Alarcón - Guzman (1986) PDF

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8700854
A larcon-G uzm an, A dolfo
CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN AND LIQUEFACTION CHARACTERISTICS OF

SANDS. (VOLUMES I AND II)
Purdue University Ph.D. 1986
University
Microfilms
International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w itho ut perm ission.
3$oi)
Vo I■^
V-lOuuua. '2h
G
CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN AND LIQUEFACTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF SANDS
VOLUME I
A Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
Purdue University
by
Adolfo Alarcon~-Guzman
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Philosophy
August 1986
PURDUE UNIVERSITY
O Graduate School
This is to certify that the thesis prepared
g y _______________ Adolfo Alarcon-Guzman___________________________________
Entitled
Cyclic Stress-Strain and Liquefaction Characteristics of Sands
Complies with University regulations and meets the standards o f the Graduate School for
originality and quality
For the degree o f ___________ Doctor of Philosophy___________________________
Signed by the final examining committee:
h
c __________________ _ chair
J ffa., —
Approved by the head of school or department:
i ___________ IQ A f
O is
This thesis s c is not to be regarded as confidential
Major professor
Grad. School
Form No. 9
Revised 9-85
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his deepest gratitude to
Professor G. A. Leonards, the author's advisor, for his
guidance, encouragement and for the time he generously
shared with the author.
The author also wants to give his deepest thanks to
Professor J, L. Chameau, the author's co-advisor, for his
guidance, support and friendship during the past four
years.
^ The author is thankful to the other members of his
committee, Professors M. E. Harr and C. D. Sutton.
The financial support of the National Science Founda
tion is gratefully acknowledged. The author would like to
thank Professor P. Drnevich for his contributions to the
design and fabrication of the new resonant
column/torsional shear apparatus. The author also wants
to express his gratitude to the National University of
Colombia for the leave of absence which permitted the
author to complete his doctoral program.
The author is deeply grateful to Kathie Roth, who
assisted with the typing, and to Margarita Marin de Gomez,
who assisted with the drafting of the figures. The author
would like to thank all his friends and colleagues at Pur
due for their friendship and the stimulating environment
they provided.
Finally, the author wishes to thank his sisters and
brothers for their continuous support and affection.
iv
o
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF T A B L E S ......................................... vii
LIST OF F I G U R E S ......................................... viii
LIST OF S Y M B O L S ......................................... xvii
A B S T R A C T ................................................ xxi
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ............................ 1
C HAPTER 2 - APPARATUS AND TECHNIQUES FOR

CYCLIC SHEAR TESTING ..................... 20
2.1 The Resonant Column Test . . . . . . . . . . 26

2.2 The Triaxlal T e s t ........................... 37
2.3 The Simple Shear Test . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.4 The Torsional Shear T e s t .................... 58
C 2.5 Prediction of Soil Liquefaction . . . . . . 66
CHAPTER 3 - CYCLIC UNDRAINED BEHAVIOR OF

SANDS: A FRAMEWORK OF UNDERSTANDING . . 75
3.1 Pore Pressure Buildup and Strain

Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.1.1 Typical Results of Cyclic
Triaxlal Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.1.2 Pore Pressure Rise Mechanisms . . . . . 86
3.1.3 Liquefaction* Flc«r Deformation
and Strain Development . . . . . . . . 92
3.1.4 Threshold Shear Strain Concept . . . . 99
3.2 Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance . . . 103
3.2.1 Cyclic Undrained Strength . . . . . . . 103
3.2.2 Cyclic Shear Strain Potential . . . . . Ill
3.2.3 Volume Decrease Potential and
Liquefaction Resistance . . . . . . . . 117
3.2.4 Effect of Initial Confining Stress . . 120
V
Page
3.3 Monotonic and Cyclic Strength

Relationship .................................. 121
3.3.1 Drained Behavior under
Monotonic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.3.2 Undrained Behavior under
Monotonic Loading .............. 129
3.3.3 Effect of Sand Type on
Undrained Behavior . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.3.4 The State Diagram and Cyclic
Undrained Behavior . . ................. 174
3.4 Effect of Initial State of Stress and
In Situ Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . 192
3.4.1 Level Ground Conditions ................ 194
3.4.2 Sloping Ground Conditions . . . . . . . 208
CHAPTER 4 - LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND

TESTING PROGRAM ......................... 231
4.1 New Resonant Column/Torsional Shear

Test Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.1.1 Resonant Column System ................ 236
4.1.2 Torsional Shear System ................ 240
4.1.3 Data Acquisition S y s t e m .............. 249
4.2 Materials and Testing Procedures .......... 251
s 4.2.1 Drained Tests . . . . . . .............. 254
f 4.2.2 Undrained Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4.3 General Purposes and Scope of the
Investigations ................ 258
CHAPTER 5 - TEST RESULTS AND A N A L Y S E S ............. 264
5.1 Drained Cyclic Shear Tests . ................ 264

5.1.1 Effects of Specimen Geometry . . . . . 264 ~
'5.1.2 Effects of Relative Density . . . . . . 269
5.1.3 Effects of Mean Confining Stress . . . 272
5.1.4 Effects of Frequency ............ ~. . 287
5.1.5 Effects of Shear Strain Level . . . . . 288
5.1.6 Effects of Stress R a t i o ................ 290
5.1.7 Effects of Stress History . . . . . . . 298
5.1.8 Effects of Cyclic Prestraining . . . . 309
5.2 Undrained Cyclic Shear Tests . . . ........ 324
5.2.1 Results of Typical Stress and
Strain Controlled Tests ................ 324
5.2.2 Threshold Shear Strain . . . . . . . . 353
5.2.3 Monotonic and Cyclic Strength
Relationship under Torsional Loading . 369
5.2.4 Effects of Prior Cyclic
Stress/Strain History ............. 400
vi
f Page
CHAPTER 6 - SUMMARY AND C O N C L U S I O N S ................ 437
6.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . 437

6.2 New Apparatus for Cyclic Shear Testing . . . 442
6.3 Test R e s u l t s ...................... 443
6.3.1 Drained Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 444
6.3.2 Undrained Conditions 451
6.4 Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
CHAPTER 7 - RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . . 462
7.1 Improvement of Laboratory Equipment . . . . 462

7.2 Topics for Further Research . . . . . . . . 466
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................... 471
APPENDICES
Appendix A Data Reduction Procedures

for Resonant Column Tests ............ 492
Appendix B Data Reduction Procedures
for Torsional Shear Tests . . . . . . 535
V I T A .................................................... 590
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4.1 Switch Settings for Peak R o t a t i o n .............. 245
4.2 Stress and Deformation Limits of New Apparatus 248
4.3 Properties of Ottawa 20-30 Sand .......... 248
5.1 Summary of Tests Performed . . . . . . . . . . 265
Appendix
Table
A .1 Calibration Factors for Hardin Oscillator . . . 518
B.l Relationship between Average Shear Stress

s- and Applied Torque for New Apparatus . . . . . 557
B.2 Results of Pressure Transducer Calibration • . 567
B.3 Results of Load Cell Calibration . . . . . . . 572
B.4 Results of Torque Transducer Calibration . . . 577
B.5 Characteristics of Transducers for

Measuring Applied Boundary Stresses . . . . . . 581
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 Laboratory Techniques for Measuring

Dynamic Soil Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Common Resonant Column Boundary Conditions . . 28
2.3 Stress Components in Cyclic

Triaxlal Test Specimens. ..................... 38
2.4 Theoretical Stresses on the Boundaries of

a Square Simple Shear Specimen . . . . . . . . 49
2.5 Stress Components in Hollow Torsional

Shear Test Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.6 Rotation of Principal Stresses in a Soil

C Element In Situ during an Earthquake . . . . . 68
2.7 Stress Paths for Isotropically

Consolidated Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1 Definition of State of Liquefaction . . . . . 77
3.2 Typical Results of Cyclic Triaxlal Tests

on Isotropically Consolidated Specimens . . . 81
3.3 Typical Effective Stress Paths in

Cyclic Triaxlal Tests on
Isotropically Consolidated Specimens . . . . . 85
3.4 Changes in Fabric during Cyclic Loading . . . 89
3.5 Shear Strain Potential at Liquefaction . . . . 94
3.6 Rate of Pore Pressure Buildup

during Cyclic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.7 Concept of Threshold Shear Strain . . . . . . 100
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ith o u t perm ission.
ix
f Figure Page
3.8 Cyclic Stress Ratio - Shear Strain (Single

Amplitude) Relationship for Different Number
of Cycles at a Constant Relative Density . . . 104
3.9 Relationship between Cyclic Stress Ratio

and Number of Cycles Causing Different
Level of Shear Strain ........... . . . . . . 106
3.10 Cyclic Stress Ratio - Shear Strain

Relationship for Different Relative
Densities at a Constant Number of Cycles . . . 108
3.11 Cyclic Stress Ratio - Relative Density

Relationship for Different Shear Strain
Levels at a Constant Number of Cycles . . . . 109
3.12 Cyclic Stress Ratio - Relative Density

Relationship and Cyclic Shear Strain
Potential from Large-Scale Simple Shear Tests 112
3.13 Tentative Relationship between Cyclic Stress

Ratio, (N.)fen Values, and Limiting
Strain for Natural Deposits of Clean Sand . . 114
3.14 Relationship between Volume Decrease

C Potential and Cyclic Stress Ratio Causing
Initial Liquefaction in 20 Cycles ............ 119
3.15 Effect of Confining Pressure on Cyclic Stress

Ratio Versus Number of Cycles Relationship . . 122
3.16 State Diagram for Sacramento River Sand . . . 125
3.17 Drained Properties as a Function of State

Parameter for Kogyuk 350 S a n d s ................ 127
3.18 Dndrained Load Controlled Tests on

Isotropically Consolidated Specimens
of Banding S a n d .................. 131
3.19 Undrained State Paths Corresponding

to Tests in Figure 3 . 1 8 ............. 132
3.20 Steady— State Diagrams for Banding Sand . . . . 136
3.21 Peak Undrained Shear Strength as a

Function of Relative Density ........... 143
c •
X
c Figure
3.22 Normalized Peak Undrained Shear Strength

as a Function of State Parameter . . . . . . .
Page
145
3.23 Axial Strain at Peak Deflator Stress

as a Function of State Parameter . . . . . . . 147
3.24 Angle of Shearing Resistance Mobilized

at Peak Deviator Stress as a Function
of Relative Density ....................... 149

at Peak Deviator Stress as a Function
of State P a r a m e t e r .............................. 150
3.26 Relationship between Mobilized and Pore

Pressure Af — Parameter at Peak
Devlator Stress .............................. 153

at Steady-State Condition as a Function
of Relative Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.28 Index of Undralned Brittleness as a

Function of Relative Density . . . . . . . . . 156
c 3.29 Index of Undralned Brittleness as a

Function of State Parameter . . . . . . . . . 158
3.30 Undrained Behavior at Constant

Relative Density (Schematic) ......... . . . . 160
3.31 Undralned Behavior at Constant Consolidation

Confining Stress (Schematic) . . . . . . . . . 163
3.32 Undrained Behavior at Constant

State Parameter (Schematic) . . . . . . . . . 165
3.33 Angle of Shearing Resistance Mobilized at

Peak Deviator Stress for Two Different Sands . 167
3.34 Steady-State Diagrams for Two Different Sands 168
3.35 Undrained Steady-State Diagrams

for Two Different Sands . . . . . . . . . . . 170
3.36 Undrained Behavior under Cyclic Loading

of Magnitude Smaller than
Steady-State Strength (Schematic) . . . . . . 175
xi
Figure Page
3.37 Concept of Critical Cyclic Stress Ratio . . . 180
3.38 Undrained Behavior under Cyclic Loading of

Magnitude Larger than Steady— State Strength • 183
3.39 Angle of Shearing Resistance Mobilized at

Initiation of Strain Softening Response
during Cyclic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.40 Development of Limited Flow Deformation and

Liquefaction during Cyclic Loading (Schematic) 189
3.41 Typical Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests with no

Lateral Strain on ^ - C o n s o l i d a t e d Specimens • 196
3.42 Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests under

Different Boundary and Stress Conditions . . . 199
3.43 Potential Effective Stress Paths

during Cyclic Loading under Different
Boundary and Stress Conditions (Schematic) . . 201
3.44 Cyclic Undrained Strength from Plane

Strain Torsional Shear Tests ................ . 204
3.45 Cyclic Undralned Strength from

Torsional Shear Tests at Constant
Mean Confining Stress . . . . . . ............ 205
3.46 Effect of Overconsolidation on Plane

Strain Cyclic Undrained Strength . . . . . . . 207
3.47 States of Stress under Cyclic Loading . . . . 210
3.48 Torsional Shear Test on Anisotropically

Consolidated Specimen with ( t + t ) Smaller
than Steady-State Strength (Schematic) . . . . 216
3.49 Torsional Shear Test on Anisotropically

Consolidated Specimen with ( t + t _ ) Larger
than Steady-State Strength (Schematic) . . . . 219
3.50 Torsional Shear Tests on Anisotropically

Consolidated Specimen with Static
Shear Stress Larger than Steady— State
Strength (Schematic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
3.51 Flow Failure Potential from Strain

Controlled Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests . . . 223
xii
, Figure Page
— ' 3.52 In Situ Effective Stress Path with Stress

Reversal during Cyclic Loading (Schematic) • . 228
3.53 Effect of Static Shear Stresses on the

Resistance to Strain Development under
Cyclic Triaxlal Loading Conditions ............ 230
4.1 New Resonant Column/Torsional

Shear Test Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.2 Electronic System for Resonant Column Tests . 239
4.3 Wiring Diagram for Hardin

Resonant Column Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . 241
4.4 Torsional Shear System ................ 247
4.5 Elements Used for Construction of

Hoilow Cylinder Specimens . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.1 Effect of Specimen Geometry on Shear

Modulus — Shear Strain Relationship . . . . . 267
5.2 Effect of Relative Density on Shear

f- Modulus — Shear Strain Relationship . . . . . 270
5.3 Effect of Relative Density on

Maximum Shear Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
5.4 Effect of Confinement on Shear

Modulus — Shear Strain Relationship . . . . . 273
5.5 Shear Modulus Versus Mean Confining Stress . . 274
5.6 Effect of Confinement on the Shape

of the Modulus Reduction Curve . . . . . . . . 276
5.7 Dimenslonless Shear Modulus —

Shear Strain Relationship . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.8 Prediction of Modulus Reduction Curve . . . . 281
5.9 Effect of Confinement on Damping

Ratio - Shear Strain Relationship . . . . . . 283
5.10 Damping Ratio Versus Shear Modulus Ratio . . . 285
5.11 Effect of Consolidation Stress

Ratio on Modulus Reduction Curve . . . . . . . 292
xiii
Figure Page
5.12 Effect of Stress Ratio on

Maximum Shear Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
5.13 Effect of Isotropic Prestressing on

Shear Modulus - Shear Strain Relationship . . 299
5.14 Effect of Axial Compression Prestressing on

5.15 Effect of Axial Compression Prestressing

on Maximum Shear Modulus of Medium
Dense Sand Specimen ....................... 303
5.16 Effect of Confinement on Shear Modulus

of Medium Dense Specimen . ......... . . . . . 305
5.17 Effect of Torsional Prestraining on

5.18 Effect of Torsional Prestressing on

5.19 Effect of Strain History on

5.20 Effect of Number of Cycles at Constant

Shear Strain Amplitude on Shear Modulus . . . 319
5.21 Undralned Torsional Shear Test on

Isotropically Consolidated Specimen (Dr~63Z) . 325
5.22 Undralned Torsional Shear Test on

Isotropically Consolidated Specimen (Dr*50%) . 331
5.23 Undrained Torsional Shear Tests on

Isotropically Consolidated Medium Loose
Sand Specimen (Dr~48%) . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
5.24 Shear Modulus - Effective Confining Stress

Relationship during Undrained Cyclic Loading . 339
5.25 Undrained Torsional Shear Test on

Isotropically Consolidated Loose
Sand Specimen (Dr-44Z) . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
5.26 Typical Results of a Strain Controlled

Torsional Shear Test on Isotropically
Consolidated Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
xiv
Figure Page
5.27 Results of Undralned Resonant Column Tests

on Isotropically Consolidated Specimen . . . . 355
5.28 Pore Pressure Ratio Versus

Shear Strain R e l a t i o n s h i p .................. . 359
5.29 Effect of Number of Cycles at Constant

Shear Stress Amplitude on Shear Modulus . . . 362
5.30 Torsional Shear Tests with Small Cyclic

Shear Stress Amplitude ( t9*11.2 k ? a ) ............ 363
5.31 Monotonic Torsional Shear Test

on Isotropically Consolidated Specimen . . . . 370
5.32 Monotonic Torsional Shear Test on

Specimen with an Initial Static Shear Stress . 375
5.33 Cyclic Torsional Shear Test with

Shear Stress Amplitude Larger than
Steady-State Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
5.34 Stress Conditions at Initiation of Strain

Softening Behavior under Cyclic Loading . . . 384
f 5.35 Number of Cycles to Initiation of

V Strain Softening Behavior . . . . . . . . . . 385

Non-Uniform Shear Stress Amplitude . . . . . . 391

Reversal Shortly after Initiation of
Strain Softening Behavior • ..................... 395
5.38 Effect of Number of Cycles on Secant Shear

