Resources, Conservation and Recycling 75 (2013) 14–22

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Resources, Conservation and Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

Sugarcane bagasse—The future composite material: A literature review

Y.R. Loh a , D. Sujan a,∗ , M.E. Rahman a , C.A. Das b
a
School of Engineering & Science, Curtin University Sarawak, CDT 250 Miri, Sarawak 98009, Malaysia
b
School of Business, Curtin University Sarawak, CDT 250 Miri, Sarawak 98009, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The natural, bio-degradable features and chemical constituents of the sugarcane bagasse (SCB) have been
Received 9 July 2012 attracting attention as a highly potential and versatile ingredient in composite materials. Eco-friendly
Received in revised form 14 February 2013 and low cost considerations have set the momentum for material science researchers to identify green
Accepted 6 March 2013
materials that give low pollutant indexes. Various components of SCB is shown to possess the ability of
being applied as raw material for manufacturing of composite materials at multiple levels of properties
Keywords:
and performances. Studies on the impacts, performances and applications of SCB in its original condition;
Sugarcane bagasse
transformed forms; treated with appropriate chemicals and/or processes; in combination with materials
Composite material
Bio-degradable material
of distinct properties and manipulation of manufacturing methodologies have been duly considered.
Eco-friendly material This paper attempts to summarize a review of current literature on the extensive studies that have been
undertaken in an attempt to explore plausible applications and potentials of SCB for composite material.

© 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2. Chemical composition of SCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3. Advantageous utilizations of SCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4. Applications of SCB wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5. Multiple utility of SCB with other additives and/or chemical modifications in composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.1. SCB composite materials with manifold additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
5.2. SCB as reinforcement fiber in polymeric matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3. Utilizations of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) in cement replacement for manufacturing concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.4. Utilizations of sugarcane straw ash (SCSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.5. Modifications and utilizations of lignin presented in SCB in manufacturing composite materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.6. Silane treatment for unpyrolyzed and pyrolyzed SCB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.7. Sugar cane rind and mixed hardwood oriented strand board bonded with PF Resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1. Introduction Reddy et al., 1993). An analysis of SCB indicates that its main con-
stituents are cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, ash, and wax (Walford,
The fibrous residue of sugarcane (Fig. 1) after crushing and 2008). This composition of SCB makes it an ideal ingredient to be
extraction of its juice, known as ‘bagasse’, is one of the largest agri- applied and utilized as reinforcement fiber in composite materials
culture residues in the world (Pandey et al., 2000; Trejo-Hernández for the purposes of creating new materials which possess distinct
et al., 2007; Mulinari et al., 2009; Hernández-Salas et al., 2009). physical and chemical properties. These in turn are desired for
Literature illustrates the versatility of sugarcane residue usages; anticipated performances based on pre-set objectives. A review
through its conversion inclusive but not limited to paper, feed of literature indicates that SCB is favored in the manufacturing
stock and biofuel (Hernández-Salas et al., 2009; Pandey et al., 2000; of high quality green products given its low production cost. This
is mainly attributed to the abundant availability of raw materials
from the sugar processing plants and its low pre-treatment costs.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 85 0128535426. Some research explores the potentials of mixing tapioca starch and
E-mail address: d.sujan@curtin.edu.my (D. Sujan). glycerol which results in the production of composite materials;

