Universidad Católica de Salta

Facultad de Artes y Ciencias

Profesorado y Traductorado Público en
Inglés

ESTRUCTURAS LINGÜÍSTICAS COMPARADAS

Adverbs,
Prepositions,
Conjunctions
and Interjections
in Spanish and English
CAMPOS, ANA CLARA
CHIERICOTTI, ROSARIO
ROMANO LORENTE, VALENTINA

2016
 ADVERBS
Adverbs are lexical words which serve two major roles: they can be integrated into an
element of the clause or they themselves can be an element of the clause. In the first case
the adverb serves as a modifier, giving extra information about verbs, adjectives or other
adverbs by telling how, when, where or how much; in the second case, the adverb serves
as an adverbial.
e.g. Modifier: Their services are reasonably accurately for trading purposes.
(Modifying the adjective “accurately”)
e.g. Adverbial: Possibly, he will marry her (Clause element that tells the level of
certainty for the entire clause)
Adverbs indicate circumstances of place, time, manner, degree, stance, addition,
restriction, etc.

FORMS OF ADVERBS
Adverbs are invariable words; they do not have gender, number, tense or any
inflectional categories. Nevertheless, they admit degree indications e.g. poco después or
shortly after. This applies to both, English and Spanish.
Simple adverbs: they are not derived from another word e.g. aquí, ya, pronto (in
Spanish); well, too or rather (in English). Some of them have the same forms as adjectives
e.g. rápido, claro (in Spanish) close, dead or fine (in English).
Many adverbs have the form of an adjective e.g. No logro entenderlo, no habla
claro. In English, e.g. She did not run fast enough.
Compound adverbs in English and Spanish are formed by combining two or more
elements into a single word or a fixed expression:
a. They can be formed by a noun and an adjective: pasado mañana, (de) otro modo,
otra vez, más bien; halfway, likewise, meantime, otherwise, anyway.

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 b. They can be formed by a preposition in front of a noun, adjective or adverb:
ashore, en tierra; afoot, en movimiento; along, adelante; heretofore (here + to + fore)
Adverbs derived by suffixation: many adverbs are formed from descriptive
adjectives and they most frequently add a particle in the end of the word. In Spanish, they
can be formed by an adjective + mente e.g. claramente. In English, adjectives add –ly:
rapidly. In addition to -ly, other suffixes are also used: the suffix -ward(s) is added to nouns
and prepositions e.g. afterwards; and the suffix -wise can be added to nouns e.g. pricewise.

Most of the times, these adverbs express manner. Sometimes, these forms can be
replaced by expressions like de un modo + adjetivo e.g. sinceramente = de un modo sincero
or by con + sustantivo abstracto e.g. sinceramente = con sinceridad (in the case of Spanish).
and in a + adjective + way (in English) e.g. In an unexpected way.

Besides indicating manner, adverbs ending in –mente, -ly and –wards can express :

 Degree e.g. El coche está excesivamente sucio. / the car is extremely dirty
 Aspect e.g. Eso es completamente absurdo. / This is completely absurd
 Precision e.g. Faltan aproximadamente dos kilómetros. / There are approximately two
kilometers left.
 Frequency e.g. Generalmente voy al gimnasio por las mañanas. Generally, / I go to the
gym in the mornings.
 Time e.g. Actualmente realizamos una búsqueda de personal. / We are currently doing
a staff reseach
 Style e.g. Quiero que me respondas sinceramente. / I want you to respond me honestly
 Point of view e.g. Eso está científicamente probado. / Technically, the country’s
economic problems are over, but recovery will be slow.
 Attitude e.g. Lamentablemente no podremos ir a la boda. / Unfortunately, we won’t
be able to go to the wedding.

Comparative form:

In Spanish, adverbs may show comparison e.g. naturalmente --> más naturalmente
(comparative) and lo más naturalmente (superlative), as in Trata de expresarte lo más
naturalmente.

Moreover, in Spanish some adverbs allow diminutive and intensified suffixes (that is, they
express degree in the same word) e.g. despacio – despacito or pronto – prontito –
prontísimo.

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In English, adverbs may be inflected to show comparison e.g. actively --> more actively
(comparative) and most actively (superlative) or less actively (comparative) and least
actively (superlative), as in Jerry walks more slowly than I do.

In both Spanish and English there are some adverbs that form their comparison irregularly:

 Bien (well)  mejor (comparative) and mejor (superlative).

 Mal (badly)  peor (comparative) and peor (superlative).

 Mucho  más (comparative) and más (superlative).

 Poco  menos (comparative) and menos (superlative).

 Well  better (comparative) and best (superlative).

 Badly  worse (comparative) and worst (superlative).

When we make comparisons using verbs, we use tanto como after them e.g. Francisco no
habla tanto como su padre or Francisco does not talk as much as his father does.

In both, English and Spanish, adverbs can take the form of fixed expressions. These
phrases never vary in form e.g. of course or at last, de vez en cuando or a la buena de Dios.

USES OF ADVERBS
Adverbs answer the questions How?, When?, Where? or How much? about a verb, and
adjective or another adverb. Sometimes a phrase takes the place of a single adverb e.g.

Ayer vino aquí y muy pronto nos relató lo que pasó.

(when) (where) (how much) (how)

Yesterday he came here and very quickly told the story.

(when) (where) (how much) (how)

Negatives

a. The negative word no in Spanish is an adverb and comes before a single verb e.g. No
hablo inglés; before haber, estar and ser when they are used in compound verb forms

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 e.g. No estamos trabajando mucho and before object pronouns that precede verbs e.g.
No me gusta eso.

b. Other common negative adverbs that accompany verbs are:

 No…jamás = Never e.g. No hablo jamás inglés en México = I never speak English in
Mexico.

 No…nunca = Never.

 No…más = No longer.

 No…nada = Not at all.

 No…nadie = No one.

 No…ni…ni = Neither…nor, or other ways to express two negatives in English e.g. No

tengo ni tiempo ni dinero = I have neither time nor money.

c. In Spanish, we can use several negatives e.g. No digo nunca nada a nadie.

d. In English, some adverbs as not, nowhere and never, make a sentence negative.
However, we may not use two negative words in one sentence unless we wish to
express a positive idea e.g. He doesn’t have no friends, but he has too few.

