DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF HIGH

ALTITUDE IGNITION SYSTEM

 ABSTRACT

 In this case of army to charge the equipment an internal combustion engine

is carried with his own at the time of high altitude ignition system is not
possible in the case of less oxygen content at the time we use hydrogen has
been considered at several phases as a substitute to hydrocarbon-ionization
process.
 Starting from the 70’s, there have been several attempts to convert engines
for hydrogen operation. Together with the development in gas injector
technology, it has become possible to control precisely the injection of
hydrogen for safe operation. Since improvements before it is widely used in
vehicles, the conventional internal combustion engine is to play an important
role.
 This study examines the performance characteristics and ionization of a
hydrogen high spark-ignition engine
INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

Diesel / compression Petrol / Otto / Spark

ignition engine Engine

Petrol direct-injection
Petrol direct-injection
Stoichiometric
Stratified
DIESEL / COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

In a diesel / compression ignition engine, air is drawn into the cylinder during the
intake stroke and is compressed increasing in temperature and pressure during the
compression stroke. Towards the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected
into the hot and high pressure air. The heat and pressure causes pre-mixed areas of
air and fuel in the fuel-injection spray to ignite / combust. The pre-mixed regions
form between the start of the fuel injection event and the onset of combustion. The
pre-mixed phase is then followed by the diffusion-controlled combustion phase.

PETROL / OTTO / SPARK ENGINE

In a petrol / Otto / spark engine, a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel is drawn
into the cylinder during the intake stroke. Alternatively, air and fuel are both drawn
into the cylinder during the intake stroke and the homogeneous mixture forms
during the intake and compression strokes. This mixture is then compressed during
the compression stroke and increases in temperature and pressure. Towards the end
of the compression stroke a spark plug ignites the mixture and a flame propagates
across the cylinder.

DIRECT INJECTION PETROL / SPARK ENGINE

Direct injection petrol / spark engines are a new type of engine and are beginning
to displace traditional petrol / spark engines which draw in a homogeneous mixture
of air and fuel into the combustion chamber during the intake stroke. The key
difference in a direct injection petrol / spark engine is that the fuel is injected
directly into the cylinder rather than into the intake port. These engines can operate
in either stoichiometric or stratified mode. The strategies to achieve either a
stoichiometric or stratified air or fuel mixture in the cylinder may differ from one
OEM product to another.
DIRECT INJECTION STOICHIOMETRIC PETROL / SPARK ENGINE

In a direct injection stoichiometric petrol / spark engine, air is drawn into the
cylinder during the intake stroke. Fuel is injected directly into the cylinder during
the intake stroke. A homogeneous mixture forms and this is ignited by the spark
plug. As before, the flame propagates across the cylinder.

DIRECT INJECTION STRATIFIED PETROL / SPARK ENGINE

In a direct injection stratified petrol / spark engine, air is drawn into the cylinder
during the intake stroke. Fuel is injected directly into the cylinder towards the end
of the compression stroke. The in-cylinder swirl and air flow is designed such that
a richer charge of air and fuel forms in the region of the spark plug. However, in
the rest of the cylinder and considering the overall air to fuel ratio in the cylinder,
the engine runs in a stratified or lean manner.

MULTI-FUEL ENGINE

Multi-fuel engine

A multi-fuel engine is one which runs on two or more fuel simultaneously. G-

volution's Optimiser system allows an original single fuel engine to run on two or
more fuels simultaneously. Examples of multi-fuel engines are dual-fuel concepts
such as diesel-CNG, diesel-CBG, diesel-LPG and diesel-ethanol. In a multi-fuel or
dual-fuel compression ignition engine, a mixture of air and one fuel (the secondary
fuel) is drawn into the cylinder during the intake stroke. A homogeneous mixture
of air and fuel forms in the cylinder. This air and fuel mixture is then compressed
during the compression stroke and increases in temperature and pressure
Towards the end of the compression stroke, diesel is injected into the cylinder. As
per the diesel compression ignition engine type detailed above, the air-diesel-
secondary fuel mixture then ignites. Multi-fuel or dual-fuel engines allow fuels
such as CNG, LPG and ethanol to be utilised in the more efficient and higher
compression ratio diesel / compression ignition engine. Traditionally, such fuels
were utilised in the lower-efficiency and lower-compression ratio petrol / Otto /
spark engine. G-volution's Optimiser system provides a robust control system
methodology to allow diesel engines to be converted to multi-fuel or dual-fuel
engines.

MONO-FUEL, BI-FUEL, DUAL-FUEL AND MULTI-FUEL ENGINES

Mono-fuel

Engines are ones which utilise one fuel only. Examples of this would be the
traditional petrol / Otto / spark engine or the diesel / compression ignition engine.
These run on 100% petrol or 100% diesel respectively.
Bi-fuel

Engines are ones which are able to utilise two different fuels. However, the engine
uses one fuel OR the other. Examples of this would be petrol / Otto / spark engines
able to run on petrol or LPG. Another example would be petrol or CNG. The
engine has two different sets of fuel-injection equipment and will only use one set
at a time. The engines can use 100% petrol or 100% gas.

Dual-fuel

Engines are the next generation of power trains and are engines which combust
two fuel simultaneously. Examples would be diesel-CNG, diesel-CBG, diesel-LPG
and diesel-ethanol. These engines do not have a spark plug and require
sophisticated equipment from G-volution to achieve their dual-fuel combustion.
These engines offer better fuel economy, lower emissions and have lower fuel
operating costs than 100% diesel engines.

Multi-fuel

Engines are the next generation of power trains and are engines where a wide
range of liquid and gaseous fuels can be simultaneously combusted including both
fossil and new renewable fuels. G-volution leads the world in the development of
multi-fuel engines.

Diesel Engine vs Petrol Engine

Automobile, Thermal Engineering

Petrol and diesel engines are the two most commonly used internal combustion
engines. Even though their operation seems similar, they have some interesting
differences, and each has advantages over the other. This video is aimed at
exploring these differences and advantages from a scientific point of view. By the
end of this session the reader will be able to predict what happens, if he puts petrol
in diesel engine or vice versa. A detailed webpage version of the video is given
below.

The Basic Operation - 4 Stroke Engine

Before going to the main topic let's have a look at the basic operation of a 4 stroke
I.C engine. Both engines have the same basic 4 strokes: intake, compression,
power, and exhaust. During the intake stroke fresh air is sucked in (or forced in) to
the cylinder. The compression stroke compresses this gas and produces a hot gas.
Fuel is burnt in this hot gas and the power stroke happens next. Please remember
power stroke is the only stroke where the piston absorbs energy from the fuel. The
last stroke is to eject the burn gas to the atmosphere. All these operations are
depicted in Fig.1 in detail.