0921-3449/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.03.002
 Y.R. Loh et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 75 (2013) 14–22
Fig. 1. Sugarcane bagasse (SCB) wastes.
whilst a mix of gelatine, starch and agar produces tableware pack-
aging materials; SCB ash and cane straw ash has the capability to
partially replace cement and act as a pozzolanic additive in the
manufacturing of concrete and ash block. This paper attempts to
review the various studies conducted on the properties, applica-
tion and future potentials of cellulose, lignin, rind, comrind and
pith enhanced reinforcement materials.
2. Chemical composition of SCB
The chemical constituent of SCB makes it an exceptional raw
material for composite fabrications. The basic composition of SCB
is shown in Fig. 2.
3. Advantageous utilizations of SCB
SCB wastes are chosen as an ideal raw material in manufac-
turing new products because of its low fabricating costs and high
quality green end material. It is ideal due to the fact that it is eas-
ily obtainable given the extensive sugar cane cultivation making
its supply constant and stable. The associated costs of extraction,
chemical modifications and/or other pre-treatments of SCB in the
transformation process to ready-to-be used materials are poten-
tially reduced as the complex processes are simplified by the mere
usage of SCB.
When appropriate modifications and manufacturing proce-
dures are applied, SCB displays improved mechanical properties
such as tensile strength, flexural strength, flexural modulus, hard-
ness, and impact strength. SCB is also found to be easily treated
and modified with chemicals besides blending well with other
Fig. 2. Chemical composition and sugar yield of sugar cane bagasse and its fractionated components (percent dry matter) (Youn et al., 1983).
15
materials to form new types of composite materials. It also satisfies
the greening requirements by being biodegradable, recyclable and
reusable.
4. Applications of SCB wastes
SCB wastes have been applied in the following instances:
i. Cellulose, lignin, rind, comrind, pith enhance reinforcement in
materials manufactured based on different methods applied;
ii. Mixed with tapioca starch and glycerol to produce composite
materials;
iii. Mixed with gelatin, starch and agar to produce tableware pack-
aging material;
iv. SCB ash and sugar cane straw ash can partially replace cement
and act as pozzolanic additive in manufacturing of concrete and
ash block;
v. SCB ash mixed with Arabic gum and water to produce ceramic
and refractory products; and
vi. Both sugar cane comrind and their mixture with hardwood are
used with phenol formaldehyde resin and wax to manufacture
composite board.
5. Multiple utility of SCB with other additives and/or
chemical modifications in composite materials
Diverse studies have been carried out to optimize the utiliza-
tions of SCB wastes in manufacturing manifold composite materials
that are able to perform well by fulfilling various purposes. SCB
wastes hereby play a vital role in replacing or minimizing the usages
of materials that are expensive, non-biodegradable, human syn-
thesized and require high cost for pretreatments, extractions and
modifications. Besides that, SCB is anticipated to further enhance,
improve or even introduce new properties on the products through
appropriate hybrid combinations and/or modifications with differ-
ent materials, chemicals and processes.
5.1. SCB composite materials with manifold additives
Literature on potentials of sugarcane fiber cellulose (SCFC) as
composite material ingredient revealed mixed results (Jeefferie
et al., 2011; Draman et al., 2009). SCFC was considered in com-
bination with tapioca starch (TS) (Jeefferie et al., 2011) as a green
composite for manufacturing disposable packaging food container.
Meanwhile, glycerol was utilized as plasticizer which enhances
flexural properties for better flexibility by increasing the ability to
decrease hydrogen bonding in polymer chains and improve fiber
16 Y.R. Loh et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 75 (2013) 14–22
surface wetting by TS matrix. It was indicated that addition of SCFC
though increased impact and flexural properties but decreased ten-
sile strength properties. In addition, the formulation that showed
best performance was demonstrable when the composites were in
the combination of 41 wt% TS, 12 wt% SCFC and 47 wt% glycerol. It is
believed that the composite can also be developed and being exten-
sively applied as disposable bowl and plate, which are microwave
and freezer safe as well as multipurpose container. Further research
can focus on the experimentations and evaluations of packaging
boxes which incorporates SCFC. This may reduce the usage and
demand for paper and paper related materials and encourage the
production of green materials.
The usage of SCFC with starch, gelatin, and agar was studied
in the production of biodegradable tableware packaging (Draman
et al., 2009). From thermal analysis, it was observed that mass
loss occurred at about 100 ◦ C, evidencing that water was released
at small amounts; the moisture content for the composites was
about 50 wt%; and the tensile strength exhibited a good interac-
tion between fiber and filler. It was evident that if the fiber-matrix
adhesion could be further promoted and improvised, the composite
can give better performance as tableware packaging material. It is
anticipated from this research that green biodegradable materials
can be used extensively for tableware packaging as well as for elec-
tronic products, glassware and other similar possible applications.
In fact, the feasibility of SCFC composite to be applied as external
shells that posses impact absorbing capability for various prod-
ucts replacement for the non-biodegradable human-synthesized
materials like Styrofoam can be tested. The invention of stronger
yet lighter and thinner packaging material can also be realized in
upcoming research.
5.2. SCB as reinforcement fiber in polymeric matrix
The application of SCB in reinforcing low cost resin compos-
ites delineated that manufactured bagasse-polyester composites
have a homogeneous structure (Monteiro et al., 1998). However,
the composites were of inferior quality given its high porosity
(7.6 ± 1.8%). It was reported that the undesirable high porosity
condition can be reduced by increasing the molding pressures
and/or mixing temperature (Monteiro et al., 1998). Despite its
inferiority, the bagasse-polyester composite showed higher flex-
ural strength at rupture though with poorer mechanical properties
compared to other natural fiber composites. The shorter fiber
(5 mm) does not allow high stress to be transferred to reinforce-
ment and that contributes to its inferior mechanical properties.
The means and mechanisms that can overcome those inferiori-
ties are important considerations for advance research. In addition,
systematic methodologies or what is known as “flexible formulae”
which can be developed to improvise the trials and errors method
in the attempts of manufacturing new composites or modifying
present products.
However, the possible application of the high porosity SCB com-
posite material should also be revealed since porosity may not be a
restricting factor that affects performance in certain usages. As an
illustration, high porosity may be favorable in medical packaging