Modulus under Undralned Cyclic Loading . . . . 402
5.39 Monotonic Torsional Shear Test

after Development of Initial
Liquefaction Due to Cyclic Loading . . . . . . 405
5.40 Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests on

Reconsolidated Specimen with Residual
Shear Strain ( - 3 . 8 Z ) ........................... 411
5.41 Cyclic Torsional Shear Test on

Virgin Specimen ( t^ ^ - 15.6 kPa) ........... .. 416
XV
Figure Page
5*42 Cyclic Torsional Shear Test on

Reconsolidated Specimens with
Residual Shear Strain (-1.0Z) 418
5 =43 Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests on

Virgin Specimen ( t^ - 17.5 kPa) ........... 422
5.44 Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests on

Reconsolidated Specimen with
Residual Shear Strain (+0.51) . . . 424
5.45 "Small Preshearlng" and "Large

Preshearing" Stress Paths under Cyclic
Loading of Magnitude Smaller than
Steady— State Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
6.1 Development of Limited Flow Deformation

and Liquefaction under Cyclic Loading . . . . 440
Appendix
Figure
A.1 Torsional Vibrations of Elastic Rods . . . . 494
A.2 Resonant Column System (Schematic) . . . . . 498
A.3 Lissajous Figures from Two Sine

Waves 90° Out of Phase ........... 508
A.4 Methods for Determining Top

Platen System Rotational Inertia ............. 512
A.5 Steady-State Forced Vibrations of

Fixed Base Cylindrical Specimen . . . . . . . 525
A.6 Dimensionless Frequency Factor for Resonant

Column Apparatus with Base of Specimen Fixed . 530
A .7 Damping Amplification Coefficient

for Resonant Column Apparatus with
Base of Specimen Fixed . . . . . . 532
B.l Stress Components in Hollow Torsional

Shear Test Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
B.2 Radial Equilibrium in Torsional

Shear Test Specimens ............... 539
xv i
Appendix
( Figure Page
B.3 Potential Loading Schemes for

Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests ................ 542
B.4 Strain Components in Hollow

Torsional Shear Test Specimens . . . . . . . 547
B.5 Shear Stress Distributions in

Hollow Torsional Shear Tests Specimens . . . 560
B.6 Stress Components in Hollow Torsional

Shear Test Specimens Including End Effects . 562
B.7 Results of LVDT Calibration . . . . . . . . . 583
B.8 Definition of Equivalent Hysteretic Shear

Modulus and Damping Ratio . . . . . . . . . . 588
xv ii
LIST OF SYMBOLS
* Skempton's pore pressure parameter at failure
ADIO ■ Analog/Digital Input/Output
B - pore pressure parameter
CSR “ critical stress ratio
D * damping ratio
Dma x * limiting damping

r o ratio
Dr * relative density
£ m Young's modulus
e * void ratio
e » maximum void ratio

max
e .* minimum void ratio
mln
f ■ frequency
G = shear modulus
G = maximum shear modulus

max
IB * brittleness index
I.D. = inner diameter
= mass polar moment of inertia of active end
platen
K * principal stress ratio
Kg = consolidation stress ratio
Ko * coefficient of earth pressure at rest
(K = K in overconsolidated deposits
O UL O
MR » modular ratio
N « number of cycles
“ number of cycles liquefaction
(Ni)go “ standard penetration resistance at 60% of the
theoretical free fall energy
NC *• normally consolidated
NGI * Norwegian Geotecnnical Institute
OC = overconsolidated
OCR * overconsolidation ratio
O.D. - outer diameter
p" ■ /2* stress path parameter
PPS = pulses per second
q * (O j + O j )/2, stress path parameter
q » steady-state strength
ss
RAM 3* random access memory
SPT * standard penetration test
u *» pore pressure
Up = pore pressure at peak strength
ur = residual or terminal pore pressure
u^ «• pore pressure at triggering of strain
softening behavior
VD = volume decrease potential
VD = voltage divider
a = angle between direction and z axis
a ■ slope cf steady-state envelope

s
a <3 slope of critical stress ratio line
XIX
La cyclic deviator stress
L Ao
c
axial stress increment
La ar.ial stress decrement

e
At shear stress increment
axial strain
peak axial strain

P
Y shear strain amplitude
threshold shear strain
T -_/G reference strain
angle cf shear resistance
mobilized angle of shearing resistance at
steady-state condition
interparticle friction angle
mobilized angle of shearing resistance
c mob
* state parameter
confining pressure
radial stress
axial stress
we circumferential stress
consolidation deviator stress

Jdc
a. major principal stress
intermediate principal stress
minor principal stress
a* effective stress
o effective axial stress
effective confining stress
- effective horizontal stress
c o^ - mean effective confining stress
o *■ effective vertical stress

v
*
a » Initial effective vertical stress
vo
*
c*lc * consolidation major principal stress
*
o^c ■ consolidation minor principal stress
” effective confining stress at
steady-state condition
"a * average radial stress
o^g “ average circumferential stress
(O j -O j ) “ deviator stress
(Oj-o^Jp ■ peak deviator stress
(oô^p « steady-state deviator stress
« shear stress
c t
t
s
* static shear stress
t * threshold shear stress
Tcy ■ cyclic shear stress
Tgg * steady-state strength
t - maximum shear strength of a soil

max
t . * horizontal shear stress
vh
g = shear stress component
t = shear stress component

zr
T^g = shear stress component
6 * angular rotation
6 = maximum amplitude of the twist angle

max r
xx i
ABSTRACT
Alarcon-Guzman, Adolfo, Ph.D., Purdue University, August

1986. Cyclic Stress-Strain and Liquefaction Characteris
tics of Sands. Major Professors: G. A. Leonards and J.
L . Chameau
Liquefaction of saturated sand and silty sand depo
sits has been recognized as a major cause of damage to
buildings and earth structures during earthquakes. How
ever, in spite of many research studies during the past
two decades, there are still conflicting opinions on crit
ical aspects of the phenomenon of soil liquefaction,
including the definition of the term "liquefaction." For
these reasons, a research program with an integrated
attack was initiated at Purdue University to include: a)
laboratory studies of the behavior of reconstituted cohe-
sionless soils under cyclic loading, b) a new technique
for obtaining superior undisturbed samples of sand below
the water table, and c) performing and interpreting a
variety of field measurements. This dissertation is con
cerned with the first of these studies.
An important effort was devoted to delineate and
understand the pkysical factors controlling the response
of cohesionless soils to cyclic loading and consequently,
the factors involved in the different phenomena which have
c been described with the term "liquefaction" such as
steady-state flow, a condition of zero effective stress,
or cumulative residual strains due to cyclic loading. The
conditions leading to different modes of undrained failure
a re discussed in detail together with the direct relation
ship that can be established between the monotonic and
cyclic stress-strain behaviors of sands.
Apparatus and techniques for cyclic shear testing are
discussed, with emphasis on the resonant column and tor
sional shear tests. A new hybrid resonant
column/torsional shear apparatus was designed and built
(166) as a part of this research program. The new
c apparatus permits the determination of dynamic soil pro
perties on a single solid or hollow cylinder specimen over
the entire range of shear strain amplitudes of engineering

—4
interest, i.e. from 10 % to 10%. Torsional shear tests
were performed with the new apparatus on reconstituted
specimens of Ottawa 20-30 sand. Within the design objec
tives, the apparatus performed in a superior manner and
provided test results which illustrate the stress-strain
relationships under both drained and undrained conditions
for a wide range of shear strain amplitudes.
Particularly, it was found that: a) the maximum
shear modulus, Gm a x * relatively insensitive to impor
tant factors affecting the undrained behavior of sands
such as stress ratio (and hence fabric), stress history,
(_ and cyclic prestraining. Consequently, a direct correla
tion between an<* liquefaction potential is not possi
ble; b) if staged testing includes the determination of
shear moduli by means of resonant column tests, which
imply the application of a considerable number of cycles,
it can lead to significant overestimations of shear

£
modulus for sands with no prior cyclic strain history even
_2
at shear strain amplitudes as low as 1,1 x 10 %; and c)
at a given relative density, the effective stress path
corresponding to an undrained monotonic loading tests
defines a "state boundary" or "collapse" surface marking
the initiation of strain softening behavior of loose sands
under cyclic loading at different shear stress amplitudes
smaller than the peak monotonic strength.
It is concluded that the concepts outlined in this
dissertation provide a framework for understanding the
stress-strain behavior of sands and offer clear guide
lines for further research.
1
c
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Liquefaction of saturated sandy and silty soil depo
sits has been recognized as a major cause of damage to
buildings and earth structures during earthquakes. Conse
quently, assessment of liquefaction potential is of great
concern to engineers designing major structures in areas
of high seismic activity. However, in spite of many
research studies during the past two decades, there are
still conflicting opinions on critical aspects of the

c
phenomenon of soil liquefaction, including the definition
of the term "liquefaction."
On one side, the phenomenon of liquefaction is asso
ciated with a condition of zero effective stress due to
progressive increases in pore water pressure resulting
from the tendency towards densification of the sand struc
ture subject to cyclic loading (73,103,148). The condi
tion of zero effective stress may be temporary during each
loading cycle but the associated shear strains may be so
large that the consequences can be catastrophic.
On the other hand, the term "liquefaction" has been
used to describe the strain softening behavior
2
characteristic of loose sands sheared under undrained con
ditions (13,14). Ample experimental evidence has shown
that monotonic (or unidirectional) loading beyond the peak
point of the stress-strain curve (i.e., "failure") results
in a marked reduction in strength with increasing strain
until the stress stabilizes at an ultimate or residual
strength (9,14,55). The author attributes this behavior
to the fact that the structure of a loose sand is meta-
stable and hence small shear strains can produce rear
rangement of grains and loss of contact points between
neighboring grains. Upon collapse of the structure, the
load is transferred from the soil skeleton to the water
and the pore pressure continues to increase in spite of
the reduction in applied shear stress. The shear strength

( of the sand is substantially reduced and the soil mass
undergoes large deformations in a very short period of
time. Consequently, a close analogy exists between the
"sensitive" behavior of saturated loose sands and that of
quick clays (9). After large strains, a residual fabric
is created which offers the minimum resistance to shearing
and the mass reaches a steady-state of deformation (131)
resembling the flow of heavy fluid (14). At this stage,
the shear strength of the sand is said to depend mainly on
the grain characteristics and the void ratio of the sand
(13,14.131,132).
3
Until recently, the two inodes of undrained deforma
tion described above were studied independently without
attempting to establish a direct relationship between the
monotonic and cyclic undrained behaviors of sands. On the
contrary, some researchers even claimed that the two
phenomena were not related (13,15,17). In this connection
Casagrande (13) wrote that when a sand specimen is sub
jected to cyclic loading the "peaks of pore pressures keep
increasing and finally rise momentarily to the confining
pressure, , every time the stresses cycle through the
hydrostatic state, or to use the term now generally used
in the literature for this phenomenon, the specimen
suffers 'liquefaction'. This response bears no relation
( ship to actual liquefaction of sands in situ." The
independent consideration of the behavior of sands under
monotonic and cyclic loading and the indiscriminate use of
the term "liquefaction" have caused confusion regarding
the factors controlling the undrained behavior of
saturated sands. For example, experimental evidence was
presented showing either that the presence of initial
static shear stresses (anisotropic consolidation)
increases the cyclic undrained strength (104) or that the
monotonic undrained strength decreases significantly as
the consolidation shear stress increases (17).
The underlying cause of the problem is that the
mechanical behavior of granular materials is Influenced by
4
a large number of factors, which make It difficult to
establish general stress-strain relationships. There is
ample experimental evidence to show that relative density
and state of stress are not sufficient to characterize the
mechanical behavior of granular materials. Other factors,
such as fabric and its associated anisotropy, stress-
strain history, applied stress path (including rotation of
the principal stresses) and aging, among others, strongly
influences the in situ stress-deformation behavior of
granular soils (4,93,101,117,119,125). Consequently, all
these factors also affect the susceptibility of sands to
pore pressure development under undrained loading. More
over, "undisturbed" sampling of cohesionless soils is
extremely difficult. With current sampling techniques it
is considered that effects such as stress-strain history
and aging may be largely removed (12,29,51). Therefore,
to date, most of the experimental work has been done on
reconstituted specimens. It is certainly recognized that
tests on reconstituted specimens may predict the in situ
performance poorly, because the effects of fabric, aging,
and stress-strain history cannot be accounted for
appropriately (93).
By far the most prevalent correlation extant today
between "liquefaction" potential and in situ measurements
has been with the standard penetration test (SPT), in
spite of the fact that the results from the test are
5
affected by a number of well-known yet uncontrolled vari
ables: 1) the method of advancing and stabilizing the
hole, 2) hole diameter and depth, 3) type of drill-rod
and anvil used, 4) degree of interference with free fall
of the hammer, and, 5) operator's experience (145,153).
Accordingly, wide variations can be expected when blow
count data are collected from many different sources.
However, the main concern is with the fact that SPT is
inherently insensitive to important factors affecting
"liquefaction" potential including: sand fabric, pres
tress, preshaking, and geologic aging. This is because
penetration resistance measures the shear resistance at
large strains, at which point the influence of fabric,
prestress, preshaking and aging have been largely des
troyed (35,101). A field test capable of sensing the
effects of this factor must measure stress-deformation
relationships prior to failure.
For the reasons discussed above, a research program
with an integrated attack on the problem of predicting
reliably the "liquefaction" potential of saturated sand
deposits was initiated at Purdue University to include:
1. Laboratory studies of the behavior of cohesionless
soils under cyclic loading. It was considered neces
sary to perform the most up-to-date cyclic shear
tests to assess the relationship between monotonic
and cyclic undrained behaviors and Che effects of
controlled differences in fabric, prestress and
cyclic prestraining on the stress-defornation charac
teristics of sands under cyclic loading.
2. Development of a new technique for obtaining superior
undisturbed samples of sand below the water table
using an impregnation technique, and
3. Performing and interpreting field measurements that
make direct measurements of stress— deformation
characteristics, and hence can sense the effects of
all factors known to affect "liquefaction" potential
of saturated sands.
(
This dissertation is concerned with the first of
these studies.
An important effort was devoted to delineate and
understand the physical factors controlling the response
of cohesionless soil to cyclic loading and, consequently,
the factors involved in the different phenomena which have
been described with the term "liquefaction" such as
steady-state flow, a condition of zero effective stress,
or cumulative shear strains due to cyclic loading. This
exercise yielded an integrated framework of understanding
of the undrained behavior of sands under both monotonic
and cyclic loading, which is presented in Chapter 3. The

r
\
7
main features which characterize undrained behavior of

C sands under both cyclic and monotonic loadings are con
sidered first independently, based on previous studies and
largely on the author's interpretation and understanding
of the factors controlling the shear strength of soils.
Particular attention is given to the fact that there
exists a region in the shear stress-normal stress space
beyond which the behavior of sands under cyclic loading
changes from contractive to dilative on loading. The lim
its of this region seem to correspond to a particular
value of the principal stress ratio, which defines the so
called "phase transformation" lines (82) because reversal
in the direction of loading from stress states beyond such
( lines is accompanied by a significant increase in the pore
pressure and eventually by the development of a condition
of zero effective stress at the instant the stress cycles
pass through the hydrostatic state. The location of the
phase transformation lines in stress space depends on the
relative density and the type of sand. Once a state of
zero effective stress develops, a certain amount of shear
strain is required to mobilize a shear resistance in the
opposite direction, equal to a given applied shear stress,
which is a function of the relative density of the sand
(148,155). For very loose sands almost unlimited deforma
tions will occur without mobilizing appreciable shear
resistance, whereas in the case of dense sands dilation
8
soon develops, Che p o r e pressure decreases and Che s a n d Is
able to withstand the applied shear stresses without
appreciable deformation.
On the other hand, it is shown that the undrained
behavior of sands under monotonic loading is characterized
by the existence of another region in the shear stress-
normal stress space beyond which a sand exhibits a marked
strain softening behavior, that is, it develops large pore
pressures which in turn cause a drastic reduction in
strength and the consequent development of large shear
strains. As mentioned earlier, this behavior is attri
buted by the author to the "collapsiveness" of the sand
structure (2). The initiation of strain softening
V. behavior is observed to occur at a particular value of the
principal stress ratio or mobilized angle of shear resis-
tance, $ , , which is shown to depend at least on the type

moo
of sand, the relative density and the level of confining
stress. The locus of stress states triggering the strain
softening behavior defines a "critical stress ratio" (CSR)
line (186), or "collapse" surface (165). For certain ini
tial states, the behavior of a sand may be limited strain
softening whereas as the relative density increases or the
confining stress decreases the behavior changes to
strongly dilative (strain hardening).
Under cyclic loading a sand specimen is subjected to
continuous reversals in the direction of shearing, that
9
is, experiences stages of loading, unloading and reload
ing. Under these conditions, it is shown that depending
on the initial state of stress and the cyclic shear stress
amplitude, the resulting effective stress path may reach
the critical stress ratio (CSR) line during any loading
stage or move beyond the phase transformation lines, in
which case large pore pressures develop in the subsequent
unloading stages. In other words, under cyclic loading a
sand specimen may exhibit strain softening behavior or
reach a condition of zero effective stress. (Under cer
tain conditions a combination of the two phenomena may
also develop.) Therefore, in the author's view, a basic
relationship must exist between the monotonic and cyclic
stress-strain behavior of sands. Accordingly, all the

c conditions leading to different modes of undrained failure
under cyclic loading are discussed in detail by using a
combination of state diagram and effective stress path
plots showing the location of the phase transformation and
critical stress ratio (CSR) lines. Results from previous
studies on the subject of "liquefaction" of sands are
sometimes presented to serve as an illustration. It is
also shown that the effects of the type of sand, that is
the mineral composition, size distribution, shape, and
roughness of the particles, on the susceptibility to
strain softening behavior (or collapse) under monotonic
loading and on the susceptibility to pore pressure buildup
due to sudden reversals in the direction of shearing, are
10
opposite in nature. For example, at the same relative
density, a sand with rounded grains is more susceptible to
flow failure than one with angular grains, whereas a sand
with angular grains may develop a condition of zero effec
tive stress in a smaller number of cycles at a given shear
stress amplitude than a sand with rounded grains.
The discussion in Chapter 3 also shows that the way
in which the effective stress path approaches the strength
envelope determines the failure modes and the resulting
deformations. Starting from an initial anisotropic state
of stress, which is typical of most in situ conditions,
the failure line can be approached following different
stress paths which depend not only on the nature and mag
nitude of the applied loads but also on the strain boun
dary conditions. These stress paths may reflect changes
in the initial state of stress, including rotation of the
planes of principal stress (reversal of shear strain) as a
result of shaking during an earthquake. For example, it
is shown that under plane strain conditions, such as in
sand deposits under level ground, the effective stress
path moves down and towards the left, reflecting continu
ous reductions in the static shear stress. The effective
stress path eventually reaches the origin of the stress
space (zero effective stress), irrespective of the initial
state of stress. It is also shown that in this case, the
effective stress path cannot reach the critical stress
11
t ratio line and therefore, strain softening behavior is not

