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DURABILITY OF FAÇADES WITH

CERAMIC COVERINGS – WHY THEY FAIL
E Campante1 JOA Paschoal2
1
Civil Engineer Brazilian Ceramic Center
2
Materials Engineer Brazilian Ceramic Center São Paulo

Summary: This work is based on the most common pathological descriptions which occur in
façades with ceramic coverings, to develop a method for analyzing which allows causes to be
determined and courses of action to be proposed which, once implemented in the project, execution
and maintenance, can avoid such problems from appearing.
The article discusses the concept of durability and service life, as well as the factors which affect the
parameters used when a designer defines the projected design life, along with the procedures
required to for this to become the real service life of the ceramic covering sub-system.
The work in this study was carried out in São Paulo - Brazil, where a residential building was
studied where the ceramic coverings presented tile loosening, and where we attempted to apply the
aforementioned concepts. The study describes preventive and corrective actions for the
pathological manifestations observed.

Keywords: Durability, Fail, Facade, Covering, Ceramic tiles

1 INTRODUCTION
The main reason that buildings in Brazilian cities have had ceramic coverings for decades is mainly their high level of
resistance in varying climatic conditions, and the material does not usually present high levels of wear and tear over time.
The fact that ceramic coverings last longer is measure by Shohet & Laufer (1996). When they compare this type of covering
with others, such as cement-based mortar, synthetic mortar and stone, a clear superiority of ceramic coverings can be seen
when compared with mortar coverings, in accordance with Table 1.
Table 1: Estimates of service life of various types of external coverings
in different environments (Shohet & Laufer, 1996)
Environment category Cementitious Synthetic Ceramic covering Stone
stucco finished stucco
Non-corrosive 10-15 12-15 Over 15 over 25
Corrosive 5 years 8-12 10-15 over 25
This capacity to remain unaltered over e period of time, associated to other capacities listed by Medeiros (1999), such as: ease
of composing geometric patterns, easy cleaning, good resistance to humidity, general satisfactory performance and low
maintenance costs, are the main reasons for using this type of covering on buildings, especially at sea-side locations.
Ceramic façade coverings are taken to be: a monolithic set of layers (including the plaster layer) adhering to the building
support base (brickwork or structure) whose outer covering is composed of ceramic tiles, laid and grouted with mortar or
adhesive material”, (Medeiros, 1999).
Understanding the various properties of each of these components and the behavioral interfaces between them is fundamental
for avoiding the appearance of pathological manifestations, faults, which can occur at a very early stage, in accordance with an
analysis by Campante & Sabbatini (2000), which saw that 50.9 % of the buildings studied showed tile loosening on the façade
within 5 years of use.

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2 PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATIONS IN FAÇADE CERAMIC COVERINGS (FCC)

