
closed with suitable waterstops, where the slab is an integral part of the structure, as in rigid frames or girderless flat
slabs, or where it is the main load-carrying element, as in simple or continuous slabs.
b. When the slab is supported on steel beams, all construction joints should be closed with suitable waterstops and
membrane waterproofing applied.
29.4.7 PUMP PITS FOR SUBWAYS AND BASEMENTS (1994)
Pump pits should be waterproofed or dampproofed on all exterior surfaces.
29.4.8 PIPE MANHOLES AND PIPE TUNNELS (1994)
Pipe manholes and concrete pipe tunnels should be dampproofed or waterproofed on all exterior surfaces.
29.4.9 WATER CONTAINERS (1994)
The walls and floors of water containers, such as reservoirs and tanks, should be made of dense concrete to insure
watertightness. Special attention should be given to the waterproofing of all joints and a suitable waterstop shall be
installed.
29.4.10 WALLS AND FLOORS OF BUILDINGS (2001)
a. The walls and floors of all buildings subject to hydrostatic pressure should be waterproofed on the pressure surfaces.
b. If not subject to hydrostatic pressure, all exterior walls should be dampproofed below ground.

Waterproofing
Figure 8-29-1. Joint Preparation
c. Dampproofing should be applied to the back and top (under coping) of parapet walls and to the back and to the
embedded surfaces of architectural masonry trim; also, to the inside of exterior masonry walls if plaster is to be directly
applied.
d. Special attention should be given to all joints and to places where pipes or other facilities pass through walls.
1
29.4.11 PLATFORMS, WALKWAYS AND ROADWAYS (1994)
Platforms, walkways and roadways over rooms or spaces used as adjuncts to building should be waterproofed.
29.4.12 GRAIN ELEVATOR PITS AND SIMILAR UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES (1994) 3
Grain elevator pits and similar underground structures should be made watertight by design and construction and waterproofed
on the exterior.
29.4.13 SCALE PITS AND OTHER SIMILAR STRUCTURES BELOW GRADE (1994)
4
Scale pits and other similar structures below grade should be made watertight by design and construction as well as
waterproofed or dampproofed, subject to the following conditions:
• The walls and floors of all pits subject to hydrostatic pressure should be waterproofed.
• If not subject to hydrostatic pressure, all exterior walls should be dampproofed below grade.
• Utility openings that pass through these walls shall be given special attention to prevent water infiltration or leakage.
SECTION 29.5 TERMS (2001)
The following terms are defined in the Chapter 8 Glossary located at the end of this Chapter:

Asphaltic Panels for Waterproofing Protection
Butyl Rubber
Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane
EPDM
Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board Membrane
SECTION 29.6 APPLICABLE ASTM DESIGNATIONS
29.6.1 GENERAL (2001)
These descriptions are offered as an assist to railway Engineers as a capsulized summary of their intended usage; whether it be
on grade, above grade or whether they be used in structures horizontally or vertically, to include railway bridges and
structures.
29.6.2 ASTM D41 (2001)
Covers asphaltic primers suitable for use with asphalt in dampproofing and waterproofing below or above ground level, for
application to concrete, masonry and metal surfaces.
29.6.3 ASTM D43 (2001)
Covers coal tar primers suitable for use with coal-tar pitch in dampproofing and waterproofing below or above ground level,
for application to concrete and masonry surfaces.
29.6.4 ASTM D173 (2001)
Covers woven cotton fabrics saturated with either asphalt or coal-tar pitch and suitable for use with asphalts conforming to
D449 or D312 and coal-tar pitch conforming to D450 in the membrane system of waterproofing.
29.6.5 ASTM D226 (2001)
Covers asphalt-saturated organic felts, either with or without perforations, 36 inches (915 mm) in width, suitable for use with
mopping asphalts conforming to D449 in the membrane system of waterproofing, and with mopping asphalts conforming to
D312 in the construction of built-up roofs.
29.6.6 ASTM D227 (1994)
Covers coal-tar-saturated organic felt for use with coal-tar pitches conforming to the appropriate requirements of D450 in the
construction of built-up roofs and in the membrane system of waterproofing.
29.6.7 ASTM D312 (2001)
Covers four types of asphalt intended for use in built-up roofing construction. This is intended for general classification
purposes only and does not imply restrictions on the slope in which an asphalt must be used.

Waterproofing
• Type I. Includes asphalts that are generally susceptible to flow at roof temperatures, with good adhesive and “self-
healing properties.” They are generally used in slag or gravel surfaced roofs on inclines up to 2%, or 1/4 inch per
foot (20 mm/m) slope.
• Type II. Includes asphalts that are moderately susceptible to flow at roof temperatures. They are generally for use
with built-up roof construction on inclines from approximately 2%, or 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm/m) to 8%, or 1 inch
per foot (80 mm/m) slope.
• Type III. Includes asphalts that are generally not susceptible to flow at roof temperatures for use in the construction
of built-up roof construction on inclines from approximately 2%, or 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm/m) to 25%, or 3 inches
per foot (250 mm/m) slope.
• Type IV. Includes asphalts that are generally not susceptible to flow at roof temperature, for use in the construction of
built-up roofing on inclines from approximately 2%, or 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm/m) to 50%, or 6 inches per foot
(500 mm/m) slope. These asphalts may be useful in areas where relatively high year-round temperatures are
experienced.
29.6.8 ASTM D449 (2001)

Covers three types of asphalts suitable for use as a mopping coat in dampproofing; or as a plying or mopping cement in the
construction of membrane waterproofing systems with felts conforming to D226; fabrics conforming to D173 or D1668
(asphalt types); asphalt-impregnated glass mat conforming to D2178 and with primer conforming to D41.
• Type I. A soft, adhesive, “self-healing” asphalt that flows easily and is suitable for use below grade under uniformly
moderate temperature conditions both during the process of installation and during the service. 1
NOTE: Type I asphalt is suitable for foundations, tunnels, subways, etc.
• Type II. An asphalt somewhat less susceptible to flow than Type I with good adhesive and “self-healing” properties,
suitable for use above grade where it will not be exposed to temperatures exceeding 122 degrees F (50 degrees C).
NOTE: Type II asphalt is suitable for railroad bridges, culverts, retaining walls, tanks, dams, conduits, spray decks, 3
etc.
• Type III. An asphalt less susceptible to temperature than Type II, with good adhesive properties, and suitable for use
above grade on vertical surfaces exposed to direct sunlight or temperatures above 122 degrees F (50 degrees C).
29.6.9 ASTM D450 (2001)

4
Covers three types of coal-tar pitch suitable for use in the construction of built-up roofing, dampproofing and membrane
waterproofing systems.
• Type I. Suitable for use in built-up roofing, dampproofing, and membrane waterproofing systems with felts
conforming to the requirements of D227 or as specified by the manufacturer.
• Type II. Suitable for use in dampproofing and in membrane waterproofing systems with primers conforming to the
requirements of D43, felts conforming to the requirements of D227, and fabrics with coal-tar saturant conforming to
the requirements of D173, D1327, or D1668 or in systems using any combination of components specified by the
manufacturer.
• Type III. Suitable for use in built-up roofing, dampproofing, and membrane waterproofing systems but having less
volatile components than Types I or II.

