Transportation Engineering

Volume II

C Venkatramaiah

Transportation Engineering
Vol. II 1
 Part IV
Bridge Engineering

Bridge Engineering 2
Chapter 22: General Considerations and
Classification
 A 'bridge' is a structure built to provide passage over an
obstacle such as any body of water like a river, a valley, or a
road or a railway.
 Components of a bridge:
(1) Superstructure
(2) Substructure
(3) Foundations
 Superstructure: A structural system which carries a
transportation facility such as a roadway or a railway over an
obstacle. This consists of a flooring supported by beams,
slabs, arches, trusses and cables.
 Substructure: Supporting system for the superstructure,
comprising, abutments, piers and wing walls.
Bridge Engineering 3
 Foundations: These are the lowest components of a bridge,
meant to support abutments and piers. Depending upon the site
conditions, a suitable type of foundation is adopted.
Ancillary works for a bridge:
(a) Approaches: These connect the bridge to the transportation
facility on either side.
(b) River training works: These may consist of aprons at the bed
level of the waterway and revetments for the protection of slopes
of the embankments at the abutments.

Bridge Engineering 4
A bridge is an important element in a transportation system since its
failure causes serious disruption of traffic. Bridges have been built
since prehistoric times.
The criteria for classification are manifold; they are not mutually
exclusive as there can be an overlap of the types.
(a) Function: Highway bridge, railway bridge, viaduct, foot-bridge,
and so on.
(b) Service life: Permanent (long service), or temporary (as in the
case of military bridges).
(c) Construction material: Timber, masonry, steel, RCC, PSC, or
composite bridges.
(d) Type of superstructure: Slab, beam, arch, truss, low-string girder,
suspension types.
(e) Structural action: Simple, cantilever, continuous bridges.
(f) Position of bridge floor relative to superstructure: Deck, through
or semi-through types.

Bridge Engineering 5
(g) Relative levels in grade separations: Over bridges (roadway above
railway) and under bridges (roadway below railway)
(h) Alignment relative to water course: Rectangular, or skew.

• Standard loadings
IRC (for highway bridges): Class-AA, class-A, and Class-b
loadings
Railways standards for railway bridges (RDSO)
• Site selection for a bridge
Factors influencing site selection:
 Crossing angle with respect to water course or obstruction.
Square crossing or skew-crossing, which is not desirable.
 Width of river (a measure of the length of the bridge)
 Velocity of flow (to prevent scour of the substructure and
foundations)
 Soil characteristics for the foundations.
Bridge Engineering 6
  Approaches (should be on easy gradients)
 Need for river-training works (straight stretch on either side of
the bridge is desirable).
 Availability of construction materials and labour.
• Site investigation and surveys
(a) Reconnaissance survey
(b) Preliminary survey (for possible alternative locations also)
(c) Detailed location survey, along with the necessary drawings (after
the best possible site is chosen).
• Subsoil investigation
Assessment of engineering properties of the soils encountered at the
bridge site in order to aid the design of the foundations.
• Alignment of a bridge
Criteria governing the alignment:
 Rectangular or square crossing, preferably.
 Straight alignment (curved alignment is rarely preferred)
 Alignment approaches
 Scour and need for river-training works.
Bridge Engineering 7
• Choice of type of bridge
Governing factors:
 Suitability to carry the expected traffic
 Minimum economic cost (Initial cost and maintenance cost during
design life)
 Efficiency of operation for the intended purpose.
 Aesthetically pleasing look of the completed bridge.
• Hydraulic design
This involves the following:
(1) Design discharge
(2) Linear waterway and afflux
(3) Economic span
(4) Scour depth
(5) Depth of foundation
(6) Freeboard and clearance

Bridge Engineering 8
Design Discharge (Q)
Methods for determination are:
(a) Empirical formula
(b) Rational formula
(c) Area-velocity method
(d) Unit-hydrograph method

 Empirical formulae:
2
Ryve's formula Q = C ×A 3

Q = Maximum flood discharge (m3/s)

A = Area of catchment (sq.km)
C = 6.8 for flat catchment within 25 km from the coast
= 8.5 for areas between 25 and 160 km from the coast
= 10 for areas near hills.

Bridge Engineering 9
 Rational formula [IRC: SP: 13-1973(2004 Revised) Guidelines
for the Design of small bridges and Culverts.]
Here, C = coefficient which depends upon the type and extent of
catchment.
i = Critical intensity of rainfall in mm/h during the time of
concentration of flood interval
A = Catchment area in sq.km
(Weighted value of C is taken for different types of areas in the
catchment)
 Area-Velocity method: ( Q ) = ( A )× V
m3 /s
sq .km (m / s )
1 32 12
Manning's formula for permissible velocity of flow: V = ×R ×S
n
n = coefficient of rugosity or roughness; n depends on the bed
material.
S = slope of stream (taken to be the same as bed slope)
é area of flow in m ù
2

R = Hydraulic mean depth in m = PA êêëPA :: wetted

wetted perimeter in m
ú
ú
û
Area of flow, A, may be got soundings for the depth of flow at
different points along the width of waterway.
Velocity of flow, V, may be got by using current meter.
Bridge Engineering 10
 Unit-hydrograph method:
'Hydrograph' is the graph between discharge and time due to a
rainfall of specified, duration and distribution.
'Unit-hydrograph' is the hydrograph representing a unit depth (1
mm) of direct run-off as a result of rainfall excess occuring
uniformly over the catchment for a specified duration (say 6 h or
12h). The area under a unit hydrograph represents the volume of
rainfall excess due to a rain of 1 mm over the entire basin.
A procedure following systematic steps has been evolved to
calculate peak discharge from the Unit-hydrograph.
 Linear waterway and afflux
Natural waterway: The unobstructed area of the river/stream
through which water flows.
Waterway of a bridge: The area of flow under the bridge
superstructure. It is less than the natural waterway.