as it allows gas sterilization. In fact, the possibility of the composite
to have similar properties and be applied as foam-like engineered
material would be interesting if explored.
A study on variation of polyethylene-covinyl acetate, EVA, resin
matrix composite properties as a function of the bagasse cultivar
type; and the effect of surface treatments of the chopped bagasse
on mechanical performance were considered by Stael et al. (2001).
The study revealed that tensile strength point deformed at peak
stress and Young Modulus for the composite and this did not vary
greatly from other waste materials. In addition it was exposed that
the bagasse mechanical properties improved tremendously when
the bagasse were treated with boiling water compared to using it
as received (chopped and dryed) as the treatment reduces gummy
tissue and debris attached on the fiber surface. Treatments with
dodecilbenzene based commercial detergent weakened the fiber.
The tensile strength was found to be of the same order of magnitude
of the properties of low density particle boards.
Given the finding, the researcher concluded that mechanical
properties of composite are independent of the cultivar type and
hence SCB can be collected from several mills and being mixed.
Also, no further processing of bagasse is required except chopping
when preparing EVA-bagasse composites which will reduce manu-
facturing costs, production time, manpower and resources required
if large scale of SCB are to be manufactured to meet industrial
needs. It is anticipated that with the incorporation and properties
enhancement of SCB, good quality EVA-composites can be applied
as materials for packaging, foam midsoles of footwear, tubes and
hose for mass production. More studies should be carried out to
derive various manufacturing methodologies that can reduce other
materials and chemicals usages and optimize performance level.
A research was carried out related to flexural properties of
untreated pith-reinforced unplasticised poly vinyl chloride (PVC)
composites compared to that of untreated rind composites in the
same matrix with variation of fiber content (Wirawan et al., 2010).
It was found that flexural strength of pith/PVC and rind/PVC com-
posites of any fiber content were lower than that of unfilled PVC.
Rind/PVC composites had higher flexural strength than pith/PVC
at same fiber content where fiber did not enhance the flexural
strength of the PVC.
The potential applications include electric wires insulator, pipes,
low cost boards and films which resemble the heat-resistant, semi-
rigid and anti-static PVC sheets, plates and panels in current market
if the overall mechanical properties can be improvised again. The
mechanical behaviors of composite that are produced by using SCB
as main ingredient while other plausible materials as reinforcing
additives should be studied to create new methods of applying SCB
in composite manufacturing. Besides, the properties of PVC com-
posites by applying SCB from pith, straw, external skin should also
be enlisted for prospective areas of research.
Tribological properties of sugarcane fiber/polyester (SCRP) and
glass fiber (abrasive)/polyester (GRP) composite (El-Tayeb, 2007)
was found to make unidirectional fiber reinforcements more effec-
tive. SCRP has better wear and friction resistance than GRP. The
chopped and unidirectional SCRP (C-SCRP) and unidirectional (U-
SCRP), chopped GRP (C-GRP) and chopped strand mat (CSM) from
GRP (CSM-GRP), evidenced that when load increased, friction
coefficient decreased. An increase in load would cause the wear
resistance of C-SCRP, U-SCRP and CSM-GRP to increase while for
C-GRP, decreased. Accordingly, the critical fiber lengths are around
5 mm (minimum wear rate) and wear rates decreased when fiber
length is 1–5 mm and increased at 10 mm. U-SCRP has lowest
wear resistance when fiber was parallel oriented (P-O) to sliding
direction and almost same wear resistance with CSM–GRP when
tested in anti-parallel orientation (AP-O). U-SCRP has lowest fric-
tion coefficient when tested in AP-O and highest when tested in
P-O. Whilst non-abrasive sugarcane fiber (SF) which can deform
and bend without cracking under sliding conditions contributed
smooth protective layers that mitigate the wear and promote SF
and matrix bonding. Patches of discontinuous and fractured lay-
ers were noticed for C-GRP as glass fiber are abrasive, brittle and
cannot bend well (which prevent thin film from forming), causing
cracking and de-bonding. The study also revealed that C-SCRP, SF,
and polyester matrix formed good bonding. Thus, sugarcane fiber
is a good material to be utilized for increasing wear resistance of
C-SCRP composites.
All these suggest that the manufactured composite can be
further improvised and utilized as economic wear resistant
 Y.R. Loh et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 75 (2013) 14–22
materials/structures such as wear plates for fans, chutes and other
automobiles or machines moving parts. Thermal properties of the
composite would therefore have significant effects on the durabil-
ity of products and would need to be further explored. Attentions
and efforts should be invested in developing manifold plausible
patterns and/or layers of orientations, alignments and distribu-
tion of SF fiber inside material in enhancing the strength and wear
resistance of the composite while optimizing the composites’ per-
formances.
Another study examined the abrasive behavior of untreated
sugar cane fiber reinforced composites in a simplified manner and
an empirical model was developed (Mahapatra and Chaturvedi,
2009). This study established that when load increases, abrasive
wear (weight loss) increases due to increased temperature, making
composite surface to degrade. The length of the fiber showed min-
imum wear as it cannot be supported by the matrix at lower length
(poor interface adhesion) whilst higher length fiber anisotropy of
the composite may increase as random orientation of the fiber
increased weight loss. The Taguchi analysis estimated A1 B2 D2 (A-
Load (N), B- sliding velocity (cm/s), D- Fiber length (mm)) as
the optimum abrasive process parameters. In addition particle
swarm optimization (PSO) was also used which showed load equals
10.023 N, sliding velocity at 29.300 cm/sand fiber length 7.004 mm
as the optimal parameter settings. The neural network predicted
the optimum fiber size as 8 mm. Given the discrepancies of the
results; the best size of fiber length for minimum abrasive wear was
estimated to be 7–8 mm. An increase on the length of a fiber causes
the composite hardness to monotonically decrease, meanwhile
tensile strength increases and later decreases. It was also found that
wear resistance is strongly affected by parameters encountered in
wear process. This is an innovative research approach as empiri-
cal model was employed to evaluate the composites. Hence, it is
highly recommended to conduct further research through mod-
eling establishments and even computer software simulations to
optimize the materials’ performance such that it functions at most
outstanding levels.
Zizumbo et al. (2011) considered the preparation of composites
with recycled polystyrene (PS) reinforced with residues of sugar-
cane natural fibers. The findings were (i) from Thermogravimetric