Questions

There are interrogative adverbs e.g. ¿Cuándo llegaste? Llegué ayer; ¿Dónde están los
libros? Están en la mesa or ¿Cómo te llamas? Me llamo Aldo.

Similarly, in English we find some words which introduce questions: When?, Where?, How?
and Why?. These are the questions that the majority of adverbs answer with respect to the
verb e.g. How do you know that?

Relative clauses used as adverbs

The clause answers the question When? e.g. Me acuesto cuando termino mi trabajo.

The same adverbs that ask questions may also be used to form relative clauses. These
clauses tell when, where, how, etc. the verb’s action will take place e.g. We are going to
the movies when we finish our work.

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FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS
Spanish

 Their more important and frequent function is to modify verbs to indicate manner,
time, place and quantity e.g. Siempre llega con noticias desalentadoras or Nosotras
vivimos aquí.

 Adverbs can be complements of the verb or the sentence e.g. El paquete llegará
mañana.

 Some adverbs can function as modifiers of an adjective, verb or another adverb e.g.

Está muy húmedo.

adjetivo

When they refer to an adjective or an adverb, they intensify their meanings e.g. Esta ciudad
está densamente poblada or Cristina baila extraordinariamente bien.

English

Adverbs serve two major roles:

 They can be integrated into an element of the clause; the adverb serves as a modifier.
When adverbs are modifiers, they usually modify an adjective or another adverb e.g. I
am almost positive she borrowed that off Barbie!

 They themselves can be an element of the clause; the adverb is an adverbial e.g. I think
she’ll be married shortly.

 Adverbs modifying adjectives: one of the primary functions of adverbs is modifying

adjectives e.g. This is slightly larger than the calculated value. Usually, adverbs
precede the adjectives that they modify, but the adverbs enough and ago are
postposed e.g. That seems so long ago. Other adverbs can also be postposed e.g. It is
rich nutritionally with high calcium content.

 Adverbs modifying other adverbs: adverbs also modify other adverbs. Two adverbs
together form an adverb phrase e.g. They’ll figure it out really fast.

 Adverbs modifying other elements: adverbs can also modify:

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  A noun phrase e.g. “It came as quite a surprise” said one.

 A pronoun e.g. Almost nobody, it seemed, could eat what they were given.

 A predeterminer e.g. I’ve done about half a side.

 A prepositional phrase e.g. But there’s a hell of a lot – well into their
seventies.

 A particle of phrasal verb e.g. It’s really filled the room right up.

 A numeral e.g. Approximately twenty cars were damaged in the earthquake.

 Other measurement expressions e.g. Tosi estimates that roughly one-quarter

to one-third of the total surface area of four sites in “prehistoric Turan” was
devoted to different craft activities.

 Adverbs as complements of prepositions: another function of adverb is to serve as

the complement of preposition e.g. I’m seeing all this from above.

 Adverbs as clause elements: adverbials: an adverb can function as an adverbial. There

are three major types of adverbials:

 Circumstance adverbials: they add information about the action or state that is
described in the clause; they give details about factors such as time, place and
manner e.g. He took it slowly.

 Stance adverbials: they convey the speaker/writer’s assessment of the

proposition in the clause e.g. His book undoubtedly fills a need.

 Linking adverbials: they serve to connect stretches of text e.g. Most of our rural
people do not have radio or television and a large proportion are illiterate.
Therefore we had to use approaches that do not depend on the mass media or on
literacy.

 Adverbs standing alone: in conversation, adverbs can stand alone, unconnected to

other elements in a clause. They can even serve as complete utterances e.g. The
kitten’s gone crazy. No, totally I mean it. Totally and utterly. Adverbs as stand-alone
utterances can also serve to express -or emphasize- agreement e.g. A: What you
could afford you had B: Exactly, exactly. Adverbs can also be used as questions e.g. A:
You can still vote if you lost it B: Really? Stance adverbs can be used to answer
questions e.g. a: Are they that good? B: Definitely.

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CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS
Spanish

Adverbs are classified into two big classes: descriptive and determinative.

 Descriptive adverbs

All adverbs derived from an adjective belong to this group. They function as adverbs when
they do not have an inflection and modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb e.g. Jorge
se encuentra muy mal or Será peor decirle que no or Hay que cantar bajo.

Adverbs that are formed from adjectives in combination with the suffix -mente are also
descriptive adverbs. They indicate manner or way of performing an action e.g. Contestó
forzadamente or Revisó el texto cuidadosamente. When two adverbs ending in -mente are
used together, in the first one the suffix is omitted in order to avoid cacophony e.g. tierna y
amorosamente.

 Determinative adverbs

They constitute a class in which a limited number of forms are included. They are
characterized because they perform a function similar to the one of pronouns (they are
used instead of a name) e.g. Trabajamos ahí.

According to their meaning, there are some subclasses:

 Adverbs of place e.g. aquí, allá, afuera, debajo, adelante, donde.

 Adverbs of time e.g. mientras, después, ahora, ayer, todavía.

 Adverbs of manner e.g. así, apenas, cómo, como.

 Adverbs of quantity e.g. demasiado, poco, casi, cuanto.

 Adverbs of doubt e.g. quizá, tal vez, acaso.

 Adverbs of affirmation e.g. sí, claramente, también.

 Adverbs of negation e.g. no, tampoco.

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English

Adverbs cover a wide range of semantic categories: seven. Adverbs can belong to more
than one major category of meaning. Still, for example, can be an adverb of time as in Are
you still teaching? or a linking adverb as in I’m doing better now. <…> Still I don’t even
remember how to start.

 Place adverbs: they express distance, direction or position e.g. “Don’t worry, he can’t
have gone far” (distance).

 Time adverbs: they express position in time, frequency, duration and relationship e.g.
She will remain a happy memory with us always (time duration).

 Manner adverbs: they express information about how an action is performed. Many of
these adverbs have -ly suffixes, taking their meanings from the adjectives that they are
derived from e.g. But sentiment recovered quickly.