Why There Exists Two Different Engines

There are differences between the two engines due to the difference between the
way fuels burn. Petrol is a volatile fuel, is readily evaporates, so it gets mixed with
the air efficiently. As a result, just a spark is sufficient to produce smooth
combustion in a well pre-mixed petrol engine. As you can note from petrol has a
very low flash point. Flash point is the minimum temperature required for a liquid
fuel to form a spontaneously combustible mixture. On the other hand, diesel being
a less volatile fuel does not properly mix with air.

Difference between Petrol and Diesel Engine

This means that in petrol engines, the fuel and air should be pre-mixed, while in
diesel engines, mixing happens only during the combustion. Due to this reason
diesel engines use a fuel injector while petrol engines use a spark plug. Many
people have a misconception that in the modern petrol engine technology, gasoline
direct injection (GDI), the combustion happens during the fuel injection process.
This is wrong; even for a direct injection engine a spark plug is needed. The direct
injection technology is just an another way of producing a fine petrol-air mixture.
Instead using a carburetor to mix air and fuel these technologies use a fuel injector.
The biggest advantage of direct injection method is that the fuel to be sprayed can
be controlled very accurately. This will result in great fuel savings.

Why Diesel Engines are Heavier

You might have noticed that petrol engines are less noisy and vibrate less
compared to diesel engines. This is because the combustion process in a pre-mixed
mixture is smooth and propagates well (first part Fig.5). But in a diesel engine, the
combustion could begin anywhere in the combustion chamber, and it turns out to
be an uncontrolled process. For this reason, to reduce the excessive vibration and
noise problem, diesel engines require a more rugged structural design than petrol
engines. To normalize the heavy unbalanced power production of diesel engines a
heavy fly wheel is often required. This is why petrol engines are always preferred
for light-weight applications, such as in 2-wheeler or portable devices.

Why Diesel Engines are More Fuel Economical

Since the diesel engine is compressing only the air, it can achieve a good
compression ratio without risk of self-ignition. But, in a pre-mixed petrol engine,
such a high compression ratio is not possible. As we increase compression ratio of
petrol engine the mixture becomes more prone to self ignition. This is known as
knocking. Over the period of operation knocking badly damages the engine. The
reason why your diesel car gives more mileage than a petrol car is due to the
difference in the compression ratio. The higher the compression ratio, the better is
the efficiency of the cycle. A qualitative efficiency variation is shown in the graph.
This is the reason why diesel engines have better fuel economy as compared to
petrol engines. Petrol in Diesel Engine or Vice Versa An interesting question many
people wonder is: What if I put petrol into a diesel engine or vice versa?. From
what we have learned so far, we will get a logical and practical answer for this
intriguing question in this session

Diesel in Petrol Engine

Diesel in a petrol engine will not even cause firing. The reason is simple. Diesel is
less volatile and will not mix with the air properly. In fact you will find it is
impossible to make a good diesel-air mixture using carburetor or direct injection
technology. This means if you apply spark to such a poor quality mixture, it will
not initiate any combustion.

Petrol in Diesel Engine

On the other hand, if you put petrol in a diesel engine, you are spraying a highly
volatile fuel into a chamber of highly compressed and hot air. This will lead to
detonations rather than smooth combustion. Eventually, the engine components
will get damaged. Moreover diesel generally acts a good lubricant for the fuel
pump and the injection system. When you put petrol (which does not have any
lubrication property) into a diesel car your are actually making the intricate
components to wear down over the time. So that’s a big no for petrol in a diesel
engine.
LITERATURE SURVEY
 Chapter-2

LITERATURE SURVEY

OVERVIEW

The use of hydrogen as an alternate fuel source to the automotive industry has been
extensively researched. In fact, most of the world’s leading automobile
manufacturers have committed vast amounts of resources into the development of
cars that are powered by hydrogen. However, the impetus at which these
innovations have occurred has increased exponentially over the past few years.

This may be attributed, primarily, to the volatility of international crude oil

prices, which has a direct effect on the automotive fraternity. Thus, the
international community has become alarmingly aware of their total dependence
on fossil fuels and the precarious situation in which they may find themselves,
should they be “held hostage” by the OPEC nations. Constant advances in
materials and technologies have allowed for the feasibility of systems and
concepts, previously deemed ludicrous, to be evaluated as possible design
solutions. The generation of materials with superior sealing properties have made
past difficulties in the storage of hydrogen obsolete while composite materials have
resulted in lighter tanks, thereby reducing the fuel consumption and increasing the
range of hydrogen-powered vehicles.

Despite the tremendous progress of the automotive industry towards a

hydrogen economy, there exists one inherent problem in the use of hydrogen as an
automotive fuel; the fact that it needs to be stored in the vehicle. Unlike
conventional fuels, hydrogen is extremely difficult to contain and store. Its small
atomic size and low density necessitate the compression of hydrogen into its liquid
state for efficient storage. Most, if not all, of the current hydrogen-powered
vehicles contain a stored supply of hydrogen onboard in the form of a hydrogen
tank. The logical next step, therefore, would be the implementation of an onboard
hydrogen generating device with the capability to supply hydrogen as and when it
is required by the engine; a so-called “Hydrogen on Demand” system. This would
entail the generation of hydrogen from the electrolysis water or the reformation of
natural gas or steam. Also, the effects of fuelling an internal combustion engine on
a blend of petroleum and hydrogen are of importance with regard to the expected
benefits in employing such a fuel hybrid. Therefore, the succeeding sections
outline and discuss current developments in the use of hydrogen as an alternate
fuel and comment on the various automotive projects currently being undertaken.
The methods of hydrogen production, as mentioned earlier, are also examined and
the viability of each method is discussed. Finally, a comprehensive review of the
literature regarding the fuelling of an engine on hydrogen is presented.

INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENTS

BMW hydrogen

History BMW’s endeavours into the use of hydrogen as the next, and possibly
most successful, alternate fuel are extensive, to say the least. Their hydrogen
research programs date back to the early seventies and the constant advances in
this sphere of their business are testament to the continuous efforts expended in
these initiatives. The first BMW hydrogen-powered vehicle prototype, a 520h, was
built in 1979 and was capable of running on both conventional petroleum and
hydrogen. The next two decades saw the development of a hydrogen car in every
successive generation of the BMW 7-series. Below, shows BMW’s hydrogen fleet
throughout their involvement in hydrogen research. BMW’s Hydrogen Fleet
Further developments include the BMW 745hl, the “Clean Energy” Mini, and the
BMW H2R sports prototype. These will be discussed in detail in the sections that
follow.BMW 745hl the latest, fifth generation, hydrogen model to be released from
the BMW stable is the 745hl. Its 4.4 litre V8 engine is capable of being fuelled
with hydrogen or ordinary unleaded petrol. The 745hl, as illustrated in, also makes
use of BMW’s variable valve timing system and incorporates variable intake
runners (Valvetronic) and a fully variable intake manifold. These assist the BMW
in reaching a top speed of 215 km/h with a maximum power output of 138 kW as
compared to the standard model’s top speed of 250 km/h and 245 kW of power.
BMW 745hl Driving range is estimated to be 305 kilometres on hydrogen and 640
kilometres on petrol, which allows the 745hl over 900 kilometres between re
fuelling. Auxiliary features are powered by an auxiliary power unit (APU), which
operates via a proton exchange membrane (PEM) supplied directly by a hydrogen
feed from the tank. This means that accessories, such as air-conditioning, can be
operated independently of the engine. Another of BMW’s hydrogen models is
the MINI Cooper, Figure 3.3, which runs solely on hydrogen.

The hydrogen-powered MINI incorporates new injection technology in

that super-cooled liquid hydrogen is injected into the intake ducts where it
mixes with the air entering the combustion chamber. The super-cooled air-fuel
mixture results in an increased cylinder charge which leads to better engine
output and efficiency. Increased performance means that there now exists a
hydrogen engine with power delivering capabilities comparable to a standard
petroleum-fuelled engine. Also, the MINI represents a breakthrough in
alternative fuel tank technology as its hydrogen tank occupies the same volume
and position of the conventional fuel tank, thus eliminating the need for an
additional cylindrical tank in the luggage compartment.
DESIGN AND COMPONENT
 Chapter-3

HIGH ALTITUDE IGNITION SYSTEM

COMPONENT LIST

 Hydrogen
 Carburetor
 Engine
 Capacitor
 Ignition
  petrol tank
 battery

COMPONENT DETAILS

1. HYDROGEN

Hydrogen is a chemical element with chemical symbol H and atomic number 1.

With an atomic weight of 1.00794 u, hydrogen is the lightest element on
the periodic table. Its monatomic form (H) is the most abundant chemical
substance in the Universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass. Non-
remnant stars are mainly composed of hydrogen in the plasma state. The most
common isotope of hydrogen, termed protium (name rarely used, symbol 1H), has
one proton and no neutrons. The universal emergence of atomic hydrogen first
occurred during there combination epoch.

Since hydrogen readily forms covalent compounds with most non-

metallic elements, most of the hydrogen on Earth exists in molecular forms such
as water or organic compounds. Hydrogen plays a particularly important role
in acid base reactions because most acid-base reactions involve the exchange of
protons between soluble molecules. In ionic compounds, hydrogen can take the
form of a negative charge (i.e., anion) when it is known as a hydride, or as a
positively charged (i.e., cation) species denoted by the symbol H+. The hydrogen
cation is written as though composed of a bare proton, but in reality, hydrogen
cations in ionic compounds are always more complex. As the only neutral atom for
which the Schrödinger equation can be solved analytically,[10] study of the
energetics and bonding of the hydrogen atom has played a key role in the
development of quantum mechanics.
Hydrogen gas was first artificially produced in the early 16th century by the
reaction of acids on metals. In 1766–81, Henry Cavendish was the first to
recognize that hydrogen gas was a discrete substance,[11] and that it produces water
when burned, the property for which it was later named: in Greek, hydrogen means
"water-former". Industrial production is mainly from steam reforming natural gas,
and less often from more energy-intensive methods such as the electrolysis of
water.[12] Most hydrogen is used near the site of its production site, the two largest
uses being fossil fuel processing (e.g., hydro cracking) and ammonia production,
mostly for the fertilizer market. Hydrogen is a concern inmetallurgy as it
can embrittle many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks

USES

Some see hydrogen gas as the clean fuel of the future generated from water and
returning to water when it is oxidised. Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are
increasingly being seen as ‘pollution-free’ sources of energy and are now being
used in some buses and cars. Hydrogen also has many other uses. In the chemical
industry it is used to make ammonia for agricultural fertiliser (the Haber process)
and cyclohexane and methanol, which are intermediates in the production of
plastics and pharmaceuticals. It is also used to remove sulfur from fuels during the
oil-refining process. Large quantities of hydrogen are used to hydrogenate oils to
form fats, for example to make margarine. In the glass industry hydrogen is used as
a protective atmosphere for making flat glass sheets. In the electronics industry it is
used as a flushing gas during the manufacture of silicon chips. The low density of
hydrogen made it a natural choice for one of its first practical uses filling balloons
and airships. However, it reacts vigorously with oxygen (to form water) and its
future in filling airships ended when the Hindenburg airship caught fire.

Biological role

Hydrogen is an essential element for life. It is present in water and in almost all the
molecules in living things. However, hydrogen itself does not play a particularly
active role. It remains bonded to carbon and oxygen atoms, while the chemistry of
life takes place at the more active sites involving, for example, oxygen, nitrogen
and phosphorus.

Natural abundance

Hydrogen is easily the most abundant element in the universe. It is found in the sun
and most of the stars and the planet Jupiter is composed mostly of hydrogen. On
Earth, hydrogen is found in the greatest quantities as water. It is present as a gas in
the atmosphere only in tiny amounts – less than 1 part per million by volume. Any
hydrogen that does enter the atmosphere quickly escapes the Earth’s gravity into
outer space. Most hydrogen is produced by heating natural gas with steam to form
syngas (a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide). The syngas is separated to
give hydrogen. Hydrogen can also be produced by the electrolysis of water.

History

In the early 1500s the alchemist Paracelsus noted that the bubbles given off when
iron filings were added to sulfuric acid were flammable. In 1671 Robert Boyle
made the same observation. Neither followed up their discovery of hydrogen, and
so Henry Cavendish gets the credit. In 1766 he collected the bubbles and showed
that they were different from other gases. He later showed that when hydrogen
burns it forms water, thereby ending the belief that water was an element. The gas
was given its name hydro-gen, meaning water-former, by Antoine Lavoisier. In
1931, Harold Urey and his colleagues at Columbia University in the US detected a
second, rarer, form of hydrogen. This has twice the mass of normal hydrogen, and
they named it deuterium.
Hydrogen fuel

is a zero-emission fuel when burned with oxygen (if one considers water not as an
emission) or used in a contained cell also capable of 'reversing' the reaction if
needed. It often uses electrochemical cells or combustion in internal engines, to
power vehicles and electric devices.