Bridge Engineering 11
 Waterway for alluvial streams:
Lacey's formula L = C Q
Here
L = Linear waterway or regime surface width of flow (m)
Q = Design discharge (m3/s)
C = Constant (4.8 for regime channel- 4.5 to 6.3 depending upon the site
conditions)
Afflux: 'Heading up of water' on the upstream side of the bridge
caused by the constriction of the waterway due to the construction
of the bridge,
General formula for afflux:
2 é 2 ù
Afflux, h = V2 g êêCLL - 1úú
a 2 2
ë 1 û
Here, V = velocity of normal flow (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
L = width of stream at HFL (m)
L1 = Linear waterway under the bridge (m)
C = coefficient of discharge through the bridge (0.7 for sharp entry and 0.9
for bell-mouthed entry.)
Bridge Engineering 12
• Empirical formulae for afflux
Molesworth's formula
æV 2 öïìï æA ö2 ü
ï
ç
ha = çç ÷
+ 0.0153÷í çç ÷
÷ ÷-
÷ 1ïý
è17.9 øïï çè A1 ø
÷ ïï
î þ

Here, V = normal velocity of flow (m/s)

A = natural waterway area near the site (m2)
A1 = contracted waterway area under the bridge (m2)
Merriman's formula
V 2 éêæ ù
2
A÷ ö æ ö
ha = ç
ç ÷ - çç A ÷
÷ú
2 g êêëçècA1 ÷
÷
ø çè Ae øú
÷
÷ú
û

Here, Ae = Enlarged area of waterway (m2)

c = Coefficient of discharge through the bridge
2
æA ö æA ö
c = 0.75 + 0.35ççç 1 ÷
÷
÷- 0.10 ççç 1 ÷
÷
÷ , approx.
è Aø è Aø

V, A, and A1 are as in Molesworth's formula.

Increase in velocity due to afflux: V = 2g ×h a a

It is desirable to keep the afflux as low a value as possible say, 150 mm.
Bridge Engineering 13
Effects of afflux
• Increase in velocity on the downstream site increases scour,
necessitating grater foundation depth:
• Protection works such as guide banks are to be raised for
necessary freeboard.
• Bridge deck level has to be raised to prevent submersion.
Economic span
It is established for simple bridges that the economic span is that
for which the cost of superstructure and that of the substructure
for one span should be equal.
Odd number of spans are preferred so as to avoid a pier at the
deepest portion if the stream or river. The lower the number of
spans, the better it is, in order to minimise the obstruction of
flow because of piers.
Scour depth
The depth up to which the bed material is eroded due to high
velocity of flow.
Bridge Engineering 14
Lacey's equation
1
æQ ö3
Scour depth, d s = 0.472 çç ÷ ÷
çè f ÷
ø
f = Lacey's silt factor, which depends upon the material of the bed.
(Varies from 0.40 to 2.00)
[m = mean diameter of particles (mm)]
Depth of foundation
This has to be decided based on the type of foundation, proposed
size and shape, and the bearing capacity of the foundation soil.
2
q æ1- sin f ö
÷
Preliminary idea may be got from h = çç
r çè1 + sin f
÷
÷
ø
Here, Q = bearing capacity of soil
r = unit weight of soil
= angle of internal friction of the soil.

Bridge Engineering 15
Freeboard and clearance
Freeboard: The difference between the highest flood level (after
allowing for afflux) and the formation level of the road embankment
of the approaches. (Minimum for high-level bridges: 1750 mm)
Clearance: Defined as the vertical difference between the highest
flood level and the lowest point of the superstructure. The higher
the discharge, the greater is the clearance required. (150 to 1500 mm)
Classification of bridge components
Classification of superstructure:
Based on material, it can be timber, masonry, steel, RCC, PSC, and
composite type. Based on the structural action, it can be simple on
beam, continuous beam, cantilever, arch, low-string girder, rigid
frame, suspension and cable-stayed type.
Timber bridges: Suited only for small spans up to 6 m; not used for railway
bridges.
Masonry arch bridges: Generally, stone masonry is used.
Bridge Engineering 16
Shape of the arch, number of hinges (two or three) spandrel may be
filled with earth, or it may left open.
Width of the arch should be the same as that of the bridge.
Steel bridges:
May be with 'riveted' or 'welded' joints. Bridge with any structural
action can be built in steel.

Bridge Engineering 17
Plate girder bridges are common

Truss bridges are suitable for spans from 30 m to 300 m.

Primary forces in the members of the truss will be axial-tension and
compression.

Bridge Engineering 18
Suspension bridges are used for very large spans.

Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) bridges:

RCC has become the most popular material for bridge construction
Common types of RCC bridges:
(a) Slab – up to 8 m span
(b) T-beam or girder – up to 20 m span
(c) Balanced cantileverüïï
ý up to 60 m span
(d) Continuous beam ïïþ
(e) Bow-string girder – up to 45 m span

Bridge Engineering 19
Four-girder system of a T-beam bridge

RC Bow-string girder bridge

Bridge Engineering 20
Other types of bridge superstructures:
Floating or pontoon bridges
Movable bridges-swing, bascule and lift types
Bridge joints
 Construction joints
 Expansion joints
 Contraction joints
Bearings for bridges
'Bearings are provided under them supports to accomodate the
changes that may take place in the girders due to the temperature,
deflection, sinking o supports, and shrinkage and creep. The bearing
stresses are uniformly distributed over the substructure.
Bearings are very important in major bridges since their improper
functioning could lead to failure of the bridges.