Other manner adverbs are not -ly adverbs e.g. fast or well.

 Degree adverbs: they describe the extent of a characteristic. They can be used to
emphasize that a characteristic is either greater or less than some typical level e.g.
Those letters from you, it got so I almost believed they were really written to me.

o Amplifiers/intensifiers: degree adverbs that increase intensity are called amplifiers

or intensifiers. Some of these modify gradable adjectives and indicate degrees on a
scale e.g. Our dentist was very good. Other amplifiers indicate an endpoint on a
scale e.g. Completely cold and unemotional. How is also used as an intensifier in
exclamatory sentences e.g. How cruel!

o Diminishers/downtoners: degree adverbs which decrease the effect of the modified

item are called diminishers or downtoners. These adverbs indicate degrees on a
scale and are used with gradable adjectives e.g. A slightly cold start gave way to
wonderful contrasts of feeling.

 Additive/restrictive adverbs: additive adverbs show that one item is being added to
another e.g. My dad was a great guy, too. Restrictive adverbs are similar to additive
adverbs because they focus attention on a certain element of the clause. They serve to
emphasize the importance of one part of the proposition, restricting the truth of the
proposition either primarily or exclusively to that part e.g. Only those who can afford
the monthly payment can participate.

 Stance adverbs: they can be used to express three types of stance

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  Epistemic stance adverbs: they express a variety of meanings:

o Showing levels of certainty or doubt e.g. No it’s alright I’ll probably manage
with it.

o Commenting on the reality or actuality of a proposition e.g. Actually I’m not

very fussy at all.

o Showing that a proposition is based on some evidence e.g. The

supernumerary instar is reportedly dependent on the density of the parental
population.

o Showing the limitations on a proposition e.g. Typically, the front top six teeth
will decay because of the way the child has sucked on its bottle.

o Conveying imprecision e.g. It was kind of strange.

 Attitude stance adverbs: they express a speaker’s or writer’s emotional

attitude toward a proposition e.g. I lost the manual that goes with it,
unfortunately.

 Style stance adverbs: they tell something about a speaker’s manner of

speaking e.g. Quite simply, life cannot be the same.

 Linking adverbs: they make connections between sections of discourse. They show
how the meaning of one section of text is related to another e.g. And the month
before he left, he had made several long distance phone calls to Arizona and Ohio.
Police, however, would not say where they were concentrating their search.

POSITIONS OF ADVERBS
Spanish

 As a general rule, Spanish adverbs and adverbial phrases are usually placed near the
word they modify e.g. Aprobó fácilmente el examen de inglés.

 It is possible in Spanish to place the adverb after the object of a verb — but only if
the object is made up of just a word or two e.g. El condado emitió dos licencias
previamente or El condado ha emitido previamente dos licencias.

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  If many more words follow the verb, the adverb cannot be tacked on afterward e.g.
El condado emitió previamente dos licencias de matrimonio para parejas jóvenes.

 Adverbs can be placed before or after the word they modify, depending on how
they are used e.g. María nunca habla de su vida personal or La economía se
basa principalmente en tres empresas.

 An adverb that modifies another adverb comes before the adverb being modified
e.g. Comió muy lento.

 An adverb that modifies an adjective comes before it e.g. Estoy muy contento.

 An adverb that modifies an entire sentence often comes at the beginning of it, but
the adverb can also be used elsewhere e.g. Sharon posiblemente retrasará su viaje
or Posiblemente Sharon retrasará su viaje or Sharon retrasará posiblemente su
viaje or Sharon retrasará su viaje posiblemente.

English

 Front position: before the subject. These adverbs link or contrast previous
information. They are also common with inversion.

 Middle position: next to verbs. They are adverbs of frequency, time, certainty and
degree.

 End position: after an object or complement (the most frequent position). We

usually avoid having too many adverbs in end position; when it occurs, we often
follow this sequence:

The statue was lifted carefully onto the platform before the ceremony.
(manner) (place) (time)

DEGREE OF ADVERBS
Spanish

 Comparative degree

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 Comparative
Normal
Superiority Equality Inferiority

Despacio más despacio que tan despacio como menos despacio que

más rápidamente tan rápidamente menos rápidamente

Rápidamente
que como que

Bien mejor (más bueno) tan bien menos bien

Mal peor (más mal) tan mal menos mal

Mucho/muy más - -

Poco menos - -

 Superlative degree

Superlative

Normal Absolute Relative

Synthetic Analytic Superiority Inferiority

lo menos
Despacio Despacio muy despacio lo más despacio
despacio

muy lo más lo menos

Rápidamente rapidísimamente
rápidamente rápidamente rápidamente

óptimamente
Bien muy bien - -
buenísimo (boni-)

pésimamente
Mal muy mal - -
malísimo

Mucho muchísimo - lo más -

Poco poquísimo - lo menos -

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English

 Gradable adverbs can be marked as comparative or superlative with an inflection

(-er, -est) or the use of more or most.

 Inflected comparative and superlative forms are not used as often as they are with
adjectives. In fact, superlative forms of adverbs are very rare; while comparative
forms are only occasionally used e.g. I just kept working harder and harder.

 In some cases, an adverb can be made comparative either with the use of more or
with the -er inflection e.g. He went to the altar every first Friday, sometimes with
her, oftener by himself or I love live theatre, of course, I really ought to go more
often.