V ...
a possibility under plane strain conditions. On the other
hand, it is shown that if lateral strains are not con
strained, such as in soil elements close to sloping
ground, static shear stresses remain throughout the cyclic
loading due to the need to maintain equilibrium imposed by
geometry. Accordingly, in this case, the effective stress
path moves essentially horizontally towards the left
approaching eventually the critical stress ratio (CSR)
line, provided the total shear stress (static + cyclic) is
larger than the steady-state or residual strength of the
sand. Hence, strain softening behavior is possible under
these conditions. It is noted that as the static shear
^ stress increases (anisotropic consolidation), the state of
stress gets closer to the critical stress ratio (CSR) line
and hence, the susceptibility to strain softening behavior
under cyclic loading increases. On the other hand, as the
static shear stress increases the possibility of a com
plete stress reversal (hydrostatic state of stress)
decreases. A hydrostatic state of stress is a prere
quisite for the development of a zero effective stress
condition. Consequently, the effects of initial static
shear stresses on the susceptibility to strain softening
behavior under monotonic loading and on the susceptibility
to the development of a zero effective stress condition
due to sudden reversals in the direction of shearing, are
12
opposite. This explains the conflicting conclusions dis

L, cussed earlier.
In summary, it is shown in Chapter 3 that the problem
of undrained stability of a contractive saturated sand
during earthquake loadings can be studied by considering
the way in which the in situ effective stress path
approaches the failure envelope. It is this path that
determines the failure modes and the resulting deforma
tions. An agreement on the definition of the term
"liquefaction" is not really needed. It is considered
that a combination of failure mechanisms, corresponding to
either strain softening behavior or the development of
zero effective stress conditions or both may contribute to
the failure of a complex structure, such as an earth dam.
From the practical point of view, it is immaterial which
mechanism is called "liquefaction" since both may cause
intolerable deformations leading to the loss of the struc
ture. However, the author will use the term "flow
failure" as indicative of strain softening behavior and
will reserve the term "liquefaction" for describing zero
effective stress or "quick" conditions, in accord with the
etymology of these words. It should be noted that deter
mination of the way in which the state of stress actually
changes within an earth structure in the course of earth
quake loading is a goal that still remains to be achieved.
13
G Apparatus and techniques for cyclic shear tests were
examined in detail and the advantages and limitations of
each technique are summarized in Chapter 2. Emphasis is
placed on the factors discussed below. A variety of
laboratory testing techniques have been developed over the
years to evaluate the stress-strain behavior of soils
under cyclic loading but the capabilities of each device
are in general limited to a specific strain range. For
example> resonant column tests apparatus have been build
to determine dynamic soil properties at low strains rang-

-4 -2
ing from 10 % to 10 %. These strain levels may be typi
cal of geophysical measurements or of vibrations due to
traffic loadings. On the other hand, cyclic triaxial,
( simple shear or torsional shear equipment is used to simu
late the larger strain levels associated with earthquake
loading conditions.
In practice, the use of two separate pieces of test
ing equipment implies that the dynamic properties of the
tested material, over the range of shear strains of
interest, are determined on different specimens, which are
unlikely to have identical characteristics. Moreover,
very often there is no overlap between the ranges of shear
strains for which the results are available from each
test. This is a significant limitation when investigating
either the reduction of shear modulus as a function of
shear strain amplitude or the existence of a critical
14
shear strain at which the fabric of the sand eventually
yields during a given loading sequence (1).
Although the cyclic triaxial test has been used
extensively during the past two decades to evaluate cyclic
undrained strength of saturated sands, its limitations to
simulate earthquake loading conditions have long been
recognized (13,14,145,192). The stresses induced in the
ground by an earthquake are considered to be due primarily
to the upward propagation of shear waves from the underly
ing rock formation. Consequently, during an earthquake,
elements in the soil deposit are subjected to a series of
horizontal shear stress applications. Accordingly, simple
shear and torsional shear tests, in which horizontal shear
stresses can be applied on the upper and lower face of a
specimen are now recognized as having superior capabili
ties for determining soil behavior under earthquake load
ing, including "liquefaction" phenomena
(30,69,75,140,173.192). The previous considerations led
to the design and development of a new hybrid torsional
shear apparatus which combines the features of both the
resonant column and torsional shear devices. The main part
of the apparatus was built by Soil Dynamics Instruments
(166) under the supervision of Professor V. P. Drnevich,
based on ideas and specifications provided by the author's
advisors, Professors G. A. Leonards and J.L. Chameau. The
new apparatus permits the determination of dynamic soil
15
properties on a single solid or hollow cylinder specimen
over the entire range of shear strain amplitudes of

-4
engineering interest, i.e. from 10 % to 10%, as well as a
better simulation of the stress paths associated with
earthquake loadings. A detailed description of the new
apparatus is presented in Chapter 4.
Torsional shear tests were performed with the new
resonant column/torsional shear apparatus on reconstituted
specimens of Ottawa 20-30 sand. Specimen preparation pro
cedures and the general purposes and scope of the testing
program are described in Chapter 4. Preliminary tests
were performed under both drained and undrained conditions
to evaluate the whole range of capabilities of the new
apparatus and to compare these results with those avail
able in the literature, which had been obtained using
other devices and similar (or different) types of sand.
After these tests, a comprehensive testing program was
initiated in accord with the main goals of the investiga
tion as described earlier. In addition to obtaining addi
tional support for the author's views on the relationship
between monotonic and cyclic undrained behavior of sands,
it was considered that some aspects of the drained and
undrained behaviors of sands were still subject to con
flicting opinions, thereby requiring further investiga
tion, as discussed below.
16
1. Some researchers consider that a relationship
between shear wave velocities and liquefaction potential
of sands can be developed (29,32,33,89,147)• It is con
sidered that shear wave velocities can be readily deter
mined by means of geophysical tests in situ and that all
the factors known to affect the maximum shear modulus of
dry sands, which relates to the shear wave velocity, will
also affect the stress-strain behavior and liquefaction
potential of the materials when subjected to undrained
loading in a saturated condition. It is also claimed that
elastic wave velocities respond to fabric differences
(29,36,38,39) and therefore should reflect the effect of
factors such as stress-strain history and aging on the
r strength-deformation characteristics of sands. Conse—
quently, it was thought appropriate to determine to which
extent shear modulus values determined by means of
resonant column tests at strain levels corresponding to
those produced in geophysical tests for measuring in situ
shear velocities, can reflect the effect of factors such
as stress ratio (anisotropic consolidation), prestressing
and cyclic prestraining which in addition to relative den
sity and confining stress are known to influence the sus
ceptibility of sands to pore pressure development under
undrained loading.
2. Experimental evidence has been presented showing
the existence of a threshold shear strain for sands on the

r
17
order of 10~^% (24,32,33,43), below which there is in
principle neither densification of dry sands nor pore
pressure buildup in saturated sands. It is claimed that
the threshold shear strain is a constant characteristic of
each type of sand for a wide range of particle arrange
ments, relative densities and confining pressures. These
findings were considered to conflict with the results of a
significant amount of research, which has shown that the
mechanical behavior of granular materials is affected sig
nificantly by factors such as fabric and its associated
anisotropy, stress-strain history, stress path, etc.,
among others. It was thought that the initiation of pore
pressure buildup could be associated with the shear strain
marking the initiation of degradation in the shear
modulus, that is, the shear strain at which the behavior
of sands changes from linear elastic to nonlinear and Ine
lastic. Consequently, particular attention was given to
the degradation of shear modulus from the G value as a

0 max
function of strain level under both drained and undrained
conditions.
3. Most investigations on the undrained steady-state
strength of sands have been based on axial compression
triaxial tests, and hence they have been limited to a par
ticular stress path. However, there is ample experimental
evidence to show that the fabric developed under condi
tions prevalent during deposition of most natural deposits
18
is highly anisotropic, which causes changes in the
undrained deformation-strength characteristics with the
direction of loading (55,118,119,120,169), although others
claim that the initial fabric has no effect on the large
strain deformation characteristics of sand under undrained
conditions (13,14,18,131,132). A few recent studies,
which also have attempted to establish a relationship
between the monotonic and cyclic undrained behavior of
sands (34,121,165,184,185,186) still contain conflicting
opinions on factors such as the effect of consolidation
shear stresses (anisotropic consolidation) on the subse
quent behavior under undrained shearing, and on the state
conditions marking the initiation of strain softening
behavior and hence the relationship between monotonic and
cyclic loading of sands. Some of these aspects were also
investigated in the new torsional shear apparatus, includ
ing the effects of prior strain history, and hence of
fabric, on the subsequent undrained behavior. It should
be noted that the orientation of the principal stresses in
torsional shear tests specimens differs from that in
triaxial test specimen. Therefore, these effects were
investigated along different stress paths.
The results of the tests performed are summarized and
discussed in Chapter 5. These results illustrate the
behavior of Ottawa 20-30 sand under both drained and
undrained conditions for a wide range of shear strain
19
amplitudes. A summary of the main conclusions and find
ings of this investigation is presented in Chapter 6.
Finally, suggestions for further research are made in
Chapter 7.
20
CHAPTER 2
APPARATUS AND TECHNIQUES FOR CYCLIC SHEAR TESTING
Analytical methods for predicting ground motions due
to dynamic loading require an appropriate knowledge of the
stress-strain and energy dissipating properties of soil
deposits. The problems of interest cover a wide range of
situations. At one end, very small amplitudes of motion
are expected when considering vibrations due to traffic
loads. On the other hand, blast and seismic loadings often
produce shear strains in the soil deposit which are high
enough to bring about shear failures. In the latter
category, the phenomenon of soil liquefaction and its
catastrophic consequences are of great concern to
engineers evaluating the stability of natural or man-made
deposits of saturated sands in areas of high seismic
activity.
The need to evaluate stress-strain characteristics
over a wide range of shear strain amplitude has stimulated
the development of a variety of laboratory and field
measuring techniques (136,140,192). Ideally, the purpose
of any laboratory testing technique is to study the
behavior of an element of soil under conditions similar to
21
those encountered in the field. In a laboratory test, the

c
specimen is assumed to represent a single point in a soil
deposit. The validity of this assumption depends on the
uniformity of the distributions of stress and strain
within the specimens, which in turn depends on the confi
guration of the specimen and the control and measurement
of stress and strain on the boundaries (139,140). Dis
cussing these effects Woods (192) wrote: "If these factors
are not considered, there is little hope of obtaining
agreement between field results where nature applies the
boundary conditions and laboratory results where engineers
must try to reproduce or otherwise to account for boundary
c ond iti ons ."
Although considerable improvement has been achieved
in testing equipment, in the interpretation of boundary
and membrane effects, and in the understanding of the
capabilities and limitations of each technique, the com
parison between predictions based on laboratory results
and field performance might still be disappointing (192).
This can be attributed firstly to the large number of fac
tors that control the mechanical behavior of granular
materials, which make it difficult to establish general
stress-strain relationships. It is widely accepted now
that relative density and .state of stress are not suffi
cient to characterize the mechanical behavior of granular
materials. Other factors, such as fabric and its
22
associated anisotropy, stress-strain history, aging, and
the stress path, among others, must be accounted for
(4,93,101,117,119,125). The problem is aggravated by the
fact that "undisturbed" sampling of cohesionless soils is
extremely difficult. With current sampling techniques it
is considered that effects such as stress-strain history
and aging may be largely removed (12,29,51). Conse
quently, to date, most of the experimental work has been
done on reconstituted specimens. It is certainly recog
nized that tests on reconstituted specimens may predict
the performance of the soil in situ poorly, because the
effects of fabric, aging and stress-strain history cannot
be considered appropriately (93).
c A number of testing devices have been developed to
deal with the wide range of strain levels that a soil may
be subjected to under different conditions ranging from
geophysical measurements to earthquake loading. High fre
quency apparatus, such as the resonant column test, have
been used to determine dynamic soil properties at low

/ *)
strains, ranging from 10 % to 10 %. On the other end of
-2
the spectrum, for strains ranging from 10 % to 1%, low
frequency devices, such as cyclic triaxial, simple shear,
and torsional shear equipment, have been used to simulate
earthquake loading conditions. Very few devices are capa
ble of providing dynamic soil properties for strain span
ning over these two strain ranges. A significant
23
improvement was accomplished by Kokusho (89), who developed
a cyclic triaxial apparatus for measuring modulus and damp
ing values of soils over a range of shear strains on the
order of 10"4% to 10- 1 %.
A summary of the potential shear strain ranges over
which each device can be used and the relative capabili
ties of each technique is presented in Figure 2.1. These
techniques are very often classified into two groups:
namely, dynamic properties tests and cyclic strength tests
(177). Dynamic properties tests are supposed to provide
soil properties (modulus and damping values) from which
the response of an embankment or a natural soil deposit to
a given dynamic loading time history can be calculated.
This analysis yields the time history of shear stresses
induced within the soil mass. The cyclic strength tests
are used to evaluate the ability of the soil to resist the
induced shear stresses. In the author's opinion and in
the light of Figure 2.1, the difference between dynamic
properties tests and cyclic strength tests is rather
artificial, since the variation of the so called dynamic
properties with strain amplitude simply reflects the gra
dual mobilization of the shearing resistance of the soil.
Consequently, uncoupling between the induced shear
stresses and the shear strength of the soil in the deposit
under consideration is not desirable.
S h e a r i n g strain amplitude (%)
1 0 -4 1 0 -3 1 0 ~2 10 r1
Resonant Column (Solid samples)

Resonant Column (Hollow samples)
Torsional Sheaf (Hollow samples)
Pulse methods Cyclic Triaxial
Cyclic simple shear
Shake Table
Typical Motion Characteristics

"wny
machine foundation
5SBW7S?
earthquake
sssi”
explosion
10~4 to-3 10—2 ■jo-1
a) S h e a r Strain R a n g e s
Shear Young's Material Cyclic Stress Attenuation

Modulus Modulus Damping Behavior
Resonant
Column X X X
with
adaptation X
Ultrasonic
Pulse X X X
Cyclic
Triaxial X X X
Cyclic
Simple X X X
Shear
Cyclic
Torsional X X X
Shear
Shake
Table X X
b) Property Capabilities
Figure 2.1 Laboratory Techniques for Measuring Dynami
Soil Properties (After Ref. 192).
25
The stresses induced in the ground by an earthquake
are considered to be due primarily to the upward propaga
tion of shear waves from the underling rock formation,
although other forms of wave motion are also likely to
occur. Consequently, during an earthquake, elements in a
soil deposit are subjected to a series of cyclic shear
stress applications, which in general involves changes not
only in magnitude but also in direction. Accordingly,
simple shear and torsional shear tests, in which horizon
tal shear stresses can be applied on the upper or lower
face of a specimen are now recognized as having superior
capabilities for determining soil behavior under earth
quake loading, including liquefaction phenomena
(30,69,75,140,173,192).
c
This chapter examines some of these laboratory test
ing techniques with emphases on the resonant column and
torsional shear tests. A new testing device, which is
considered to improve techniques for measuring the
response of granular soils (and of other soils) to a wide
range of cyclic loading conditions, was designed and built
(166) as a part of the research program already outlined
to assess the liquefaction potential of saturated sands
and silts. It combines the resonant column and torsional
shear tests into one apparatus, which permits the determi
nati on of dynamic soil properties over the whole range of
strains of engineering interest, along with a better
26
simulation of the stress paths associated with earthquake