Pathological manifestations in FCCs is understood to mean situations where, at a certain moment in the working life the
product fails to present the expected performance, in other words, no longer complies with the functions for which it was
designed and no longer meets the needs of the users.
These functions can be summarized as: protection of the building’s sealing elements, help the sealants to fulfill their functions
(acoustic and thermal isolation, proof against water and gases, etc) providing a uniform finish to the sealing elements as a final
finish, providing aesthetic functions, for economic value and use of the building.
This means that the main pathological manifestations which occur in FCCs can be classified in three categories: efflorescence;
cracks and fissures; and loosening.
Efflorescence is taken to mean the formation of crystalline deposits on a surface due to physical, chemical and physical-
chemical actions. Normally, it is caused by the movement of water through the porosity of the FCC payers, transporting
alkaline metal salts (sodium and potassium) and earthy alkalis (calcium and magnesium), which are soluble or partially soluble
in water, until they appear on the surface after the water evaporates.
The cracks and fissures are the loss of integrity in ceramic component’s surface, which can also cause loosening of this
component from the ceramic covering sub-system. Cracks are defined as a total rupture of the ceramic body in two or more
parts after fixing, whose size is above 0.5 mm. Fissures are opening of 0.01 mm to 0.05 mm of the glazed finish on the ceramic
tile. (Sabbatini & Barros, 1990).
The loosening of tiles means the process of failure between the ceramic tiles and the fixing layer, to the latter and the substrate,
characterized by the separation of sections of the covering at points or in general, caused by the appearance of tensions which
are greater than the capacity for resistance of the adhesive links.
Considering the consequences (economic and personal risk), this could be considered the most serious of FCC. This is because
of the effects of this type of problem: a ceramic tile weighing 250 g falling from the 10th floor of a building has the same
destructive power as a projectile from a firearm when it reaches the ground (Tan et al. 1994).
most of the pathological manifestations which occur in FFCs can be attributed to several factors which occur at the same time.
This means we need to carry out a hierarchical analysis starting by observing the defect, then discovering the immediate cause,
then its nature, or secondary cause, and arrive at the origin of the problem, or primary cause, as seen in figure 1.
Problem perceived DEFECT or PATHOLOGICAL MANIFESTATION
1st level of observation IMMEDIATE CAUSE
2nd level of observation NATURE
3rd level of observation ORIGIN
Figure 1: Hierarchical analysis of pathological manifestations in FCCs
Applying this line of thought to analysis of tile loosening problems starts with the observation pf the defect, followed by a
search for the first cause, or immediate cause, in this case the fault in adherence between the ceramic tile and the fixing
mortar. Then we seek the secondary cause, the nature of the defect, which could be, in this hypothetical case, the application
of the tile onto the mortar too long after the mortar has been applied. The we should seek the cause of this problem, and reach
the origin of the defect, in other words, deficiencies in the execution of the work, which could be caused by lack of training
and/or control (or even an error in the specification of the fixing mortar).
According to Cheong (1992) the analysis of the loosening could lead to four distinct natures: adhesion failure between the
ceramic tile and the fixing mortar; lack of adhesion between the fixing mortar and the substrate; faults in the substrate layers;
and a hollow sound in the ceramic tiles when hit.
For Sabbatini & Barros (1990) the main factors associated to the origin of tile loosening are: deformation in the bases
(brickwork/structure) due to settling of the building after occupation, flow in the concrete structure, which is not seen
immediately and hydrothermal variations; faults in the control joints; inadequate mortar for plastering, laying and grouting and
deficient base preparation.
One of the main causes of tile loosening is the change from the mechanical resistance offered by the various layers to the
mechanical force actually applied. These forces come from movement in the FCCs, caused by movement in the building or
changes to the conditions to which they are exposed.
For Medeiros (1999), there is also a fourth level. defined by him as the “Genesis” of the problem, which has two parts:
1. A lack of projects which account for performance parameters and which consider the requirements of the
production process.
2. A lack of technological understanding of covering production by the entire production chain, starting with the
engineers and architects and going down to the tile layers.