29.6.10 ASTM D517 (1994)

Covers asphalt plank of two types as used for bridge floors:
• Type I. Plain asphalt plank.
• Type II. Mineral-surfaced asphalt plank.
29.6.11 ASTM D692 (1994)
Covers crushed stone, crushed hydraulic-cement concrete, crushed blast-furnace slag, and crushed gravel suitable for use in
bituminous paving mixtures, as described in D3515 or D4215.
29.6.12 ASTM D946 (1994)
Covers asphalt cement for use in the construction of pavements and covers the following penetration grades:
• 40 - 50.
• 60 - 70.
• 85 - 100.
• 120 - 150.
• 200 - 300.
29.6.13 ASTM D1187 (2001)
Covers emulsified asphalt suitable for application in a relatively thick film as a protective coating for metal surfaces.
• Type I. Quick-setting emulsified asphalt suitable for continuous exposure to water within a few days after
application and drying.
• Type II. Emulsified asphalt suitable for continuous exposure to the weather, only after application and drying.
29.6.14 ASTM D1190 (2001)
Covers concrete joint sealants of the hot-pour elastic type, intended for use in sealing joints and cracks in concrete pavements,
bridges and other structures.
29.6.15 ASTM D1227 (2001)
Covers emulsified asphalts suitable for use as a protective coating for built-up roofs and other exposed surfaces with inclines
of not less than 4%, or 1/2 inch per foot (40 mm/m).
• Types II and III. Emulsified asphalt prepared with mineral colloid emulsifying agents and not containing asbestos.
29.6.16 ASTM D1327 (2001)
a. Covers woven burlap fabrics, saturated with either asphalt or refined coal-tar, as specified by the Engineer, for use in
the membrane system of roofing or waterproofing or as specified by the manufacturer.

Waterproofing
b. Asphalt-saturated burlap fabric shall be used with asphalt-based cement; a mopping asphalt conforming to D312,
D449, or appropriate solvent bearing bitumen materials.
c. Coal-tar-saturated burlap fabric shall be used with coal-tar-based cement; a coal-tar pitch conforming to ASTM D450,
which is an appropriate solvent bearing bitumen material.
29.6.17 ASTM D1668 (2001)
Covers finished treated (coated) woven glass fabrics, coated with either asphalt, coal-tar pitch, or an organic resin compatible
with the waterproofing system, as specified by the Engineer.
• Type I, Asphalt Treated. Is suitable for use with all asphalts and asphalt based compounds.
• Type II, Coal Tar Pitch Treated. Is suitable for use with all coal-tar pitches and coal tar based compounds.
• Type III, Organic Resin Treated. The Engineer and supplier shall agree on an organic resin which is compatible with
or suitable for the plying materials. The organic resins shall not be water soluble.
29.6.18 ASTM D2178 (2001)
a. Covers glass felts impregnated to varying degrees with asphalt, that may be used with asphalts conforming to the
requirements of D312 in the construction of built-up roofs, and with asphalts conforming to the requirements of D449
in the membrane system of waterproofing.
1
b. Asphalt-impregnated glass felts, 36 inches (914 mm) wide, covered by this Designation are Types III, IV and VI.
29.6.19 ASTM D2823 (2001)
Covers asphalt roof coatings of brushing or spraying consistency.
• Type I. Is made from asphalts characterized as self-healing, adhesive and ductile, conforming to the requirements of 3
D312, Type I; D449, Types I or II; or D946.
• Type II. Is made from asphalts characterized by a high softening point and relatively low ductility, conforming to the
requirements of D312, Type II or III; or D449, Type III.
29.6.20 ASTM D3515 (2001) 4

Covers hot-mixed, hot-laid asphalt, tar, emulsified asphalt, and recycled bituminous paving mixtures for base, binder, leveling,
and surface covers.
29.6.21 ASTM D4215 (2001)
Covers cold-mixed, cold-laid and recycled cold-mixed, cold-laid bituminous paving mixtures for base, binder, leveling, and
surface covers.
29.6.22 ASTM D4479 (1994)
Covers asbestos-free asphalt roof coatings of brushing or spraying consistency.
• Type I. Made from asphalts characterized as self-healing, adhesive, and ductile, and conforming to the requirements
of D312, Type I; D449, Types I or II; or D946.

• Type II. Is made from asphalts characterized by high softening point and relatively low ductility, conforming to the
requirements of D312, Types II or III; or D449, Type III.
29.6.23 ASTM D4586 (2001)
Covers asbestos-free asphalt roof cement suitable for trowel application to roofings and flashings.
• Type I. Made from asphalt characterized as self-healing, adhesive, and ductile, conforming to the requirements of
D312, Type I; D449, Types I or II; or D946.
• Type II. Made from asphalt characterized by high softening point and relatively low ductility, and conforming to
D312, Types II or III; or D449, Types II or III.
29.6.24 ASTM D6134 (2001)
Covers unreinforced, vulcanized rubber sheets made from ethylene propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM) or butyl (IIR), used in
waterproofing systems.
SECTION 29.7 GENERAL PRACTICES
29.7.1 DESIGN (2005)1
a. Section 29.2, Waterproofing and Section 29.3, Dampproofing enumerate the principles which shall govern the
waterproofing of railway structures. Structures which require waterproofing shall be designed so that they can be
waterproofed by the methods and with the materials specified herein. Special care shall be taken to provide flexibility
in the waterproofing membrane or in the joints between sections of membrane at expansion joints or at those locations
where deflection deformation may cause excessive stretching of the membrane. Care shall be taken to seal effectively
or flash all places where the waterproofing membrane terminates, such as along the webs of girders.
b. Right-angle bends should be avoided by using rounded or chamfered edges on outside corners and suitable fillet on
inside corners. An underlayment of portland cement concrete or bituminous mastic may be used under the membrane
waterproofing on bridge deck to cover rough or uneven surfaces or to provide slope for drainage.
c. Requirements affecting details of waterproofing as may be included in this Chapter or in Chapter 6, Buildings and
Support Facilities; Chapter 7, Timber Structures; Chapter 15, Steel Structures; AAR Scale Handbook (included in this
manual) – should be observed in the design of the structure.
29.7.2 TYPES (1996)
The membrane shall consist of one of the following types, as illustrated:
a. Two layers of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and three moppings of bitumen (Figure 8-29-2, Type A).
b. Three layers of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and four moppings of bitumen (Figure 8-29-2, Type B).
c. Two layers of bitumen-treated felt, one middle layer of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and four moppings of bitumen
(Figure 8-29-2, Type C).
1
See C - Commentary