2. CARBURETOR

Fuel plus air equals motion that's the basic science behind most of the vehicles that
travel on land, over sea, or through the sky. Cars, trucks, and buses turn fuel into
power by mixing it with air and burning it in metal cylinders inside their engines.

Exactly how much fuel and air an engine needs varies from moment to moment,
depending on how long it's been running, how fast you're going, and a variety of
other factors. Modern engines use an electronically controlled system called fuel
injection to regulate the fuel-air mixture so it's exactly right from the minute you
turn the key to the time you switch the engine off again when you reach your
destination. But until these clever gadgets were invented, virtually all engines
relied on ingenious air-fuel mixing devices called carburetors (spelled
"carburettor" in some countries and often shortened to just "carb").

How engines burn fuel

Engines are mechanical things, but they're chemical things too: they're designed
around a chemical reaction called combustion: when you burn fuel in air, you
release heat energy and produce carbon dioxide and water as waste products. To
burn fuel efficiently, you have to use plenty of air. That applies just as much to a
car engine as to a candle, an outdoor campfire, or a coal or wood fire in someone's
home. A candle mixes wax fuel with air from its surroundings.

With too little air, the flame goes out; with too much, the flame will roar and
burn blue. A car engine burns fuel in a similar way. Getting its air supply just right
is more tricky and more critical. With a campfire, you never really have to worry
about having too much or too little air. With fires burning indoors, air is in shorter
supply and far more important. Having too little oxygen will cause an indoor fire
(or even a fuel-burning device like a gas central-heating furnace (boiler)) to
produce dangerous air pollution, including toxic carbon monoxide gas. With a car
engine, having too much air is just as bad as having too little. Too much air and not
enough fuel means an engine burns "lean," while having too much fuel and not
enough air is called burning "rich"; both are bad for the engine in different ways.

4. CAPACITORS

Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor, sometimes referred to as a Condenser, is a

simple passive device that is used to “store electricity”. The capacitor is a
component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy in the form of an
electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates,
much like a small rechargeable battery. There are many different kinds of
capacitors available from very small capacitor beads used in resonance circuits to
large power factor correction capacitors, but they all do the same thing, they store
charge. In its basic form, a Capacitor Loading product data. Consists of two or
more parallel conductive (metal) plates which are not connected or touching each
other, but are electrically separated either by air or by some form of a good
insulating material such as waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a
liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors. The insulating layer between
capacitors plates is commonly called the Dielectric.
A typical capacitor

Due to this insulating layer, DC current cannot flow through the capacitor as it
blocks it allowing instead a voltage to be present across the plates in the form of an
electrical charge. The conductive metal plates of a capacitor can be either square,
circular or rectangular, or they can be of a cylindrical or spherical shape with the
general shape, size and construction of a parallel plate capacitor depending on its
application and voltage rating. When used in a direct current or DC circuit, a
capacitor charges up to its supply voltage but blocks the flow of current through it
because the dielectric of a capacitor is non-conductive and basically an insulator.
However, when a capacitor is connected to an alternating current or AC circuit, the
flow of the current appears to pass straight through the capacitor with little or no
resistance. There are two types of electrical charge, positive charge in the form of
Protons and negative charge in the form of Electrons.

When a DC voltage is placed across a capacitor, the positive (+ve) charge

quickly accumulates on one plate while a corresponding negative (-ve) charge
accumulates on the other plate. For every particle of +ve charge that arrives at one
plate a charge of the same sign will depart from the -ve plate. Then the plates
remain charge neutral and a potential difference due to this charge is established
between the two plates. Once the capacitor reaches its steady state condition an
electrical current is unable to flow through the capacitor itself and around the
circuit due to the insulating properties of the dielectric used to separate the plates.

The flow of electrons onto the plates is known as the capacitors Charging
Current which continues to flow until the voltage across both plates (and hence
the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is said
to be “fully charged” with electrons. The strength or rate of this charging current is
at its maximum value when the plates are fully discharged (initial condition) and
slowly reduces in value to zero as the plates charge up to a potential difference
across the capacitors plates equal to the source voltage. The amount of potential
difference present across the capacitor depends upon how much charge was
deposited onto the plates by the work being done by the source voltage and also by
how much capacitance the capacitor has and this is illustrated below.

CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION
The parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of capacitor. It can be constructed
using two metal or metallised foil plates at a distance parallel to each other, with its
capacitance value in Farads, being fixed by the surface area of the conductive
plates and the distance of separation between them. Altering any two of these
values alters the the value of its capacitance and this forms the basis of operation of
the variable capacitors. Also, because capacitors store the energy of the electrons
in the form of an electrical charge on the plates the larger the plates and/or smaller
their separation the greater will be the charge that the capacitor holds for any given
voltage across its plates. In other words, larger plates, smaller distance, more
capacitance. By applying a voltage to a capacitor and measuring the charge on the
plates, the ratio of the charge Q to the voltage V will give the capacitance value of
the capacitor and is therefore given as: C = Q/V this equation can also be re
arranged to give the more familiar formula for the quantity of charge on the plates
as: Q = C x V. Although we have said that the charge is stored on the plates of a
capacitor, it is more correct to say that the energy within the charge is stored in an
“electrostatic field” between the two plates. When an electric current flows into the
capacitor, charging it up, the electrostatic field becomes stronger as it stores more
energy. Likewise, as the current flows out of the capacitor, discharging it, the
potential difference between the two plates decreases and the electrostatic field
decreases as the energy moves out of the plates.

The property of a capacitor to store charge on its plates in the form of an

electrostatic field is called the Capacitance of the capacitor. Not only that, but
capacitance is also the property of a capacitor which resists the change of voltage
across it. Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor and is the measure of
a capacitors ability to store an electrical charge onto its two plates with the unit of
capacitance being the Farad (abbreviated to F) named after the British physicist
Michael Faraday. Capacitance is defined as being that a capacitor has the
capacitance of One Farad when a charge of One Coulomb is stored on the plates by
a voltage of One volt. Capacitance, C is always positive and has no negative units.
However, the Farad is a very large unit of measurement to use on its own so sub-
multiples of the Farad is generally used such as micro-farads, nano-farads and pico
farads, for example.

Standard Units of Capacitance

Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

Nano farad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F

Pico farad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10 12 F

Then using the information above we can construct a simple table to help us
convert between pico-Farad (pF), to Nano Farad (nF), to micro-Farad (μF) and to
Farads (F) as shown.