Bridge Engineering 21
Important types of bearings
 Rocker bearing

 Rocker and roller bearing

 Neoprene bearing
• Appurtenances for bridges
 Parapets and handrails
 Footpaths on bridges
 Crash barriers
 Drainage sprouts

Bridge Engineering 22
• Classification of Substructure
Components of substructure
(1) Abutments
(2) Wing walls
(3) Piers
Abutments: End supports of the bridge.
They transfer loads from the superstructure on to the
foundations.
They retain earth filling at the back to support the road or
railway at the approaches.
They are mandatory and supports for safe load transfer.
Types of abutments:
 Without wing walls (not commonly used)
 With wing walls (the most popular type)

Bridge Engineering 23
Abutment with straight wings Abutment with splayed wings

Abutment with return wings

Abutment for a girder bridge

Bridge Engineering 24
 Abutment for an arch bridge
• Wing walls
Provide smooth entry and exit of water flow into and away from the
bridge, besides protecting the end of the abutment.
Types of wing walls:
(i) Straight wing walls
(ii) Splayed wing walls
(iii) Return wing walls

Bridge Engineering 25
Piers
These are intermediate supports of a bridge superstructure; they
divide the waterway into a suitable number of spans.

Types of piers:
(a) Solid piers (b)Cylindrical piers

Bridge Engineering 26
(c) Dumb-bell piers

(d) Trestle bents

Bridge Engineering 27
• Classification of foundations
Foundations transfer the loads from above to the earth material
below so that the stresses in the soil are within permissible limit
with adequate margin of safety with respect to the bearing
capacity, and the resulting settlements are within acceptable
limits.
Factors governing stability:
(i) Maximum scour depth
(ii) Minimum grip length ( 13 to 12 of maximum scour depth)
(ii) Soil pressure at the base
(iv) Total and differential settlements
Types of foundations:
Broadly speaking, these are:
(a) Shallow foundations
(b) Deep foundations

Bridge Engineering 28
• Shallow foundations

Footings Rafts

Bridge Engineering 29
• Deep foundations
 Pile foundations
 Caisson foundations
o Box caissons
o Open caissons or well foundations
o Pneumatic caissons
Cofferdams
Temporary structures built to exclude water from the river bed to
facilitate work for the foundation and the substructure.
Types of cofferdams:
o Earth-fill
o Rock-fill
o Rock-fill crib
o Sheet –pile wall

Bridge Engineering 30
Chapter 23: Design Aspects of Bridges
 Design aspects of bridges
The standard procedures for design of bridges and their components
depend on whether they are for Highway bridges or for Railway
bridges. For Highway bridges, the standard codes of practice
prescribed by the Indian Roads Congress (IRC) are applicable,
whereas, for Railway bridges, Indian Railway Standards (IRS Bridge
Rules and IRS Bridge Codes) are applicable.
 Design aspects of superstructure
IRC Bridge Code for Highway bridges consists of eight sections.
Section I General features of design
Section II Loads and stresses
Section III to VI Bridges of cement concrete, masonry, steel and
composite construction respectively.
Section IX Bearings

Bridge Engineering 31
Design Loads:
(i) Dead load, including snow load if any
(ii) Live load
(iii) Impact or Dynamic loads and centrifugal forces
(iv) Wind load
(v) Longitudinal forces (due to tractive effort and braking)
(vi) Forces due to water currents
(vii) Earth pressure, including surcharge pressure
(viii) Temperature and deformation effects
(ix) Erection stresses and secondary stresses
(x) Earthquake forces
(xi) Forces due to impact of vehicles
The bridge should be designed to withstand the worst combination
of the design loads with a defined probability.

Bridge Engineering 32
• Live load: Transient loads that pass over the bridge. Standard loadings
have been evolved by the IRC for use in the design of highway bridges
(1) Class-AA loading üïï
ý National and state highways
(2) Class-70 R loadingïïþ
(3) Class-A loadingüïï
ý Other roads
()
4 Class-B loading ïï
þ

Bridge Engineering IRC Class AA Loading 33

Wheeled vehicle of IRC Class 70-R
loading

IRC Class A and B loading

Bridge Engineering 34
• Impact loads
These are due to the 'dynamic effects' of the loads. The allowance
for impact is made through a factor, called 'Impact factor', which
is a fraction of the applied live load, by which it is increased.
Empirical formulae are used for impact factor.
[IRC: 6-2010 (fifth revision): Standard specifications and Code of
Practice for Road Bridges. Section-II Loads and Stresses.]
For class –AA and class -70R loadings:
æ 4.5 ö
For RC bridges, it is çççè6 + L ø÷÷÷
æ 9 ö
For steel bridges, it is çççè1.3.5 + L ø÷÷÷
Where L is the span in metres.

Bridge Engineering 35
 Impact factor for highway bridges for Class A and Class B loading
For class –AA and Class-70R loadings:
Spans less than 9 m:
Tracked vehicle: 0.25 for span up to 5 m, linearly reducing to 0.10 for
spans of 9 m
Wheeled vehicle: 0.25

Bridge Engineering 36
 Spans 9m or more:
R.C.C. bridges
Tracked vehicle: 0.10 up to 40 m spans and in accordance with the
curve given on the previous slide for spans greater than 40 m.
Wheeled vehicle: 0.25 for spans up to 12 m and in accordance with
the curve given on the previous slide for spans > 12 m.
Steel bridges:
Tracked vehicle: 0.10 for all spans
Wheeled vehicle: 0.25 for spans up to 23 m and in accordance with
the curve given on the previous slide for spans >23 m.
• Centrifugal forces (C)
2
WV
On horizontal curve C = 12.95 R
Here, W = Live load in kN for wheel loads and kN/m for uniform live load.
V = design speed in km/h
R = radius of the curve in m
This force is taken to act at a height of 1.2 m above the level of the
carriageway.

Bridge Engineering 37
• Wind load
Depends on the geographic location, the terrain, the height of
the bridge above the ground, and the lateral dimensions of the
bridge.
Basic wind speed is taken as 323 m/s (120 km/h) and the return
period is taken as 100 years. At a height of 50 m, horizontal wind
pressure is 660 N/m2 in plain terrain.
The transverse wind force on the superstructure depends on the
type of bridge deck-deck type or semi-through type.

• Longitudinal forces
Due to tractive effort and braking effect.
Also, frictional resistance offered to the movement of bearings
due to temperature changes can cause longitudinal forces.
Braking force-20% of the first train load plus 10% of the load in
succeeding trains.