Waterproofing
d. Four layers of bitumen-treated felt, one middle layer of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and six moppings of bitumen
(Figure 8-29-2, Type D).
e. One layer of butyl rubber or EPDM secured as indicated with an approved adhesive (Figure 8-29-3).
f. Rubberized asphalt with plastic film or preformed board membrane.
g. Multiple layers of cold liquid-applied elastomeric membrane with an approved primer.
SECTION 29.8 PRIMERS
29.8.1 GENERAL (1994)
Bitumen shall consist of asphalt or coal-tar pitch. The mopped-on material shall be asphalt for use with asphalt-saturated felt
or fabric and coal-tar pitch for use with coal-tar-saturated felt or fabric.
29.8.2 PRIMER (2001)
a. Asphaltic Primer. Asphaltic primer shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D41.
b. Coal Tar Primer. Coal tar for priming for use with coal-tar pitch shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation 1
D43.
c. Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane Primer. Primer shall be of the type compatible with the substrate and
membrane type as recommended by the manufacturer.
d. Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board. Primer shall be cold-applied as recommended by the
manufacturer.
3
SECTION 29.9 MEMBRANES

4
29.9.1 ASPHALT FOR MOPPING (2001)
Asphalt shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D449. This Designation requires a choice of Types I, II or III based
on conditions relating to use. Type II asphalt shall be used for membranes on ballasted-deck railroad bridges.
29.9.2 COAL-TAR PITCH FOR MOPPING (2001)
Coal-tar pitch shall meet requirements of ASTM designation D450. The use of this Designation requires a choice of Types I, II
or III based on conditions relating to use. Type I coal-tar pitch shall be used for membranes on ballasted-deck railroad bridges.
29.9.3 FABRIC (2001)
Fabric shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D173 covering woven cotton fabrics saturated with a bituminous
substance. The use of this Designation requires a choice of asphalt meeting ASTM designation D449 or coal-tar pitch meeting
the requirement of ASTM designation D450 as a saturant.

29.9.4 FELT (2001)
a. Felts for use with an asphalt mopping shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D226. This Designation offers
a choice of two types of felt. Type I shall be used for construction of membranes on ballasted-deck railroad bridges.
b. Felt for use with coal-tar pitch moppings shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D227.
29.9.5 BUTYL RUBBER (BUTYL-BASED IIR) OR EPDM

(ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE-DIENE-MONOMERS) (2001)
a. Membrane shall be 0.060inch, 0.090 inch, or 0.120 inch (1.5, 2.3 or 3.1 mm) thick at the Engineer’s option.
b. Membrane shall conform to the properties found in Table 8-29-1.
Table 8-29-1. ASTM D6134 Physical Requirements for Vulcanized Rubber Sheets
Type EPDM Butyl

Thickness, minimum inch (mm) .054 (1.37) .054 (1.37)
Hardness, durometer A 60 +/- 10 60 +/- 10
Tensile strength, minimum psi (MPa) 1,300 (9) 1,200 (8.3)
Elongation, ultimate minimum % 300 300
Tensile set, maximum % 10 10
Tear resistance, minimum lbf./in. (kN/m) 150 (26.2) 150 (26.2)
Brittleness temperature, maximum degress F (degrees C) -49 (-45) -49 (-45)
Heat aging at 240 degrees F (116 degrees C):
Tensile strength, minimum psi (MPa) 1200 (8.3) 900 (6.2)
Elongation, ultimate minimum % 210 210
Linear dimensional change, maximum % +/- 1 +/- 2
Water absorption maximum, mass % 4 2
Factory seam strength, minimum psi (MPa) 50 (8.8) 50 (8.8)
Water vapor permeance, maximum perms (mg/pasm2) .06 (3.5) .0025 (.14)
Resistance to soil burial (% change, maximum in original value):
Breaking factory 10 10
Elongation at break 10 10
Puncture resistance lbs. (Kg) 70 (32) 95 (43)

Waterproofing
29.9.6 ADHESIVE (1994)
Adhesive for securing membrane and the protective cover shall be in accordance with the recommendations of the membrane
manufacturer.
29.9.7 CEMENT (2001)
Cement for splicing either membrane shall be a self-vulcanizing butyl rubber compound conforming to the following
requirements:
a. Viscosity at 77 degrees F (25 degrees C) Brookfield Viscometer (#3 Spindle at 10 rpm) 1,700-3,400 cps. Total Solids
30% (min).
b. Applied to both mating surfaces at 2 gallons/150 square foot (5.4 liters/m2).
29.9.8 BUTYL GUM TAPE (2001)
Butyl gum tape for splicing either membrane shall be black, vulcanizable butyl rubber with an 8 mil (200 Pm) polyethylene
film backing. The tape shall be 30 (+4) mils (750 (+100) Pm) thick, including the backing.
29.9.9 RUBBERIZED ASPHALT WITH PLASTIC FILM OR PREFORMED BOARD

MEMBRANE (2001)
1
Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic film or preformed board membrane shall consist of a preformed layer of highly rubberized
asphalt formed on plastic film or preformed board, with cold applied primer and/or mastic.

a. Performance Requirements, Properties. See Table 8-29-2.
Table 8-29-2. Performance Requirements
Property Requirements Test Methods