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is proportional to the area, A in

metres2 of the smallest of the two plates and inversely proportional to the distance
or separation, d (i.e. the dielectric thickness) given in metres between these two
conductive plates. The generalised equation for the capacitance of a parallel plate
capacitor is given as: C = ε (A/d) where ε represents the absolute permittivity of
the dielectric material being used. The permittivity of a vacuum, also known as the
“permittivity of free space” has the value of the constant 8.84 x 10-12 Farads per

metre. To make the maths a little easier, this dielectric constant of free space, εo,

which can be written as: 1/ (4π x 9×109), may also have the units of pico farads
(pF) per metre as the constant giving: 8.84 for the value of free space. Note though
that the resulting capacitance value will be in pico farads and not in farads.
Generally, the conductive plates of a capacitor are separated by some kind of
insulating material or gel rather than a perfect vacuum. When calculating the
capacitance of a capacitor, we can consider the permittivity of air, and especially of
dry air, as being the same value as a vacuum as they are very close.

Capacitance example no1

A capacitor is constructed from two conductive metal plates 30cm x 50cm which
are spaced 6mm apart from each other, and uses dry air as its only dielectric
material. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. Then the value of the capacitor
consisting of two plates separated by air is calculated as 221pF or 0.221nF

The Dielectric of a Capacitor

As well as the overall size of the conductive plates and their distance or spacing
apart from each other, another factor which affects the overall capacitance of the
device is the type of dielectric material being used. In other words the
“Permittivity” (ε) of the dielectric. The conductive plates of a capacitor are
generally made of a metal foil or a metal film allowing for the flow of electrons
and charge, but the dielectric material used is always an insulator. The various
insulating materials used as the dielectric in a capacitor differ in their ability to
block or pass an electrical charge. This dielectric material can be made from a
number of insulating materials or combinations of these materials with the most
common types used being: air, paper, polyester, polypropylene, Mylar, ceramic,
glass, oil, or a variety of other materials.

The factor by which the dielectric material, or insulator, increases the

capacitance of the capacitor compared to air is known as the Dielectric
Constant, k and a dielectric material with a high dielectric constant is a better
insulator than a dielectric material with a lower dielectric constant. Dielectric
constant is a dimensionless quantity since it is relative to free space. The actual
permittivity or “complex permittivity” of the dielectric material between the plates
is then the product of the permittivity of free space (εo) and the relative permittivity
(ε r) of the material being used as the dielectric and is given as:

Complex Permittivity

In other words, if we take the permittivity of free space, εo as our base level and
make it equal to one, when the vacuum of free space is replaced by some other
type of insulating material, their permittivity of its dielectric is referenced to the
base dielectric of free space giving a multiplication factor known as “relative
permittivity”, εr. So the value of the complex permittivity, ε will always be equal to
the relative permittivity time’s one. Typical units of dielectric permittivity, ε or
dielectric constant for common materials are: Pure Vacuum = 1.0000, Air =
1.0006, Paper = 2.5 to 3.5, Glass = 3 to 10, Mica = 5 to 7, Wood = 3 to 8 and Metal
Oxide Powders = 6 to 20 etc. This then gives us a final equation for the capacitance
of a capacitor as:

One method used to increase the overall capacitance of a capacitor while keeping
its size small is to “interleave” more plates together within a single capacitor body.
Instead of just one set of parallel plates, a capacitor can have many individual
plates connected together thereby increasing the surface area, A of the plates. For a
standard parallel plate capacitor as shown above, the capacitor has two plates,
labelled A and B. Therefore as the number of capacitor plates is two, we can say
that n = 2, where “n” represents the number of plates.

Then our equation above for a single parallel plate capacitor should really be:

However, the capacitor may have two parallel plates but only one side of each
plate is in contact with the dielectric in the middle as the other side of each plate
forms the outside of the capacitor. If we take the two halves of the plates and join
them together we effectively only have “one” whole plate in contact with the
dielectric. As for a single parallel plate capacitor, n - 1 = 2 - 1 which equals 1, we
can mathematically omit this 1 as C = (εo. εr x 1 x A)/d is exactly the same as
saying: C = (εo. εr. A)/d which is the standard equation above. Now suppose we
have a capacitor made up of 9 interleaved plates, then n = 9.

MULTI-PLATE CAPACITOR

Now we have five plates connected to one lead (A) and four plates to the other lead
(B). Then BOTH sides of the four plates connected to lead B are in contact with
the dielectric, whereas only one side of each of the outer plates connected to A is in
contact with the dielectric. Then as above, the useful surface area of each set of
plates is only eight and its capacitance is therefore given as:
Modern capacitors can be classified according to the characteristics and properties
of their insulating dielectric:

 Low Loss, High Stability such as Mica, Low-K Ceramic, Polystyrene.

 Medium Loss, Medium Stability such as Paper, Plastic Film, High-K
Ceramic.
 Polarized Capacitors such as Electrolytic’s, Tantalum’s.

Voltage rating of a capacitor

All capacitors have a maximum voltage rating and when selecting a capacitor
consideration must be given to the amount of voltage to be applied across the
capacitor. The maximum amount of voltage that can be applied to the capacitor
without damage to its dielectric material is generally given in the data sheets
as: WV, (working voltage) or as WV DC, (DC working voltage). If the voltage
applied across the capacitor becomes too great, the dielectric will break down
(known as electrical breakdown) and arcing will occur between the capacitor plates
resulting in a short circuit. The working voltage of the capacitor depends on the
type of dielectric material being used and its thickness.

The DC working voltage of a capacitor is just that, the maximum DC

voltage and NOT the maximum AC voltage as a capacitor with a DC voltage rating
of 100 volts DC cannot be safely subjected to an alternating voltage of 100 volts.
Since an alternating voltage has an r.m.s. value of 100 volts but a peak value of
over 141 volts!. Then a capacitor which is required to operate at 100 volts AC
should have a working voltage of at least 200 volts. In practice, a capacitor should
be selected so that its working voltage either DC or AC should be at least 50
percent greater than the highest effective voltage to be applied to it. Another factor
which affects the operation of a capacitor is Dielectric Leakage. Dielectric leakage
occurs in a capacitor as the result of an unwanted leakage current which flows
through the dielectric material. Generally, it is assumed that the resistance of the
dielectric is extremely high and a good insulator blocking the flow of DC current
through the capacitor (as in a perfect capacitor) from one plate to the other.
However, if the dielectric material becomes damaged due excessive voltage or
over temperature, the leakage current through the dielectric will become extremely
high resulting in a rapid loss of charge on the plates and an overheating of the
capacitor eventually resulting in premature failure of the capacitor. Then never use
a capacitor in a circuit with higher voltages than the capacitor is rated for otherwise
it may become hot and explode.