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3 THE CONCEPT OF DURABILITY AND APPLICATION TO FCCS

In the FCC sub-system, quantification of durability takes on fundamental importance for two reasons: firstly because the use of
this data allows us to define the economic viability of using certain types of component and materials. The second reason is
allowing for comparison of the presented durability with other alternatives, so that we can choose the best one for the
conditions seen.
Establishing durability of a subsystem means first understanding the deterioration mechanisms associated to each of the FCC
components, and from there suing the same concept for the subsystem, analyzing the degradation mechanisms. In other words:
Deterioration is a term associated with the components of the subsystem, and
Degradation is a term directly linked to the subsystem as a whole
For CIB (1983), durability must be studied from four different aspects:
I. material used, which are classified on a scale from perishable to non-perishable, according to the level of deterioration
during use;
II. project, which will also be analyzed using a scale from bad to excellent, according to factors considered for the material in
question;
III. conditions of usage, which must be classified from severe to weak;
IV. maintenance, which must be evaluated on a scale of frequent to non-existent.
These aspects account for the subsystem material, and the subsystem as a whole. This is explained by the fact that in
determining durability of a subsystem such as FCCs, we must understand the interface mechanisms between the various
components, which is still a relative unexplored area.
4 CONCEPT OF WORKING LIFE AND APPLICATION TO FCCS
Service life, for FCCs , can be defined as:
The period of time where you can maintain the properties that allow it to carry out the functions for which it was designed,
taking into account the remaining time of use and the estimated costs of maintenance and substitution.
When talking of FCC Service life, two parameters must be defined: design life (DL) and service life (SL).
Design life (BSI, 1992) can be defined as the pre-established value given by the designer which should be aimed fro during
usage. This will be the basis for choosing materials, techniques of subsystem execution, maintenance actions and costs to be
taken on by the user.
There are a series of conditions for DL, among which the life cycle of the building, which will define the period of time
required for the subsystem to maintain its original characteristics. This means, in general terms, that FCC DL must be specified
as the same as that for building substrates and sealing systems. However, DL of the subsystem must not be confused with that
of its components. In Table 2 some criteria are listed which defined the different values for the subsystem components.
Table 2: DL estimates for FCC components
Subsystem component Classification of importance in the subsystem DL Class

Fixing layer A1 1

Ceramic Tile A2 1

Grouting B 2

Expansion Joints C 3
The table above classified the diverse components in accordance with the effects of their faults. This means that a component
classified as A1 would cause subsequent failures after its own. What we are trying to establish is a relationship between the
various components; a failure in the fixing mortar would cause the collapse of the entire subsystem, causing the ceramic tiles to
fall off. For this reason, its DL must be classified as 1, in other words the same value as the subsystem as a whole.
In order to make it easier for façade designers to take decision as to how to establish the different DLs for the FCC
components, a ´proposal is summarized in Table 3. This means that a durability table can be provided for the FCCs, which can
be used to choose the period of time that the subsystem must retain its initial characteristics as a result of the variables:
Production project, Subsystem component materials and Procedures for carrying out the subsystem;

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Table 3: Durability estimates for FCCs based on DLs

Quality levels Levels of durability

of variables A B C D E

PPP 10 7 6 4 2

MAT 8 6 4 3 1

EXE 12 8 7 6 2
Where: PPP: Design for Production
MAT: Material of the subsystem components
EXE: Procedures for subsystem execution
Level A: 25 to 30 points ⇒ over de 25 years
Level B: 20 to 25 points ⇒ 20 years
Level C: 15 to 20 points ⇒ 15 years
Level D: 10 to 15 points ⇒ 10 years
Level E: 5 to 10 points ⇒ less than 5 years
The points described in this table are obtained from an analysis of each of the three basic factors listed in the table. As a result
of the quality level of each of these factors, we can define how long the FCC should be expected to last.
After defining the level of influence of each of the variables, each one is given a weight, which are defined in Tables 4, 5 and
6, as follows.

Table 4: Maximum weight attributed to the factors associated to the PPP variable
in defining the FFC subsystem durability
INFLUENCING MAXIMUM INFLUENCING FACTORS MAXIMUM
FACTORS WEIGHT WEIGHT
Analyses and definitions 5 Specification and details 5
Physical feasibility 0,2 Define base and substrate 1,0
preparation
Economic feasibility 0,2 Define substrate joins and 1,0
reinforcement
Financial feasibility 0,2 Define construction details 1,0
Exposure conditions 1,1 Define construction methods 1,0
Façade architecture 1,1 Define control criteria 1,0
Structural deformability 1,1
Characteristics of external 1,1
brickwork