Membrane Thickness, minimum - inches 0.060 (1.5)
(mm)
Permeability, maximum - perms 0.1 (5.72 x 10-10) ASTM E96
(g.Pa-1.S-1.m-2)
Accelerated aging, 400 h minimum no decline ASTM D822 and ASTM G23
(procedure 4)
Exposure to fungi in soil, 16 weeks unaffected GSA-PBS-407121 (spec)
Peel Adhesion, 7 days dry, +7 days at l20 5.0 (0.9) TT-S-00230 Modified
degrees F (49 degrees C), +7 days dry -
lb/in (N/mm) of width - minimum
Peel Adhesion - lb./inch of width (N/mm) 5.0 (0.9) minimum TT-S-00230 Modified
after 7 days dry, and 7 days at 120
degrees F (49 degrees C), and 7 days
of water immersion
Crack bridging on Application 1/4 inch (6 100 TT-S-00230 Modified and TT-S-
mm) cycling at -15 degrees F (-26 227 Modified
degrees C) (crack opened and closed
from 0 to 1/4 inch (0 to 6 mm)) -
minimum cycles
Puncture Resistance - minimum pounds (N) 40 (180) ASTM E154
b. Certification. Manufacturer shall furnish certification that materials meet requirements.
c. Samples. A one square foot (0.1 m2) sample shall be furnished for testing, when required, from each production run of
membrane to be supplied.
29.9.10 COLD LIQUID-APPLIED ELASTOMERIC MEMBRANE (2005)1
The membrane shall be 100% reactive spray-applied material.
a. Performance Requirements, Properties. See Table 8-29-3.
For a product to be accepted, it must meet all tests detailed below within the manufacturer’s recommended thickness
which is not to be less than 80 mils (2.0 mm) dry film thickness.
1
See C - Commentary

Waterproofing
Table 8-29-3. Performance Requirements
Property Requirements Test Method

Water Vapor Transmission Equal to or less than 0.2 perms, ASTM E96, procedure B or BW
which is 0.1 grains/ft2/h
(1.14x10-8g/Pa.s.m2)
Elongation at Break Minimum 80% ASTM D638
Minimum Tensile Strength 930 psi (6.4 MPa) ASTM D638
Adhesion to Steel 290 psi (2.0 MPa) ASTM D4541
Adhesion to Concrete 100 psi (0.7 MPa) ASTM D4541
Crack Bridging Meet the low temperature flexibility and ASTM C836
crack bridging requirements of 10 cycles of
1/8 inch (3.2 mm) at -15 degrees F (-26
degrees C)
b. Certification. Manufacturer shall furnish certification from an approved independent testing agency that the supplied
material meets designated test performance requirements. Manufacturer, if requested, shall supply the infrared
spectrometer analysis (finger print) of the product from which the tests were conducted. The owner may, for quality
assurance purposes, wish to corroborate material tested versus material received by means of sampling and further
Infrared Spectrometer mapping.
SECTION 29.10 MEMBRANE PROTECTION1
29.10.1 PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE (2001)

3
a. Materials for portland cement concrete shall meet the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements. The concrete shall be air entrained, have a minimum cement content of 564 lbs. per cubic yard (334
kg/m3) and a maximum water to cement ratio of 0.53 by weight (mass). The maximum size of coarse aggregate shall
be 3/4 inch (20 mm).
b. The concrete shall be reinforced with wire fabric which shall meet the requirements of ASTM A185. The minimum
gage of wires shall be No. 12 (2.7 mm) and the wire shall have a maximum spacing of 6 inches (150 mm) in both 4
directions.
29.10.2 ASPHALT PLANK (2001)
Asphalt plank shall meet the requirements of ASTM D517. Asphalt plank used for protection of waterproofing membranes
shall be plain and have a minimum total thickness of 1 inch (25 mm) using one or more layers. Edges of asphalt planks to be
applied in a single layer shall be supplied with shiplapped joints.
29.10.3 ASPHALTIC PANELS (2001)
Asphaltic panels shall meet the following requirements:
1
See C - Commentary

29.10.3.1 Manufacture
a. Each panel is formed as a 5-layer member, including a core of a selected blend of asphalt and inorganic mineral filler
particles, a bottom reinforcing cover of asphalt-saturated felt and on the top, a cover of asphalt-saturated felt or fiber
glass mat that is weather coated and has bond breaking film or coating.
b. Asphalt and inorganic mineral filler particles shall be blended to form the core, with the asphalt forming the matrix of
the blend to carry the particles. The mineral filler particles function to impart increased density and enhance stiffness
and body in the core.
c. The inorganic mineral filler particles constitute an aggregate bound in the asphalt matrix which will permit points of
ballast rock to penetrate a short distance into the core to secure a good seating position. The aggregate will then resist
further penetration and will support the ballast rock.
29.10.3.2 Workmanship
The protection course shall be free from defects affecting its serviceability and appearance; it shall have straight edges and
square corners.
29.10.3.3 Properties
a. Asphaltic panels shall have the dimensions specified or shown on the plans. Tolerance of r inch (1.5 mm) in
thickness, r inch (3 mm) in width and r inch (6.5 mm) in length shall be permitted.
b. Weight (mass) minimum for 0.375 inch (9.5 mm) thickness, 2.60 pounds per square foot (12.7 kg/m2).
c. Weight (mass) minimum for 0.50 inch (13 mm) thickness, 3.50 pounds per square foot (17.1 kg/m2).
d. Water absorption, max, ASTM D545, 1.0%.
e. Thickness of asphalt weather-coating, rivuleted average, 0.020 inch (0.5 mm) minimum.
f. Asphalt saturated felt liners maximum 15 lb per 100 square foot (0.7 kg/m2) after saturation.
g. Asphalt content 50-60% by weight (mass).
h. Inorganic mineral filler particle contents minimum 25% by weight (mass).
i. Resistance to deterioration from organisms and substances in contacting soil, ASTM E154. No effect.
j. Flexibility, No cracking or breaking.
k. Brittleness at 39-43 degrees F (4 to 6 degrees C), ASTM D994. No cracking or shattering.
l. Heat distortion ASTM D994, 0.3125 inch (7.9 mm) maximum.
m. Mineral Filler, Carefully selected and graded inorganic mineral filler particles shall be blended with the asphalt to form
the matrix of each panel.
n. Weathercoating, Asphaltic weathercoating shall be flowed on the exterior top surface of the protection course. This
coating shall be of sufficient thickness to provide complete dimensional stability to the material, when stored outdoors
in direct sunlight. A suitable bond breaking film or coating shall be applied, to function as a release sheet. During
installation, the asphalt-saturated felt side shall be placed against the membrane waterproofing; the side with the bond
breaking film or coating shall be exposed to the ballast rock.

Waterproofing
o. Resistance to Penetration, Dynamic Loading.
(1) The degree of resistance to penetration, when tested in accordance with ASTM D1883, modified as described
below, shall meet the requirements found in Table 8-29-4.
Table 8-29-4. Degree of Resistance to Penetration
Temperature Dynamic Load Penetration
Deg. F Deg. C lbs. kN ins., max. mm, max.