ADVERBS IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH

Tiempo/Time Lugar/Place Modo/Manner

ahora = in this moment, abajo = below, downstairs. adrede = intentionally, on

now. purpose.
acá = here, over there, this
hace un año = the last year. way. alto = aloud.

antes de ayer = the day adentro = in. rápido = fast, quickly,

before yesterday. swiftly.
afuera = outside.
antes = previously, así = like this, so, that way,
ahí = there, yonder.
preferably. thus.
allá = there.
aún (aun) = yet, still. bajo = silently.
allí = there, yonder.
ayer = yesterday. bien = well.
ante = before.
cuando = when. casi = almost, nearly.
aquí = here.
después = after. claro = clearly.
arriba = above, on top,
entonces = then. como = as, like, such as.
overhead, upstairs.
este año = this year. cual = as, like, such as.
cerca = close, near, nearby.
hoy = today. despacio = slowly.
delante = ahead, formerly,

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 jamás = never. previously. duro = hard.

luego = soon. dentro = inside. excepto = exceptedly.

mañana = tomorrow. detrás = behind, after. mal = badly.

mientras = while, whilst. donde = where. pronto = soon.

nunca = never. encima = above, on top, recio = strongly.

upstairs.
siempre = ever. rudo = brutally.
enfrente = in front of.
tarde = late. salvo = with the exception
fuera = outside. of.
temprano = early.
lejos = away. sereno = calmly.
todavía = still.

ya = already, by, now, yet.

Cantidad/Quantity Afirmación/Affirmation Negación/Negation

algo = some, not much.

apenas = barely, hardly,

only just, scarcely.

bastante = enough.
así = thus.
casi = almost.
jamás = never.
ciertamente = certainly,
cuanto (cuan) = as much
sure. ni = neither.
(many).
sí = yes. no = no.
demasiado = too, much.
también = also. nunca = never.
harto = enough, sufficiently.
verdaderamente = really, tampoco = also not, neither.
más = more.
actually.
menos = less.

mucho = a lot of, much,

very.

poco = little.

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 tanto (tan) = that much.

Duda/Doubt Exclusión/Exclusion Inclusión/Inclusion

acaso = maybe, perhaps,

apenas = barely, hardly, además = moreover.
possibly.
(only) just. aún = still, yet.
por lo visto = apparently,
seemingly. salvo = but, except, save. demás = moreover.

quizás (quizá) = maybe, sino = but. hasta = even, till, until.

perhaps, possibly. sólo = only. mismo = even.
tal vez = maybe, perhaps, tampoco = also not. también = also, too.
possibly.

Orden/Order Designación/Designation Interrogación/Interrogation

¿a dónde? = to where?

¿dónde? = where?

después = after. he = behold!, see!, there!, ¿cómo? = how?

here! ¿cuándo? = when?

¿cuánto? = how much?

¿por qué? = why?

ADVERBIALS IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH

Tiempo/Time Lugar/Place Modo/Manner

de ahora en adelante = a casa = home. aparentemente =

hereafter. seemingly.
a la derecha = to the right.
al anochecer = tonight. a ciegas = blindly.
a la izquierda = to the left.
de antemano = beforehand. a cuestas = piggyback.
debajo = downstairs.
de día = in the day. a diestro y siniestro =
de aquí en adelante =

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de la noche a la mañana =
overnight.
de la tarde = afternoon,
p.m.
de mañana = since the
morning.
de noche = at night.
de vez en cuando =
sometimes.
en fin = at last, finally.
pasado mañana = the day
after tomorrow.
por ahora = presently.
por tierra = overland.
por último = at last, finally.
Cantidad/Quantity
henceforward. disorderly.
de arriba hacia abajo = a hurtadillas = secretly.
downward.
a oscuras = in the dark.
de donde = from here, from
a toda velocidad = in full
where.
speed.
dentro de = within, inside,
a sabiendas = consciously,
indoors.
deliberately.
en alguna parte =
a la moda = modish.
somewhere.
al revés = just the opposite.
en casa = at home.
de buena gana = of good
en cualquier parte =
will.
anywhere.
de golpe = suddenly, fast.
en el extranjero = abroad.
de improviso = offhand.
en ninguna parte =
nowhere. intencionalmente =
intentionally.
en otra parte = elsewhere.
de mala gana = unwillingly.
en todas partes =
everywhere. de prisa = fast.
por aquí = this way. de pronto = suddenly.
en ninguna parte = de repente = suddenly.
nowhere.
en resumen = in total, in
Afirmación/Negación general.
Affirmation/Negation en vano = in vain.

a lo menos = at least. con seguridad = sure. por desgracia =

a lo sumo = at most.
de mucho = of much.
de poco = of some.
por supuesto = of course.
de acuerdo = in agreement.
con certeza = certainly,
unfortunately.
aproximadamente =
approximately.
sobre todo = above all,

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 de todo = of all. sure. especially.

poco más o menos = de hecho, de facto = in fact.

approximately.
de ningún modo = in no
way.

de verdad = verily, really.

en correcto estado = ok.

en efecto = in effect.

en punto = exactly.

por cierto = certainly.

por lo visto = apparently,

seemingly.

por supuesto = of course.

sin duda = undoubtedly.

Adverbial phrases in Spanish

They are groups of words which are equal to an adverb, for their meaning and function.
They indicate the same circumstances as the adverbs.

 Adverbial phrases of place e.g. de frente, de arriba abajo, por encima.

 Adverbial phrases of manner e.g. a oscuras, de veras.

 Adverb phrases of time e.g. de pronto, de vez en cuando, en un santiamén.

 Adverb phrases of quantity e.g. a mansalva, en abundancia, a/hasta más no poder.

Adverbial phrases in English:

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An adverb phrase can consist of one adverb or an adverb plus other words before it
(premodification) or after it (postmodification). Adverb phrases have many different
meanings:

 Manner e.g. We walked very carefully across the floor.

 Time e.g. Dad got home very late.

 Place e.g. Here is where I was born.

 Duration e.g. This pill will take away the pain temporarily.

 Frequency e.g. They almost never invite people to their house these days.

 Focus e.g. Want some sugar in your coffee? Only half a spoon, please.

 Degree e.g. That dog behaves incredibly stupidly!

 Certainty/necessity e.g. The train will probably be late; we’d better necessarily go.

 Evaluation e.g. Unfortunately for me, I can’t speak Italian.

 View point e.g. Personally, I don’t see why the party has to start so early.

 Linking e.g. It rained very heavily this summer. Therefore, many of the vegetables were
very small.

PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word or set of words that indicates a relationship (of place, time, etc.) between
two parts of a sentence. They are function words.

Prepositions are never inflected neither in English nor in Spanish. They are invariable.

They always have an object (prepositional object). E.g. in a minute.

They are called prepositions because they are positioned before objects.