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Table 5: MAXIMUM WEIGHT attributed to the factors associated to the MAT variable in defining the durability of the FFC subsystem
INFLUENCING MAXIMUM INFLUENCING MAXIMUM INFLUENCING MAXIMUM INFLUENCING MAXIMUM
FACTORS WEIGHT FACTORS WEIGHT FACTORS WEIGHT FACTORS WEIGHT
Study of tile type 2 Material selection for 2 Material selection for 2 Material selection for 2
fixing layer grouting layer expansion joints
Historic problems 0,1 Fixing/grouting mortar 0,5 Deformation capacity 0,4 Size of expected FCC 0,3
properties movement
Direct/indirect costs 0,1 Application surface 0,2 Lateral adherence of 0,3 Locations of tension 0,3
characteristics ceramic tiles concentration in the FCC
and base
Wall backing surface 0,3 Forecast structural 0,5 Workability 0,4 Tile modularity 0,3
treatment behavior of FCC
Tile weight 0,3 Environmental conditions 0,3 Drying retraction 0,4 Position/thickness of 0,2
laying joints
Porosity of backing 0,3 Tile position 0,2 Esthetic requirements 0,1 FCC and base material 0,3
wall characteristics
Tile thickness and 0,3 Relative façade position 0,3 Resistance to 0,4 Sealing properties 0,3
surface deterioration
Tile color 0,3 Geometry / dimensions / 0,3
quantity / expansion joint
position
Tile properties 0,3

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Table 6: MAXIMUM WEIGHT attributed to the factors associated with the EXE variable when defining the durability of the FCC subsystem
INFLUENCING MAXIMUM INFLUENCING MAXIMUM INFLUENCING MAXIMUM INFLUENCING MAXIMUM
FACTORS WEIGHT FACTORS WEIGHT FACTORS WEIGHT FACTORS WEIGHT
Service program 1 Labor definition 4 Technical definition of 5 Project control 2
application
Logistics 0,1 Team sizes 0,3 Procedure for material 0,5 Define process control 0,7
preparation/handling stations
Tools / equipment 0,3 Procedure 1,5 Marking/leveling/expans 0,5 Define criteria for 0,7
preparation ion joints/rows receiving services
techniques
Installation / 0,3 Training manual 1,5 Techniques for adjusting 0,5 Project process Feedback 0,6
movement of preparation covering dimensions to
equipaments project modulation
Supply/handling of 0,1 Labor qualification 0,7 Techniques for applying 0,5
material fixing mortar
Production 0,2 Techniques for 0,5
organization placement of ceramic
tiles
Techniques for using 0,5
manual tools
Techniques for applying 0,5
grouting mortar
Techniques of executing 0,5
joints
Techniques for 0,5
executing expansion
joints
Techniques for cleaning 0,5
after application

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The service life is defined by BSI (1992) as the period of time during which a component or construction maintains its
characteristics, exceeding the users’ requirements as to operation, maintenance and repair, in other Word, the period during
which the subsystem really maintains its properties up to the minimum acceptable level to meet users’ expectations
The SL of a subsystem is limited by what ISO (1997) called the deterioration to which components that cannot be substituted
are subject. Deterioration itself may not require substitution of components that can be substituted, however, in some cases,
substitution may be so expensive that it may affect the SL of the subsystem as a whole. This is often the case with FFCs.

5 CASE STUDY
A high quality residential building located in a middle to high class region of the city of São Paulo, with 20 floors and a
penthouse. This case study began with a request from the construction company for an evaluation the cause of tile loosening
which was occurring mainly in the front and rear façades while it was being handed over to the owners.
Diagnosis began with an on site visit, which showed the location of the building. The main problems with loose tiles were
occurring on the northeast (frontal) and southwest (rear) façades, with the latter most affected, as can be seen in figure 2.

Figure 2: View of the façade affected by loose tiles

During the inspection, high winds were detected around the area due to the relatively isolated position of the building on a hill.
The most affected façade was also subject to high quantities of direct sunlight in the afternoons. it was also noted that no type
of expansion joint was used, either vertical or horizontal, as can be seen in figure 3. There is also a lot of cracking in the
grouting mortar, as shown in figure 4. Another fact observed was that many ceramic tiles which had fallen off showed a lack of
contact with fixing mortar on the contact side.