100 38 225 1.00 0.10 2.54
77 25 350 1.56 0.10 2.54
40 4 600 2.67 0.10 2.54
(2) Pertinent modifications to ASTM D1883:
(a) Section 5.1 Loading Machine – as described, except that the movable head is capable of traveling at a uniform
rate of 0.025 inch per minute (0.61 mm/minute).
(b) Section 5.7 Penetration Piston – as described, except that the diameter of the piston shall be 1.0 +/- 0.005 inch
(25.4 +/- 0.13 mm).
1
(c) Section 5.8 Gages - as described.
(d) Section 6 Sample - Test three specimens 6 u 6inches (152.4 x 152.4 mm), cut from each board sample.
(e) Section 7 Preparation of Test Specimens - The test specimens shall be conditioned in a chamber maintained at
the selected test temperature (±3 F degrees ±1.7 C degrees) for a minimum of 2 hours prior to testing.
3
(f) Section 8.1 - The test specimen, after conditioning, shall be immediately placed on the platform of the loading
machine and the piston placed in the center of the specimen.
(g) Section 8.2 - As described.
(h) Section 8.3 - Apply the load on the penetration piston so that the rate of penetration is approximately 0.025
inch per minute (0.61 mm/minute). The penetration shall be recorded at an applied load reading of 40 lb (178 4
kN) intervals, except where the load increases too fast to record (40 degrees F test (4 degrees C test)).
p. Inspection. Sample from each lot shall be examined for appearance, straightness of edges and squareness of corners,
and measured for width and length. They shall be calibered at four standard points each, with a micrometer having flat
bearing surfaces at both contact points of not less than 3/4 inch (19 mm) diameter. The average of the readings shall be
considered the thickness of the protection course.
q. Flexibility Test
(1) Three specimens 3 u 12 inches (75 x 305 mm) shall be conditioned at 770 ± 50 degrees F (400 ± 28 degrees C) for
not less than 2 hours immediately prior to being subjected to test.
(2) Place specimen with the 12 inch (305 mm) dimension perpendicular to and centered over the axis of a horizontal
cylinder having a diameter of 19 ± 1 inch (483 ± 25 mm).

(3) Clamp one end and grasp the other end of the samples and bend around the cylinder at the uniform rate to
complete bend in 60 ± 10 seconds until the specimen is in full contact with the surface of the cylinder.
(4) Examine for any cracking or breaking of the sample.
SECTION 29.11 SEALING COMPOUNDS FOR JOINTS AND EDGES OF MEMBRANE

PROTECTION (2001)
a. Hot-poured elastic-type joint sealer shall meet the requirements of ASTM D1190.
b. Plastic cements for cold application for sealing joints and edges are generally proprietary products. The literature of the
several manufacturers should be studied, and the Engineer shall select a material which will best serve the purpose as
governed by conditions of use.
c. For types of plastic cement, refer to Section 29.16 for material description and conformance.
SECTION 29.12 ANTI-BONDING PAPER (2001)
Anti-bonding paper shall be a tough paper that shall be impervious to the bituminous material applied to the membrane. It shall
have a weight (mass) not less than 5 lb per 100 square foot (0.25 kg/m2).
SECTION 29.13 INSPECTION AND TESTS (1994)
a. Materials shall be sampled and tested by the current methods recommended by ASTM.
b. The acceptance of any material by the inspector shall not be a bar to their subsequent rejection if found defective.
Rejected material shall be promptly removed from the job and replaced with acceptable material.
c. No material shall be used until it has been accepted by the Engineer.
29.14.1 GENERAL (2001)
a. Bituminous membranes and Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic film or Preformed Board shall not be applied when
atmospheric temperatures are below 50 degrees F (10 degrees C). Butyl Rubber Membrane shall not be applied when
atmospheric temperature is below 10 degrees F (-12 degrees C) without written permission of the Engineer. Surfaces to
be waterproofed shall be clean, smooth, dry, and free of fins, sharp edges, oil, grease and loose or foreign materials.
New concrete shall have cured for a minimum of seven days, or for a longer period if recommended by the
manufacturer, before applying the waterproofing system. Projections or depressions on the surface on which the

Waterproofing
membrane is to be applied that may cause injury to the membrane shall be removed or filled as directed by the
Engineer.
b. There shall be no depressions or pockets in horizontal surfaces of the finished waterproofing. The membrane shall be
carefully turned into drainage fittings. Special care shall be taken to make the waterproofing effective along the sides
and ends of girders and at stiffeners, gussets, etc.
c. Cold liquid-applied elastomeric membrane shall be applied when substrate temperatures are in the range of 32–104
degrees F (0–40 degrees C) providing that the substrate is above the dew point. The condition of the substrate shall
meet the Manufacturer’s recommendations and be approved by the Engineer. Material shall be sprayed on horizontal or
vertical surfaces up to, around or into details.
29.14.2 PRIMER (2001)
a. Surfaces to be protected with asphalt waterproofing shall be given one coat of asphaltic primer before the first mopping
of asphalt. Surfaces to be protected with coal-tar-pitch waterproofing shall be given one coat of creosote primer before
the first mopping of coal-tar pitch. A minimum of 1 gal of primer per 100 square foot (4 liters/10 m2) of surface shall
be used. The primer shall be applied approximately 24 hours before applying the waterproofing membrane.
b. At expansion joints, the primer shall be omitted for a width of 9 inches (230 mm) of each side of the joint, and a strip of
anti-bonding paper 18 inches (450 mm) wide laid thereon before the membrane is applied.
c. Surfaces to be protected with a cold liquid-applied elastomeric membrane shall be given one coat of Manufacturer
approved primer prior to the application of the membrane. The primer shall be applied by either spray, brush, roller or 1
a method approved by the Manufacturer.
29.14.3 MEMBRANE (2001)
29.14.3.1 Bituminous Membrane
a. Coal-tar pitch shall not be heated above 300 degrees F (150 degrees C). Asphalt shall not be heated above 350 3
degrees F (177 degrees C).
b. The surface to be waterproofed shall be mopped in sections slightly wider than the strip of fabric or felt to be placed.
While the mopping of bitumen is hot, a strip of cotton fabric or felt shall be laid on the mopping and pressed into place.
The amount of bitumen used for each mopping shall not be less than 1/2 gallon per 100 square feet (18.3 liters/10 m2)
of surface.
4
c. Lapping of layers of felt or fabric shall be in accordance with one of the types shown in Figure 8-29-2. Ends of fabric
and felt shall be lapped a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) where necessary to splice the material in a strip.
d. On surfaces that are vertical or nearly vertical, the strips of fabric or felt shall be laid vertical or in the direction of the
slope. On other surfaces the strips shall be lapped in accordance with one of the types shown in Figure 8-29-2,
beginning at the lowest part of the surface, to be waterproofed. Sufficient fabric or felt shall be allowed for suitable lap
or anchorage at the upper edge of the surface to be waterproofed.
e. At expansion joints of bridge decks protected with bituminous membrane waterproofing, a strip of anti-bonding paper
18 inches (450 mm) wide and a sheet of 22-gage (0.76 mm) galvanized metal a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) wide
shall be laid and centered on the joint both above and below the membrane before the protective cover is applied.
f. The work shall be regulated so that at the end of the day, all fabric or felt that has been laid shall have been mopped.
g. The waterproofing membrane shall be free from punctures or folds. Patching shall be done only with permission of the
Engineer. Where patching is permitted for defective waterproofing, it shall extend a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm)

Figure 8-29-2. Lapping of Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing.