L,
loadings. The description of this new equipment is
presented in Chapter 4.
2.1 The Resonant Column Test
The principle of this test is to determine the
dynamic properties of sands (and of other materials) from
observation of the steady-state response of a cylindrical
specimen subjected to forced vibrations. In general, the
frequency of the applied vibration is adjusted until reso
nance develops. Consequently, the frequency and dynamic
amplification factor at resonance can be correlated with
the stiffness and energy dissipating characteristics of
c the soil specimen.
It is clear that in order to excite and measure the
vibration of a system (soil specimen), it must be altered
by the attachment of the vibration excitation device and
the required transducers (56,62). Hence, the observed
vibration is not the response of the soil specimen alone
but of the system composed of the specimen and its
attached apparatus including end platens, O-rings, etc.
Consequently, the frequency response cannot be interpreted
solely in terms of specimen properties but the contribu
tion of all other elements in the system should be
accounted for (see Appendix A).
27
Either compression or torsional vibrations can be

V..
applied to the soil spec-imen. Accordingly, either Young's
modulus or shear modulus (and any corresponding damping)
can be determined from the observed response. However,
torsional vibration where shear waves are generated is by
far the most common (39). For small amplitude vibrations
of generally high frequency, the response of sand speci
mens is essentially elastic. Hence, the theory of propa
gation of waves (shear or compression) in elastic bars is
used to interpret the resonant column test results
(28,133,156). However, as the amplitude of vibration
increases, the stress— strain characteristics of sands
become nonlinear and inelastic. Accordingly, the theory
of elastic wave propagation alone is not sufficient to

c
model the stress-strain response; in this case, the energy
dissipating properties of the soil should be accounted for
(39,40,56,62).
A variety of resonant column test apparatus have been
developed using different boundary conditions to constrain
the specimen (39,56). Most of these apparatus can be
represented closely by the models shown in Figure 2.2.
Each configuration requires a slightly different driving
equipment and methods of data interpretation. The most
widely used is the fixed-free apparatus, in which the
vibration is applied, and the response is measured at the
top of a specimen (active-end platen), that is rigidly
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction r
MASS RIGIDLY CONNECTED TO PLATEN
PASSIVE END PLATEN
SOIL SPECIMEN
c)
ACTIVE END PLATEN
^-TORSIONAL SPRING
TORSIONAL DASHPOT
prohibited without perm ission.
PORTION OF VIBRATION EXCITATION DEVICE

RIGIDLY CONNECTED TO PLATEN
— LONGITUDINAL DASHPOT
LONGITUDINAL SPRING
Figure 2.2 Common Re s o na n t Column Boundary C o n d i t i o n s . a) F i x e d - F r e e ,

b) Fi xe d S p r i n g Top, and c ) F r e e - F r e e ( A f t e r Ref. 39 ).
S3
00
29
fixed at its base (passive— end platen). If a sinusoidal
driving torque is applied at the top of the specimen, the
distribution of angular rotation 6, along the fixed base
specimen is a 1/4 sine wave but adding a polar mass moment
of inertia at the top (Fig. 2.2a and 2.2b) the distri
bution of 6 along the specimen becomes nearly linear with
a node at the fixed end of the specimen (192). Conse
quently, most fixed-free models take advantage of end-mass
effects to obtain uniform strain distribution throughout
the length of the specimen. The top mass may also have
springs and dashpots attached to it (Fig. 2.2b). The pur
pose of the springs and dashpots is to account for
apparatus damping in all types of apparatus and to account
for springs which may be part of the excitation device.
These springs allow for application of anisotropic ambient
stresses or for supporting the top platen. However,
springs limit the strain amplitude capabilities of an
apparatus (39). If a single spring is used to restrain
the top of the specimen, the excitation device and the
active-end platen (without specimen in place) form a one-
degree-of-freedom system. This feature makes it con
venient for data reduction and apparatus calibration pur
poses. A new device of this type is described in detail
in Chapter 4 and in Appendix A.
In the spring-base model (Fig. 2.2c) the motion of
the system is excited at the base of the specimen and the
30
upper end is free except for the relatively rigid end pla
ten system. When the base spring is stiff compared to the
specimen, the mode of vibration at the lowest resonance is
wi th a node near the base of the specimen (56). On the
other hand, if the stiffness of the base spring is much
smaller than the stiffness of the specimen, and for rigid
masses at the ends which are approximately equal, the
lowest mode of vibration of the specimen at resonance (as
measured by a pickup at the top) is with a node at the
center and maximum amplitude at the ends (56,192). Sys
tems where neither end of the specimen is fixed are also
called "free-free" type of apparatus, which are advanta
geous for testing large size specimens which are unusually
stiff such as shales, rock, concrete, asphalt, cemented
soils, etc. (39,64). The rotation distribution for tor
sional vibrations will range from a 1/2 sine wave to
nearly linear depending on the size of the end masses
(192).
Although the response of the spring base model is
markedly changed by changing the base properties (bottom
mass and spring constant), the resonance ratio, defined by
the displacement amplitude at the top of the specimen
divided by the displacement amplitude at the base of the
specimen, is independent of these properties (56). Conse
quently, when testing a specimen the resonant frequency
and amplification factor can be found directly from the
31
frequency response curve by recording the amplitude ratio
of displacement (longitudinal or angular) at both ends of
the specimen, plotted as a function of excitation fre
quency. The driving force does not have to be known,
because it is divided out in the resonance ratio. There
is yet another advantageous feature of spring— base models.
The acceleration (or displacement) output at the base or
at the top of the specimen can serve as feedback for the
control of the vibrator to get a constant pre-selectable
input amplitude at any end of the specimen (64). In this
way, for measurements at low strain amplitudes, feedback
control can be used to ensure that the strain developed in
the specimen is limited.
c For measurements of shear modulus, G, torsional
vibrations are applied at the active end of the specimen.
Consequently, the direction of wave propagation is verti
cal and the direction of particle motion or dynamic shear
ing is tangential (198). Accordingly, the stress condi
tion in the torsional resonant column test is axially sym
metric and the associated stress and strain distributions
are analogous to the ones in cylindrical specimens sub
jected to static torsional loading. These corresponding
stress and strain distributions are reviewed in detail in
the section on torsional shear tests together with the
advantages and disadvantages of testing hollow cylinder
s pe ci me ns .
32
f In principle, torsional resonant column specimens

^ J r ' ' '
could be subjected to end restraint effects (also dis
cussed in section 2,4) since the end platens cannot be
lubricated in order to be able to transmit the desired
torque to the specimen. However, a study by Yu and
Richart (198) to evaluate the effect of end restraint on
the maximum shear modulus of sands, Gmax, showed that
these effects are negligible at small shear strain ampli-

—4
tudes ( y < 6x10 %). In their investigation, a specially
made top cap and base pedestal consisting of radial teeth
and greased membranes were used. The end restraint was
reduced because the total area of the teeth was only 36%
of the area of the end platen. However, no difference
c between the shear modulus values with the reduced end res
traint and the usual end restraint was observed. In Yu
and Richart^s opinion, results from resonant column tests
under both triaxial compression and extension conditions
also confirmed that the effect of end restraint on maximum
shear modulus of sands is not very large. It was expected
that the effects of end restraint using standard platens
on the tangential stress distribution under the triaxial
compression and extension conditions were opposite. How
ever, the difference between resonant column tests for two
different sands under both conditions was not significant.
The effects of end restraint may become significant as the
shear strain amplitude increases in a similar fashion as
/' discussed later on for torsional shear test specimens.

i
33
Opposite to end restraint effects, there is the prob

L
lem of coupling between the specimen and end platen for
transmitting the torque. The effect of slipping is to
give lower shear moduli and higher damping than actually
exist at a given shear strain amplitude (37). End platens
with rough surfaces are more appropriate than teethed pla
tens to ensure a uniform distribution of stresses in the
circumferential direction. However, the torque transmis
sion capacity of end platens without teeth is always lim
ited and may affect torsional resonant column test
results. Drnevich (37,39) developed a criterion based on
the mobilization of a minimum coefficient of friction of
0.2. Therefore, the maximum shear strain amplitude, Y,
that should be applied to a specimen with shear modulus,

(
G, is limited according with the expression
YG/o < 0.2 (2.1)

a
where a is the effective axial stress applied by the pla-

di
ten to the specimen. Drnevich (39) considers that the use
of porous disk of stone, metal or other material provide
sufficient roughness for most soils. However, these
porous stones should be rigidly fastened to the platens.
Resonant column tests can give very accurate shear
modulus results for shear strain amplitudes as low as

-4
10 %. The upper limit of shear strain amplitude can be
as high as 10~*% or even 1%, as far as proper
34
consideration is given to the nonlinear and inelastic
stress-strain characteristics of the soil at large shear
strain amplitudes (37). However, most typical results
have been reported for shear strain amplitudes ranging
from 1(T*% to 10~^% (22,88). In spite of different confi
gurations, all devices used for resonant column tests pro
duce relatively consistent results, when the hysteresis
loop model with equivalent shear modulus and damping ratio
is assumed for the stress-strain relationship of the
specimens (164,192). The response of sand specimens to
forced vibrations has been found to be similar to the
theoretical response of an equivalent uniform linearly
viscoelastic (Kelvin-Voigt model) specimen of the same
c mass "density and dimensions of the soil specimen, even
though the damping of sands is not of a viscous nature
(56,62). This comparison is illustrated in detail in
Appendix A. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the
Kelvin-Voigt model is inadequate to describe more compli
cated stress-strain behavior such as under undrained load
ing where simplification of the behavior in terms of an -
equivalent secant shear modulus and hysteretic damping
ratio is not appropriate. Results from resonant column
tests have been found to be also consistent with results
from other cyclic tests, especially cyclic torsional shear
tests (8 8 ).
35
In the past, one of the main advantages of the
resonant column test was considered to be the low shear
strain levels that can be applied to a specimen
corresponding to those produced in geophysical tests in
situ (136,177). Conceptually, it has been considered that
elastic wave velocities should respond to minor changes in
soil structure or fabric (29). This feature supposedly
makes the resonant column test especially powerful for
investigating the effects of specimen disturbance, remold
ing, etc., in cases where "undisturbed" sampling is
attempted (38,177). When working with reconstituted speci
mens, the measurement of elastic wave velocities by means
of resonant column tests has been recommended to investi
gate the effects of factors such as anisotropic states of

c. stress, stress-strain history and aging on the stress-
deformation and damping characteristics of sands
(36,38,39). These effects are reflected in the sand
structure since they affect the predominant grain orienta
tion or the conditions at the grain contacts. It has also
been considered that the measurement of maximum shear
modulus, 6 , by resonant column tests also allows one to

* max J
judge if laboratory specimens have been replicated, or to
examine to what extent they have been reconstituted to an
"equivalent fabric" which exhibits a shear modulus in
agreement with the values determined from in situ seismic
techniques (29). Nevertheless, tests results are
presented in Chapter 5, which show that G is not very

r max
36
r sensitive to drastic changes in fabric resulting from high
consolidation stress ratios or prior strain histories
involving large strains. Moreover, in the author's opin
ion some judgement should be exercised when evaluating
stress-history effects by means of resonant column tests
since the measurement of G in the resonant column test
implies the application of a considerable number of
cycles. It is not clear yet at which shear strain level
the stress-strain characteristics of sands change as a
function of the number of cycles. Consequently, at rela
tively large shear strain levels, resonant column test may
override any prior stress-strain history effects.
As the resonant column test equipment can be designed
for independent measurement of the shear and Young's
moduli, values of Poisson's ratio can be calculated, or
inherent anisotropy evaluated to some extent, from the
test data. As summarized by Wood (192), modifications to
the resonant column test would include random vibrations
in addition to sinusoidal vibrations and the measurement
of attenuation as a function of frequency. This may be
very important to study further the effect of frequency on
shear modulus and damping of sands and of other soils.
The latest developments in resonant column testing have
been recently reviewed by Drnevich (39), together with a
comprehensive discussion on the effects of "fixity" condi
tions in fixed-free apparatus on the measured modulus and
C damping values.
37
^ 2.2 The Triaxial Test
The cyclic triaxial test has been used since the mid
dle 1960's (103>148) and in spite of its limitations as
discussed later on, it is still the most widely used
laboratory method of determining dynamic properties and of
evaluating liquefaction characteristics of cohesionless
soils. In common practice, cylindrical specimens consoli
dated either isotropically or anisotropically are sub
jected to a cyclic variation in the axial stress, which is
intended to simulate the cyclic shear stresses experienced
by an element of soil in the field during an earthquake.
The validity of this simulation is discussed later in this
chapter and also in Chapter 3.
c The resulting stress conditions on soil specimens in
the triaxial test are illustrated in Figure 2.3. It is
evident that the applied boundary stresses, that is, the
radial and- axial stresses, correspond to principal
stresses. Under isotropic consolidation, the major prin
cipal stress, o^, acts alternately in the vertical and
horizontal directions, depending on whether the compres
sion or the extension portion of the loading cycle is
applied. It is to be noted that to prevent the top platen
from being lifted from the specimen the maximum reduction
in the axial stress cannot exceed the effective consolida
tion pressure. As the compressive portion of the loading
cycle, Ao is applied, the maximum shear stress, + t ,

cy
38
c.
ct^ A ct <t 'c-A<t

i
o-U ©
T
T,q Total stress path
A ct
- A ct
a) lsotropically consolidated
rV 1C
3c
T,q T Total stress path

+A<r
<D
max
/ consolidation
(0*a)min state
-AC ACT
b) Anisotropically consolidated
Figure 2.3 Stress Components in Cyclic Triaxial Tests
Spec ime ns.
R eproduced with
perm ission o „ P e copyrigm owner. Pu rth er reproduction p r o v e d w ith o u t perm ission.
39
which develops on a 45° plane in the specimen, is equal to

L
Ac^/2, On the other hand, during application of the
extension portion of the loading cycle, Ao^ the shear
stress on any plane reverses and the maximum shear stress
then equals AoE /2. Since Aoc and Ao^, are usually equal in
magnitude (Aa in Fig, 2,3), a symmetrically reversing
shear stress condition is' obtained.
Under anisotropic consolidation, the orientation of
the major principal stress depends on the relative magni
tude of the cyclic deviator stress, Ao, with respect to
the consolidation deviator stress, a, ( o , = o, -c_ ). If

a c ac 1c ic
Aa is smaller than the major principal sisress acts in
the vertical direction throughout the loading sequence.
C However, in cases where A a is larger than o<jc » the net
axial stress acting on the specimen will become less than
the radial or lateral stress during a portion of the load
ing cycle. Accordingly, in this case the directions of
the principal stresses are temporarily reversed. It is
clear that under anisotropic consolidation, the variation
in the shear stress on any plane is non-symmetric
throughout the cyclic loading.
From either elasticity or plasticity theories, the
circumferential stress, which corresponds to the inter
mediate principal stress, , is found to be equal to the
confining pressure, provided there are no end restraining
effects (198). Accordingly, during the compression
40
portion of the loading cycle the intermediate principal
stress is equal to the minor principal stress, • On the
other hand, when the extension portion of each cycle is
applied the intermediate principal stress becomes equal to
. This is an unfavorable feature of the cyclic triaxial
test, which produces undesirable effects especially under
undrained loading. It is well established that the pore
pressures generated during axial compression and axial
extension under the same deviator stress are different,
even in the case of a soil with no inherent anisotropy.
This is attributed to the influence of the intermediate
principal stress, since the octahedral shear stresses are
different during the corresponding compression and exten
C sion portions of each cycle, which results in different
pore water pressures.
In common with other testing apparatus, end restraint
effects develop in cyclic triaxial test specimens
(107,140). These end effects are associated with radial
forces due to frictional restraint and stiffness of the
rigid platens used at the top and the bottom of the speci
men. The radial frictional forces are always present if
the specimen tends to contract or expand due to volume
changes or when there is a change in length at constant
volume during the triaxial test. The most noticeable
consequences of those unwanted end effects are the
development of non-uniform stress distributions and
41
bulging of Che specimen aC large axial strains. In addi