Bridge Engineering 38
• Horizontal forces due to water currents
Here, P = intensity of pressure due to water current kg/m2
V = velocity of flow in m/s
K = a constant ... 1.50 for square-ended piers
0.50 for piers with cut-waters.
• Earth pressure
Coulumb's theory may be used for computing the earth pressure,
taking the centre of pressure at 0.42 of the height of the wall
above the base.
Live load surcharge is taken as equivalent to 1.2 m earthfill for
abutments and return walls.
• Temperature effects
The coefficient of thermal expansion for RCC, PSC and steel
structures is taken as 12 10-6/ C.
Deformation stresses are relevant only to steel bridges. Assumed
to be around 16% of dead and live load stresses.

Bridge Engineering 39
• Erection stresses
Stresses due to the various handling methods in the construction
procedure.
• Secondary stresses
In steel structures, secondary stresses are caused due to
eccentricity of connections, lateral wind forces on the end posts
of through girders, and movement of supports.
• Earthquake forces
"IS: 1893 (Part-I)-2002 Indian standard criteria for earthquake
resistant design of structures" should be followed.
Horizontal seismic force:
æ ö
Horizontal seismic coefficient,: A = æçççè Z2 ÷÷÷øö(I )çççè sg ÷÷÷ø
h
a

Here,
Z = zone factor [depending on the seismic zone (I to V) in which the
bridge site falls-0.10 to 0.36]
I = seismic importance factor of the bridge
æs ÷ ö
çç ÷ = Average response acceleration coefficient for 5% damping.
a
÷
çè g ø
Bridge Engineering 40
 Response spectra
• Design aspects of substructures
The components of the substructures are: Abutments, Piers and
foundations.
"IRC: 78-2000(second revision): Standard specifications and
code of practice for Road Bridges-Section VII –Foundations and
Substructure". For Railway bridges, the relevant code is "Indian
Railway standard code of Practice for the design of substructures
for Bridges, Govt. of India, Ministry of Railways-1964 (Revised
2003)". Bridge Engineering 41
Abutments:
The salient dimensions are-Height: fixed with adequate
freeboard and clearance, difference between formation level and
bed level.
Top width: should be adequate for the bridge seat and bearings-
minimum 500 mm.
Side batter: On the water side, wild batter of 1 in 24 or it can be
vertical. Back face retaining earth is given a batter of 1 in 6 to 1 in
4 or it may be stepped.
Bottom width: must be adequate for stability-against overturning
and sliding at the base.
Length: at least equal to the width of the roadway. Cut-stone or
cement concrete cap is provided at the top for proper bearing.
Loads on abutments
Self-weight, Impact effect, reaction from superstructure, Tractive
effort and braking force, earth pressure and surcharge, water
pressure, wind pressure, seismic load.
Stability conditions are to be satisfied.
Bridge Engineering 42
Piers:
Salient features are: Height, top width, batter, bottom width,
length, pier cap, and cut waters and ease waters.
Height: Bed level to support level of the superstructure.
Minimum freeboard should be 1 to 1.5 m.
Top width: should be adequate to accommodate the bearings on
either side with a clearance of at least 150 mm. Top width should
be a minimum of 750 mm.
Empirically, top width, b = L (L = span) or b = 16 to 17 of L.
Batter: sides may be vertical or battered- 1 in 24 to 1 in 12. High
piers are invariably battered.
Bottom width: Should be adequate to provide stability.
Length: Somewhat more than the width of the roadway/railway
Pier cap: Cut stone or concrete (M150) can be 450 to 600 mm
thick.
Cutwaters and easewaters: For easy passage of water on the
upstream and downstream side, respectively.
Bridge Engineering 43
Loads on piers: These are practically the same as those for
abutments, except for the absence of earth pressure.
Wing walls:
Salient features are:
Height, top width(0.5 to 1.5 m), batter (1 in 6 to 1 in 4 on earth side),
bottom width, length.
Designed as retaining walls as in the case of abutments. Stability
criteria are the same as those for abutments." IRC: 78-2000" is to be
followed.
• Design aspects of foundations
The safety and economy of abridge are very much dependent upon the
foundations. The function of a foundation is to transfer the loads from
the superstructure, via the substructure, to the earth material
underneath in such a manner the stresses do not cause shear failure,
and the resulting settlements are within acceptable limits. [IRC: 78-
2000(Second Revision)-Foundations for Highway Bridges}. Foundation
design involves the knowledge of hydraulics, geotechnical engineering,
and structural analysis and design.
Bridge Engineering 44
Types of foundations
Broad classification
(1) Shallow foundations – Footings and raft foundations
(2) Deep foundations – Piles and caissons
Footings:
(i) Continuous or wall footings
(ii) Isolated footings
(iii) Combined footings

Isolated footings

Bridge Engineering 45
 Combined footings
Depth of footings: the soil at the chosen depth should have
adequate bearing capacity to transmit the loads safely, without
shear failure and deleterious settlements.
Minimum depth ranges from 300 mm to 900 mm.
Bearing area: Governed by the total load from above and the safe
bearing capacity of the foundation soil.

Bridge Engineering 46
Raft foundations:
Cover the entire area beneath the structure, and supports all
columns. Adopted when soil pressure is low, or the loads heavy,
making spread footings cover more than one half of the plan
area, if adopted.
Designed as a continuous flat slab, supported without upward
deflection at the columns. A better design procedure involves the
use of the concept of modulus of subgrade reaction; the soil is
assumed to be analogous to a bed of closely spaced elastic
springs of equal stiffness in its stress-strain behaviour. Design
procedure is available in the "IS: 1950 (Part-I-1992 (second
revision): Code of Practice for Design and construction of Raft
foundation –Part I-Design".
Deep foundations:
Major bridges are invariably supported on deep foundation- piles
or wells.