Waterproofing
beyond the outermost edge of the defective portion. The second and each succeeding ply of the patch shall extend at
least 3 inches (75 mm) beyond the preceding ply.
29.14.3.2 Butyl Rubber or EPDM Membrane
a. For surfaces to be waterproofed with a membrane secured with adhesive, the adhesive shall be applied to ballast
retainers and ends of deck in a solid area extending a minimum of 36 inches (915 mm). At the Engineer’s option,
adhesive may be applied to the entire surface to be waterproofed. Adhesive should be applied in a thin layer (by using
a roller or brush as recommended by the manufacturer) at a minimum rate of 1 gallon per 60 square foot (6.8 liters/10
m2) based on both mating surfaces.
b. Membrane sheets shall first be positioned and drawn tight without stretching. Half of the membrane is then uniformly
rolled up in a direction away from the starting edge or subsequent splice. Adhesive is now applied to the exposed area.
Allow adhesive to dry so as to not stick to a dry finger touch and all solvent is evaporated. The membrane is now
unrolled and pressed firmly and uniformly in place, using care to avoid trapping of air. The same procedure is repeated
for the remaining half of the membrane sheets. Wrinkles and buckles shall be avoided. Each succeeding sheet shall be
positioned to fit the previously installed sheet and spliced.
c. Splices shall be of tongue-and-groove or lap type as specified by the Engineer. Splices shall be made as shown in
Figure 8-29-3. All seam, lap and splice areas shall be cleaned with heptane, hexane, toluene, trichloroethylene or white
gasoline, using a clean cloth, mop or similar synthetic cleaning device. Cement shall be spread continuously on seam,
lap and splice areas at a uniform rate of not less than 2 gal per 150 square foot (5.4 liters/10 m2) based on both mating
surfaces. After cement is allowed to dry until it will not stick to a dry finger touch, apply butyl gum tape to cemented
area of membrane, pressing firmly into place, obtaining full contact. Bridging and wrinkles shall be avoided. Corner
splices shall be reinforced with two continuous layers of rubber membrane over one layer of butyl tape.
1
d. All projecting pipe, conduits, sleeves, etc., passing through membrane waterproofing shall be flashed with
prefabricated or field-fabricated boots, fitted coverings, etc., as necessary to provide watertight construction. Butyl
gum tape shall be used between layers of rubber membrane.
e. At expansion joints of bridge decks protected with butyl rubber membrane waterproofing, a strip of anti-bonding paper 3
18 inches (450 mm) wide and a sheet of 22-gage (0.76 mm) galvanized metal a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) wide
shall be laid and centered on the joint both above and below the membrane before the protective cover is applied.
f. Any holes in the membrane sheeting shall be patched with a minimum overlap of 4 inches (100 mm) and in accordance
with manufacturer’s instructions.
g. During construction, care shall be exercised to prevent damage to the waterproofing membrane by men or equipment. 4
29.14.3.3 Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board
a. Surface Preparation.
(1) All concrete or masonry surfaces shall be surface dry. Surfaces shall be broom cleaned, shall be free of voids,
loose aggregate, sharp protrusions, form release agents or other contaminants. Horizontal concrete or masonry
surfaces shall be wood float finished.
(2) All concrete or masonry surfaces shall be primed with manufacturer’s recommended primer, applied by brush or
roller at the rate of 100 to 250 square foot per gal (2.5 to 6.1 m2/liter). Primer shall be dried one hour or until tack
free. Primed surfaces not covered within 36 hours shall be reprimed. Dense surfaces such as metal shall be primed,
and shall be clean, dry and free of grease, oil, dust, or other contaminants before being primed. Wood shall be
primed.
b. Application Procedures.

Figure 8-29-3. Recommended Butyl Membrane Field Seam Assembly Recommended in Order Listed
for Field Assembly

Waterproofing
(1) Rubber Asphalt with Plastic Film shall be overlapped 2-1/2 inches (64 mm) to adjacent material surfaces. Rubber
Asphalt with Preformed Board shall be butt-jointed with 6 inches (150 mm) gusset tape as recommended by the
manufacturer applied directly over the joints.
(2) All corners shall be double-covered with a double layer of membrane by applying an initial 12 inches (305 mm)
strip centered along the axis of the corner.
(3) Expansion joints shall be double covered with membrane. Prior to waterproofing over expansion joints, a
minimum 12 inches (305 mm) wide galvanized 16 gage (1.52 mm) steel plate shall be placed and centered on the
joint, then an inverted strip of membrane (plastic side down) 4 inches (100 mm) wider than the galvanized plate
shall be centered on the galvanized plate. This should then be covered over with a full width of membrane,
centered on the joint.
(4) The perimeter of the membrane placed in any day’s operation and all outside edges of membrane shall have a
trowelled bead of cold applied rubberized asphalt mastic applied after the membrane is placed.
(5) Areas around drains, posts, bolts, or other protrusions shall have a double layer of membrane and shall be liberally
coated with mastic adjacent to seams and protrusions after application of the membrane.
(6) Immediately before covering the membrane, a careful inspection shall be made and any ruptures, misaligned
seams or other discontinuities shall be patched with membrane.
29.14.3.4 Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane
a. Surface Preparation. 1
(1) All concrete surfaces shall be surface dry. Surfaces to be waterproofed shall be clean, smooth, dry and free of oil,
grease and loose or foreign material.
(2) The surface preparation shall be performed by means approved by the Engineer. The surface profile is not to
exceed 1/4 inch (6.3 mm), peak to valley. Test method ASTM D4541 shall be used to verify that the surface
preparation meets the required adhesion/pull off values of 100 psi (0.7 MPa) for concrete and 290 psi (2.0 MPa) 3
for steel surfaces.
(3) Steel substrates shall be cleaned and sand blasted to a near white SSPC SP-10 specification or to a condition that
exceeds the Manufacturer’s minimum requirements. Special attention shall be given to welds, bolts, rivets, etc., so
that preparation complies with Manufacturer’s recommendations. Primer is to be applied within 4 hours of
preparation.
4
(4) Other methods of surface preparation recommended by the manufacturer may be used as approved by the
Engineer.
b. Application Procedures.
(1) Immediately prior to the application of any component of the system, the surface shall be dry. Any remaining dust
or loose particles shall be removed using a vacuum or clean, dry, oil-free compressed air.
(2) Where the area to be waterproofed is vertical, the system shall be capable of being sprayed at the specified
thickness.
(3) The membrane shall be carefully sprayed around and into drainage fittings to ensure proper runoff of water.
Special care shall be taken with the spraying of the system to get full coverage along the sides and ends of girders,
stiffeners, gussets, and over welds, bolts or rivets, etc.