L
tion Co radial shear scresses (and hence complementary
shear scresses on circumferential surfaces), end restraint
effects produce changes in the distribution of the axial,
radial and circumferential normal stresses, which depend
on the constitutive law of the soil. Under these condi
tions, even the radial stress may not be uniformly distri
buted across the triaxial cylinder. The influence of end
restraint is more significant for brittle materials
because of the potential occurrence of progressive
f al lur e.
The most undesirable result of non-uniformities of
strains in a triaxial specimen is that the pore water

f
V pressure migrates within the specimen as different strains
induce different volume change tendencies, producing a
significant redistribution of water content or void ratio
throughout the specimen which increases with the shear
strain amplitude (14,15,53). Sands which are medium dense
or dense exhibit a tendency to contract under small shear
strains and to increase in volume substantially under
large shear strains. Consequently, if during an undrained
test a portion of the specimen is subjected to small shear
strains while another is developing large shear strains,
this latter part of the specimen will become looser at the
expense of the compaction of the other part (14).
42
Under cyclic loading, redistribution of water content

u
is further increased by the switching of loading from the
compression to the extension side. As the cyclic strain
amplitude increases, it has been observed that the axial
strains develop manly in a narrow zone at the top of the
specimen in the form of bulging during compression and
necking during the extension portion of the cycle. In
some cases, it is considered that even a water layer can
be observed at the top of the specimen when it is cycled
through the hydrostatic state of stress (14). Based on
these observations, Castro (14) and Casagrande (13) have
concluded that there is a "pumping action" of the vertical
cyclic forces which seems to draw water to the top of the
^ specimen in the instance of cycling through the hydros
tatic state of stress. This action combined with the
effects of non-uniform distribution of stresses on the
boundaries causes redistribution of water content and
softening of the top of the specimen. It is clear that If
there is a significant redistribution of water content,
both the recorded pore pressure and the axial strains dur
ing cyclic triaxial tests cannot be attributed to the
behavior of a uniformly strained specimen but in great
proportion to the looser layer which forms at the top of
the specimen. Accordingly, the results of such tests
would greatly underestimate the ability of sands to with
stand cyclic loading, especially in case of dense sands.
43
( Non-uniform distribution of strains and the resulting
redistribution of water content is a limitation that to
some extent is common to all cyclic shear tests. However,
the reasons for the "pumping” mechanism are not clear yet.
As discussed in Chapter 3, high pore water pressures may
develop in cyclic shear tests at the moment the deviator
stress is zero and in some cases they may equal the
applied confining pressure. Accordingly, at this stage
the effective stress acting on the specimen is zero. In a
sense this is only true at the top of the specimen. At
the bottom of the specimen the sand is subjected to the
weight of the overlying sand. Therefore, when the axial
load is reapplied, it is reasonable to expect strain con-
^ centration to take place at the top of the specimen. The
same effects, although to a limited extent, have been
recognized in other cyclic shear tests (174). However, if
the "pumping" effect and hence the development of a looser
layer at the top were due to the effect of the weight of
the specimen under low levels of effective confining
stresses, they would be likely to develop in other cyclic
test specimens. However, in torsional shear test and sim
ple shear test specimens, the greatest loosening of the
sand has been found to develop in the middle plane and not
at the top of the specimen (13). On the contrary, as
reported by Casagranae (13), these specimens were found to
develop compacted zones adjacent to the cap and the base.
Consequently, it is very likely that the concentration of
44
strains at the top of the specimen is peculiar to the
cyclic triaxial test, associated mainly with necking of
the specimen under axial extension. Of course, this con
dition is not characteristic of field conditions, and
hence, cyclic triaxial tests will exaggerate the cyclic
deformations that might develop in the field.
Lubricated end platens can be used to reduce end res
traint effects and hence to improve the uniformity of
strains in triaxial test specimens (140). Lubrication is
readily provided by means of a combination of rubber
sheets and lubricating silicone grease between them, which
are placed between the specimen and the surface of the
platens. Sometimes a short porous dowel is used at the
center of the platens to avoid side-slipping of the speci
men. This arrangement permits more uniform strain condi
tions to develop throughout the length of the specimen.
Consequently, the assumption of equal radial and tangen
tial strains may be valid for lubricated platens but
largely inadmissible for specimens tested with rough pla
tens. In the latter case, quasi— rigid zones form at both
ends of the specimen producing non-uniform strain condi
tions throughout the specimens (140). Since lubrication
results on a much more uniform strain pattern, it will be
reflected in more uniform volume changes and crushing of
particles under drained shearing or more uniform pore
water pressures in undrained tests. In general, a
i significant increase in strength may be observed in tests
with lubricated ends as compared with tests using regular
ends, due perhaps to the fact that the uniform distribution
of strains reduced the possibility of a single failure
plane (140). However, it should be noted that lubricated
ends reduce but they do not eliminate the problem of neck
ing under axial extension.
The cyclic triaxial test can be used to determine
dynamic soil properties (Young's modulus and damping
ratio), or cyclic undrained strength. In the first case,
the Young's modulus, E, and the axial strain, e3> , are usu-
ally converted to values of the shear modulus, G, and the
single amplitude shear strain, y, by using the elasticity
C theory relationships (89,128). However, shear strain

_2
measurements below about 10 Z are in general difficult to
achieve with cyclic triaxial test apparatus. The results
of cyclic triaxial tests for determining undrained
strength are usually presented in the form of time his
tories of the pore water pressure and the axial strain.
The cyclic undrained strength is then expressed as the
relationship between the cyclic stress ratio and the
number of cycles required to induce liquefaction or a cer
tain level of axial strain. The cyclic stress ratio is
defined as the amplitude of the cyclic deviator stress,
Ao, divided by twice the initial confining pressure. In
spite of all the problems discussed above, Seed (145)
46
insists that carefully conducted cyclic triaxial tests can
provided "valid" data up to the development of pore pres
sure ratios of 100% and strains on the order of about 5%
for dense specimens or 20% for loose specimens. This view
is not shared by other investigators (13,14,15).
2.3 The Simple Shear Test
Among the available cyclic strength tests, the simple
shear test is considered to simulate most closely the
stress conditions to which soil elements in a horizontal
deposit under level ground are subjected during an earth
quake. Under level ground conditions, which can be
approximately modeled by a half-space, lateral expansion
c or contraction of the soil elements in the horizontal
direction cannot occur. Consequently, under the
earthquake-induced shear stresses, the soil elements
undergo shear deformations but without change in the cross
section perpendicular to the direction of shear wave pro
pagation. In the simple shear test, a cyclic horizontal
shear stress, Tv k» applied'at the top or bottom of a
specimen which is constrained laterally, after consolidat-
ing it under an initial vertical stress, o^.
Two main types of simple shear apparatus have been
developed which use slightly different conditions to con
strain the specimen. They are commonly identified as the
Roscoe device and the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute
47
(NGI) device, respectively (140,177). The Roscoe-type
apparatus uses a square specimen placed within a box with
hinged edges, whereas the NGI device uses a cylindrical
specimen which is restricted from deforming laterally by
thin wires embedded in a rubber membrane. It is evident
that in both configurations K conditions are intended to

o
develop during consolidation under the static vertical
*
stress, <?v , whereas the specimen is able to undergo shear
deformations without change in the cross section upon
applying the cyclic horizontal shear stress,
Nevertheless, it should be noted that a slight lateral
expansion of the membrane in the NGI— type apparatus could
result in the specimen attaining an active stress state.
In general, neither apparatus permits control of the
lateral stress, o^.
Under the idealized earthquake loading conditions,
soil elements are considered to be subjected to reversing
shear stresses on both horizontal and vertical planes.
However, it is evident that complementary shear stresses
cannot develop on the vertical boundaries of the NGI-type
specimen, whereas in the Roscoe-type apparatus, the hinged
rigid surfaces are supposed to provide the necessary boun
dary stresses. Accordingly, in either case there is an
inherent difficulty to apply the desired shear stresses to
the specimen. This limitation leads in the first place to
a non-uniform distribution of shear stresses on the
48
c surfaces of the specimen, which in turn affect the distri
bution of normal vertical and horizontal stresses in order
to maintain equilibrium (140). In this connection, it is
easy to infer that especially in the case of the NGI-type
device the resultant of the vertical force on the upper
and lower faces of the specimen must form a couple in
order to balance the moment produced by the shearing
forces and hence the vertical normal stresses are unlikely
to be uniformly distributed.
Comprehensive series of studies, both theoretical and
experimental, have been performed to study the distribu
tion of stresses in simple shear test specimens, both
square and circular ones. These studies have been
c reviewed in detail by Saada et al. (140).
have shown that in order to satisfy the assumed boundary

Such studies
conditions (no lateral deformation), the stress distribu
tions on the faces of the specimen should be as illus
trated in Figure 2.4. These results confirm the non
uniformities and high concentration of stresses. However,
it should be noted that to maintain equilibrium and to
satisfy the plane strain condition the solutions involve
the existence of tensile and compressive stresses at the
end platens and on the sides of the specimen. It is phy
sically impossible that these boundary stresses could be
applied by the hinged sides of the Roscoe device or any
reinforced membrane. Consequently, it is difficult to
1.2
0.8
X= 0.2
-------------X= 0.5
0.4
RATIO
STRESS
0.4
0 .8f-
1.2b
0.25 0.50 0.75
X/ 1
t = average shear stress
Figure 2.4 Theoretical Stresses on the Boundaries of a

Square Simple Shear Specimen (After Ref. 140)
50
justify the assumption of perfect plane strain since it
requires boundary conditions that no device can physically
apply. However, it is important to note that these solu
tions suggest that stress non-uniformities are less severe
in the square specimen than in the circular one. In the
latter case, even significant shear stresses in the direc
tion normal to that in which the shearing force is applied
must develop, which further precludes the development of a
plane strain condition.
On the other hand, both shear strains and volumetric
strains in soils may result from either shear or normal
stresses and vice versa. Therefore, the volumetric
strains resulting from non-uniform shear stresses will
also be non-uniform; and since the top platen through
which the vertical stress is applied is rigid, an addi
tional non-uniform and unknown redistribution of vertical
normal stresses will take place in response to this ten
dency for volume changes (140,192). Since the thickness
of the specimen is generally less than 1/3 of the size of
the loading plate, significant end restraint effects may
develop even without an applied shear stress (138,140).
Furthermore, additional changes in the normal stresses may
occur as shearing progresses, especially associated with
the fact that the horizontal direction is a zero-extension
direction (no lateral deformation) and additional couples
are applied by the normal vertical stresses because of
increasing eccentricity. Consequently, even though the
' W
specimen is subjected to a "simple shear" state of strain,
the resulting state of stress throughout the specimen is
not simple but very complex. Nevertheless, measurements
of strain distributions show relatively high uniformity
(113). Therefore, a "uniform" state of strain does not
necessarily imply a uniform state of stress (140). Nei
ther the vertical normal stress nor the applied shear
stresses can be uniformly distributed. Obviously, the
non-uniformities increase with increasing shear deforma
tion. These features make it very difficult to make an
appropriate interpretation of simple shear test results.
According to Saada et al. (140), simple shear tests cannot
^ yield either reliable stress— strain relations or absolute
failure values.
In spite of the limitations just discussed, the
author finds some positive features in the simple shear
test. First of all, it is easy to develop K q conditions
prior to the application of the cyclic shear stress.
Therefore, it permits to study the effects of prior stress
history under plane strain conditions on the cyclic
behavior of sands, and hence to establish a relationship
between the overconsolidation ratio, OCR, and liquefaction
resistance (6,145). When working with dry specimens, it
provides volume change measurements to a degree of preci
sion which is rather difficult to obtain with any other
52
cyclic shear test apparatus. These measurements can be
used to predict settlements due to earthquake loading in
deposits under level ground. Constant volume simple shear
tests have been performed by locking the loading head at a
fixed vertical position. The tendency of a dry sand
specimen to compact during shaking causes a progressive
reduction in the vertical pressure on the loading head.
The reduction in the average vertical stress is assumed to
be equivalent to the increase in pore water pressure in a
corresponding undrained test (46,140). However, in view
of the foregoing discussion it is difficult to ensure that
the pore water pressure, if uniform, is equal to the
reduction in the average vertical stress. Moreover,
results from simple shear tests performed by Saada et a l .
(139) clearly indicate that the reduction in vertical
stress in a constant volume test does not equal the
increase in pore pressure at the same shear strain in a
corresponding undrained test.
The deformations imposed on a simple shear specimen
simulates the deformations thought to occur for example at
the bottom of a circular rupture surface. Accordingly,
the ability to produce a horizontal rupture layer in a
cylindrical or square specimen makes it an excellent tool
for evaluating the influence of anisotropy on the shear
strength of soils (5). In principle, the test could be
used to investigate the effect of rotation of the planes
53
of principal stress. However, studies have concluded that

( ..J
the fixed no-extension condition in the horizontal direc
tion severely limits the actual rotation of the direction
of the major principal stress within the specimen during
straining (5,111). To overcome this limitation, Arthur et
al. (4,5) developed a directional shear cell, in which a
cube is subjected to normal and shearing stresses on four
of its faces while the others are not allowed to deform.
This device has some common features with torsional shear
test apparatus which are discussed later on.
Simple shear tests can be used to determine
equivalent dynamic properties (shear modulus and damping),
a case in which the tests are usually run on dry speci
( mens, and to evaluate cyclic undrained strength, which is
expressed in terms of the ratio between the peak alternat
ing shear stress, t and the initial vertical stress,

^ *»
o . The plot of stress ratio, x , versus the number
vo vh vo’
of cycles to induce liquefaction or a given level of shear
strain, constitutes the liquefaction resistance curve.
However, the non-uniform stress and strain conditions may
produce significant redistribution of water content, thus
affecting the development of pore water pressures.
Accordingly, it is generally considered that the simple
shear test may give an underestimate of the cyclic
undrained strength of sands, especially in the case of
dense sands (15,173).
54
In the early studies, it was found that the resis
tance to liquefaction under simple shear conditions was
smaller than the resistance under analogous conditions in
cyclic triaxial test apparatus (129). This discrepancy
was attributed in the first place to the complex non-
uniform distribution of stresses and strains within the
simple shear test specimen. Among other reasons given for
explaining the difference between the cyclic triaxial and
simple shear strengths were that the orientation and rota
tion of the principal stresses, the relative magnitude of
and the lateral constraint in the two specimens were
different (75). However, Finn et a l . (50) pointed out
that if the cyclic stress ratio in the simple shear test
is defined as the ratio of the peak cyclic shear stress,

(
Tv k> to the initial mean confining stress, o^, approxi
mately equal liquefaction resistance curves are defined
from both tests. The initial mean confining stress, o ,

ni
is related to the vertical stress by the expression
1+2 K
a = =-- 2. a ( 2 .2 )
m 3 v
where Kq is the coefficient of earth pressure at rest.
Therefore, if
<2.3)
o 2o
m c
55
It follows that
x . 1+2 K .
5— - (2.4)
2 »c
Accordingly, it was concluded that the cyclic triax

ial undrained strength had to be corrected in order to
obtain the corresponding plane strain strength, which from
the simple shear test is obtained in terms of the ratio,
t ,/a , where., a would correspond to the effective

vh vo vo
overburden pressure at a given depth within a sand deposit
under level ground. Good agreement in terms of shear
modulus and damping ratio values was also found by Park et
al. (128), when the values obtained from the two tests
*
were compared at the same mean confining stress, a .
m
Nevertheless, in the author's opinion, the difference
in results from cyclic triaxial tests and simple shear
tests cannot be just a matter of definition of the cyclic
stress ratio as discussed in the last section of this
chapter and in Chapter 3. On the other hand, it has been
shown conclusively that in a short cylinder specimen such
as the NGI-type specimen, the end restraint effects may be
significant and therefore the radial and circumferential
stresses are likely to be different (138,139). The end
effects are attributed to the roughness of the platens and
to expansion of the membrane when the specimen is sub
jected to axial load. Consequently, if the results from
56
( triaxial and simple shear tests agree by normalizing with

^— '' *
respect to o , it is perhaps just as matter of coincidence
m
since the actual stresses acting inside the specimen may
be far from the values implied by E q . 2.2. In this con
nection, it is worth mentioning that in a comprehensive
study by Tatsuaka et al. (175) by means of cyclic triaxial
and torsional shear tests, it was found that the relation
ship between the cyclic triaxial strength and the plane
strain strength is not only a function of the coefficient
of earth pressure at rest, Kq , but also of at-least the
type of sand and the method of specimen preparation.
In an effort to eliminate the boundary effects asso
ciated with tests on small-scale simple shear test speci
es mens of sands, test equipment utilizing a shaking table as
a means of inducing cyclic shear stresses on large-scale
specimens under simple shear conditions have been
developed (30,1J51). By using specimens with a large
length/height ratio it is possible to minimize the effects
of lack of complementary stresses at the ends of the
specimen. The boundary effects are not completely elim
inated and therefore the results of actual tests are
influenced by the dimension of the specimen and by the
stiffness of the specimen container in case the specimen
is in contact with the walls of the container. The boun
dary conditions should be clearly and properly defined if
meaningful data are to be obtained from shaking table stu
dies.
57
^ When working with specimens with large surface areas,
a major difficulty arises because of penetration of the
membrane between sand grains (30,192). This is the case
with large-scale specimens with a large length/height
ratio. A small penetration may permit significant volume
changes to develop in response to pore water pressure
changes, thereby altering the behavior of saturated speci
mens. Consequently, consideration should be given to
these effects and corrections are required in order to
obtain accurate results.
The large-scale shaking table tests performed by De
Alba et al. (30) were considered to provide more accurate
data, on the development of shear strains in denser speci
es mens after initial liquefaction and on the behavior of
dense sands at relatively high stress ratios, than previ
ously obtained from cyclic triaxial tests. Contrary to
what could be expected, De Alba et al. (30) found a very
good agreement between the results obtained using the
shaking table and those obtained in simple shear tests on
small specimens. Based on these results, it has been con
cluded that the errors due to stress concentrations in the
small-scale tests may not be as large as has often been
claimed or they are counterbalanced by some other feature
of the tests (30,145,192). In view of these findings, it
becomes very difficult to question the value of the test
to simulate simple shear field conditions in spite of the
58
internal complexities and uncertainties previously dis
cussed •
2.4 The Torsional Shear Test
Among all the cyclic strength tests, the torsional
shear test on solid and hollow cylinder specimens allows
for reproducing the most general stress conditions. A
torque is reversed and cycled to simulate earthquake load
ings and the resulting rotation of the planes of principal
stress. The torque develops shear stresses on horizontal
planes and complementary shear stresses also develop
automatically on vertical radial planes. By applying this
torque along with the confining pressure and the axial
load, nearly any desired combination of ambient principal
stresses or stress path may be produced in the specimen
(52,65,97,140,169,181,182), particularly if different
internal and external pressures are applied to a hollow
specimen (65,66). Another major advantage of the tor
sional shear test is that the circular shape and the cir
cumferential direction of shearing ensures under torsion a
condition of pure shear and makes it possible to duplicate
in the laboratory the large strains which occur in situ,
for example during liquefaction failures (14,30,59).
On a solid cylindrical column of soil subjected to
torsional loading, the shear strains range from zero at
the center of the specimen to a maximum at the outside
59
c radius; Che resulting variation in shear stresses will
depend upon the stress-strain properties of the tested
specimen. This was pointed out early as a major disadvan
tage of this type of test (140,192). However, it has been
shown that the effects are not always significant
(38,75,88), especially in the case of drained tests. The
relationship between the average shear stress and the
applied torque does not differ appreciably (about 11% at
most) , whether a linear variation of shear stresses (elas
tic model) or a uniform shear stress distribution (rigid
plastic model) is assumed. The most correct relation
between torque and shear stress is non-linear and shear
strain dependent, lying between the two extremes.
c The non-uniformities produced by the applied torque
can be reduced if a hollow cylinder is used. For
liquefaction studies of sands, the use of hollow specimens
is advantageous because pore pressure gradients are
reduced (59). The use of hollow specimens poses, however,
some difficulties regarding specimen preparation, espe
cially for testing "undisturbed" cohesionless soils
(140,192). Moreover, when hollow cylinders are used, mem
brane penetration effects are much more severe since the
ratio of the specimen surface in contact with the membrane
to the volume of the specimen is about five times that of
a solid cylinder specimen (39).
60
Figure 2.5 shows Che stress components in hollow tor
sional shear test specimens. It is evident that the
stress condition is axially symmetric and that six
independent stresses must be specified to completely
define the state of stress. The axial stress, a , the

z
radial stress, a , and the shear stress, t fi, correspond
IT ZO
to the applied boundary stresses. Since the confining
pressure, , acts through flexible membranes, there are
no shear stresses on vertical circumferential surfaces.
Accordingly, t^ z and Tr g are equal to zero and hence the
radial stress, o ^ , is a principal stress. Consequently, in
addition to the distribution of the shear stress, t q, the