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Figure 3: Evidence of lack of expansion joints on the right rear façade.

Figure 4: Evidence of cracks in the grouting between tiles.

Interviews with the people responsible for the building did not provide enough information on the stages of execution and
material used to apply the ceramic tiles, as the construction company does not exist any more. We could only determine that
the tiles started to loosen and fall soon after the building had been delivered.
Even without access to all of the information, we attempted to define the Nature and Origin of the problem from the
interviews and inspection results. From the point that the problem has been ascertained, we reach the 1st level of observation:
the Immediate Cause of the problem, the lack of adherence between the tile and the fixing mortar shown by the lack of filling
on the tile contact surface.

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Moving on the next stage, determining the Nature of the problem, the following factors were found:
• the tiles were applied outside the appropriate period of mortar application;
• the tiles were applied without using the double fixing principle;
• the tiles were applied to a surface subject to severe weather conditions, such as: high levels of sun lights, high winds,
and no adequate protection;
• base deformations;
• ceramic tile humidity expansion;
• retraction during drying of the fixing mortar;
• fatigue in the links between the fixing mortar and the ceramic tiles due to thermal shocks.
Once we had analyzed the Nature of the problem, we studied its Origins:

• inadequate choice of fixing mortar, indicated fro internal use and used o the façade;
• use of plaster and grouting mortar with inappropriate properties for the conditions (high level of retraction during
drying and low capacity to absorb deformations);
• lack of expansion joints which could dissipate tensions to which the FCC was subjected;
• use of inadequate ceramic tiles, with high levels of absorption which required mortar with high levels of water
retention; and
• use of inadequate fixing techniques for the type of tile used, with ceramic tiles with swallow-tail studs were applied
using the final layer technique, which did not provide adequate filling of the tile contact surface.
• deficiencies (or lack of) execution procedures;
• lack of tile application training;
• deficiencies (or lack of) control criteria for carrying out services and accepting works;
• project deficiencies in the FCC subsystem, which did not allow for correct quantification of deformations to which the
base would be subjected;
• high grouting mortar permeability which allowed d for tile humidity and humidity expansion;
Even reaching a series of diagnostic hypotheses regarding the problem, it was still not possible to determine the probable
cause. We still had not examined the possibility of humidity expansion of the ceramic tiles above that permitted by the
standards. Therefore, we turned to a laboratory to test the tiles, and the result was outside the range permitted by the NBR
13818 standard (ABNT, 1997): 0,.3 mm/m, against 0.6 mm/m. This would not recommend the use of this component for
external purposes.

6 FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
This study has enabled us to discover the origins of the FCC loosening, and therefore establish how the project parameters, the
building production procedures and the maintenance operations could influence the durability and service life of this
subsystem, also leading to pathological manifestations. Within the project parameters, it is important to consider:

• Evaluation of the conditions which the façade will be exposed to, through a detailed study of the environment in which
the building is placed, to determine the possibility of thermal shocks, freezing, levels of acid rain, wind, atmospheric
pollution and others..
• Analysis of the façade structure: this stage should include variables such as geometry, forms, building type and level,
surroundings, etc.
• Study of the ceramic tile typology: critical study which includes the parameters related to the choice of type of tile,
including direct and indirect cost, history of problems, characteristics and properties of the ceramic tile, prior definition
of the need for joints and types of fixing material.
• Evaluation of structure deformation: deformation over time, using variables such as: concrete deformation module,
rigidity of the structure an its elements, slow deformation (flow), sequence and construction methods used in building
the structure.
• Evaluation of external brickwork: technical analysis of the need to prepare the base and substrate for the FCCs,
evaluating potential intrinsic movement of the sealing brickwork, mechanical resistance, absorption capacity and
regions which could provoke tension in the FCC layers and influence the technical definition of the base preparation,
plaster reinforcement and control joints.
The execution procedures should consider the most common errors which found during the field studies and correct them:

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• Fixing to warm surfaces.

