Principle of Heat Generation

The principle modes of heat generation in a nuclear reactor are the reactions (nuclear
reactions) that neutrons undergo with nuclei of various materials used in the reactor.

Nuclear fission is exothermic with the energy released due to fission attributed to
splitting of heavy nuclei into fragments. The energy released is proportional to the
difference in mass of the reactants (neutron & nucleus) and that of products (fission
fragments). On an average, 207 MeV (1 MeV = 1.61 x10-13 J) of energy is released
per fission event in U-235, of which around 200 MeV can be recovered as heat. This
energy is sum of the kinetic energies & decay energy of the fission fragments, kinetic
energy of new neutrons and the energy of gamma radiation. This energy can be
further classified into energy release due to fission and neutron capture.

The recoverable energy released due to fission (200 MeV) can be further classified
into instantaneous energy and delayed energy. The components of instantaneous
energy release are the kinetic energy of fission fragments (168 MeV), kinetic energy
of new neutrons (5 MeV) and gamma radiation (7 MeV). The contributions for the
delayed energy come from β-decay (8 MeV) and γ-decay (7 MeV) of fission
fragments.

The energy released due to neutron capture is the result of non-fission reactions
between excess neutrons (unutilized for chain reaction) and their β-decay and γ-decay
(5 MeV).

Figure 1 illustrates the energy contribution from a nuclear reactor using U-235 as the
fissile isotope. The contributions of various nuclear reactions towards the recoverable
energy are also shown.
 Fig 1. Contribution of different nuclear reactions towards recoverable heat energy: (a) energy in MeV; (b)
energy contribution in % of total recoverable energy

Now let’s discuss the distribution of this energy among various components of the
reactor.

The fission fragments have very short range (< 0.25 mm). The β-radiation too has
short range (< 1 mm). Hence their energy is released within the fuel element itself.
The energy released during thermalization of high-energy neutrons rests in the
moderator. The energy of the gamma radiation is released in the fuel as well as in
structural elements. Table 1 shows the distribution of energy in various components
of the reactor.
Table 1. Distribution of fission energy in various components of the thermal reactor

Energy Source Location of its release

Kinetic energy of fission fragments Fuel

Kinetic energy of new neutrons Moderator

γ-radiation (instantaneous) Fuel and structural components

γ-radiation (delayed) Fuel and structural components

β-decay of fission products (delayed) Fuel

Neutron capture (delayed) Fuel and structural components

For a light-water reactor, 92 % of the total energy released stays in the fuel while
about 3 % is released in the moderator. The remaining (5 %) is released in the
structural elements.

In a CANDU-type reactor, about 94 % of the total energy is released in fuel, 5% is

released in moderator, while the rest is released in pressure tubes, calandria, coolant
and shielding.

1.1 Reactor Power

Let us look at the factors that influence the power of a reactor. It may be recalled that
200 MeV of (recoverable) energy is released for every fission event (Ef). Hence, the
reactor power is the product of energy released per fission (Ef) and the number of
fission events.

Energy released (J/s) = Energy released per fission (Ef)* Number of fissions events

per second (fission/s) (1)

Neutron flux (φ), defined as the number of neutrons per unit fission cross section per
unit time is a key parameter in influencing the number of fission events.

Number of fissions events per second (fission/s)= Neutron flux (neutron/cm2s) * Total
fission cross section (cm2). (2)

Note: Please recall that the fission cross section (σf) is expressed per nucleus. Hence
the total fission cross section is the fission cross section per nucleus multiplied by the
number of fuel nuclei.
Number of fissions events per second (fission/s)= Neutron flux (neutron/cm2s)*
Fission cross section per nucleus (cm2)*Number of fuel nuclei. (3)
Therefore,

Energy released (J/s) = Energy released per fission (J)* Neutron flux (neutron/cm2s) *
Fission cross section per nucleus (cm2)*Number of fuel nuclei. (4)

Specific power of the fuel, defined as the thermal energy released per unit mass of the
fuel, can be related to the energy released as follows:

Specific power of fuel (W/kg) = Energy released (J/s)/Mass of the fuel (kg) (5)

Substituting Eq. (4) in Eq. (5), we get

Specific power of fuel (W/kg) = Energy released per fission (J)* Neutron flux
(neutron/cm2s) * Macroscopic fission cross section (cm2)*Number of fuel
nuclei/Mass of the fuel (kg).

Let P’ be the specific power of fuel, Ef be the energy released per fission in Joule, Nf
be the number of fuel nuclei per unit mass of the fuel then,

P’=EfφNfσf (6)

Equation (6) is a simplified one assuming neutron flux to be independent of neutron

energy and radial position. Taking in to account the influence of radial position and
neutron energy on the neutron flux, we have

P’=EfNfφ(r,E)σf (7)

Neutron flux corresponding to energy of thermal neutron is the thermal neutron flux,
φ(r). Hence the specific power of fuel as a function of radial position in the fuel is
given by

P’=EfNfφ(r)σf (8)

Power density (P’’) is defined as the thermal energy released per unit volume of the
fuel.

P’’=EfNfφ(r)σfρf (9)

If the average neutron flux is φ-, then Eq. (8) and (9) can be written as

P’=EfNfφ-σf (10)

P’’=EfNfφ-σf ρf (11)
Temperature distribution in plate fuel elements
The temperature profile in the slab reactor can be obtained by the solution of steady-
state energy balance equation with heat generation.

The state-state energy balance equation in Cartesian coordinates with P’’ as the heat
generation rate per unit volume is given by

Applying Eq for an infinite slab reactor as one-dimensional steady-state heat

conduction, we have
 Two boundary conditions are required for the solution of Eq.

At the centre of the slab, neutron flux and hence heat generation are maximum.
Hence, one would expect the temperature at the centre of the reactor to be the
maximum.

Therefore,

The other boundary condition is the temperature at the outer surface of the reactor.
Let it be TS.

Therefore,

Solution of the heat equation for these conditions