Z0
only unknown is the circumferential stress, Og, which is
c the normal stress in the direction of particle shear
deformation. This stress can be determined by considering
force equilibrium along the radial direction. The magni
tude and direction of the major and minor principal
stresses, which act on the circumferential plane, are
determined from the magnitude of shear, axial and circum
ferential stresses. The orientation of and can be
maintained or rotated, if desired, during the test. The
radial stress corresponds to the intermediate principal
stress, w2 • A comprehensive discussion on stress and
strain components and the corresponding distributions
across the cylinder wall is presented in Appendix B.
61
K.J
a\ *■ r
Tze
Oz
Tzi
Tez
<Tr
a) A pplied B o u n d a r y b) S t r e s s e s on an
S tresses
C E le m e n t in the Wall
Q - a n g le b e tw e e n
T O i d ire c tio n
Pole
an d z a x is
Z0
OS
ez
c) M o h r's C ircle D ia g r a m
Figure 2.5 Stress Components in Hollow Torsional Shear

Test Specimens.
62
Assuming linearly elastic isotropic properties, and
for the case of equal internal and external pressure, the
radial and circumferential stresses turn out to be equal
and uniformly distributed across the wall thickness of the
test specimen, irrespective of the applied shear stress,
provided there are no end effects (140). However, the
non-uniform distribution of shear stresses ( t q) causes

Z O
different tendencies for volumetric strains across the
wall of the specimen. Consequently, at larger strains,
non-uniform distribution of axial, radial and circumferen
tial stresses may also be induced. Even on an isotropic
material, the radial stress need not be constant and equal
to the circumferential stress when a torque is applied.
Only the average values of these stresses, "or and "5q, are
equal. The actual distributions of these stresses depend
on the specimen geometry and the stress-strain properties
of the soil. For anisotropic materials, stress non
uniformities might arise, even without an applied torque
(6 6 ). By adopting a specimen geometry with large outer
radius and thin wall, the shear stress gradient can be
substantially reduced and with it the non-uniformities in
the distribution of normal stresses across the cylinder
wall.
If the internal and external pressures are different,
the radial and circumferential stresses are not equal in
any case. This testing procedure can be used to control
63
Independently the effects of changes in the magnitude and

c
orientation of the major and minor principal stresses and
relative changes in the value of the intermediate princi
pal stress, but at the expense of additional non
uniformities in the stress distributions (65,66).
In the torsional shear test the distribution of shear
strains is approximately the same at all the cross sec
tions along the height of the specimen. Minor deviations
from these "uniform" patterns have been attributed to the
effect of the weight of the specimen under low levels of
confining stresses (174). Consequently, the specimen
deformation is not concentrated on one narrow band except,
possibly, when failure develops. Actual specimens often
c show a number of shear planes or a continuous spiral shear
zone after the peak shear stress has been reached (52,66).
This is certainly a major advantage for investigating the
post-peak behavior. For example, drained torsional shear
tests on dense sand specimens may result in strain soften
ing behavior starting at much larger strains than in
corresponding triaxial tests, probably because a large
portion of the specimen in the torsional shear test
approaches failure simultaneously, in comparison with a
failure along a single plane in the triaxial test.
However, it is not to be concluded that a hollow
specimen can be considered completely free from stress
concentration problems, as has been suggested elsewhere
64
(173). Because of the tendency of the sand to dilate when

c
shear stresses are applied* it is likely that radial shear
stresses are induced at both ends of the specimen due to
the end restraints and stiffness of the platens. Comple
m e n ta ry shear stresses on circumferential surfaces also
develop and the intermediate principal stress rotates out
of the horizontal direction. These shear stresses produce
changes in the circumferential stress and induce bending
moments which affect the distribution of vertical normal
stresses (52*65*97,140). The magnitude of stress changes
due to end restraints depends on the stress-strain proper
ties and geometry of the tested specimen* and on the com
bination of applied loads. However, as the induced shear
stresses decrease with distance from the ends of the

(
specimen (St. Venant's principle), the central part of a
properly proportioned hollow specimens considered to be
relatively free of such effects (65,97,140,192). There
fore, it would be more meaningful for interpreting the
test results to measure the deformations by sensors
located within the central part of the specimen (65,168).
The torsional shear test has been shown to be a valu
able tool for investigating the behavior of soil specimens
under a wide range of loading conditions. A variety of
stress conditions can be reproduced on torsional shear
test specimens with no restraint on their strain response
other than those resulting from specimen shape and end
65
restraints, and both can be reduced to acceptable limits
with a properly selected specimen geometry (66).
Undrained plane strain conditions can be developed by
preventing any change in the volume of the cell water or
by fixing the length of the specimen. In the first case,
the cross-sectional area of the vertical loading piston
should be the same as that of the hollow cylinder specimen
(75,81,175). Torsional shear test apparatus can be used
in fundamental investigations of anisotropy and principal
stress rotations in sands and clays. It is well esta
blished that to study anisotropy, it is better to keep
specimens along the axes of symmetry and incline the prin
cipal stresses in order to obtain meaningful strain meas
urements (139,140). Continuous rotation of principal
stress directions appears to have an important role in
properly simulating the stress paths which are follow,
e.g. by elements beneath ocean structures (83,181,182).
The particular advantages of the torsional shear test for
evaluating liquefaction potential are discussed in the
next section. Stress non-uniformities and end restraints
obviously become larger as failure is approached and their
influence must be considered in interpreting the test
results. For example, uncertainty in the value of the
mobilized friction angle, , can arise when failure is
approached and the specimen shows a tendency to bulge.
Under these conditions, the circumferential stress cannot
be assumed to be equal to the confining pressure because
66
/
of Che development of radial shear stresses due to end
L.
restraint effects (see discussion In Appendix B ) .
2.5 Prediction of Soil Liquefaction
Limitations of the cyclic triaxial test and differ
ences between predictions of liquefaction potential
obtained from it versus those obtained from cyclic simple
shear or torsional shear tests have long been recognized
(13,14,145,192). However, several additional effects have
not been fully or explicitly recognized when comparing
results of liquefaction tests from cyclic triaxial and
torsional shear tests.
The stress-strain characteristics of sands change
with the direction of loading reflecting the effect of
inherent anisotropy developed during deposition or as a
result of the stress-strain history of the deposit
(4,118,120,125,127,16-9). For example, ample experimental
evidence has shown that specimens prepared by the method
of pluviation through water or air are more compressible
laterally than vertically (78,119,125). In the triaxial
test specimen, the principal stresses are respectively
perpendicular and parallel to the direction of the assumed
bedding planes. On the contrary, in the torsional shear
specimen, the axis of the major principal stress changes
its orientation from +a t»/ -a from the vertical (Fig.
2.5c), in the course of reversing the shear stress from
67
clockwise to counterclockwise (181). Therefore, it is
important to recognize that in the torsional shear test,
the orientation of the major principal stress relative to
the planes of anisotropy is similar in each half of the
loading cycle. ' From this point of view the response of
the specimen is expected ‘to be the same whether it is
rotated right or left. This is not the case in the triax
ial test, in which the cyclic load alternately induces
axial compression and extension in the specimen. These
two phases of each cycle produce different results in the
great majority of cyclic triaxial tests. Accordingly,
hysteresis loops are not symmetric in strain-controlled
tests whereas larger deformations are observed in exten
sion than in compression in stress controlled tests, which

c
increase the tendency to neck.
Another aspect which is more conveniently simulated
by the torsional shear test than by the triaxial test is
the magnitude of the rotation of the principal stresses.
Figure 2.6 presents the relationship between the initial
(K ) state of stress, the applied shear stress ( t , ), and

o vn
the magnitude of the rotation of the principal stresses
for a soil element in situ assuming vertically propagating
shear waves during an earthquake. It is evident that the
magnitude of such rotation decreases as the existing in
situ shear stress increases, especially if the applied
shear stress ratio is not very large. This is of major
68
V. /
ov
Pole
J vh
cr
wo
50"
Ko-1.0
OF ROTATION, Gt (degress)
0.90
40"
0.75
0.5
20 "
ANGLE
10- -
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
APPLIED SHEAR STRESS RATIO, Tvh/<7$0
Figure 2.6 Rotation of Principal Stresses in a Soil

Element In Situ during an Earthquake.
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright owner. F urth er reproduction prohibited w itho ut perm ission.
69
significance when investigating the effect of inherent
anisotropy or of changes in fabric due to the rotation of
principal stresses. It is also relevant for evaluating the
effects of the initial state of stress and cyclic stress
histories on liquefaction potential. In the cyclic triax
ial test, changes in major principal stress directions are
restricted to sudden jumps of 90°, whereas in the tor
sional shear test the planes of principal stress gradually
rotate as the applied shear stress increases (Fig. 2.5c),
resembling the rotation that occurs in situ as depicted in
Figure 2.6.
In the cyclic triaxial test, both the maximum conso
lidation shear stress, if any, and the maximum cyclic
shear stress are applied on the same 45° planes, whereas
in the field they usually act on different planes. It is
evident that the latter is the case in the torsional shear
test. Moreover, in the cyclic triaxial test, the maximum
shear stress is reduced below the initial consolidation
value periodically during each cycle, while in most field
situations static shear stresses are sustained due to the
need of maintaining equilibrium of shear stresses imposed
by geometry. Therefore, the shear stresses must usually
remain larger than the static pre-earthquake maximum shear
stress. In the torsional shear test, the minimum value of
the maximum shear stress is equal to ( - or )/2, which
corresponds to the consolidation shear stress. The
70
effects are further discussed in Chapter 3 in connection
with the effect of initial states of stress and boundary
conditions on the liquefaction resistance of sands.
A final factor to be discussed is the effect of
changes in the total stress as related to the pore pres
sure increment during each cycle of loading. The changes
in pore pressure during undrained shear in monotonic load
ing are related to the changes in the total principal
stresses and can be expressed in terms of Skempton's or
Henkel's pore pressure parameters. Figure 2.7 compares
the stress paths during the loading stages of cyclic
triaxial and torsional shear tests on isotropically conso
lidated specimens. In the triaxial test, pore pressure
c build-up is a consequence of both the applied shear
stresses and changes in the mean normal stress, whereas in
the torsional shear test the mean normal stress remains
constant through the cycle and therefore pore water pres
sures are caused only by the applied shear stresses. In
order to maintain constant the main principal stress act
ing on a triaxial test specimen, it would require to
increase the axial stress by Aa, and a simultaneous reduc
tion in the cell pressure by an amount Ao/2, which is a
difficult procedure using conventional triaxial apparatus.
On the other hand, it is argued that reducing or increas
ing the cell pressure by a given amount, would simply
change the pore water pressure in the same amount, without
v ,
Compression Counter-Clockwise rotation
AU
—i Pole
ESP
ESP —
cr.P cr.p
Pole
Oitf. In mean
effective stress
Clockwise rotation
T,q T,q
Extension
cr.p cr.P
Pole ESP
ESP
i-- 1
AU Pole
Note that pc =' pE
a) Cyclic Triaxial Test b) Torsional Shear Test
Figure 2.7 Stress Paths for Isotropically Consolidated Specimens.

72
causing any change in effective stresses and therefore,

c with no effect on the deformation of the specimen
(103,104,148). Because of these reasons, and of course
for convenience, the test is normally performed by main
taining the cell pressure at a constant value and cycling
the axial stress.
An increment in the axial stress of Ao implies a
change in the mean principal stress and in the pore water
pressure equal to Ao/3, and hence no change in the mean
effective principal stress. Nevertheless, it should be
noted that there are changes in the individual values of
o ^ , o^, and o^. It is not clear yet whether the shearing
strength of soils is controlled by the mean effective
c principal stress or by the relative contribution of each
stress component to the effective normal stress on the
potential failure planes. The author considers that as
shear strains increase, soil properties such as dilation
could be more a function of the major and minor principal
stress. Yu et al. (198) have reported that even the max
imum shear modulus, G , determined at very small shear

* max
strains by means of resonant column tests seems to be
relatively independent of the intermediate principal
stress. Accordingly, in the author's opinion, a change on
the mean confining stress acting on a triaxial test speci
men may contribute to changes in the relevant stress com
ponents, therefore influencing the deformation response of
73
the specimen. Additionally, as discussed earlier, the

c .
pore water pressures caused by the applied deviator
stresses are different during axial compression and axial
extension.
In Figure 2.7 the effective normal stresses are
represented in terms of the stress path parameter

0> + *
(p" « ( C j + o ^ ) ^ ) . It is clear that the change in p will
be different during the two loading stages (compression
and extension) in the triaxial test, even for the case of
a specimen with no inherent anisotropy. A symmetrical
effective stress path is expected for the two loading
stages in the torsional shear test. Hence, the simplified
procedure recommended by Seed and Lee (148) , which util
c izes the results of cyclic triaxial tests in practice, is
conceptually inadequate, in the sense that the relative
contributions of the normal and shear stresses to the
change in pore pressure cannot be independently deter
mined. Consequently, the pore pressure build-up during
cyclic triaxial tests is not representative of earthquake
loadings.
In summary, the features discussed above strongly
favor the use of cyclic torsional shear tests in lieu of
triaxial tests to study the liquefaction potential of
saturated sands. The prevalent belief that the difference
in results from cyclic triaxial and simple shear tests is
only a matter of definition of the cyclic stress ratio or
74
the nature and degree of non-uniform distribution of

o strains in the specimen (13,30,145), is no longer accept
able.
C HAP TER 3
CYCLIC UNDRAINED BEHAVIOR OF SANDS:

A FRAMEWORK OF UNDERSTANDING
There is ample experimental evidence which shows that
the application of small amplitude cyclic shear stresses
to sands under drained conditions results in a progressive
decrease in volume, even in the case of a dense sand with
a void ratio below that which might cause dilation during
unidirectional, monotonic loading at a given confining
pressure. Consequently, when a saturated sand deposit is
subjected to propagating shear waves during an earthquake,
the sand structure tends to decrease in volume. However,
since the duration of the cyclic stress applications is in
general short as compared to the time required for
drainage of water to occur, then the tendency towards den-
sification of the sand structure during each successive
application of shear stress results in a progressive
increase in pore water pressure, which causes a continued
reduction in the effective stress and a corresponding drop
in the shear strength of the sand. A substantial reduc
tion in shear strength may lead to shear failures, which
sometime are of catastrophic consequences.
76
If in the course of cyclic loading the pore pressure

o builds up to a value equal to the initially existing con
fining stress, no effective stress or intergranular stress
is acting on the sand, which having lost its strength is
considered to have "liquefied," although this may be only
a temporary state. At this state, individual particles
are postulated to exist as if they were in a state of
suspension in water (74), as illustrated in Figure 3.1.
(This is a useful concept but its physical existence has
not been proved.) Accordingly, such a state will be called
"liquefaction" throughout this dissertation. The catas
trophic effects of liquefaction on overlying structures
are obvious. As liquefaction develops, drainage of water
towards more permeable boundaries of the deposit or

c towards areas of smaller pore water pressure is initiated
together with rearrangement of individual particles of
sand into a denser packing (Fig. 3.1c). The length of
time for which liquefaction state continues to exist
depends upon the drainage conditions and also on the dura
tion of cyclic stress applications following the onset of-
liquefaction.
The accumulation of pore water pressure prior to the
development of liquefaction is controlled by the compres
sibility characteristics of the sand, primarily within the
range of small shear strains. As discussed earlier, it
has been shown that relative density and the initial state
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction »
Water Increase in pore Surface

surface water pressure settlement
\ ^7
06o&rodo
oo£bo o®
°ooxooxo
Effective
stress
Total
stress
(a) Deposit prior (b) State of suspension (c) Deposit after

to liquefaction during liquefaction liquefaction
Figure 3.1 Definition of State of Liquefaction (Aft er Ref. 74).