INTRODUCTION TO CAPACITORS SUMMARY

We have seen in this tutorial that the job of a capacitor is to store electrical charge
onto its plates. The amount of electrical charge that a capacitor can store on its
plates is known as its

Capacitance value and depends upon three main factors.

 Surface Area – the surface area, A of the two conductive plates which
make up the capacitor, the larger the area the greater the capacitance.
 Distance – the distance, d between the two plates, the smaller the
distance the greater the capacitance.
 Dielectric Material – the type of material which separates the two plates
called the “dielectric”, the higher the permittivity of the dielectric the
greater the capacitance.

We have also seen that a capacitor consists of metal plates that do not touch each
other but are separated by a material called a dielectric. The dielectric of a
capacitor can be air, or even a vacuum but is generally a non-conducting insulating
material, such as waxed paper, glass, mica different types of plastics etc. The
dielectric provides the following advantages:

 The dielectric constant is the property of the dielectric material and varies
from one material to another increasing the capacitance by a factor of k.
 The dielectric provides mechanical support between the two plates
allowing the plates to be closer together without touching.
 Permittivity of the dielectric increases the capacitance.
 The dielectric increases the maximum operating voltage compared to air.

Capacitors can be used to block DC current while passing audio signals, pulses, or
alternating current, or other time varying wave forms. This ability to block DC
currents enables capacitors to be used to smooth the output voltages of power
supplies, to remove unwanted spikes from signals that would otherwise tend to
cause damage or false triggering of semiconductors or digital components.
Capacitors can also be used to adjust the frequency response of an audio circuit, or
to couple together separate amplifier stages that must be protected from the
transmission of DC current. At DC a capacitor has infinite impedance (open -
circuit), at very high frequencies a capacitor has zero impedance (short-circuit). All
capacitors have a maximum working voltage rating, its WV DC so select a
capacitor with a rating at least 50% more than the supply voltage. There are a large
variety of capacitor styles and types, each one having its own particular advantage,
disadvantage and characteristics. To include all types would make this tutorial
section very large so in the next tutorial about The Introduction to Capacitors I
shall limit them to the most commonly used types.
5. IGNITION

The ignition system on your car has to work in perfect concert with the rest of the
engine. The goal is to ignite the fuel at exactly the right time so that the expanding
gases can do the maximum amount of work. If the ignition system fires at the
wrong time, power will fall and gas consumption and emissions can increase.
When the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder burns, the temperature rises and the fuel
is converted to exhaust gas. This transformation causes the pressure in the cylinder
to increase dramatically and forces the piston down. In order to get the most torque
and power from the engine, the goal is to maximize the pressure in the cylinder
during the power stroke. Maximizing pressure will also produce the best engine
efficiency, which translates directly into better mileage. The timing of the spark is
critical to success.
There is a small delay from the time of the spark to the time when the fuel/air
mixture is all burning and the pressure in the cylinder reaches its maximum. If the
spark occurs right when the piston reaches the top of the compression stroke, the
piston will have already moved down part of the way into its power stroke before
the gases in the cylinder have reached their highest pressures. To make the best use
of the fuel, the spark should occur before the piston reaches the top of the
compression stroke, so by the time the piston starts down into its power stroke the
pressures are high enough to start producing useful work.

Work = Force x Distance

In a cylinder:

 Force = Pressure x Area of the piston

 Distance = Stroke length

So when we're talking about a cylinder, work = pressure x piston area x stroke
length. And because the length of the stroke and the area of the piston are fixed,
the only way to maximize work is by increasing pressure. The timing of the spark
is important, and the timing can either be advanced or retarded depending on
conditions. The time that the fuel takes to burn is roughly constant. But the speed
of the pistons increases as the engine speed increases. This means that the faster
the engine goes, the earlier the spark has to occur.

This is called spark advance: The faster the engine speed, the more advance
is required. Other goals, like minimizing emissions, take priority when maximum
power is not required. For instance, by retarding the spark timing (moving the
spark closer to the top of the compression stroke), maximum cylinder pressures
and temperatures can be reduced. Lowering temperatures helps reduce the
formation of nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are a regulated pollutant. Retarding the
timing may also eliminate knocking; some cars that have knock sensors will do this
automatically

6. BATTERY

In the modern era, electrical energy is normally converted from mechanical energy,
solar energy, and chemical energy etc. A battery is a device that converts chemical
energy to electrical energy. The first battery was developed by Alessandro Volta in
the year of 1800. In the year 1836, John Frederic Daniell, a British chemist
developed the Daniell cell as an improved version of the voltaic cell. From that
time until today, the battery has been the most popular source of electricity in
many daily life applications. In our daily life, we generally use two types of battery
, one of them is which can be used once before it gets totally discharged. Another
type of battery is rechargeable which means it can be used multiple times by
recharging it externally. The former is called primary battery and the later is called
secondary battery . batteries can be found in different sizes. A battery may be as
small as a shirt button or may be so big in size that a whole room will be required
to install a battery bank. With this variation of sizes, the battery is used anywhere
from small wrist watches to a large ship.

We often see this symbol in many diagrams of electrical and electronics network.
This is the most popularly used symbol for battery . The bigger lines represent
positive terminal of the cells and smaller lines represent negative terminal of the
cells connected in the battery . We are often confused about the terms battery cell
and battery . We generally refer a battery as a single electro-chemical cell. But
literally, battery does not mean that. Battery means a number of electro-chemical
cells connected together to meet a certain voltage and current level. Although there
may be a single cell battery , literally, battery and cell are different.
History of Battery