Bridge Engineering 47
Pile foundations
Piles can be of steel or cement concrete. Precast concrete piles
are driven into position by pile-driving equipment. Bearing piles
may carry loads by point-bearing or by skin friction or by both.
Pile capacity
Static analysis using Terzaghi's bearing capacity formula
Dynamic analysis for driven piles
Pile –driving formulae
o Engineering News formula
o Hiley's formula
Load test on pile: Field test-considered to be the best method to
determine pile capacity.

Bridge Engineering 48
Well foundations
Elements of a well are:
Cutting edge
Curb
Bottom plug
Steining
Top plug
Well cap

Elements of a well foundation

Bridge Engineering 49
Chapter 24: Construction of Foundations and
Substructures
 Construction of shallow or open foundations
Spread footings and rafts fall in the category of 'Open' foundations,
as they may be constructed at the required depth of excavating
the soil and opening the ground to place the foundation.
 Constructions of spread footings:
o The bottom of the excavation is levelled and compacted.

o A levelling course of lean concrete (113:6 or 1:4:8) of about 150 mm

thickness is laid.
o If considered necessary, the step of the footing just above the
levelling course may be laid with lean concrete 1:3:6, with or
without reinforcements.
o Dewatering of the excavation has to be carried out, if necessary.

o If the sides of the excavation need support as in the case of

weak/loose soil, bracings are to be provided

Bridge Engineering 50
 Bracing for excavations
Depending upon the nature of the soil, lateral supports are to be
provided in the form of 'braced sheeting', along with other
structural members. This serves temporarily until the foundation
is constructed completely. This procedure is called 'Shoring'.
Procedures for design and construction of bracings for
excavations have been evolved based on the experience derived
from failures, coupled with in-situ experimental observations in
subway construction projects in New-York, Chicago and Berlin.
Depending on the depth of excavation and nature of the soil, the
bracings are planned and designed with the necessary
components.
A few such systems are shown on the following slides.

Bridge Engineering 51
A simple strut for shallow excavations Bracing in medium soil with horizontal
lagging and vertical soldier beams

Bridge Engineering 52
Bracing in medium soil with horizontal lagging and vertical soldier beams

Bridge Engineering 53
Components for bracings
(a) Sheet piling: Supported at the strut levels. The piling is
imagined to be hinged at the bottom with a fictitious support.
Struts may be placed such that either maximum bending
moments are equal in all spans of the piling, or the reactions at
all the struts are equal.
(b) Struts: Pure compression members, tightened against the
wales. Minimum spacing between struts is 2.5 m. For long struts
in wide excavations, intermediate posts may be use to reduce
sagging and prevent possible buckling of the strut.
(c) Wales: They resist the horizontal reactions from sheet piling
or sheet piling.
(d) Lagging: Planks, 5 to 8 cm thick; soft clay and loose sand
should be planked in short depths. Wedges are used to keep the
lagging in position.
(e) Soldier beams: Designed as being fully continuous over all
the supports.
Bridge Engineering 54
  Construction of raft foundations
Rafts are used when a hard stratum is not available at 2.5 to 3.5 m
depth, and soil within this depth is poor, with a low bearing
capacity.
Constructed of reinforced cement concrete, in relatively small
panels of 10 m 10 m to avoid shrinkage cracks.
Reinforcements must be made continuous over construction joints.
The raft is usually thickened across joints and underneath the
columns to provide additional strength.
The corresponding IRC code recommendations should be followed.
• Construction of deep foundations
The following fall under this category:
(1) Pile foundations
(2) Drilled piers (larger section than piles-used for bridge
foundations)
(3) Caissons
(4) Well foundations (open caissons)

Bridge Engineering 55
Pile foundations
Most popular deep foundation because of multifarious uses of
piles, in addition to high load capacity, which is advantageous in
bridge foundations.
 Based on function or action, piles may be
(i) End-bearing or point-bearing piles (transfer load through
pile top)
(ii) Friction piles (skin friction along the surface of the pile)
(iii) Tension or uplift piles (for anchorages)
(iv) Anchor piles (anchorage against horizontal pull)
(v) Batter piles (resist inclined loads in water-front
structures)
(vi) Laterally loaded piles (support retaining walls)
(vii) Sheet piles (flexible retaining structures for bulkheads
and cofferdams – can be of timber, steel or concrete.)
(viii) Compaction piles (compact loose granular soils)

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 Based on material, piles may be of
(i) Timber
(ii) Steel
(iii) Concrete
(iv) Composite construction
 Based on method of installation, plies may be
(i) Driven piles (precast type)
(ii) Cast-in-situ piles (Eg. Raymond pile)
(iii) Driven and cast-in-situ
(iv) Under-reamed piles

Square precast RCC pile A typical Raymond standard pile

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 Under-reamed piles
Piles with enlarged base or a bulb, called 'Under –ream'. Developed by
CBRI, Roorkee. [IS: 2911-Part III-1980 (first revision)]
Load-carrying capacity is increased.

There can be only one under-ream at the base (single under-beam) or

more at different depths. (multi-under-ream, usually not more than
two.)
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Open caissons or well foundations
The sinking of a well is achieved either in the dry or from an
artificial island of sand, or sand-island.
An artificial island of sand is created for raising the ground surface
temporarily above the water level; thus, a relatively dry area is
obtained for sinking the well.

Sheet piling is driven around the area of the sand island to enclose
the area, for filling it with sand. Sinking of the wall is done by
excavation at the tip and aided by the self-weight of the well. Water
jets are also used, as also kentledge (additional weight in the form of
sand bags). During the casting of a lift and curing, sinking is
necessarily stopped. Bridge Engineering 59
The steps are:
(i) Construction of the well curb
(ii) Construction of the steining (or body)
(iii) Sinking process
When the well has reached the final position the bottom is plugged with a
concrete seal. The water inside t well is pumped out and further concreting
done. 'Shifts and tilts' of the well during the sinking process are to be
corrected by taking appropriate precautions and adopting remedial
measures, so that the well is finally as nearly t as possible.
[Recommendations of IRC for the construction of deep foundations for
road bridges, contained in IRC: 78-2000, are to be followed.]
• Construction of substructures
Abutments and piers
 Setting out: Positions have to be set out correctly on the levelling
course on the prepared bed.
 Benchmarks: Should be established for assessing the levels at various
points along the vertical for abutments and piers.