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WHAT FORMS DO THEY HAVE?
In English, prepositions can be:

1. Single words: about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, as, at, before,
behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, by, despite, down, during,
except, for, from, in, near, of, off, on, opposite, over, past, round, since, through, to, toward,
under, underneath, until, up, upon, with.

2. A word made up of two prepositions: into, onto, within, without.

3. A group of words: in spite of, because of, except for, in front of.

In Spanish, they may be:

1. One word: a, ante, bajo, con, contra, de, desde, durante, en, entre, hacia, hasta, mediante,
para, por, según, sin, sobre, tras.

2. Several words: al lado de

They are invariable except for prepositions a and de, which combine with the masculine singular
definite article el to form al and del. E.g. Voy al cine. Vengo del Mercado.

The prepositions cabe y so are not used anymore.

WHAT USES DO THEY HAVE?

Prepositions describe the relationship between two or more elements in a sentence.

TIME (English)

AFTER To mean later than. Where have you been? It is after eleven o’clock.

For time, special periods and some phrases. At five to seven, at New Year, at
AT
night, at the weekend.

To mean before a time. Applications must be submitted before 30th

BEFORE
November. (on the 29th or earlier)

To mean before or at a time. Applications must be submitted by 30th

BY
November. (on the 30th or earlier)

We use it before periods of time. Long hair for men was fashionable during
DURING
much of the seventies.

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 We use it with periods of time. The volcano hasn’t erupted for more than 75
FOR
years.

We use it with points in time. I’ll be staying at the Hilton from Friday to
FROM
Monday.

For parts of the day, months, seasons, years, centuries, etc. In the morning, in
IN
December, in 1889, in the winter.

For days and dates, including special days. On Thursday, on the 31st of May,
ON
on Labour Day.

SINCE We use it with points in time. The volcano hasn’t erupted since 1935.

We use it with periods of time. Long hair for men was fashionable
THROUGH(OUT)
through(out) much of the seventies.

We use it with pointS in time. From next Monday, we will have to suspend
UNTIL
flexible working arrangements until further notice.

TIME (Spanish)

Time, parts of the day, ages, moments. Nos reuniremos a las diez. Nos vemos
a la noche. Aprendí a nadir a los 6 años.
A
To form adverbs of frequency. A menudo, a veces.

Frequency. Voy al gimnasio dos veces a la semana.

DE Time. Part of the day: de día, de noche. Date: 15 de Noviembre de 2003.

DESDE Start point (time). Vivo aquí desde 1996.

Period of time. Durante las vacaciones, visitaremos diferentes ciudades de la

DURANTE
costa.

Time. Season. Months. Year. La próxima reunión será en abril. En otoño caen
EN
las hojas.

HACIA Approximate time. Fue hacia fines del siglo pasado.

HASTA End of a period of time. Nos quedamos hasta el fin de la fiesta.

PARA Dead line. Necesito el informe para mañana.

POR Approximate time. Conocí a Laura por el año 2000.

PLACE (English)

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 ABOVE Position. The refuge is in the hills above the town.

We use it to mean on the other side of. I´ll meet you in the café across from
ACROSS
the theatre.

AFTER It refers to position. You´ll be called first as my name is after yours on the list.

Position. It suggests that something is so close that it is touching. Don´t lean

AGAINST
against the wall.

It expresses proximity along a line. Warehouses were built alongside the

ALONGSIDE
motorway.

Position. We use among to show that something is part of a group. Pinces

AMONG
William and Harry were among the spectators al yesterday’s match.

With a specific point in space. At the bus stop

AT With specific addresses. Sarah lives at 36 Bramble Road.

When we refer to gatherings of people. At a party, at a conference.

BEFORE It refers to position. Karen´s nephew appears before the magistrates today.

BEHIND Position. We use it to mean further back than. B is behind A.

BELOW Position. Oncology departments in hospitals are often below ground level.

It expresses proximity along a line. Warehouses were built alongside the

BESIDE
motorway.

Position. We use it to show that something is part of a pair. For women, the
BETWEEN
distinction between work and leisure is less clear-cut.

It expresses closer proximity. Stella has bought a house by the sea, she has
BY
got a wonderful view.

DOWN Position. John lives a few houses further down the road from us.

Within an area, with something that surrounds. In the room.

IN
With countries, cities or towns, and with names of streets and squares.

IN FRONT OF Position. We use it to mean further forward than. A is in front of B.

It expresses proximity. Stella has bought a house by the sea. It´s only a five-
NEAR
minute walk to the beach.

It expresses closer proximity. Stella has bought a house next to the sea, she
NEXT TO
has got a wonderful view.

ON A surface or a line. On the table.

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 Position. It means on the other side of. I´ll meet you in the café opposite the
OPPOSITE
theatre. (on the other side of the road)

Position. The refuge is in the hills over the town.

OVER Position. We use it when one thing covers or touches another. The clouds
were hanging low over the hills.

Position. Oncology departments in hospitals are often under(neath) ground

level.
UNDER(NEATH)
We use it when one thing covers or touches another. The wreck lay six meters
under the wáter.

UP It can refer to position. John lives a few houses further up the road from us.

PLACE (Spanish)

A Distance. El hospital está a tres kilómetros.

ANTE Meaning before something. Se quedaron esperando ante la puerta.

Lower position. Las hormigas viven bajo tierra.

BAJO
We do not use bajo with pronouns. It is incorrect to say bajo mí, bajo yo.

CONTRA Making contact. Estaba apoyado contra la puerta.

DE Origin. Mi abuela viene de Italia.

DESDE Start point (space). Caminamos desde el centro hasta la playa.

Place. La taza está en la mesa (sobre). Las llaves están en la cartera (a dentro
EN
de).

ENTRE Between. Lo encontré entre la cama y la ventana.

SOBRE Meaning on. Puso los documentos sobre el escritorio.

TRAS Meaning behind. Continuaron tras las huellas del animal.

MOVEMENT (English)

We use across for movement from one side to the other of something on a
ACROSS
Surface. Across the river/road/field.

ALONG We use it for movement in a line. Along the river/road.