analysis (TGA), decomposition of alkalinized fibers (AF) happens at
about 100 ◦ C (water loss with a maximum peak (dw%/dT)), 320 ◦ C
(hemicelluloses decomposition) and 370 ◦ C (cellulose and lignin
decomposition); (ii) last step of silanized fiber (ASF) decomposi-
tion happens at 470 ◦ C (silicon-oxygen bonds giving fiber higher
thermal stability); (iii) silanized fibers (32 weight%) heavier than
alkalinized fibers (12 weight%) as silicon materials produce ther-
mal stable substances at high temperatures like SiO2 and SiC; (iv)
PS grafted fibers (ASGF) shows thermal stability increment for
decomposition step at 510 ◦ C; (v) physical mixture of polystyrene
and alkalinized fiber (PSAF) had its decomposition occurring at
370 ◦ C; (vi) alkalinized, silanized and grafted fibers has the low-
est humectation-peak (better fiber-matrix interaction) than natural
fiber and alkalinized fibers; (vii) Young modulus decreased with
the decreasing of fiber content; (viii) elongation at break and ten-
sile strength of modified and unmodified fiber are slightly lower
than virgin polystyrene (bagasse fiber has fragile nature while shear
stress deformation during thermal processing reduced their sizes);
and (ix) vinylsilane treatment lead to wetting of fiber, giving bet-
ter interfacial adhesion. It can be seen that the level of quality for
composite tested is still good (maintained at a certain level) and
is suitable to be applied as materials for packaging, household and
electronic appliances, medical instruments, building and construc-
tion applications (insulation foam, roofing, siding, and more).
Further research should focus on experimentations and evalua-
tions of the quality of composites manufactured using recycled SCB.
In addition, exploring the ways to further enhance the properties of
17
recycled PS composite would certainly improve their adaptability,
applicability and life span. The recyclability and reusability of the
composite should also be examined to understand the possibility
of polystyrene that had been recycled for several times to be used
again with SCB to produce composite with comparable quality.
The effect of SCB fiber incorporated with Low-density polyeth-
ylene (LDPE) and 2% concentration sodium hydroxide (NaOH) acid
surface treatment with both distilled and sea water was considered
by Rassiah and Nagapan (2012). In the same study, biodegradation
was also investigated. Based on distilled and sea water swelling
tests, it was found that the composite with higher SCB content
absorbed more moisture. SCB composite was reported to absorb
less moisture than those untreated during distilled water swelling
test, hence proving the enhancement of product’s durability. As
for sea water swelling test, SCB composite was found to absorb
more moisture than those untreated as hydrophilic treated SCB by
virtue of the presence of an abundant hydroxyl groups making the
interaction with sea water molecules possible. Composites with
higher natural fiber content lead to higher degradation. 40 wt% SCB
showed greatest weight lost (80 days test) whilst treated compo-
sition of 40 wt% bagasse is more degradable than those untreated
composites. Finally, it was found that dispersion of integrity and
break up of samples started at around the 40th day of the test.
The study concluded that biodegradability can be improved by
blending the non-biodegradable LDPE polymer with biodegradable
SCB. This means that a durable and highly biodegradable plastic bag
can be produced and through its usage the environment pollutions
caused by burning and dispositional of plastic bag can be invariably
reduced. The utilization of distilled and sea water for SCB treatment
proves to be feasible compared to manifold chemicals and com-
plicated modification methods given its low cost and availability.
Therefore the composite is suitable to be applied as low cost dis-
posable bags, take-away food containers, surgical gown, bandages,
disposable clothing and others to replace those non-biodegradable
material like plastic and polystyrene.
A study on the development and characterization of the chem-
ical and physical properties of composite material manufactured
using phenolic resin and cane pulp (Leite et al., 2004), observed
that the density of composite decreased when the cane pulp fiber
content increased. The weak adhesion between fiber and matrix
was found to be improved using “mercerization” treatment (fiber
treated with NaOH solution removes surface impurities). The result
increased surface tension, wetting ability that lead to better entan-
glement. Hence, the higher the cane pulp fiber hydrophilic cellulose
fiber, the more the water absorption. The resistance to traction
kept increasing when fiber fractions lie between 20% and 50%,
insufficient loading were noticed for fractions lower than 20% and
excessive interaction between the fibers was noted for those above
50%, decreasing the resistance to traction. Influence of granulome-
try was not significant for both water absorption and resistance to
traction for the composite and 69% fiber fractions. Tensile strength
for grain sizes of 80–170 meshes was 36% higher than for grain
sizes of 35–80 meshes. Similar trends were noted for 29% fiber frac-
tions with the variation of 8%. This may be contributed by the fiber
length which was below the critical length. Its suitability as mate-
rial for tissue papers, newspaper and advertisement flyers thus
can be seen easily while its potential as heat insulating cushions
to be used on dining table and kitchen appliances are yet to be
discovered.
Meanwhile, the examination of composite made from bleached
bagasse pulp (BBP) with surface treatment of polyethylene gly-
col (PEG) was considered by Shawaphun and Manangan (2011).
The examination found that (i) increase of water diffusion rates
(WDR) for PEG/PLA(poly(lactic acid))-coated and PEG-coated BBP
sheets were higher than uncoated-BBP sheet PEG and PLA, thus pro-
moting hydrophobicity on cellulose and preventing aggregation of
18 Y.R. Loh et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 75 (2013) 14–22
these whiskers; (ii) WDR of PLA-coated BBP decreased prominently
as PLA cannot be adsorbed on cellulose whisker; (iii) fiber aggre-
gates confirmed strong hydrogen bonding interaction among BBP
cellulose whisker for uncoated BBP sheets, meanwhile good cel-
lulose dispersion within the matrix (no fiber aggregate) observed
in coated BBP fibers; (iv) PLA/PEG coated BBP having higher PLA
covered on cellulose fiber showed better cellulose fibers and the
matrix interfacial adhesion than PLA coated BBP; (v) BBP provided
larger nucleus-promoting surface; (vi) when blended with 30 wt%
of PEG, tensile strength of neat PLA decreased prominently while
elongation at break became higher; (vii) addition of 20 wt% BBP
in the PLA matrix enhanced the most considerable reduction in the
tensile modulus and strength than PLA-PEG blend film; (viii) tensile
modulus of PLA based composite increased more when reinforced
with 25 wt% of BBP fiber than with 20 wt% of BBP fiber but ten-
sile strength and elongation at break were about the same because
for compression molded composites, interactions by hydrogen
bonds are limited as melted polymer’s viscosity hinders micro fiber
rearrangements, causing network primarily based on entangle-
ments; and (ix) 25 wt% BBP/PLA composites (high PEG content) had