(4) Where the membrane is to be joined to existing cured material the new application shall overlap the existing
material by at least 4 inches (100 mm).
(5) All overlap areas shall be wiped with a cleaner in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendation.
(6) The membrane shall be applied in a methodical manner to ensure proper coverage. Wet film thickness shall be
checked once every 100 square feet (9 m2).
(7) If required by site conditions, or for application to small areas, or touch-up the membrane can be applied by brush
or trowel in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
(8) The membrane shall be fully cured before it is covered. Membrane shall be inspected prior to covering and any
surface defects or damage shall be repaired in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
(9) Protective cover in accordance with Article 29.14.4.1b shall be installed prior to ballast placement.
(10) Other application procedures may be used as recommended by the manufacturer and approved by the Engineer.
29.14.4 PROTECTIVE COVER (2001)
29.14.4.1 General
a. Protective cover shall be placed over all waterproofing membranes to eliminate damage from ballast contact as soon as
practicable within 24 hours after the membrane has been laid. Dirt and other foreign material shall be removed from
the surface of the membrane before the protective cover is placed. Protective cover shall be shielded with permanent
cover within 48 hours, unless a temporary cover, approved by the Engineer, is placed.
b. One of the following methods of protection shall be used:
(1) A layer of reinforced portland cement concrete not less than 2 inches (50 mm) thick.
(2) A layer of asphalt block or asphalt plank not less than 1 inch (25 mm) thick.
(3) A layer or layers of asphaltic panels not less than 3/4 inch (19 mm) total thickness.
29.14.4.2 Portland Cement Concrete Protection
Portland cement concrete shall be mixed in accordance with the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements. It shall be reinforced with one layer of wire fabric. Traffic shall not be allowed on the concrete until it is
adequately cured as judged by the Engineer.
29.14.4.3 Asphalt Plank
a. Asphalt plank protection shall be laid in hot asphalt applied at not less than 5 gallons per 100 square foot (20 liters/10
m2). As successive planks are laid, the edges and ends of adjacent planks already laid shall be coated heavily with hot
asphalt. This shall be the same asphalt as specified for mopping in Article 29.9.1. Planks shall be held tightly against
those previously laid so that the asphalt will completely fill the joints and be squeezed out of the top. After all of the
planks have been laid, any joints not completely filled shall be filled with hot asphalt.
b. Asphalt planks for use with a butyl rubber or EPDM membrane shall be laid in a coating of bonding adhesive as
specified in Article 29.9.6. The adhesive shall be applied at a rate of not less than 1 gal per 100 square foot (4.1
liters/10 m2). Voids between the joints should be filled with a compatible material as described in Article 29.9.1.

Waterproofing
29.14.4.4 Asphaltic Panels
a. Asphaltic panels are available in various thicknesses. To obtain the thickness of 3/4 inch (19 mm), the recommended
application is two layers with the joints staggered. The panels shall be laid tight jointed, with or without an approved
adhesive. The adhesive shall be the same as specified in Article 29.9.1 when used with Bituminous membrane or in
Article 29.9.6 when used with Butyl rubber or EPDM membrane. Any voids between the panels shall be filled with a
material compatible to both the membrane and the panel.
b. Where edges or protrusions of asphaltic panels are exposed to prolonged sunlight exposure, coat exposed areas with
Fibre Aluminum Roof Coating meeting ASTM D2824, Type II at a rate of 12 square feet per gallon (3 m2/10 liter), for
a 1/8 inch (3 mm) thickness.
29.14.4.5 Sealing Joints and Edges
a. Joints shown on the plan to be filled with a joint sealing compound shall be filled where possible with a hot-poured
elastic-type joint sealer or with an approved hot or cold elastic-type joint sealer. Steeply sloped or vertical areas shall
be sealed with cold-applied mastic.
b. The following precaution (from ASTM D1190) should be observed in using hot-poured elastic-type joint sealer:
Some, if not all, of the known materials conforming to these recommended practices may be damaged by heating to too
high a temperature for too long a time. Care should be exercised to secure equipment for heating that is suitable for the
purpose. The material should be heated in a kettle with mechanical agitation, constructed as a double boiler, with the
space between the inner and outer shells filled with oil or other heat transfer medium. Thermostatic control for the heat
transfer medium shall be provided and shall have sufficient sensitivity to maintain sealant temperature within the
1
manufacturer’s specified application temperature range.
SECTION 29.15 INTRODUCTION TO DAMPPROOFING
29.15.1 DAMPPROOFING SCOPE (2001)
a. Dampproofings are not to be used in any area where a hydrostatic head is anticipated.
b. Dampproofings are a surface coating intended to repel free water.
c. These recommended practices apply to materials and methods for dampproofing concrete surfaces.
SECTION 29.16 MATERIALS FOR DAMPPROOFING
29.16.1 ASPHALT PRIMER (1994)
Asphaltic primer shall meet the requirements of ASTM D41.
29.16.2 CREOSOTE PRIMER (2001)
Coal tar primer for use with coal-tar pitch shall meet the requirements of ASTM D43.