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 We use it to express circular movement. We drove around the roundabout
AROUND
three times before we took the correct exit.

Movement. With roads and rivers to mean along. You walk down the high
DOWN
Street and turn left at the library.

INTO With the word car to mean up. Mary went into the car.

With the words: bus, plane, train, boat and bike to mean down. He’s just
OFF
fallen off his bike.

ON With the words: bus, plane, train, boat and bike to mean up.

OUT OF With the word car to mean down. Just get out of the car.

We use it when movement is suggested. Are we going to fly over the Alps?

For movement across an obstacle. The vulgar leapt over the garden fence as
OVER he ran away from us.

We use over for movement from one side to the other of something, but
meaning above. Are we going to fly over the Alps?

THROUGH For movement inside something. Through a room/tunnel.

We use it when we approach someone or something. The scientist moved

TOWARDS
quietly towards the group of gazing animals.

With roads and rivers to mean along. You walk up the high Street and turn left
UP
at the library.

MOVEMENT (Spanish)

A Direction. Voy a mi casa.

HACIA Direction. Las golondrinas vuelan hacia el norte.

HASTA Final destiny. Caminó hasta el puerto.

SOBRE Meaning over. El avión pasa sobre el óceano.

CONTRAST - COMPARISON (English)

We use it to make a contrast. Look at this year’s sales figures against last
AGAINST
year’s; they’re so much better.

BESIDE We use it to make a contrast. Beside her sister, Laura was positively plain.

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 Contrast and comparison. This are the similarities and differences between
BETWEEN.
Salta and Jujuy.

CONTRAST – COMPARISON (Spanish)

CONTRAST Oposition. Lucharemos contra la discriminación.

ENTRE Comparison. Se destacaron las coincidencias ente uno y otro partido

REASON – PURPOSE (English)

BECAUSE OF It expresses reason. The District Line is closed because of engineering works.

DUE TO It expresses reason. The District Line is closed due to engineering works.

FOR We use it to show purpose. I want a knife that can be used for cutting bread.

OWING TO It expresses reason. The District Line is closed owing to engineering works.

REASON – PURPOSE (Spanish)

PARA Goal. Purpose. Llamé para hablar con Luis.

INSTRUMENT – MATERIAL – COMPANY (English)

We use it with instruments (what we use to do something). Negotiations

BY
were held by phone between the client and his solicitor.

To express that the original material has been transformed. Ice cream made
FROM
from strawberries.

OF When the original material is still visible. A dress made of Thai silk.

We use it to introduce an instrument. The victim was killed with a sawn-off

WITH shotgun.

We use it to introduce a company. I went to the cinema with Mary.

INSTRUMENT – MATERIAL – COMPANY - RELATIONSHIP (Spanish)

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 Instrument. Se cortó con un cuchillo.

CON Company. Fuimos a cenar con Lucía.

Relationship. Se casó con Juan.

DE Material. Las copas son de cristal.

AGENT (English)

We use it with the agent or creator of something and in passive voice. It’s one
BY
of the later paintings by Van Gogh.

AGENT (Spanish)

POR Passive voice. Los sospechosos fueron detenidos por la policía.

MANNER (English)

IN Hedaya left the room in despair.

WITH I will post your letter with pleasure.

MANNER (Spanish)

A Manner. Escribí el informe a mano.

CON Manner. Resolvió el problema con astucia.

SEGÚN Manner. Actuaremos según lo convenido.

CAUSE (English)

FROM It expresses cause or motive. A huge number of people in the Third World die
from starvation every day.

CAUSE (Spanish)

A Cause. Cantemos una canción a pedido del público.

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 POR Cause. Se casó con el por conveniencia.

POSSESSION (English)

OF Possession. The bathroom of the house.

POSSESSION (Spanish)

DE Possession. Los libros son de María.

MEANS (English)

THROUGH Meaning “by means of”. He achieves success through patience and hard work.

BY Travel, drive, go. By car, by bus.

MEANS (Spanish)

EN Means of transport. Viajamos en auto.

MEDIANTE By means of. Lo obtuvo mediante muchos esfuerzos.

TOPIC – ISSUE (English)

ABOUT Topic. This conference is about American histoy.

TOPIC – ISSUE (Spanish)

DE Topic or issue. Hablamos de política.

SOBRE Topic. Habrá una conferencia sobre los derechos de la mujer.

OTHER USES (English)

It is used to express a role. Speaking as a director of the Company, I believe

AS
we should sell the shares.

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 We use it with prices, ages, speeds, distance and quantities, where we mean
OVER
more than.

We use it with prices, ages, speeds, distance and quantities, where we mean
UNDER fewer/less than. The conference was very badly atended: under two hundred
people came.

OTHER USES (Spanish)

Price. El kilo de tomate está a dos pesos.

A It can precede the direct object. Invitemos a Juan a la fiesta.

It can precede the indirect object. Le di un beso a mi mamá.

ANTE Meaning considering. Ante ese problema buscaremos una solución.

ENTRE Reciprocity. Mis hermanos discuten mucho entre sí.

PARA Receiver. ¿Estas flores son para mi?

POR Intention. Estaba por llamarte.

SEGÚN Eventuality. Me ejercito en el parque o en el gimnasio según el clima.

Lack. Bebo mi café sin azúcar.

SIN
Negation. Before an infinitive. Habla sin parar.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
English: A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition and the word(s) that follow it, i.e. noun,
pronoun or noun phrase.

People are already drawing comparisons between Obama and Kennedy.

I´ll answer the phone… it´s for you.

You should try to sleep on a firm mattress.

We can also use –ing forms or wh- clauses after prepositions:

As well as helping us to move into de house, John bought us a great present.

Please don´t interfere in any way with what I have written in the report.

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Spanish: Prepositions precede:

 A noun: Iré al cine con Mariana

 A pronoun: Es demasiado para mí.

 An adjective working as a noun: Piensa en lo complicado de la situación.

 An adverb working as a noun: Vino hasta aquí a pie.

 An infinitive: Me tomé unos días para descansar.

 A noun phrase: Me di cuenta de que me había olvidado las llaves.