improved tensile strength and elongation at break but decrease in
Young’s Modulus as PEG increased their flexibility. This new pro-
cess of BBP/PLA composites production by compression molding
of sheets (uniformly dispersed BBP fibers and PLA) enable the BBP
fibers and PLA mixing being carried out entirely in aqueous sus-
pension (which are closer to industrial process utilized). Hence,
the ease of manufacturing, industrial technologies and processes,
efficiency, feasibility and possible simplifications measures should
also be contemplated while optimizing the products quality and
performance level beside saving cost and preventing wastages of
energy and human resources.
Mulinari et al. (2009) carried out studies on composites that
were manufactured by having high-density polyethylene, HDPE
(matrix) mixed with cellulose (10%) and Cell/ZrO2 ·nH2 O (10%),
using an extruder and hydraulic press. SCB was pretreated to
isolate crude cellulose which then modified with zirconium oxy-
chloride (ZrOCl2 ·8H2 O). It was found that (i) modified fiber
has higher crystallinity (53%) than those unmodified (47%); (ii)
pure cellulose decompose at 300 ◦ C (degradation temperature)
and 380 ◦ C (complete temperature decomposition). Meanwhile,
Cell/ZrO2 ·nH2 O decompose at 260 ◦ C and 338 ◦ C (decreased)
due to presence of oxide particles on the cellulose surface
(strong interaction between hydrous zirconium oxide and cel-
lulose fibers); (iii) as shown in Table 1: (a) HDPE has the
highest elongation at break (tensile), followed by Cellulose/HDPE
and Cell/ZrO2 ·nH2 O/HDPE (b) HDPE has the highest tensile
strength followed by Cell/ZrO2 ·nH2 O/HDPE and Cellulose/HDPE
(c) Cell/ZrO2 ·nH2 O/HDPE has the highest tensile modulus fol-
lowed by Cellulose/HDPE and HDPE (due to oxide particles on
fiber); (iv) agglomerations incurred by inefficient fibers dispersion
inside matrix caused poor matrix-fiber adhesion during mix-
ing (composites were inhomogeneous distribution); (v) ductility
decreased as agglomeration in modified composites decreased;
and (vi) reinforcement particle area fractions obtained for statis-
tical analyses showed 13.4% decrease for Cell/ZrO2 ·nH2 O/HDPE,
proved the increase of filled regions by reinforcement particles
had tendencies of non-homogenous distribution. Hence, molding
Table 1
Details of HDPE, cellulose/HDPE and cell/ZrO2 ·nH2 O/HDPE composites (Mulinari et al., 2009).
Material High density polyethylene (HDPE)
Elongation at break (tensile) (%) 1.96 ± 0.087
Tensile strength (MPa) 16.7 ± 0.15
Tensile Modulus (MPa) 850.9 ± 28.2
Reinforcement particle area fractions
process using extrusion and hydraulic press can be regarded as
appropriate method in preparing SCB composite for its applica-
tions where the tensile strength is much more important than
other mechanical properties and material elongation have to be
restricted.
Investigation conducted by Mendes and Cestari (2011) on uti-
lization of cellulose polarity as vehicle for receiving and retaining
ink, thus enabling the feasibility of continuous polymeric matrix
(HDPE) highly filled with sugarcane bagasse fiber (SCB) as an
ink-absorbing material found that (i) the ground SCB fiber can
pass through 20, 40 and100 mesh sieve as they are small enough
to present good dispersion in polymer composite; (ii) dispersion
between polymer and filler was fine while shearing occurred dur-
ing process in Haake mixer, lignin can be compatibilizing agent
and SCB particles were completely encapsulated by the HDPE;
(iii) HDPE burnt and left no residue, showing one-step degrada-
tion while SCB has 3 steps of weight loss due to moisture loss,
burn of hemicellulose and cellulose and lignin degradation; (iv)
SCB can increase thermal stability and cause amount of residue
to increase (from burn profile); (v) for contact angle test on dis-
tilled water (DW), ethanol (EOH), DW/EOH mixture and ink-jet ink
(IJI), all composites presented high repellency to DW; (vi) when
SCB content increased, absorption efficiency of the tested liquids
increased; (vii) for 80–20 (cannot retain ink at all) and 50–50 com-
posites, ink drops did not spread on sheet surface causing blurred,
non-graphic and easily smudged quality, while for 30–70 com-
posite, ink was completely dried and partially absorbed within
1 hour, proving printing quality improved as the cellulose con-
tent increased (viii) Young modulus decreased when SCB filler
content decreased but for 50–50 and 30–70 composites’ Young
modulus still close to neat HDPE; and (ix) when SCB filler content
increased, tensile stress, tensile strain, break strength and break
elongation values decreased. Hence, it is shown that triturated SCB
can enhance the printability, thermal and mechanical properties of
composites in preparing good quality and low cost printing surface
and also paper. The reusability and recyclability of the composites
should be further studied. Besides that, the hydrophilic properties
of SCB fiber actually still posses possibilities that yet to be discov-
ered. For instance, the SCB composites might be able to be used
as tissue paper, water absorbing material (dehumidifying mate-
rial) or as liquid chemical absorbent in case there are spillages
with appropriate modifications on material used and manufactur-
ing approaches.
Vega-Baudrit et al. (2011) investigated on low density com-
posite polyurethanes foam and dibutyltindilaurate as catalysts
based on sugar cane molasses reinforced with bagasse fiber
that ground (5, 10, 15, 20% w/w) with an average particle size
of 60 mesh from the same bio-waste. Cellulose and lignin are
polar macromolecules consist hydroxyl groups that can interact
with the polyurethane through hydrogen bonding. Accordingly
molasses has OH groups value of 7.71 meq/g and free acid value
of 0.95 meq/g. Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-300 has OH groups value
of 6.45 meq/g and diphenylmethanediisocyanate (MDI) has NCO
groups value of 7.50 meq/g. Residual molasses mainly consist of
sucrose, followed by glucose and fructose, showing that hydroxyl
groups existed able to react with the isocyanate to form urethane
linkage.
Cellulose/HDPE composite Cell/ZrO2 ·nH2 O/HDPE composite
1.62 ± 0.097 1.2 ± 0.185
14.4 ± 0.58 15.6 ± 1.11
880.1 ± 63.5 1324.2 ± 211.0
46.6 ± 7.8 (average) 33.2 ± 5.5 (average)
 Y.R. Loh et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 75 (2013) 14–22
5.3. Utilizations of sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) in cement
replacement for manufacturing concrete
In the application of SCBA for cement replacement,
Govindarajan and Jayalakshmi (2011a,b) explained on the effect
of partial replacement of cement with 10% calcined sugarcane
Bagasse ash (SCBA) on the properties of manufactured cement
pastes. They indicated that compressive strength value for cements
containing 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% SCBA increased and were higher
compared to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) which may have been
caused by the filler effect and the pozzolanic reaction between
Ca(OH)2 from cement hydration and reactive SiO2 from the SCBA.
Decrease in compressive strength caused by dilution effect was
observed in 15% and 20% SCBA. A diffraction peaks of ettringite,
Ca(OH)2 and C–S–H phases noticed in all samples obtained during
hydration for (X-ray diffraction) XRD pattern of OPC and 10%