78
of stress are not sufficient to characterize the mechani
cal behavior of granular materials. Other factors, such
as composition, size distribution and shape of the parti
cles, fabric and its associated anisotropy, stress-strain
history, stress path, and aging since the time of deposi
tion, among others, strongly influence the stress—
deformation behavior of cohesionless soils
(4.93.101.117.119.125). Consequently, all these factors
also affect the pore pressure buildup and the consequent
strain development in sandy and silty soil deposits during
an earthquake, as discussed in this Chapter.
The importance of initial fabric on the stress-strain
response of sands has long been recognized
(94.101.123.125). The mechanism of deposition of the sand

c
deposit has a significant effect on the initial fabric and
hence, on the deformation characteristics. Minor differ
ences in particle packing, resulting from different
preparation methods, significantly affect the stress-
strain behavior of reconstituted specimens at the same
relative density (94,101,123,175). Similar effects will
occur in situ because of variations in the deposition pro
cess. It has also been recognized that the fabric
developed under conditions prevalent during the deposition
of most natural sand deposits is anisotropic. This
inherent anisotropic fabric causes changes in
deformation-strength characteristics with the direction of
79
loading (118,120,125,169). Moreover, the stress path

o itself can induce an anisotropic fabric in sands in the
course of shear loading (4,126,178). This induced aniso
tropy may be associated with rotation of the planes of
principal stress and changes in the state of stress
required to produce a given orientation of potential
failure planes. Accordingly, the mechanical response of
sands cannot be independent of inherent anisotropy and of
the nature of the stress path with respect to the orienta
tion of the principal axes of anisotropy.
Prior stress-strain history is one of the most signi
ficant factors affecting the response of cohesionless
soils. These effects are partly reflected in the soil
^ : fabric as they change the predominant spacial distribution
and orientation of the grains or grain-to-grain contact
conditions (29,93,101,145). The potential for plastic
deformation may be greatly reduced by prestressing. How
ever, the actual effects of past loading histories depend
on the particular stress path followed during prestressing
and on the level of the associated shear strains (101).
Consequently, prestressing might lead to stiffening of the
sand fabric in a preferred direction. The new fabric is
better able to resist shear stresses acting in this direc
tion is such a way that below some threshold shear stress
or strain virtually no further plastic strain will occur
(93,101). However, for other loading directions, the
80
fabric might be even softer than the one existing prior to
prestressing (93). The stress path dependent nature of
prestressing is of particular importance when evaluating
its effects on the response of saturated sands to earth
quake loading. In this case, the planes of principal
stress continually rotate and, thus, the relative impor
tance of prestressing along a particular stress path may
also change.
3.1 Pore Pressure Buildup and Strain Development
Since the pioneer work by Seed and Lee (148), the
cyclic stress conditions leading to liquefaction of
saturated sand have been Investigated extensively by means
of tests on isotropically consolidated reconstituted
specimens using various types of laboratory techniques.
However, until recently, the cyclic triaxial tests has
been the most widely used among all- testing techniques.
In spite of its recognized limitations (1,14,145,192),
results from cyclic triaxial tests have provided a great
deal of valuable information for the proper understanding
of the behavior of saturated sands under cyclic loading.
3.1.1 Typical Results of Cyclic Triaxial Tests
Figure 3.2 shows typical results from undrained
cyclic triaxial tests on reconstituted specimens of a sand
at two different relative densities, which correspond to
81
o
e
o 30r
CO
€ at ACT- 3 9 kPa
© 20
Q.
—' F
w o 10
c O
co
I— 0I
CO
m c 10 Sacram ento River sand
o
< CO 0- * 0.87, 0 . - 3 8 %
t: 20- O g -1 0 0 kPa
CD
OS' - ± 3 9 kPa t at act- - 3 9 kPa
X
—1T“
LU
CO
o
N u m b e r of cycles
co
CL
+150
c -X
© +100
Initial effective
confining pressure
&U . at a© = 0
3 aU at
CO a c t = + 3 9 kPa
CO
©
a ll at
w +50 a0*= - 3 9 kPai
a>
co
5
©
o
Q.
©
O)
C
CO 10 20
.C
O N u m b e r of cycles
a) L o o s e s a n d
Figure 3.2 Typical Results of Cyclic Triaxial Tests
on Isotropically Consolidated Specimens
(After R e f . 148).
82
Jl5
CO
2 g10
€ at
w
c ao*» +70 kPa
CO
w
to I I- - - - - - - - -
. Sacramento River s a n d .
to § 5
"x CO e -“ 0.7 1, Dr - 78% e at
< =10 . < ^ - 1 0 0 kPa ______ act- - 7 0 kPa
Q> *& --± 7 0 k P a ,
"><15
UJ
10 20 40 100
N u m b e r of cycles
CO
a. -150
.X
Initial effective
at act- o
C <3
©
3
+100
confining pressure _
I ✓
a u
CO
CO
CD AO. at A G V +7Q k
— ^ — at AO"- - 7 0 k
a>
co
5
C
iD
_
O
Q.
a> 10 20 100
O)
c N u m b e r of cycles
co
O b) D e n s e s a n d
Figure 3.2, continued.
83
contractive (loose) and dilative (dense) states, respec

o tively. Relative density is of course a first order
parameter, which is indicative of volume change tendencies
due to shearing. It is clear that the greater the ten
dency towards volume contraction of the sand skeleton, the
faster the pore pressure buildup and hence, the higher
potential of liquefaction under a given series of shear
stress applications. For example, it is noted that
approximately ten cycles caused "liquefaction" in the two
cases in Figure 3.2. However, for the test on loose sand
the deviator stress was 39 kPa, whereas for the dense sand
Ao was 70 kPa.
In cyclic triaxial tests on isotropically consoli
c; dated specimens of saturated loose sands (Fig. 3.2a) the
following events are generally observed (15,148,155):
during the first cycles of loading (cycling of deviator
stress) the specimen shows no noticeable deformation,
although the pore water pressure builds up gradually.
However, after a number of cycles, the pore water pressure
suddenly increases to a value equal to the externally
applied confining pressure. At this stage, the specimen
develops large deformations, which increase in amplitude
under subsequent loading cycles.
On the other hand, as the relative density of the
sand increases, the axial strains accumulate at a much
slower rate with increasing number of cycles (Fig. 3.2b),
84
even after pore water pressure becomes equal to (15).

G Following the onset of liquefaction, denser specimens
develop smaller deformations, which accumulate at a
decreasing rate reaching eventually a limiting value,
irrespective of the number of cycles of a given stress
amplitude, as will be illustrated later on.
It is important to note that in the course of these
cyclic triaxial tests, the pore water pressure may become
equal to the confining pressure, irrespective of the rela
tive density of the sand. As illustrated in Figure 3.2,
this zero effective stress condition always occurs at the
moment the deviator stress is zero, that is, when the
specimen is subjected to an isotropic state of stress.
However, the pore pressure drops substantially when either

C
the axial compression or axial extension load is applied.
The deformations induced in the specimen each time a zero
effective stress condition develops are dependent on the
relative density of the specimen (155). Almost unlimited
deformations may develop in loose specimens, whereas the
corresponding deformations of dense specimens may be of
limited magnitude.
The behavior just described and the relationship
between pore water pressure buildup and strain development
during cyclic loading can be visualized more clearly if an
effective stress path plot is used to present the results,
as illustrated in Figure 3.3. This approach will be
85
cm + 0.6 a)Loose
O ttawa sand
E ASTM C - 1 09 Dr = 3 3 .8 %
■g +0.4
Kc-1
o>
7 c y / ^ c = 0 .0 9 5
■“ + 0.2
cm"
0.0 Flow def.
g"-0.2
-0 .4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
(0 ^+0 ^)/2,k g f / c m 2
. cj +0.6
E
2 +0.4
o>
( ■*„ +0.2
0.0
§" - 0.2 b) Dense

Dr = 71.3%
-0 .4
i 0.251
- 0.6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
{(7^+0 ^)/2, k g f / c m 2
Figure 3.3 Typical Effective Stress Paths in Cyclic

Triaxial Tests on Isotropically Consolidated
Specimens (After Ref. 184).
86
followed throughout this dissertation.

o
3.1.2 Pore Pressure Rise Mechanisms
Loose sand specimens are contractive and therefore
develop positive pore pressure under undrained shearing.
Consequently, as the pore pressure increases the effective
stress path moves gradually towards the left with increas
ing number of cycles (Fig. 3.3a) . The magnitude of the
pore water pressure buildup for any given stress cycle
depends on the potential volumetric strain associated with
slippage between sand grains. Consequently, the rate of
pore pressure buildup is expected to be inversely propor
tional to the initial stiffness of the sand specimen,
c which is determined by a combination of factors such as
composition, size distribution and shape of the particles,
initial fabric, relative density, state of stress,
stress-strain history, etc. It has been shown con
clusively that, at the same relative density, sand speci
mens with different fabric, that is, different grain and
interparticle contact orientations, have different
stress-strain and volume change-strain characteristics
(94,119,123,125,175). Stress-strain histories may cause
changes not only in relative density but they may also
change the predominant spacial distribution and orienta
tion of the grain-to-grain contact conditions, hence
affecting the stiffness of the sand and the potential
87
Cowards densification under cyclic shearing
(29,53,101,145).
It is very unlikely that the fabric of in situ loose
sands is as "uniform" as the fabric of laboratory speci
mens reconstituted by a particular preparation procedure.
On the contrary, it may be characterized by the occurrence
of pockets or groups of particles forming "holes" or
bigger voids which might be stable under static shear
stresses but they would be rather unstable if the sand
skeleton is subjected to a series of shear stress applica
tions (196). Small shear strains may suffice to cause the
collapse of some of these unstable groups, which leads to
an overall increase in pore water pressure under undrained
conditions. Additional cycles of shear straining would
lead to additional collapses and a continued increase in
pore water pressure. There may be some amount of particle
crushing during the cycling process, especially breakage
of sharp contact points.
In spite of the progressive increase in pore water
pressure, it is a well known fact that the contractive
tendencies of loose sand specimens are smaller at lower
confining pressures (67,105,149). Therefore, once the
effective confining pressure becomes low enough, the
response of the specimen may change from contractive to
dilative under shearing in either direction. The state
conditions at which the behavior changes from contractive
88
Co dilative are discussed in detail in a later section of

o
this chapter. It is clear that during this stage of load
ing, the initial particle arrangement is drastically
altered. Accordingly, the pore pressure response rather
reflects the changes in fabric or particle packing induced
by each cycle of shearing (196). In other words, the ini
tial fabric may control the pore pressure response in the
first cycles of loading (Fig, 3.4a). but a new fabric is
gradually created with increasing number of cycles, which
changes with the magnitude of the shear strains that
develop in each cycle. These changes in fabric are evident
once dilation develops (Fig. 3.4b).
The transition from contractive to dilative behavior
c marks a drastic change in the mechanism of pore water
pressure generation. The dilatancy tendencies are caused
by sand particles attempting to roll or slide up and over
one another, which under constant volume causes a reduc
tion in the pore water pressure. The rolling and sliding
might even create some locally bigger voids near the
dilating particles (196). Upon reversal of stress, most
of these unstable holes would readily collapse producing a
corresponding high increases in pore water pressure (Fig.
3.4b). This may be associated with the physical fact that
once unloading begins some of the grains of the dilated
skeleton may actually start a downward motion under the
action of the normal forces, which leads to an increase in
89
Small strain
c y
S tatically stable
collapses hole
large hole
L) C h a n g e s in initial fabric at small strains
Upwards motion Downwards motion

(.
b) C h a n g e s in fabric d u e to dilatancy at large strains
Figure 3.4 Changes in Fabric during Cyclic Loading

(Adapted from Ref. 196).
90
c pore water pressure (124).
the direction of shearing is reversed,

It is also very likely that as
the number of con
tact points between neighboring grains is drastically
reduced. As a result of these mechanisms, the effective
stress path moves towards the zero effective stress state
during the unloading stage, that is, as the applied shear
stress is reduced to zero (Fig. 3.3b).
Once the effective stress becomes zero, the shear
strength of a cohesionless soil is theoretically zero.
However, the condition of 100% pore pressure buildup
develops at the instant the specimen is subjected to an
hydrostatic state of stress, and therefore it does not
have shear stresses to resist. Nevertheless, the impor
c tant consequence of the momentary occurrence of liquefac
tion is the deformations which develop upon application of
a small shear stress in the opposite direction of loading.
For very loose sand almost unlimited deformations develop
under essentially zero shear stresses. Accordingly, the
specimen is said to have liquefied, since it exhibits no
resistance to deformation over a wide shear strain range
(74,102,148).
Nevertheless, due to the process of continuous defor
mation it is very unlikely that the sand specimen can
remain indefinitely in a "liquefied" state, that is, with
a minimum number of contacts between neighboring grains.
On the contrary, after some straining, new contact points
91
might develop allowing dilation of the sand skeleton since
the effective confining pressure is extremely low. Conse
quently, the process of continuous deformation may be
arrested after a finite strain by dilatancy caused pore
water pressure reduction and the system reverts to a
"solid" state (155,196). It is clear that the strain
range within which the specimen remains in a "liquefied"
state depends on the relative density of the sand. If
cyclic loading continues, the specimen undergoes repeated
cycles of liquefaction, finite continuous deformation and
stiffening or solidification due to dilation, with the
stress path climbing upwards and downwards along the
failure line during the loading stages and approaching the
c origin during the unloading phases
resistance envelope has been found to correspond to the

(Fig. 3.3b). The
failure line determined after large strains in undrained
tests under monotonic loading (82,98,141,157). It is
important to note that the condition of 100% pore pressure
buildup (Fig. 3.2) corresponds to the moment the stress
path passes through the hydrostatic state (Fig. 3.3),
since the failure lines for a cohesionless material extend
from the origin. Consequently, liquefaction only occurs
at the instant the major and minor principal stresses
become equal (o,=o,).

1 J
As the relative density increases, the sand specimen
behaves strongly dilative even at relatively high levels
92
of confining pressure (Fig. 3.3b). Consequently, the pore
water pressure accumulation during cyclic loading results
from the alternating cycles of dilation upon shearing in
either direction (rolling and sliding of grains on top of
each other) and contraction upon reversal (loss of con
tacts and downwards motion ) (Fig. 3.4b), which leads to a
progressive increase in pore water pressure. It is well
known that even dense sands are slightly contractive when
subjected to small shear strain amplitudes. The contrac
tive behavior is enhanced by the physical fact a reversal
in the direction of shearing occurs. Accordingly, each
time the specimen is close to a hydrostatic state of
stress, it develops a contractive response over a small
range of deviator stress and a pore water pressure incre

c ment is induced (13); eventually a zero effective stress
condition develops.
3.1.3 Liquefaction, Flow Deformation and Strain Development
The development of a zero effective stress condition
for the first time is usually called "initial liquefac
tion" (25,74,145), which in very loose sand is associated
with the development of very large deformations. However,
in dense specimens, minor shear strains may be sufficient
for "rebuilding" most of the grain contacts. Conse
quently, dilation develops and the corresponding reduction
in pore water pressure allows the specimen to resist the
93
applied stresses without a significant deformation,
irrespective of the number of cycles after "initial
liquefaction." Accordingly, "liquefaction" of dense sands
is only a momentary state which does not imply any insta
bility of the specimen. The associated deformations
decrease as the relative density increases, becoming
insignificant at very high Dr, as illustrated schemati
cally in Figure 3.5. This curve conceptually represents
the strain potential following the onset of liquefaction.
It should be noted that the limiting shear strains are
likely to be a function of the type of sand and of the
level of confining stresses.
Some researchers argue that the development of a
momentary zero effective stress condition in a specimen of

c
dense sand, which implies a finite strain potential,
should be termed "cyclic mobility" (13,15,17,132) to dis
tinguish it from the behavior of loose specimens. In the
author's view, the structure of loose sands is metastable,
that is, susceptible to collapse. In a collapsive skele
ton, small shear strains may be sufficient to produce a
sudden rearrangement of grains and loss of contact points
between neighboring grains, thereby imparting the brittle
behavior characteristic of loose sands (9,14,55). Upon
collapse of the structure, the load is suddenly
transferred from the sand skeleton to the water, resulting
in a sharp increase in pore water pressure. As a result
0 20 40 60 80 100
R E L A T I V E D E N S I T Y (%)
Figure 3 .5 Shear Strain Potential at Liquefaction.
95
, of the two mechanisms, namely, loss of contacts and
increases of pore water pressure, the shear strength is
reduced substantially and the specimen undergoes large
deformations in a very short period of time. Reduction in
the rate of loading does not avoid the phenomenon (110).
Due to the process of deformation, the sand grains become
oriented and reach a statistically steady-state condition
and after all particle breakage, if any, is completed, the
shear stress needed to continue deformation eventually
reaches a very low but nevertheless constant value (131).
This type of deformation will be termed "flow deformation"
or "strain softening behavior" throughout this disserta
tion.
It has been shown that the "sensitive" response of
loose sands and the associated strength loss due to sudden
breakdown of the structure, can develop at any loading
stage (increase of shear stress) in the course of cyclic
loading as a result of pore water pressure buildup and
consequent strain development (14,34,184,186). Conse
quently, during cyclic loading of saturated loose sands,
the level of deformation after a sufficient number of
cyclic stress applications could be due to "flow deforma
tion" or to a combination of limited flow deformation fol
lowed by liquefaction. In other words, in the author's
view, the structure of a loose sand may collapse (sudden
rearrangement of grains) either because the applied shear
stresses are too high or as a result of a sudden reversal
in the direction of shearing under low levels of contact
pressures. Under undrained conditions, both types of
"collapse" result in a significant increase in pore pres
sure and a consequent reduction in strength. The first
collapse mechanism leads to flow deformation whereas the
second one results in liquefaction, as defined herein. It
will be shown later that the accumulation of strains due
to flow deformation occurs always during a loading stage
before the development of momentary states of zero effec
tive stress. A stage of limited flow deformation is
observed in Figure 3.3a, where the stress path quickly
approaches the failure line. At this stage a reduction in
strength is clearly observed. It is important to note
that strains due to limited flow deformation may be as
significant as the strains which develop upon occurrence
of limited liquefaction. The conditions leading to strain
softening behavior of loose sand and the factors control
ling the steady-state strength of sands are discussed in
the next section together with its relevance in under
standing the response of saturated sands under cyclic
lo ad ing .
Experimental evidence indicates that for loose sands,
the relationship between the normalized pore pressure,
u/o , and the cycle ratio, N/NT , in which N_ is the number