STRANDED PREPOSITIONS
In English, prepositions join a noun or pronoun (their object) to other words in the sentence and
show its relation to them. In theory (formal English) a preposition is followed immediately by its
object. e.g. to the store, about the subject. In practice (informal English), especially for phrasal
verbs, we often leave the preposition until the end of the sentence. e.g. What is she waiting for?

A stranded preposition comes on its own at the end of a clause or sentence, and its object comes
earlier in the sentence. We commonly use stranded prepositions in:

 Questions: Who are you coming to the party with?

 Relative clauses: I´ve been offered the job in London that I applied for.

 Infinitive clauses: That man is impossible to work with.

 The passive: What is your coat made from?

 We sometimes keep the preposition and object together in more formal language. We are
unable to offer you the position for which you applied.

In Spanish, stranded prepositions DO NOT EXIST. The preposition comes always before its object.

e.g. ¿Con quién vas al cine?

OTHER ASPECTS
In English, many forms are followed by prepositions which change the meaning of the verb.

27
At times an English verb may be accompanied by a preposition when it has an object noun, but not
when used alone. e.g. Listen to the radio! Listen!

In Spanish, there are often two different verbs to express these two distinct notions. e.g. to look for
= buscar, to look into= investigar.

In Spanish such verbs are never followed by a preposition. e.g. Escuche la radio! Escuche!

COLLOCATIONS
In English, there is a large number of collocations. These are words which are often used together
with other words.

VERBS:
Accuse (someone) of ([doing] something)
Add (something) to (something else)
Believe in (something)
Belong to (someone)
Care about (someone/something/topic)
Comment on (topic)
Decide on (topic)
Depend on (someone) for (something)

NOUNS:
By hand
On foot
By chance

In Spanish, conjugated verbs are often followed by infinitives. If two verbs are used to express a
single thought, the first will determine whether any preposition (and which one) will be used to
introduce the infinitive. There can be more than two infinitives in a string.

Ir a → Voy a verlo mañana → I’m going to see him tomorrow

Verbs may also require a particular preposition before a noun or pronoun object.

Reirse de → Se rió de mi → She laughed at me.

Like verbs, some adjectives are followed by a preposition before a following infinitive.

Último en → Manuela es siempre la última en terminar → Manuela is always the last one to finish.

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 CONJUNCTIONS
A conjunction is a function word that connects words, sentences, phrases, or clauses. In general, a
conjunction is an invariable grammatical particle. There are three main types of conjunctions:
coordinating, subordinators and adverbial conjunctions.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that join, or coordinate, two
or more items (such as words, main clauses, or sentences) of equal syntactic importance.

In English, the coordinators are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.

For presents rationale ("They do not gamble or smoke, for they are ascetics.")

And presents non-contrasting item(s) or idea(s) ("They gamble, and they smoke.")

Nor presents a non-contrasting negative idea ("They do not gamble, nor do they smoke.")

But presents a contrast or exception ("They gamble, but they don't smoke.")

Or presents an alternative item or idea ("Every day they gamble, or they smoke.")

Yet presents a contrast or exception ("They gamble, yet they don't smoke.")

So presents a consequence ("He gambled well last night, so he smoked a cigar to

celebrate.")

In Spanish:

• COPULATIVOS (ADDITION) (y, e, ni): Ella habla y él escucha.

• DISYUNTIVOS (ALTERNATIVE) (o, u, o bien): ¿Él habla o escucha?

• ADVERSATIVOS (CONTRAST) (pero, sino...): Ella habla mucho pero no escucha.

NOTE: The conjunction y becomes e when the following word stars with -I or –hi. Moreover, the
coordinator o becomes u when the following words stars with o.

LOCUCIONES CONJUNTIVAS  group of words that perform the same function as conjunctions:

• CONSECUTIVOS (luego, así que...): Ella sólo habla, luego no escucha.

• CAUSALES (o sea, es decir...): Ella habla, es decir, se comunica.

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CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
They work in pairs to join words and groups of words of equal weight in a sentence.

In English, correlative conjunctions include pairs like “both/and,” “whether/or,” “either/or,”

“neither/nor,” “not/but” and “not only/but also.”

 You either do your work or prepare for a trip to the office. (Either do, or prepare)

 Not only is he handsome, but also he is brilliant. (Not only is he A, but also he is B.)

 Neither the basketball team nor the football team is doing well.

 Both the cross country team and the swimming team are doing well.

 You must decide whether you stay or you go. (It's up to you)

 Just as many Americans love basketball, so many Canadians love ice hockey.

 The more you practice dribbling, the better you will be at it.

 Football is as fast as hockey (is (fast)).

 No sooner did she learn to ski, than the snow began to thaw.

 I would rather swim than surf.

In Spanish, they include “y/ademas”, “ni/ni”, “o/o”

 Ella es bonita y fuerte ademas.

 No tenemos ni tiempo ni dinero.

 O nos vamos o no vamos nunca.

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that join an independent
clause and a dependent clause, and also introduce adverb clauses.

The subordinating conjunction performs two important functions within a sentence:

 illustrating the importance of the independent clause

30
  providing a transition between two ideas in the same sentence by indicating a time, place,
or cause and therefore effecting the relationship between the clauses

IN ENGLISH:

Comparison & Contrast Cause / effect Time Possibility Place & manner

 Although  After
 if
 Though  Since  When  Wherever
 as if
 Even though  So that  Until  Where
 whether
 While  Because  Whenever  How
 unless
 Whereas  Before

Some examples:

 CAUSE/EFFECT “Because of you, I never stray too far from the sidewalk” (Kelly Clarkson).

 POSSIBILITY “If you leave me now, you’ll take away the biggest part of me” (Peter
Cetera/Chicago).

 TIME “When I see you smile, I can face the world” (Bad English).