SCBA admixtured cement at 7 days and 28 days. Samples of SCBA,
indicated that when C–S–H increased (strength improved), peaks
of Ca(OH)2 diminished, showing that pozzolanic reaction occurred
between Ca(OH)2 and amorphous silica present in SCBA. Scanning
electron microscope (SEM) analysis of cement paste without and
with the replacement of 10% SCBA at 7 days and 28 days, showed
needle-like formation of ettringite, C–S–H and crystals of Ca(OH)2
were noticed, while they became denser at 28 days.
In another study, Govindarajan and Jayalakshmi (2011a,b) con-
sidered the characterizing of SCBA obtained which were fired
at 500 ◦ C, 600 ◦ C, 700 ◦ C, 800 ◦ C, 900 ◦ C, and 1000 ◦ C for 4 h and
calcined SCBA through XRD, and SEM techniques. The results indi-
cated that phase transformation occurred as great differences in
XRD pattern was shown between calcined and uncalcined SCBA.
At 800 ◦ C and 900 ◦ C SCBA, sharp and intense peak appeared on
top of amorphous background as amorphous silica recrystallised
as temperature increased. It was highly crystallized at 1000 ◦ C
while minor compound like calcium and iron oxides emitted. SEM
micrographs of the calcined SCBA samples showed it has prismatic
(mainly of Si and O), spherical (Si, O, other minor compound) and
fibrous (only C) with small pores on the surface of particles and
change of color from black to gray and white when temperature
increased (carbon content reduced). From these two studies, it is
known that SCBA with high content of silica (quartz form) has
proven to be a plausible admixture in cement. Calcined SCBA with
large amount of its unburned carbon removed therefore promote
the application of SCBA as pozzolans in manufacturing blended
mortars and cements. Hence, if calcined temperature and the
amount of SCBA used for cement replacement can be optimized,
the result composites will definitely bring revolutionary changes
to building material and our environment.
Aigbodion et al. (2010) explored on potential industrial exploita-
tion of bagasse ash which has been physically and chemically
characterized. The bagasse ash was mixed thoroughly with Ara-
bic gum and water to produce test samples. The samples showed
Grain Fineness Number (GFN) of 85.07 which was identified as fine.
Diffraction peaks that shown through XRD are Quartz, SiO2 (30%):
Cliftonite, C (31%), Moissanite, SiC (19%), and Titanium Oxide, Ti6 O
(18%). A complete mineralogical analysis showed the existence of
C, O, Si, Ca, Ti, Al, Fe, and Zr. The prismatic particles are mainly
made up of Si and O. The spherical ones consists of Si, O, Ca, Al,
Ti, Zr and small amount of Fe while fibrous ones consists of only C
and SiC. SiO2 and carbon (finer) have fine structure as for the fir-
ing shrinkage value of the bagasse ash was 0.85% (low), which was
indicative of silica and graphite expansion during firing. Bagasse
ash can withstand operating temperature of 1600 ◦ C without load.
Hence, bagasse should be utilized in production of ceramic and
refractory products and facing sand molding during casting. Ability
of bagasse ash products to withstand extreme condition also indi-
cate its plausibility and suitability to be used as high temperature
19
materials for thermal insulation, gasketing and molten metal hand-
ling in aluminum, gas and furnace industry provided its properties
can be further improvised through continuous investigations.
Pozzolanic reactivity and cementitious behavior of SCBA (con-
trolled burning) was reported by Goyal et al. (2007) through tests on
blended cement mortars and pastes. It was found that a complete
combustion of SCBA occurred at 800 ◦ C (8 h) while crystallization
of minerals occurred at above 650 ◦ C. The most suitable burning
condition was identified as 600 ◦ C (5 h). SCBA has low density and
higher surface area which favors the pozzolanic reactivity of amor-
phous silica and other minerals as compared to ordinary Portland
cement (OPC), with ash particles size of 28.9 ␮m. The minerals
show amorphousness with slight crystallization of SiO2 . In addition,
SCBA increased setting time due to water absorption at its surface,
reduction of Ca(OH)2 , silica gel film form around cement grains
and mutual coagulation of components. Flow values decreased as
SCBA has higher specific surface area which required more water
to wet the surface. All blended mortars (at 7, 28, and 91 days)
had strength activity index (AI) higher than minimum requirement
(75). Beginning from CS test (3 and 7 days) all blended mortar
specimens have higher strength than control due to pozzolanic
activity and relative fineness of SCBA. Filler effect was only pre-
dominant up to 15% ash substitution, if exceeded, CH increased and
C–S–H hydrates decreases, un-reacted silica in the gel increases.
Pozzolanic reaction of CH and SiO2 and hydration of SiO2 in alkaline
environment increases CS and FS values. Calcium Silicate Hydrate1
(C–S–H), C–A–S–H, and peak representing C4 AHx hinder the hydra-
tion reaction and caused low strength development. XRD showed
free CH gradually consumed by SiO2 . SC-10 and SC-15 reacted more
than other blends, giving better strength result. SEM of SC-10 and
SC-15 showed presence of denser matrix with the progression of
hydration while coarser structure showed that C–S–H and C–A–S–H
increased. 91 days specimen’s microstructure were more compact
and well arranged, and strength decreased when SCBA contents
increased as traces of un-reacted particles noticed. Therefore, SCBA-
blended mortar as 10–15% substitution of OPC with SCBA should be
utilized to make stronger material than control. Hence, high quality
masonry and concrete blocks with elevated strength can be man-
ufactured. It is anticipated future research can reveal the ways to
incorporating higher amount of SCBA in the composite such that
the negative impacts to the environment can be minimized while
lowering the production cost and increasing the life span of the
buildings.
5.4. Utilizations of sugarcane straw ash (SCSA)
Frías et al. (2007) studied on how calcining temperature (800
and 1000 ◦ C, both controlled condit66 ions) affect pozzolanic acti-
vation of sugar cane straw (SCS) that associated with pozzolanic
behavior of Portland cements. Results showed that (i) 800 ◦ C SCSA
has low crystallinity, vitreous matter (calcite-main compound,
quartz and carbon-minor compound) existed; (ii) 1000 ◦ C SCSA
has higher crystallinity and less vitreous matter (alpha cristo-
balite); (iii) for both SCSA high pozzolanic activity ashes observed
within first 7 days of their reaction with saturated lime solution
(75 ml) in individual double cap polyethylene flasks (100 ml) and
maintained in an oven (40 ± 1 ◦ C, 1 day, 7 days, 28 days, and 90
days); (iv) for both ash, non-crystalline compound formed during
reaction; (v) decarbonation phenomenon due to the presence of
calcium carbonate (0 day) caused endothermic effect noticed at
700 ◦ C; decomposition of hydrated silicates and aluminates dur-
ing pozzolanic activity and formation of CSH gel as main phase
resulted in main interval to calculate these weight losses between
100 ◦ C and 400 ◦ C; (vi) calcined product at 800 ◦ C produced higher
weight losses due to higher vitreous matter content; and (vii) 800 ◦ C
SCSA showed higher reactivity (order: 10−2 h−1 ). Thus, SCSA that
20 Y.R. Loh et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 75 (2013) 14–22