In the year of 1936 during the middle of summer, an ancient tomb was discovered
during construction of a new railway line near Bagdad city in Iraq. The relics
found in that tomb were about 2000 years old. Among these relics, there were
some clay jars or vessels which were sealed at the top with pitch. An iron rod,
surrounded by a cylindrical tube made of wrapped copper sheet was projected out
from this sealed top. When these pots were filled with an acidic liquid, they
produced a potential difference of around 2 volts between the iron and copper.
These clay jars are suspected to be 2000 year old battery cells. in 1786, Luigi
Galvani, an Italian anatomist and physiologist was surprised to see that when he
touched a dead frog’s leg with two different metals, the muscles of the legs
contracted. He could not understand the actual reason why, otherwise he would
have been known as the first inventor of the battery cell. He thought the reaction
might be due to a property of the tissues. After that, Alessandro Volta realized that
same phenomenon could be created by using cardboard soaked in salt water
instead of frog's leg. He sandwiched a copper disc and a zinc disc with a piece of
cardboard soaked in salt water in between them and found a potential difference
between the copper and zinc. After that in 1800, he developed the first Voltaic Pile
(battery) constructed of alternating copper and zinc discs with pieces of cardboard
soaked in brine between them. This system could produce measurable current.
Alessandro Volta's voltaic pile was considered the first "wet battery cell". Thus,
the history of battery began.
The main problem with the Voltaic pile was that, it could not deliver current for a
long time. This problem was solved by a British inventor John F. Daniell in 1836.
He invented a more developed version of the battery cell which is known as the
Daniell cell. Here in this cell, one zinc rod is immersed in zinc sulfate in one
container and one copper rod is immersed in copper (II) sulfate in another
container. The solutions of these two containers are bridged by a U shaped salt
bridge. A Daniell cell could produce 1.1 volt and this type of battery lasted much
longer than the Voltaic pile. In 1839, the fuel cell was designed by Sir William
Robert Grove, a discoverer and man of science. He mixed hydrogen and oxygen
within an electrolyte solution, and created electricity and water. The fuel cell did
not deliver enough electricity, but it is helpful. Bunsen (1842) and Grove (1839)
created enhancements to battery that used

Liquid electrodes to supply electricity. In the year of 1859, Gaston Plante; first
developed the lead acid battery cell. This was the first form of rechargeable
secondary battery. The lead acid battery is still in use for many industrial purposes.
It is still the most popular to be used as car battery . In 1866, the battery was again
developed by a French engineer, Georges Leclanche. It was a carbon-zinc wet cell
battery known as the Leclanche cell. Crushed manganese dioxide mixed with a bit
of carbon forms the positive electrode and a zinc rod is used as the negative
electrode. Ammonium chloride solution is used as a liquid electrolyte. After some
years, Georges Leclanche himself improved his own design by replacing liquid
ammonium chloride solution with ammonium chloride. This was the invention of
the first dry cell. In 1901, Thomas Alva Edison discovered the alkaline
accumulator. Thomas Edison's basic cell had iron as the anode material (-) and
nickel oxide as the cathode material (+). This is just one portion of an endless

HISTORY OF BATTERY .

Step by step development in history of batteries

Developer/Inventor Country Year Invention

Luigi Galvani Italy 1786 Animal Electricity

Alessandro Volta Italy 1800 Voltaic Pile

John F. Daniell Britain 1836 Daniell Cell

Sir William Robert Grove Britain 1839 Fuel Cell

 used liquid electrodes to
Robert Bunsen German 1842
supply electricity

Gaston Plante France 1859 Lead Acid Battery

Georges Leclanche France 1866 Leclanche Cell

Thomas Alva Edison United States 1901 Alkaline Accumulator

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF BATTERY

To understand the basic principle of battery properly, first, we should have some
basic concept of electrolytes and electrons affinity. Actually, when two dissimilar
metals or metallic compounds are immersed in an electrolyte, there will be a
potential difference produced between these metals or metallic compounds. It is
found that, when some specific compounds are added to water, they get dissolved
and produce negative and positive ions.

This type of compound is called an electrolyte. The popular examples of

electrolytes are almost all kinds of salts, acids, and bases etc. The energy released
during accepting an electron by a neutral atom is known as electron affinity. As the
atomic structure for different materials are different, the electron affinity of
different materials will differ. If two different kinds of metals or metallic
compounds are immersed in the same electrolyte solution, one of them will gain
electrons and the other will release electrons. Which metal (or metallic compound)
will gain electrons and which will lose them depends upon the electron affinities of
these metals or metallic compounds. The metal with low electron affinity will gain
electrons from the negative ions of the electrolyte solution. On the other hand, the
metal with high electron affinity will release electrons and these electrons come
out into the electrolyte solution and are added to the positive ions of the solution.
In this way, one of these metals or compounds gains electrons and another one
loses electrons. As a result, there will be a difference in electron concentration
between these two metals. This difference of electron concentration causes an
electrical potential difference to develop between the metals.

This electrical potential difference or emf can be utilized as a source of

voltage in any electronics or electrical circuit. This is a general and basic principle
of battery . All batteries cells are based only on this basic principle. Let’s discuss
one by one. As we said earlier, Alessandro Volta developed the first battery cell,
and this cell is popularly known as the simple voltaic cell. This type of simple cell
can be created very easily. Take one container and fill it with diluted sulfuric acid
as the electrolyte. Now immerse zinc and one copper rod in the solution and
connect them externally by an electric load. Now your simple voltaic cell is
completed. Current will start flowing through the external load. Zinc in diluted
sulfuric acid gives up electrons as below:

+ +
These Zn ions pass into the electrolyte, and their concentration is very
high near the zinc electrode. As a result of the above oxidation reaction, the zinc
electrode is left negatively charged and hence acts as cathode. The diluted sulfuric
acid and water disassociate into hydronium ions as given below: Due to the high
concentration of Zn + + ions near the cathode, the H3O+ ions are repelled towards the
copper electrode and get discharged by removing electrons from the copper atoms.
The following reaction takes place at the anode: As a result of the reduction
reaction taking place at copper electrode, copper is left positively charged and
hence it acts as the anode.

DANIELL BATTERY CELL

The Daniell cell consists of a copper vessel containing copper sulfate solution. The
copper vessel itself acts as the positive electrode. A porous pot containing diluted
sulfuric acid is placed in the copper vessel. An amalgamated zinc rod dipping
inside the sulfuric acid acts as the negative electrode. When the circuit is
completed, diluted sulfuric acid in the porous pot reacts with zinc so as to liberate
hydrogen gas. The formation of ZnSO4 in the porous pot does not affect the
working of the cell, until crystals of ZnSO4 are deposited. The hydrogen gas passes
through the porous pot and reacts with the CuSO4 solution as below:

Copper so formed gets deposited on the copper vessel.

HIGH ALTITUDE ENGINE WORKING

Carburetors vary quite a bit in design and complexity. The simplest possible one is
essentially a large vertical air with hydrogen pipe above the engine cylinders with a
horizontal fuel pipe joined onto one side. As the air with hydrogen flows down the
pipe, it has to pass through a narrow kink in the middle, which makes it speed up
and causes its pressure to fall. This kinked section is called a venturi. The falling
pressure of the air with hydrogen creates a sucking effect that draws air with
hydrogen in through the fuel pipe at the side. The air with hydrogen flow pulls in
fuel to join it, which is just what we need, but how can we adjust the air with
hydrogen -fuel mixture? The carburetor has two swiveling valves above and below
the venturi. At the top, there's a valve called the choke that regulates how much air
with hydrogen can flow in. If the choke is closed, less air with hydrogen flows
down through the pipe and the venturi sucks in more fuel, so the engine gets a fuel-
rich mixture. That's handy when the engine is cold, first starting up, and running
quite slowly. Beneath the venturi, there's a second valve called the throttle.