29.16.3 WOVEN COTTON FABRICS (1994)
Woven cotton fabrics saturated with either asphalt or coal-tar bitumen shall meet the requirements of ASTM D173.
29.16.4 COAL-TAR SATURATED ORGANIC FELT (1994)
Coal-tar saturated organic felt shall meet the requirements of ASTM D227.
29.16.5 ASPHALT (1994)
Asphalt shall meet the requirements of ASTM D449. Three types: I, II, or III are specified. Type II asphalt shall be used for
dampproofing.
29.16.6 COAL-TAR PITCH (1994)
Coal-tar pitch shall meet the requirements of ASTM D450. Three types: I, II, or III are specified. Type I coal-tar pitch shall be
used for dampproofing.
29.16.7 EMULSIFIED ASPHALT COATINGS (2001)
Emulsified asphalt coatings shall meet the requirements of ASTM D1187, Type I.
29.16.8 EMULSIFIED ASPHALT PROTECTIVE COATING (2001)
Emulsified asphalt protective coating shall meet the requirements of ASTM D1227, Type II, Class 1.
29.16.9 ASBESTOS-FREE ASPHALT ROOF COATINGS (1994)
Asbestos-free asphalt roof coatings to be brush or spray applied shall meet the requirements of ASTM D4479. Two types: I
and II are specified.
29.16.10 ASBESTOS-FREE ASPHALT ROOF COATING (1994)
Asbestos-free asphalt roof coating to be trowel applied shall meet the requirements of ASTM D4586.
29.16.11 INSPECTION AND TESTS (1994)
a. Contractor shall supply certification that materials used are in full conformance to applicable ASTM designations. If
requested by the Engineer, sampling and testing will be completed.
b. The acceptance of any material by the inspector shall not bar their subsequent rejection if found defective. Rejected
materials shall be promptly removed from the job and replaced with acceptable material.
c. No material shall be used until it has been accepted by the Engineer.

Waterproofing
SECTION 29.17 APPLICATION OF DAMPPROOFING1
29.17.1 PREPARATION OF SURFACES (2001)
a. The surfaces upon which a dampproofing coating is to be applied shall be cleaned of all dirt and loose or foreign
material by sandblasting, the use of wire brushes, chisels or scrapers, or washing with water.
b. Spalled, cracked, or honeycombed areas shall be repaired in accordance with Part 14, Repair and Rehabilitation of
Concrete Structures.
c. All surfaces to be dampproofed shall be dry and free from sharp projections or porous places.
29.17.2 TEMPERATURE (2001)
All dampproofing materials shall be applied when surface temperature is above 40 degrees F (4 degrees C) and rain is not
likely before completion of the project, unless specifically recommended by the material manufacturer and with written
approval of the Engineer.
29.17.3 METHOD OF APPLICATION (2001)2
a. The primer shall be applied to the concrete surface at least 24 hours in advance of applying the first mopping of
bitumen. The primer need not be heated but shall be applied in a uniform coat that completely covers the area to which
the bitumen is to be applied. 1
b. The bitumen for mopping shall be heated to permit uniform covering; however, asphalt shall not be heated above 350
degrees F (177 degrees C) and coal-tar pitch shall not be heated above 300 degrees F (150 degrees C). Two mop coats
of bitumen shall be applied, using a total of approximately 8 gallons of bitumen for 100 square feet of dampproofing
surface (32.6 liters/10 m2). If imperfections appear in the coating, additional coats shall be applied until the
imperfections are corrected.
3
c. Cover or backfill within 72 hours after application. Backfill with care to avoid damage to dampproofed areas.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 29, Waterproofing. In the numbering
of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being commented upon.
4
C - SECTION 29.2 WATERPROOFING (2001)
C - Paragraph i
When doing remedial waterproofing on existing railway bridges, it is possible to encounter unusual materials used as the
protection cover. These may include premoulded asphalt block, industrial or paving brick, mixed-in-place asphalt or coar tar
mastic with selected aggregates. These older methods of protection can be readily recognized and if being removed, should be
replaced with current acceptable AREMA recommended materials and practices.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

C - SECTION 29.7 GENERAL PRACTICES
C - 29.7.1 DESIGN (2005)
a. Roll, sheet or liquid applied systems that, when applied to concrete and masonry surfaces, will prevent the ingress of
moisture in both its liquid and gaseous forms. Systems are suitable for application on and below grade as well as
railway structures of all types, including bridge structures.
b. Selected materials must be suitable for, and capable of handling, the inherent pressures of a hydrostatic head.
C - SECTION 29.9 MEMBRANES
C - 29.9.10 COLD LIQUID-APPLIED ELASTOMERIC MEMBRANE (2005)
The recommended waterproofing membrane thickness applied to the bridge deck is not to be less than recommended by the
manufacturer. The minimum required dry film thickness of 80 mils at any location on the bridge deck is to ensure adequate
coverage of substrate irregularities, and a greater thickness may be specified in order to insure that this minimum is achieved.
The absence of pin holes should be verified in accordance with ASTM D4787. The thickness of membrane applied is to be at
least equal to the thickness used by the manufacturer for the crack bridging test.
C - SECTION 29.10 MEMBRANE PROTECTION
There has been a continuing debate on the use of protection board material over cold liquid applied membrane since cold
liquid applied membrane was included in previous AREMA recommendations. The initial recommendations allowed cold
liquid applied membrane to be used without protection board, provided the membrane material passed the ballast impact test.
The use of protection board placed over cold liquid membrane material is an economic decision that an owner makes. The
AREMA recommendation gives a standard practice, but does not prohibit the use of a cold liquid applied membrane without a
protection board. The decision is a question of length of useful life (economical cost of replacement versus higher initial
capital cost).
C - SECTION 29.17 APPLICATION OF DAMPPROOFING
Dampproofing is a surface coating applied to concrete or masonry that will prevent or repel water in its liquid form. May be
applied in single or multiple layers, suitable for application above and below grade.
C - 29.17.3 METHOD OF APPLICATION (2001)
Dampproofings are not to be used in any area where a hydrostatic head is anticipated.

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Arema Mre Chapter 8

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8

CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND

• Standard Gage Track, 1

• Speeds of freight trains up to 80 mph and passenger trains up to 90 mph.

© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-i

Part/Section Description Page

1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-1

2 Reinforced Concrete Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-1

© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

8-ii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Part/Section Description Page

3 Spread Footing Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-1

4 Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-1 4

5 Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-1

© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-iii

Part/Section Description Page

6 Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-1

7 Mechanically Stabilized Embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-1

10 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-1

11 Lining Railway Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-1

12 Cantilever Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-1

14 Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-1

16 Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-1

© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

8-iv AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Part/Section Description Page

16.6 Manufacture of Precast Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15

17 Prestressed Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-1

19 Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-1

20 Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-1

© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-v

Part/Section Description Page

20.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9

21 Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1

22 Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-1

23 Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-1

24 Drilled Shaft Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-1

25 Slurry Wall Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-1

© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

8-vi AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Part/Section Description Page

26 Recommendations for the Design of Segmental Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-1

28 Temporary Structures for Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-1

© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-vii

Part/Section Description Page

29.9 Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

Chapter 8 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-G-1

© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

8-viii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements1

Section/Article Description Page

1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6

1.3 Other Cementitious Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10

1.4 Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11

© 2018, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-1-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)

1.4.4 Lightweight Coarse Aggregate for Structural Concrete (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-15

1.5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16

1.6 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16

1.7 Concrete Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19

1.8 Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20