calcinied at 800 ◦ C and 1000 ◦ C should be extensively utilized in Table 2

Izod impact strength of thermoset and phenolic composites reinforced with unmo-
blended cements manufactures. Besides that, it has the advan-
dified and FA-modified fibers, and their respective standard deviations (%) (Trindade
tage of being able to be recycled as active additions. Plausibility et al., 2004).
of combining SCSA with other materials such as gypsum plaster,
Sample Impact strength (J/m)
fly ash, silica fume and more in producing concrete that possess
distinct properties such as thermal mass improvement (increase of Thermoset 12.6 ± 1.4
adaptability against fluctuating weather) can be set as one of the Unmodified sugar cane reinforced phenolic composite 40.7 ± 9.7
Modified sugar cane reinforced phenolic composite 24.8 ± 5.0
directions for further explorations.

5.5. Modifications and utilizations of lignin presented in SCB in
manufacturing composite materials
Trindade et al. (2004) examined the chemical modifications that
involved introduction of quinines in lignin polymer by utilizing its
phenolic syringyl and guaiacyl units which then react with furfuryl
alcohol (FA) to create a coating around the fiber (more compati-
ble to phenolic resins for composites preparation). As for phenolic
pre-polymer, it was prepared using phenol, formaldehyde (37%),
and potassium hydroxide (1.38:1.00:0.06%). They showed that (i)
after oxidation by sodium periodate, red color of fibers showed that
ortho-quinones formed, while from UV-visible diffuse reflectance
spectra, p-quinones formed besides guaiacyl and syringylortho-
quinones; (ii) oxidized fibers treated with furfuryl alcohol after
Soxhlet extraction showed 13 wt% gain, proving reactivity of FA
with quinones formed; (iii) fiber surface became more hygroscopic
as polar groups introduced attached to lignin; (iv) modified fiber
has a more lignin (increase of lignin-like polymer formed by chem-
ical reaction and/or to partial extraction of hemicelluloses) while
unmodified fiber has higher cellulose/hemicellulose ratio and cel-
lulose crystallinity index; (v) chemical modification treatment that
involved amorphous hemicellulose and crystalline cellulose did not
affect fibers inner part except forming coating on surfaces; (vi)
25% of strength and length properties lost after modifications; (vii)
modification of fibers FA changes the thermal response, especially
in the lignin range temperature upper to 360 ◦ C; (viii) interfa-
cial fiber-matrix adhesion was enhanced but lowered the impact
strength as shown in Table 2 (due to relatively over strong interfa-
cial fiber-matrix adhesion which can cause fiber degradation); (ix)
hydroxyl groups reacted with hydroxymethylated phenolic rings
and aromatic hydroxymethylated rings of the pre-polymer reacted
with the lignin phenolic rings enhanced inter-diffusion process
(better fiber wettability) and formed more chemical bond; and (x)
polar groups in phenolic matrix increased fiber-matrix adhesion,
surface roughness and separated fiber bundles (enhanced inter-
diffusion). Thus, the applicability and effects of different chemicals
like chlorine dioxide in creating quinine should be researched so as
to explore and further refine modification methodologies. Grafting
mechanism of furfuryl alcohol to quinonoid structures should also
be understood deeper through studies such that a better utilization
of lignin can be achieved. The high content of lignin in SCB thus
making it an ideal material to be combined with other ingredient
for product modifications and properties enhancement purposes
especially in creating barriers, films and coatings of manifold char-
acteristics.
Doherty et al. (2007) reported on purification of organosolv
lignin which obtained from bagasse and the lignin physico-
chemical properties together with its lignin-phenol formaldehyde
(PF) resin coatings, and composites. They indicated that (i) from
acetylated lignin (lignin purified by acid precipitation), la1 and
acetylated lignin (lignin purified using cyclohexane/ethanol mix-
ture) analysis la2 , la2 obtained has less than la1 ; (ii) glass transition
temperature, Tg of la2 was sharply defined relative to la1 , showing
that lignin from la2 were better; (iii) untreated substrate showed
that the cellulosic surface posses certain hydrophobicity due to the
wax coating while lignin films can reduce water absorption more
than two-folds than the wax coating (the thicker lignin absorbed
least water, with 30 mm most effective); (iv) for lignin-PF resins,
the higher the lignin content, the higher the rate of polymerization
reaction enthalpy; (v) corrugated sheet with a thicker lignin-PF
resin coating can effectively resist burning; (vi) the higher the
bagasse fiber content, the lower the flexural properties, show-
ing that untreated bagasse fibers laminates has superior flexural
properties compared to the caustic treated bagasse fiber and (vii)
NaOH treated bagasse fibers showed voids and surface irregular-
ities while its peak stress, peak load and strain at peak increased
although elastic modulus decreased slightly with higher fiber con-
tent. The information recorded in Tables 3 and 4 further assured the

Table 3
Characteristics of lignin-PF resin coatings (Doherty et al., 2007).

Test Film thickness (mm) Water absorption (percent of Surface characteristic Simple fire test (time, s)
actual weight gain) (contact angle,◦ )

Control 1 153 148 71.9 4.6

Control 2 400–2100 143 81.7 6.6
Substrateaa 1,1 370 39.6 36.6 5.9
Substrateaa1,2 400–2100 41.5 – 7.3
Substrateaa 2,1 260 45.5 41.5 6.7
Substrateaa2,2 400–2100 71.8 42.3 >55
a
The first letter denotes that the substrate is made from the same material as the control, while the second letter indicates different film thickness.

Table 4
Flexural properties of bagasse laminates (Doherty et al., 2007).

Flexural properties Bagasse fiber content (untreated) Bagasse fiber content (caustic treated)

30%(v/v) 38%(v/v) 45%(v/v) 30%(v/v) 38%(v/v) 45%(v/v)

Peak flexural stress (MPa) 13.62 (2.82) 12.57 (2.24) 11.80 (2.60) 10.64 (2.90) 11.33 (4.59) 6.19 (2.23)
Deflection at peak (mm) 1.42 (0.25) 1.17 (0.19) 1.22 (0.23) 1.15 (0.21) 1.47 (0.34) 0.98 (0.28)
Strain at peak (%) 0.86 (0.15) 0.72 (0.12) 0.73 (0.14) 0.71 (0.13) 0.88 (0.20) 0.60 (0.17)
Flexural modulus (MPa) 1665 (165) 1871 (128) 1729 (228) 1576 (216) 1342 (349) 1097 (190)
Peak load (N) 25 (5) 23 (4) 21 (4) 20 (5) 20 (8) 11 (4)

Note: The values in parenthesis are the standard deviations.