The more the throttle is open, the more air with hydrogen flows through the
carburetor and the more fuel it drags in from the pipe to the side. With more fuel
and air with hydrogen flowing in, the engine releases more energy and makes more
power and the car goes faster. That's why opening the throttle makes a
car accelerate: it's the equivalent of blowing on a campfire to supply more oxygen
and make it burn more quickly. The throttle is connected to the accelerator pedal in
a car or the throttle on the handlebar of a motorcycle.

The fuel inlet to a carburetor is slightly more complex than we've described
it so far. Attached to the fuel pipe there's a kind of mini fuel tank called a float-
feed chamber (a little tank with a float and valve inside it). As the chamber feeds
fuel to the carburetor, the fuel level sinks, and the float falls with it. When the float
drops below a certain level, it opens a valve allowing fuel into the chamber to refill
it from the main gas tank. Once the chamber is full, the float rises, closes the valve,
and the fuel feed switches off again. (The float-feed chamber works a bit like
a toilet, with the float effectively doing the same job as the ball cock the valve that
helps a toilet refill with just the right amount of water after you flush. What do car
engines and toilets have in common? More than you might have thought!)
In summary, then, here's how it all works:

1. Air with hydrogen flows into the top of the carburetor from the car's air with
hydrogen intake.
2. When the engine is first started, the choke (blue) can be set so it almost
blocks the top of the pipe to reduce the amount of air with hydrogen coming
in (increasing the fuel content of the mixture entering the cylinders).
3. In the center of the tube, the air with hydrogen is forced through a narrow
kink called a venturi. This makes it speed up and causes its pressure to drop.
4. The drop in air with hydrogen pressure creates suction on the fuel pipe
(right), drawing in fuel (orange).
 5. The throttle (green) is a valve that swivels to open or close the pipe. When
the throttle is open, more air with hydrogen and fuel flows to the cylinders
so the engine produces more power and the car goes faster.
6. The mixture of air with hydrogen and fuel flows down into the cylinders.
7. Fuel (orange) is supplied from a mini-fuel tank called the float-feed
chamber.
8. As the fuel level falls, a float in the chamber falls and opens a valve at the
top.
9. The capacitor is operated high altitude spark ignition developed.

ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

Readily available
Hydrogen is a great source of energy for a number of reasons, the biggest one
being that it is so readily available. While it may take some work to access, there is
no element in the universe as abundant as hydrogen.
No harmful emissions

Another advantage to using hydrogen energy is that when burned, its leaves almost
no harmful byproducts. In fact, when used in NASA’s spaceships, the burned
hydrogen gas leaves behind clean drinking water for the astronauts.
Environment friendly

Hydrogen is also non-toxic, which makes it a rarity among fuel sources. Nuclear
energy, coal, and gasoline are all either toxic or found in hazardous environments.
This makes hydrogen ideal for use in a number of ways other fuel sources can’t
compete against
Used as fuel in rockets

Hydrogen energy is also very powerful and very efficient. It’s powerful enough to
propel spaceships and safer than using any other similar product to accomplish
such an energy-intensive duty. In fact, hydrogen is three times as powerful as
gasoline and similar fossil fuels, meaning it takes less of it to accomplish more.
Fuel efficient:

Hydrogen energy is very efficient fuel source than traditional sources of energy
and produces more energy per pound of fuel. This clearly means that a car loaded
with hydrogen fuel with go much farther than the one using same amount of
traditional source of energy.
Renewable:

Unlike non-renewable sources of energy which can’t be produced again and again
as they are limited; hydrogen energy can be produced on demand. Hydrogen is
available in plenty. All we need is fossil fuels to break the water molecules to
separate it from oxygen.

DISADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN ENERGY

And yet, hydrogen energy is not quite the perfect, super clean and cheap energy
source that so many companies and governments would love to get their hands on.
It’s volatile in gas form, and while that makes it able to accomplish huge tasks, it
also makes it sometimes hazardous to work around and use.
Expensive

Hydrogen gas also requires a lot of work to free if from other elements. If it were
simple and easy to isolate everyone would be using it. It’s already being used to
power some hybrid cars, but at the moment it is not a viable source of fuel for
everyone. That’s simply because it’s expensive and time-consuming to produce.
That means until technology advances enough to simplify and ease the process;
hydrogen energy will continue to be too expensive for most people.

Storage
Hydrogen is also hard to move around. Whereas oil can be sent through pipelines,
and coal can be carried in the back of dump trucks, super-light hydrogen is hard to
transport in a reasonable fashion. It is very expensive to move anything more than
small amounts of it, making it impractical for most functions.
APPLICATION
 Chapter-4

APPLICATION

 This high altitude spark ignition to use army purpose.

CONCLUSION
 Chapter-5

CONCLUSION

This study examines the performance characteristics and ionization of a hydrogen

high spark-ignition engine. Together with the development in gas injector
technology, it has become possible to control precisely the injection of hydrogen
for safe operation. Army purpose using diesel spark-ignition engines are a possible
choice for long endurance, high altitude operations extremely high altitude
operations. In fact, piston engines SFC (Specific Fuel Consumption) is
independent from altitude. An integrated design is strictly necessary, at high
altitudes the air is taken from high-pressure areas into an alternate extremely
optimized.
REFERENCE
 Chapter-6

REFERENCE

 INL-Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles

 Jump up^ Workings of hydrogen ICE
 Jump up^ Eckermann, Erik (2001). World History of the Automobile.
Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers. ISBN 0-7680-0800-X.
 Jump up^ US 3844262
 Jump up^ Furuhama, Shouichi (1978). International Journal of Hydrogen
Energy Volume 3, Issue 1, 1978, Pages 61–81. Elsevier Ltd.
 Jump up^ Hydrogen Fuel ICE Bus developed by TCU
 Jump up^ Linde X39
 Jump up^ HyICE
 Jump up^ de Paula, Matthew. "Aston Martin Favors Hydrogen over Hybrids,
At Least for Now". Forbes. Forbes Publishing.
 Jump up^ P.C.T. De Boera, W.J. McLeana and H.S. Homana (1976).
"Performance and emissions of hydrogen fueled internal combustion
engines". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy Jump up^ Converting of
gasoline ICE to hydrogen ICE
 Jump up^ Hydrogen use in internal combustion engines