 CONTRAST: “ Grace is an excellent athlete although she injured her leg recently”

IN SPANISH:

Subordinantes

De Lugar En donde, a donde, por donde, de donde, donde

Cuando, después de que, mientras que, tan pronto como, en seguida que, al mismo tiempo
De Tiempo
que, mientras tanto

De Modo Según, como, como si, tal como

Como, así como, como que, más que, menos que, igual que, tal como, mejor que, peor que,
Comparativas
tanto como

Consecutivas Con que, luego, pues, por consiguiente, así que, en consecuencia, de manera que, tan / tanto

31
 que, por lo tanto, de modo que

Causales Porque, por, a causa de, puesto que, con motivo de, pues, ya que

Condicionales Si, como, pero si, a condición que, a no ser que, siempre que

Finales Para, para que, fin de que, con el fin de que

Concesivas aunque, por más que, mal que, aun cuando, si bien

Conjunciones de Lugar

 donde → Iré donde me digas.

 de donde → Desconocemos de donde procede el sospechoso. (LOCUCIONES CONJUNTIVAS)

Conjunciones Temporales

 cuando → Se acostó cuando ya amanecía.

 antes de que → Antes de que nos diéramos cuenta, ya se había ido. (LOCUCIÓN
CONJUNTIVA)

Conjunciones de Modo

 como → Hazlo como quieras.

 tal como → Tal como vino se fue. (LOCUCIONES CONJUNTIVAS)

Conjunciones Comparativas

 como → Juan es alto como su hermana.

 así como → Le interesa la música así como la literatura. (LOCUCIONES CONJUNTIVAS)

Conjunciones Consecutivas:

 luego: Pienso, luego, existo — dijo el filósofo Descartes.

 por consiguiente: Ya estamos todos, por consiguiente podemos empezar. (LOCUCIÓN

CONJUNTIVA)

Conjunciones Causales:

 por: Le regañaron por su comportamiento (¿por qué le regañaron?: por su comportamiento)

 a causa de: No vino a clase a causa de la gripe. (LOCUCIONES CONJUNTIVAS)

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Conjunciones Condicionales:

 si → Si tú lo dices será verdad.

 pero si → Vete a jugar pero si llueve, regresa. (LOCUCIONES CONJUNTIVAS)

Conjunciones Finales:

 para → Es necesario estudiar para enriquecer nuestros conocimientos.

 para que → Estudia para que puedas aprobar el examen. (LOCUCIONES CONJUNTIVAS)

Conjunciones Concesivas:

 aunque → Iré aunque llueva.

 por más que → Iremos de camping por más que haga frío. (LOCUCIONES CONJUNTIVAS)

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB
A conjunctive adverb can join two main clauses. In this situation, the conjunctive adverb behaves
like a coordinating conjunction, connecting two complete ideas. Notice, however, that you need a
semicolon, not a comma, to connect the two clauses:

Jeremy kept talking in class; therefore, he got in trouble.

Jeremy siguio hablando en clases; se metio en problemas

• In English

33
• In Spanish

1. She went into the store; however, she didn’t find anything she wanted to buy.

Ella fue a la tienda; sin embargo, no encontró lo que quería comprar.

2. I like you a lot; in fact, I think we should be best friends.

Me gustas mucho; de hecho, pienso que deberíamos ser amigos.

3. Your dog got into my yard; in addition, he dug up my petunias.

Tu perro esta en mi jardín; además, arruino mis petunias.

4. You’re my friend; nonetheless, I feel like you’re taking advantage of me.

Vos sos mi amigo; sin embargo, siento que te estás aprovechando de mi.

INTERJECTIONS
 An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion.

 It is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.

 Interjections are usually followed by an exclamation mark.

 Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.

Wow “guau” Wow! I love your new house (¡Guau! Amo tu nueva casa)

34
 Yuck Guácala, ¡Qué asco! The apple is rotten. (¡Qué asco! La manzana está podrida)

Ouch! I hit my finger with the sledgehammer. (¡ay! Me golpeé

Ouch “ay”
mi dedo con el martillo)

A: So, we should fire Tom (Entonces, debemos despedir a

Uh-huh “ajá” Tom)
B: Uh-huh (Ajá)

Hey ¡eh! Hey! Look at me please. (¡Eh! Mírame por favor)

I cashed your car again. Opps! (Colisioné tu auto de nuevo.

Oops Ups
¡Ups!)

A: Did you like the movie? (¿Te gustó la película?)

Yeah “Sí”
B: Yeah! (¡Sí!)

Drawing on earlier writings by Wilhelm Wundt, interjections may be subdivided into primary and
secondary interjections.

 Primary Interjections, or “Propias” in Spanish, do not belong to and are not derived from
any word category and also encompass onomatopoeia. Presumably, they originate from
animal or human noises. They represent the speaker’s immediate reaction to a certain
event. Examples: (ah, hush, oh, ouch, ugh, wow) (¡oh!, ¡ay!, ¡eh!, ¡hey, ¡uy! )

 Secondary Interjections, or “Impropias” in Spanish, are words with another meaning, most
often substantives. However, as an interjection they are used by themselves and express
mental attitudes or states. Examples: ( boy, Christ, chrissakes, dear, Goodness, my,) (¡ojo!,
¡cuidado!, ¡bravo!, ¡magnífico!, ¡oiga!, ¡vaya!, ¡estupendo!, ¡caracoles¡, ¡caramba!,
¡diablos!, ¡recórcholis!)

Another classification is made in English taking the semantical aspect:

 Emotional interjections those who expressing emotions (come on!, here, hey, hush, lo, etc.).

 Imperative interjections those expressing inducement ( bravo, hurray, ouch, wow)

Moreover, there is a classification according to the structural aspect:

 Simple interjections have the structure of a separate word. (come on!, here, hey, hush, lo, etc.)
 Composite interjections are forms combining several words. ( attaboy (that is the
boy), blimey (blind me),dammit (damn it), durr (dear me), for chrissakes (for Christ
sake), omigosh (oh my God), etc.).

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Bibliography:

1) Gramática y Ortografía de la Lengua Castellana. Editorial Santillana.

2) Side by Side Spanish and English Grammar. Publisher Passport Books.

3) Gramática Lengua Española. Editorial Larousse.

4) Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Publisher Longman.

5) My grammar lab advanced. Publisher Pearson.

6) http://spanish.about.com/od/adverbs/a/intro_to_adverb.htm

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