 Y.R. Loh et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 75 (2013) 14–22
promising properties of the composite and its lignin coating. Future
researches should emphasis on improving the mechanical proper-
ties of the bio-composite besides further explorations on potentials
of the barrier coating such as being water and fire resistance. It
is anticipated that the ideal coating can enable the production of
superior materials for manifold applications like building, trans-
portations, clothes such that the versatility, adaptability, durability
and safety of materials can be improved fabulously.
5.6. Silane treatment for unpyrolyzed and pyrolyzed SCB
Bilba and Arsene (2008) examined silane treatment for unpy-
rolyzed and pyrolyzed SCB fibers as reinforcement material
incementitious matrix with an alkyltrialkoxysilane, RSi(OR )3 (S1 )
or a dialkyldialkoxysilane, R2 Si(OR )2 (S2 ) and the effect on fiber
porosity, dimension, morphology and hygroscopic character. It was
found that (i) silane treatment increased fiber external surface
area and improved composite properties (better matrix and fiber
adhesion); (ii) fiber surface became rougher with striations and
the pyrolyzed fibers (PB) hollow structure disappeared (densifi-
cation) after 6% silane S1 treatment, while fibers surface texture
seems “granular” after 6% silane S2 treatment (S2 might partly cov-
ered fiber surface and caused surface microfibrils cracking); (iii)
OxCy bonds observed due to linkages between organic surface and
silane proved that silanes were grafted onto surface; (iv) sugar-
cane bagasse fiber (B) and PB showed lower water absorption after
treatment (PB less hygroscopic/hydrophilic than B, can improve
fibers and composites aging) and it decreased with increase of
silane in treatment solutions; (v) water repellent effect of S2 better
than S1 ; (vi) pyrolysis caused largest pores observed as it reduced
hemicellulose and extractives content of vegetable fibers, hence
increasing porosity; (vii) poor matrix deposition on fiber surface
noticed in PB, meanwhile de-bonding of some fibers from matrix
noticed in B (also pith particles gave better adhesion); and (vii)
0.5% of silane (S1 or S2 ) treated B showed reduced setting time
and increased setting temperature. It was concluded that com-
bination of pyrolysis and silane treatments increased fiber water
resistance by improving its hydrophobicity. This method can how-
ever be tested on composites manufactured using SCB and other
materials with a certain amount of cementitious material as rein-
forcement medium. Also, various existing treatment methods for
material manufacturing are yet to be tested as different com-
binations of modifications and materials may bring unexpected
outcomes.
5.7. Sugar cane rind and mixed hardwood oriented strand board
bonded with PF Resin
Han et al. (2005) compared sugarcane comrind and wood
strands for structural composite manufacturing besides evaluating
physical and mechanical properties of three-layer mixed sugar-
cane comrind and hardwoods oriented strand board (OSB) bonded
with phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin. It was found that (i) cutin
(hydrophobic waxy layer with slippery surface outside comrind
layer) affects the bond ability between particle elements and urea-
based resin adhesives; (ii) comrind strands (waxy layer) had the
highest tensile strength as rind fiber cell walls are thicker than those
of wood like willow especially at outer surface region; (iii) pure
rind OSB showed better alignment distribution as comrind strand
has more regular shape and uniform width (easier strand orienta-
tion control); (iv) all boards has regular density gradient through
panel thickness (increased when rind in core layer decreased); (v)
pure wood large flakes boards showed the most prominent den-
sity gradient and lowest for pure rind board; (vi) rind can decrease
differences on both bending strength (MOR) and modulus (MOE)
in parallel and perpendicular directions(also decreased when
21
comrind increased); (vii) pure rind board showed lowest MOR
and MOE values as outer waxy layer of rind caused poor bond-
ing between rind flakes and there were large internal voids among
the comrind strand; (viii) thinner and better processed strand pro-
mote bending properties; (ix) internal bond (IB) strength decreased
with the replacement of rind as bonding between wood and rind
strands, and among the rind strand were poor but mean IB values
for rind content level up to 22.5%, still comparable to IB values of
most commercial OSB; (x) rind that replaces part of the small wood
core material (WCM) can balance linear expansion (LE) parallel and
perpendicular values as its waxy layer, non-polarextractives (outer
surfaces) and typical micro-structure make it inherent waterproof;
(xi) rind effectively reduced thickness swelling (TS) value where
pure rind board posses excellent dimensional stability, (xii) TS
value of WFM-CRD (Wood face material-Comrind) reduced more
than panels made with WCM-CDR (Wood core material-Comrind)
in the core layer; (xiii) equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of
comrind OSB lower than wood OSB at lower relative humidity
(RH) levels (adsorption and desorption) as higher wax content
of comrind strand hinders moisture from transmitting into the
panel; and (xiv) EMC of comrind OSB higher than wood OSB (RH
above 80%) as hemicellulose in comrind assist moisture trans-
mission (higher RH levels). Hence, sugarcane comrind (flakes)
which posses high tensile strength and comparable properties
with wood strands can be mixed with wood flakes to produce
three-layer OSB, which is competitive and comparable with those
marketed wood boards in terms of mechanical properties and
production cost. In fact, the mixing ratio of various materials in
the manufactured composites can be manipulated according to
manifolds performances requirements to attain the desired prop-
erties. The combination of sugarcane comrind and other plausible
materials especially wastes should also be investigated for com-
parison and improvement purposes besides studying how different
treatments of comrind can be applied to give OSB various charac-
teristics.
6. Conclusion
The literature review reveals manifold research that have been
carried out on the low cost biodegradable green agriculture waste
material, The review encapsulates the various usage of SCB in com-
posite material using distinctive approaches; highlights some of
the important findings and results; analysis of SCB’s current appli-
cations; and future direction and/or trend for further research has
been duly identified.
SCB can act as effective reinforcement fiber in the manufac-
ture of polymeric composites. It may also be applied and utilized
for composite materials manufacturing and applications in various
forms, such as cellulose fiber, lignin extracted, comrind, pith, sugar
cane bagasse ash (SCBA), sugar cane straw ash (SCSA) and more.
Additionally, SCB produces good reactions when mixed with other
additives and chemicals, which produces materials with improved
and desired properties and sometimes creating new characteristics.
Chemical modifications of SCB wastes are vital and can effec-
tively improve the matrix-fiber adhesion in the composites thus
enhancing those desired mechanical properties and functions on
the materials manufactured.
The studies reviewed in this paper seem to be in support of
the versatility and adaptability of SCB wastes though limitations
have been invariably identified as well. Extensive research and fur-
ther experimentations in this area would be merited to espouse the
various other manipulations that can be done with SCB wastes in
the creation of environment friendly materials in the foreseeable
future.
22 Y.R. Loh et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 75 (2013) 14–22
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