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 Materials: They can be masonry or plain or reinforced concrete.
(Steel is used for trestle bent type of piers.). Composite construction
also may be used-with facing of stone masonry and hearting of mass
concrete may also be used.
 Caps: Caps for piers and abutments should be of M20 concrete.
Thickness can be up to 300 mm for concrete and 500 mm for masonry
piers. Nominal reinforcement of 1% steel, distributed equally in both
directions, at the top as well as bottom should be provided.

Typical piers for bridges

Bridge Engineering 61
Wing walls and return walls
Masonry or cement concrete; reinforcements may be provided, if needed.
Backfill should be granular material for good drainage. Weep holes are
provided in the various structural elements to aid drainage.
Bridge approaches
Short lengths of the highway/railway at either end of the bridge, leading to
the bridge proper.
These are important and are considered integral part of the bridge;
therefore, they have to be properly designed and carefully constructed.
[IRC: 78-2000 is to be followed.]
• Cofferdams
These are temporary structures, built to exclude water from an area in a
river bed in order to facilitate construction work under reasonably dry
conditions. They should be reasonably water-tight; as small quantities
of leakage water can be pumped out easily. They are finally salvaged to
the extent possible after the construction is completed.

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Types of cofferdams

(1) Earth-fill

(2) Rock-fill

(3) Rock-fill crib

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(4)Single-wall sheetpile

(5) Double-wall sheetpile

(6) Cellular type

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• Underwater construction
Special techniques are required to construct bridge foundations
under water.
Under-water concreting: 'Tremie' method is the most popular.

Shotcrete: Sprayed concrete, used for several types of

construction jobs.

Bridge Engineering 65
•Construction below Ground Water Table
Dewatering techniques or methods of lowering ground water
table are used. Some techniques are:
 Pumping out of sumps
Used in shallow excavations in coarse-grained soils.
 Well-point system
Well-points are perforated pipes of 50 to 80 mm diameter and
1 m long, inserted into the ground, 1 to 2 m apart. Self-priming
pumps are fixed to a horizontal header pipe at intervals. By
pumping from these wells, the GWT is lowered sufficiently.
Deep-well system: Adopted for depths more than 16 m. A hole
of 150 to 600 mm is bored and a casing is provided. Pumps are
lowered to the desired depth and water is pumped out.

Bridge Engineering 66
Vacuum method
Used for soils with low permeability (10-5 cm/s to 10-3 cm/s).

Schematic for vacuum method of dewatering

Cement grouting
This can be used to improve the bearing capacity of the soil. A
rich mix 1:2 by volume (cement and water) is generally used for
grouting.

Bridge Engineering 67
Chapter 25: Construction of Superstructures
 Choice of superstructure
Factors to be considered are:
(a) Site conditions-climate and soil conditions
(b) Availability of materials and labour
(c) Availability of equipment (for erection)
(d) Special requirements (Navigation needs, for example)
(e) Financial resources
(f) Economy in construction
(g) Traffic needs (steel trusses are preferred for railway bridges
instead of suspension type).
(h) Aesthetic considerations (Bowstring girders land suspension
bridges provide pleasing appearance).

Bridge Engineering 68
Flooring systems for bridges
The flooring systems consist of the following components.
(1) Cross girders or floor beams
(2) Stringers
(3) Main flooring
(4) Wearing surface

 Cross girders or floor beams:

Rolled steel joists/plate girders are used; they are placed perpendicular
to the longitudinal centre line of the bridge. They are fixed on top of
the floor beams.
Stringers
Rolled steel joints supported on the floor beams are placed parallel to
the longitudinal centre line of the bridge. They are fixed on top of the
floor beams.

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 Main flooring
Broad categories are:
(a) Open floor
(b) Solid floor
Open floor: Used for railway bridges only.

Simple open floor for a railway bridge Open floor for a through bridge

Bridge Engineering 70
Solid floor: Preferred for highway bridges. Timber, RCC slab, steel
trough, steel buckle plate, RCC Jack arch floors are of the solid type.

Timber floor Steel trough floor

(toughs placed longitudinally)

Steel buckle plate floor Concrete jack arch floor

(buckle plates placed longitudinally)
Wearing surface should be at least 75 mm thick
Bridge Engineering 71
• Construction of Superstructures
The technique of construction vary in each case of the various types of
superstructures, although the general procedure could be similar.
Erection of arch bridges
‘Centering’ or ‘falsework’ is an essential requirement for the
construction of arches for bridges; this is a temporary support until the
permanent structure, after construction, stands by itself. Maximum
salvage value, adequate strength and stiffness and minimum cost are
the requirements of centering.
Common types of centering for arch construction
(a) Timber truss centering
(b) Steel truss centering
(c) Trestle type centering

 Timber truss centering:

Timber trusses of shape suitable for the proposed are constructed and
used as centering.
Low stiffness and low salvage value are the demerits.
Bridge Engineering 72
 Steel truss centering
Steel trusses of suitable shape for the proposed arch are constructed
and used.
When the depth of water is high, with the possibility of flash floods,
this type is preferred.

Truss-type false work for arch construction

 Trestle type centering
The arch is supported by vertical or inclined posts anchored into the
bed ∕ ground.
Vertical posts in a single stage is suitable for relatively low arches; posts
in two stages ∕ tiers are preferred for larger heights, as also the Trestle
type.
High stiffness and high salvage value are the merits of this type
Bridge Engineering 73
Form work for RCC arches
Specially designed formwork are used, over which the
reinforcements are placed in position before laying concrete.