• Usage of incorrect fixing mortar.
• Fixing to contaminated surfaces.
• Spreading of fixing mortar over large areas.
• Dilution of fixing mortar to provide greater yield.
• Fixing over construction joints.
• Fixing on different materials without using joints.
• Fixing on dry fixing mortar.
• Fixing to damp surfaces.
• Fixing too fast.
• Fixing to inadequate bases.
• Incorrect spreading of mortar (without trenches or deformed trenches).
• Inadequate joint cleaning.
• Adulteration of products to increase profits.
• Substitution of the fixing mortar for another mortar, different from that specified for the project, generally inadequate
for the climate and/or type of use.
• Omission of steps in fixing to gain time.
• Lack of works supervision
• Inadequate execution of the grouting and/or expansion joint layer.
As to the maintenance / use, this can be summarized in the following aspects:
• Use of unadulterated cleaning products.
• Clear maintenance procedures for inspection and possible exchange of subsystem elements which could be
compromised, such as grouting and filing material in the expansion joints.
At the end of this study, we can reach two conclusions, the first of which is the importance of a construction log, or access to
important documents which show the history of the building construction and the design of the FFC subsystem, such as:
invoices, works logs, physical chronograms set and attained, service contracts, tests for materials received, “as built” projects,
and others for diagnosing the problem.
The second is the recuperation of FFCs can be very costly. These costs include rental and installation of better rocker arms (to
make services easier), the use of better quality material, low productivity because of small teams to better control the services
carried out, difficult in finding ceramic tiles similar to those used during the works, labor suits, and others.
7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. ABNT - ASSOCIAÇÃO BRASILEIRA DE NORMAS TÉCNICAS. Placa cerâmica para revestimento: especificação e
métodos de ensaios - NBR 13818. Rio de Janeiro, 1997.
2. BSI - BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION Guide to durability of buildings and building elements, products and
components - BS 7543. London, 1992.
3. CAMPANTE, E. F.; SABBATINI, F. H. Durabilidade dos revestimentos cerâmicos de fachada e sua influência na
qualidade e segurança das edificações. In Seminário Internacional NUTAU 2000 Tecnologia & Desenvolvimento, São
Paulo, 2000. Anais. São Paulo.
4. CHEONG, Y. C. Training of tilers. In: Conference on Adhesives Technology in the Arquitectural Application of
Ceramic Tiles, Singapore, 1992. Proceedings. Singapore, Trade Link Media Pte. Ltd.
5. CIB - CONSEIL INTERNATIONAL DU BÂTIMENT Working with the performance approach in building.
Rotterdam Netherlands, 1983.
6. ISO - INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION. Building service life planning - part 1
General principles - 15686-1. Geneve Switzerland, 1997.
7. MEDEIROS, J. S. Tecnologia e projeto de revestimentos cerâmicos de fachada de edifícios. São Paulo, 1999. 458p.
Tese (Doutorado) - Escola Politécnica, Universidade de São Paulo.
8. SABBATINI, F. H.; BARROS, M. M. S. B. Recomnedações para produção de revestimentos cerâmicos para paredes
de vedação em alvenaria. São Paulo, Convêncio EPUSP/CPqDCC - ENCOL, 1990. (Relatório Técnico R6-06/90).
9. SHOHET, I. M.; LAUFER, A. Exterior cladding methods: a technoeconomics analysis. Journal of Construction
Engineering and management, v. 122, n. 3, p. 242-247, 1996.
10. TAN, K. S. et al. Non-destructive assessment of voids in tiled walls. In: INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
BUILDING ENVELOPE SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY, Singapore, 1994. Proceedings. Singapore, CIDB-NTU, p.
91-96.

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