Bridge Engineering 74
Erection of girder bridges
The method depends on whether the girders are of steel, RCC, or
prestressed concrete.
Steel girders are prefabricated, which RCC girders and PSC girders
may be precast or cast –in –site. The method of erection varies in
each case.
Steel girders
The following methods may be used
(i) Assembling on the river bed and hoisting into position:
Suitable for spans up to 30m and height of bridge up to 6m,
when the river is dry for most part of the year. The girders are
fabricated on a platform of compacted earthfill, and lifted on to
their proposed position by means of cranes. The bracings and
flooring are then connected to the girders.

Bridge Engineering 75
(ii) Construction of the girders on staging:
This is an alternative method under conditions similar to the first
one. Staging can be with timber or preferably with steel; it
consists of two platforms with rolled steel joists at the top. The
top and bottom flanges of the steel girders are assembled on
these two platforms, and connected by means of the web. When
the whole assembly is lowered into position and connected to the
flooring and bearing.
(iii) Assembling on barges and floating into position:
This is adopted when the depth of water is large.

Bridge Engineering 76
(iv) Rolling out girder on already built spans:
Suitable for deep gorges. The first span is erected by one of the
above methods. The girder of the next span is built on shore and
brought to the required position by rolling out on the first span.
The procedure is repeated for the other spans.
RCC girders and PSC girders:
These may be either precast or cast-in-situ. Precast girders are
transported from the yard, and brought near the abutment. A
‘launching girder’ is used to carry it further onto the spa. (A
launching girder is a sort of temporary bridge which is put on a
spa and used for moving the trolley on which the beams are
carried.)
‘Post-tensioning’ is adopted in the case of PSC girder; the
method of launching is similar to that of RCC girders.

Bridge Engineering 77
Erection of steel truss bridges
Steel truss superstructures are erected with the aid of a derrick
crane and two falsework bents. (A ‘falsework bent’ is a temporary
structure built on the stream or river to provide support to part of
the superstructure in the process of erection.) Depending on the
number of panels, it is built in viable parts, and erected one by
one, by making use of the portions erected already.

Steel truss superstructure

First step in erection of truss

Second step in erection of truss

Bridge Engineering 78
Recent methods of bridge construction
Incremental Launching Method (ILM)
Used for erection of bridges over deep valleys, deep rivers, and lack
of access for equipments, with minimal disturbance to the
surroundings.
Span-by-span construction method
Rapid and most economic method of bridge construction for long
bridges and via ducts. The main advantage of this system is that the
already constructed portion of the bridges serves as the launching
pad for successive segments.
Joints in bridges
Joints in bridge decks are weak spots which need good design and
maintenance.
Types of joints
(a) Construction joints
(b) Expansion joints and construction joints
Bridge Engineering 79
 Construction joints
These are needed whenever the concreting work is stopped for
any reason, as at the end of a day’s work, or for any unexpected
situation like failure of machinery.
 Contraction joints
Joints to facilitate construction; these extend only for a part of
the deck slab, and will be of smaller width than expansion joints.
Otherwise, the treatment is similar to that of expansion joints.
 Expansion joints
These are important in bridge decks. The treatment depends on
the expansion gap needed. All movements due to shrinkage of
concrete, temperature changes and long term creep are to be
accommodated by the expansion joints.
The joints should be watertight durable, replaceable, and provide
good riding quality.

Bridge Engineering 80
 The performance of expansion joints have a direct bearing on
that of the bridge itself. IRC Special Publication, “IRC: SP-69-2011
Guidelines and Specification for Expansion Joints”, contain the
necessary details to be followed in their treatment. (Earthquake
and impact effect need not be considered, since they are
replaced, with a short design life.)
Joints for small opening (movement up to 25 mm)
The following types fall in this category:

Buried joints (up to 10 mm) Filler joints (up to 25 mm)

Copper plate ... min. 2 mm-thick
Compressible fibre board ... 20 mm-thick
Pre-moulded joint filler ... 20 mm-thick

Bridge Engineering 81
 Asphaltic plug joint (up to 25 mm)
Each type has its own merits and demerits.
Joints for medium opening (movement 25 to 80 mm)
The following types fall in this category:

Compression seal joints (up to 60 mm)

Reinforced elastomeric joints (up to 80 mm)

Bridge Engineering 82
 Single strip/box seal joints (up to 80 mm)
As with the earlier category, each type has its own merits and
demerits.
Joints for larger openings (movement over 80 mm) and joints
for specific purpose:
Common types are:
Modular strip/box seal joints
Finger joints
Reinforced coupled elastomeric joints.
These and the joints for specific purposes are given in detail in
the Special PublicationBridge
of Engineering
IRC-“IRC: SP-2011”. 83
Chapter 26: Maintenance, Testing and
Strengthening of Bridges
 Important aspects of bridge management
 Maintenance
 Testing
 Assessment of load-carrying capacity
 Strengthening and rehabilitation
 Identification of bridges
Culverts and bridges are assigned numbers for easy
identification. For uniformity in the system of numbering, IRC
has laid down the standard practice as given in IRC: 7−1971
Recommended practice for Numbering of Bridges and Culverts
(First Revision)

Bridge Engineering 84
 4
5means the fifth cross-drainage
structure in the fourth kilometre
(between the kilometre stones 3 and 4)

Numbering of a culvert

375
means the second new structure
5/2
between the 3rd and 4th structures in
kilometre 375

Numbering of a bridge
Bridge Engineering 85
Maintenance of bridges
Maintenance aims at identification of defects that occur in bridges
and undertaking necessary repairs in order to maintain the bridge
in a serviceable condition.
The importance of bridge maintenance, curative as well as
preventive, cannot be over-emphasised, since any negligence could
lead to the failure of the bridge itself.
 Defects in bridges
Defects may arise due to faulty design or construction procedure, or due
to natural calamities such as floods, storms, and earthquakes, or due to
unexpected spurt i traffic and accidents.
o Corrosion of steel reinforcements and cracking in RCC bridges
o Corrosion of steel structural components and failure due to
inadequacy in design.
o Loose connections of joints in steel bridges.
o Distress of expansion joints in bridge decks.
o Distress in bearings.
Remedy lies in repair where possible, and renewal, if necessary.
Bridge Engineering 86
 Inspection and data collection
Two special publications of the IRC are relevant here:
(i) IRC: SP: 18−1978 Manual for Highway Bridge Maintenance
Inspection
(ii) IRC: SP: 35−1990 Guidelines for inspection and maintenance
of bridges.
Bridge inspection involves ascertaining the physical condition of
the structure and all its components.
Records: Complete, accurate and up-to-date record of the bridge,
right from the construction stage.
Bridge register: This is needed for maintenance.
Two reports form part of this
(i) Original bridge report
(ii) Inspection report
Several details of all the particulars of the bridge and its
components are all recorded in these reports.

Bridge Engineering 87
Maintenance consists of several aspects:
• Safety aspects
• Economic aspects
• Traffic aspects
• Engineering aspects
Maintenance operation
• Ordinary operations-periodical and technically simple
• Specialised operations
Posting of bridges
This indicates restrictions on the use of a bridge to ensure safety.
This involves ‘Load limits’ and ‘speed limits’, until repairs and
rehabilitation are completed.
Posting signs: Advance warning signs indicating load limit are
placed 200 m from the bridge and they are repeated 60 m in
advance.

Bridge Engineering 88
 Bridge posting signs

Testing of bridges
Necessary for old bridge which have been in operation and
affected to such an extent that deficiencies are seen even on
visual inspection. The relevant IRC Special Publication is –
“IRC: SP: 51-2015 Guidelines for Local Testing of Bridge (First
Revision)”.

Bridge Engineering 89
 Types of Tests:
(a) Behaviour tests: To verify the result of any method of analysis or
design.
(b) Proof load test: For operational rating of bridges; conducted
either on new bridges, or for the rating of an existing bridge.
(c)Stress history tests: To establish the distribution of stress range in
fatigue-prone locations of the bridge; useful for assessing fatigue life.
(d) Ultimate load tests: Performed to understand the global
behaviour when sufficient theoretical knowledge is not available to
predict the structural performance. Valuable information can be got
regarding the sequence and the mode of failure.
(e)Diagnostic tests: To monitor the behaviour of a component of a
bridge either to establish the cause of damage or its share in the
transfer of loads.
[Only Proof-load tests are employed for the rating of bridge.]

Bridge Engineering 90
 Test procedure
Method of loading: This can be by using mobile test vehicle, or
static loads, which are designed to simulate specific IRC
vehicle of the particular class of loading.
Loading and unloading sequence: Load is applied in states-
30%, 50%, 70%, 90% and 100% . Unloading should also be in
the same stages. Deflections are observed at each stage using
dial gauges. Temperatures are also noted, for applying the
corrections to the observed deflections, if necessary.
Percent recovery of deflection: This is given by æçççç R -R R ö÷÷÷÷´ 100
i f

è i ø

where, Ri: Deflection after 24 hours of applying test load

Rf: Deflection after 24 hours of removal of test load

Bridge Engineering 91
Acceptance criteria: For the minimum values of percentage recovery
of deflection are
RCC bridge ........... 75
PSC bridge ............ 85
Steel bridge .............85
Rating of bridges
Assessment of safe load-carrying capacity of a bridge to compose it
with that of similar structures is known as ‘Rating’. For this, a large
number of tests are available.
Non-destructive tests
(1) Rebound and penetration tests
(2) Sonic tests and ultrasonic tests
(3) Magnetic and electrical methods
(4) Nuclear methods
(5) Radiography
(6) X-ray diffraction and differential thermal analysis
(7) Strain measurements by strain gauges and bridges
(8) Microscopic examination using polarised light.
Bridge Engineering 92
Destructive tests
(a) Concrete strength (testing core sample form concrete components)
(b) Pull-out tests (pulling out a steel rod cast in concrete for compressive
and tensile strengths of concrete)
(c) Internal fracture test (pull-out of an anchor bolt – for tensile strength of
concrete)
(d) Break-off test (flexural tensile strength of concrete)
(e) Water penetration test (for degree of protection of reinforcement
offered by concrete cover)
(f) Analysis of hardened concrete (to determine cement concrete)
Assessment of load – capacity of bridges
IRC special publication – IRC: SP: 37 – 1991 (First revision)
Guidelines for evaluation of load – carrying capacity of bridges
contains the complete information for this.

Bridge Engineering 93
 Strengthening of bridges
This is to prolong the service life, without total renewal or
replacement of the old bridge with a new one.
The relevant IRC special publication is –
“IRC: SP: 40 – 1993. Guidelines on techniques for strengthening and
Rehabilitation of Bridges”
Normally observed distresses
Arch bridges:
(a) Changes in profile of arch
(b) Loosening of mortar
(c) Movement of abutment ∕ pier
(d) Lateral and diagonal cracks
(e) Cracks between arch ring, spandrel or parapet
(f) Bulging ∕crack of return wing wall due to lack of drainage.

Bridge Engineering 94
RCC bridges and PSC bridges
(a) Cracking
(b) Scaling
(c) Spalling
(d) Leaching
(e) Deformations
(f) Holes in deck slab
Steel bridges
(a) Corrosion
(b) Excessive vibrations
(c) Buckling
(d) Fractures
(e) Loosening of connections
(f) Fatigue cracking

Bridge Engineering 95
Strengthening of concrete bridges
• Repair of concrete surface – using bonding agents
• Repair of cracks – caulking, stitching, grouting
• Repair of corroded steel reinforcements
• Repair of porous concrete and holes
Bridge failure:
Causes of failure:
(1) Flood, scour and foundation movements
(2) Defective materials poor workmanship
(3) Overloading and accidents
(4) Inadequate formwork improper erection method
(5) Earthquake effects
(6) Faulty design
(7) Wind forces
(8) Fatigue under traffic
(9) Corrosion of steel components
Preventive measures are preferably adopted to avert bridge failure, since
failures are fraught with heavy loss of property and life.
Bridge Engineering 96