C L u
of cycles required to cause liquefaction, will correspond
97
approximately to the curve shown in Figure 3.6 (147).
Three stages in the process of pore water pressure genera
tion are clearly evident. The pore pressure generated
during the first cycles is significant but the rate of
pore pressure buildup per cycle becomes smaller as loading
proceeds. However, the rate of pore pressure buildup
increases again during the last cycles prior to the
development of liquefaction. It is likely that the pore
pressure buildup during the initial cycles reflects the
collapse of unstable particle groups of the Initial
fabric. The elimination of local instabilities at the
contact points produces a more stable structure, which
results in a reduction in the rate of pore pressure
c buildup. However,
deformation develops;
this rate increases again once flow
this rate is further increased when
the specimen becomes dilative upon loading and contractive
upon unloading, which precedes the occurrence of liquefac
tion. This behavior is further illustrated with the test
results presented in Chapter 5. Also shown in Figure 3.6
is the normalized pore pressure curve typical of very
dense specimens. It is seen that in this case, the rate
of pore pressure buildup is relatively uniform with
increasing number of cycles until liquefaction develops.
98
I Initial t e n d e n c y to contract
II M o r e stable fabric d u e to prior cycles
ill F l o w deformation a n d contraction u p o n u n lo a d i n g
j. |--- +--------------- II T ---- HI---- 1
1.0
0.8--
Denser
0.6-
RATIO,
PRESSURE
0 .4 -
Looser
0.2 -
PORE
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
C Y C L E RATIO, N / N L
Figure 3.6 Rate of Pore Pressure Buildup during Cyclic

Loading.
99
3.1.4 Threshold Shear Strain Concept

c
There is yet another aspect related to pore pressure
buildup and strain development during cyclic loading.
There is experimental evidence which indiated the
existence of a threshold shear strain for sands
(24,32,33,43). If cyclic strains below this value are
induced in the sand deposit, it is considered that there
is neither densification of dry sands nor pore pressure
buildup in saturated, sands. Investigations have been
carried out to study the effects of initial state of
stress and of relative density on the threshold shear
strain, y , by means of strain controlled cycled triaxial
tests (43). In these tests, the threshold shear strain
c was determined by subjecting sand specimens to short
sequences of sinusoidal axial strain cycles at increasing
amplitude until a residual pore water pressure gerater
than zero was measured. The results of these tests seem
to suggest that the threshold shear strain is a constant
characteristic of each type of sand for a wide range of
relative densities, as illustrated in Figure 3.7 for Mon
terey No. 0 sand. The value of the threshold shear strain
for NC sands has been found to be of the order of 0.8 to

—2
1.5 x 10 %., with a trend for y to decrease slightly as
the grain size decreases (43). For two different sand
types, Monterey No. 0 ar»d banding sand, which is finer
than Monterey No. 0, the value of y£ was unaffected by the
0.06
Monterey No. O Sand
Cyclic Triaxial Tests
0.05 ^ ' - 2 0 0 0 psf
n - 10 cycles
0.04
o O D r- 45%
H- □ D r - 60%
< A D r - 80%
0C 0.03
Ui
DC
Z>
</) 0.02
<n Threshold shear strain
Hi
oc
Ql
ui
0.01
DC
o
£L
ooo
»-3
C Y C L I C S H E A R S T RA I N , / (%)
Figure 3.7 Concept of Threshold Shear Strain (After Ref. 33).
100
c consolidation stress ratio, K£ *
range from 1 to 2 (43).

w it ^ Kc in the
In tests on overconsolidated
specimens of Monterey No. 0 sand, at a relative density of
60%, the threshold shear strain was observed to increase
with the overconsolidation ratio, OCR, from

_2
Y = 1.1 x 10 % for NC specimens to a value close to 3 x
10_2 % for an OCR of 8 (43).
Consequently, it has been suggested that for some
practical applications, an engineering value for Yt of
about 0.001% to 0.015% may be used as a threshold shear
strain level marking the beginning of significant pore
water pressure increases (25,32,43). This value has been
found to correspond to the estimated average shear strain
c induced in sand deposits by earthquakes of moderate magni
tude, which have been observed to cause negligible pore
water pressure buildup (147). Dobry et a l . (32) have pro
posed a method for determining the threshold ground
acceleration, at , for a sand layer in situ. at
corresponds to the ground acceleration which just gen
erates an excess pore water pressure in the layer. The
method is based on the threshold shear strain concept and
on the field measurement of the shear modulus of sands at
small strains, Gm a x » using geophysical techniques. If the
peak acceleration is greater than a£ , the actual
occurrence of liquefaction and its effects on overlying
structures will depend on the factors discussed above such
102
as duration of the earthquake, relative density, etc., and
the drainage boundaries of the sand layer.
An alternative approach for evaluating threshold
shear strains is by observing the shape of the effective
stress path from tests that include large amplitude shear
strain. In this connection, Towhata and Ishihara (181)
observed that in cyclic tests involving just triaxial
compression cycles, the stress path corresponding to the
initial stage of the first loading was almost parallel in
direction to the stress path observed at the later stage
of cyclic loading, where it was producing just recoverable
deformation. Accordingly, they concluded that below a
certain threshold shear stress level the pore pressure is

r recoverable on unloading and that a truly residual pore
pressure can only be produced when the applied shear
stress exceeds this limit. The concept of a critical
shear stress, below which the pore pressure does not build
up, had been previously developed by Shibata et a l . (157)
and Yoshimi and Oh-Oka (193). It should be noted that
while, the threshold shear stress may vary over a wide
range depending on factors such as type of sand, density,
confining stress, etc., the corresponding threshold shear
strain appears to vary over a relatively small range,
irrespective of density, fabric or confining pressure
(24) .
103
3.2 Evaluation of Liquefaction Resistance
In addition to the potential tendency towards densif-
ication, the occurrence of liquefaction will depend on the
amplitude and number of cycles in the series of stress
applications. Conse que nt ly, laboratory measured liquefac
tion resistance, or cyclic undrained strength, is usually
defined as the combination of the cyclic shear stress and
the corresponding number of cycles causing initial
liquefaction or a given level of shear strain, as dis
cussed below.
3.2.1 Cyclic Undrained Strength
c It is common practice to subject "identical" speci
mens of a given sand with the same initial state (relative
density and confining pressure to cyclic loading at dif
ferent levels of shear stress amplitude. From the time
histories of shear stress, shear strain and pore water
pressure, it is possible to plot for each specimen the
applied shear stress ratio (ia/2oc in the triaxial test,
or t / c>c in the torsional shear test) versus the single or
double amplitude shear strain with increasing number of
cycles. By this procedure a plot like the one shown in
Figure 3.8 can be obtained, in which the data points
corresponding to the same number of cycles have been con
nected with a solid line. These curves constitute a kind
of stress versus peak strain curves under cyclic loading
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction
1.2
Number of Dr - 77%
cycles- 5
1.0
7O 10,
P 0.8
O 20
h-
<
30
cc 0.6
<o
CO
UJ
cc
H 0.4
CO Fuji river sand
o Torsional test
CTe- 98 kPa
O
>- 0.2
o
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
S H E A R S T RAIN, / (%)
F i g ur e 3.8 C y c l i c Stress Ra ti o - Shear S tr ai n ( Si ngle A m pli tu de )

R e l a t i o n s h i p for D i f f e r e n t N u m b e r of Cyc l e s at a C on s t a n t
Relative Density (After Ref. 74).
105
o conditions. It is interesting to observe that for each
curve there is an initial convex part in the range of
small strains, which is followed by a concave portion with
increasing shear strain amplitude (74). This change in
curvature seems to suggest that at this level of relative
density (77%) the curves for Fuji river sand would tend to
reach a limiting shear strain level of increasing magni
tude for each N value, irrespective of the applied shear
stress amplitude below that which might cause cavitation
in the pore water.
From the shear stress ratio versus peak shear strain
amplitude plots, the relationship between the cyclic shear
stress ratio and the number of cycles causing initial
liquefaction or a predetermined level of single or double

(
shear strain amplitude can be readily obtained. A typical
plot of this kind is presented in Figure 3.9. This type
of plot has been consistently used to represent the
liquefaction or cyclic undrained strength characteristics
of a particular sand at a given relative density.
In analyzing any given situation, the number of sig
nificant stress cycles in the design earthquake or other
cyclic disturbance to which the sand deposit might be sub
jected can be estimated. For strong earthquakes the sig
nificant number of cycles is likely to lie in the range of
about 10 to 30 cycles (147). Consequently, it is common
practice to define the resistance to liquefaction for a
106
5%
0.3
10%
5%
Dr- 90%
25
>*
o 20 %
0.2f
Dr- 82%
X
c CO
Ui
0.1
LU
CC
Large Scale Simple Shear Tests

Monterey N0 0 Sand j
O ’c - 5 5 kPa
100
NUMBER OF CYCLES
Figure 3.9 Relationship between Cyclic Stress Ratio and

Number of Cycles Causing Different Level of
Shear Strain (After Ref. 30).
107
particular number of stress applications. Accordingly,
the cyclic shear stress ratio versus peak shear strain
amplitude relationship for a fixed number of cycles, can
be compared at different relative densities on the same
plot, as illustrated in Figure 3.10. It is again observed
that for high relative densities and for both types of
sand the curves in Figure 3.10 have a convex part in the
range of small strains, which is followed by a concave
portion which tends to reach a limiting shear strain
level. Figure 3.10 also compares stress— strain curves
from monotonic tests for Toyoura sand with corresponding
shear stress versus peak strain curves under cyclic load
ing conditions. It is interesting to observe that at a
c relative density of about 84%, the shear strain induced by
a stress ratio of 0.6 increases from 1.5% in the monotonic
test to 7.5 under cyclic loading. The large increase in
deformations due to the development of excess pore pres
sures in the course of cyclic stress applications is
clearly evident.
An alternative method of representing the liquefac
tion resistance of sands for a given number of cycles is
by plotting the values of cyclic stress ratio causing ini
tial liquefaction, or different levels of shear strain,
versus the relative density, as illustrated in Figure
3.11. When the cyclic undrained strength is presented in
this way the following features are generally observed.
108
o 1.0
/Torsional Shear Test
0.9 (a) • Toyoura Sand
CO A ir-P lu viated
L? £ 0.8 -I- & c “ 9 8 kPa
fe ta tic Undrained Test ( D r - 84 % )
Dr-9 0 %
a w 0.6 x 85 % P
Cyclic
CO L ° 0.4
0.3
o o
o < 0.2, ___
S ta tic Undrained Test D r - 4 0 % / ■
7.5
S I N G L E A M P L I T U D E S H E A R STRAIN, (FOR C Y C L I C TEST)
c S H E A R S T R A I N , Y(%) ( F O R S T A T I C T E S T )
Strain Range At
>. D r - 88% Observed Initial Number of
Liquefaction cy c le s - 10 i
O
H—
<
cc
CO
CO
UJ
tr
i— Fuji river sand
CO
Torsional test
o 47% ^ - 9 8 kPa
—I
o
> I
o
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
S I N G L E A M P L I T U D E S H E A R S T R A I N , Y (%)
Figure 3.10 Cyclic Stress Ratio - Shear Strain Relation
ship for Different Relative Densities at a
Constant Number of Cycles (After Refs. 74,
173) .
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited w itho ut perm ission.
109
o 1
CYCLIC TORSIONAL
0 .7 ' SHEAR TEST
TOYOURA SAND
i
(a)
“ I--------------
0.6 Min r u w v
* c - 9 8 k Pa
b° 0 .5 - NC- 20
/ /
DA SHEAR S T R A IN -1 5 %
- J.4
7 .5 %
< 0 .3 -
0C
CO
CO v 1
UJ 0.2 \3 %
tr 1
h
CO 0.1 ! Dr critical -
(b)
0.0 I i i :/ ,
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
R E LA TIV E D E N S IT Y , Dr (% )
1.4 Number of
c y c le s - 20 (b)
r
v 1.2
>.
O
I- SA SHEAR S T R A IN - 6% 5 % 3%
<
cc 0.8
CO
CO
UJ F u ji-riv e r sand
0.6 - Torsional test 1 -
CO
0 c - 9 8 kPa
o
_1 0 .4
o
>
o
0.2 -
Dr critical
0 50 100
R E LA TIV E D E N S IT Y , Dr (% )
Figure 3.11 Cyclic Stress Ratio - Relative Density
Relationship for Different Shear Strain
Levels at a Constant Number of Cycles
(After Refs. 74,173).
The cyclic undrained strength increases at an increasing
rate as the relative density increases, irrespective of
the failure criterion, e.g. initial liquefaction or strain
level. However, there seems to be a particular value of
relative density, termed "critical relative density,"
below which only a small increase is noted in cyclic
resistance with increase in Dr (173). On the other hand,
if the relative density is greater than the critical, the
dynamic resistance builds up at a much faster rate with
increasing relative density. Consequently, it cannot be
said that the cyclic undrained of sands is proportional to
relative density (173). It has been also observed that
below the critical Dr, a small increase in shear stress
ratio above that required to cause initial liquefaction
results in the development of large strain amplitudes. On
the contrary, at relative densities above the critical,
initial liquefaction occurs at a small strain amplitude.
A large increase in the cyclic stress, above that causing
initial liquefaction, is required to produce large strain
amplitudes (30,184).
Vaid et a l . (184) have suggested that below the Dr
critical, sand are susceptible to flow deformation, which
might be responsible for the sudden development of large
strains with a minor increase in stress ratio (see Fig.
3.10) and, consequently, only a small increase in cyclic
strength is noted with increase in Dr. On the other hand,
111
at relative densities greater than the critical, flow
deformation does not develop. Accordingly, it is likely
that the large resistance of dense specimens against
cyclic undrained loading at larger shear strain amplitudes
is due to their stronger dilative tendencies (173,184).
The critical relative density, as defined, is a function
of at least the type of sand, the confining stress level,
the number of cycles and the stress-strain boundary condi
tions. An important inference from the concept of criti
cal relative density is that the beneficial effects of
densification in increasing the shear stress required to
induce large strain amplitudes only develops above the
critical relative density.
c 3.2.2 Cyclic Shear Strain Potential
It is noted that once the critical value of Dr is
exceeded, all the curves in Figure 3.11 are very steep
suggesting that a limiting shear strain will develop in a
given number of cycles, irrespective of the level of
cyclic stress ratio that is applied. Consequently, a
curve of limiting shear strain versus relative density
might be established, as presented by De Alba et a l . (30).
The form of this relationship, which herein will be termed
"cyclic strain potential," is presented in Figure 3.12.
The data were obtained from large-scale simple shear tests
on freshly deposited sand in the laboratory. It is seen
112
40
o Monterey No 0 Sand
O q - 5 5 kPa
Nc-1.0
p <10 -
20 40 60 100
0.6
15% 5%
0.5
TO
0.4
I—
c 0.3
I—
Monterey No o sand
O 0.2
C7 ‘c - 55 kPa
Nc= 1 0
Initial Liquefaction
0.1
0 20 40 60 80 1 00
RELATIVE DENSITY- %
Figure 3.12 Cyclic Stress Ratio - Relative Density Rela

tionship and Cyclic Shear Strain Potential
from Large-Scale Simple Shear Tests
(After Ref. 30).
113
that for this particular sand at relative densities less
than about 45%, the application of cyclic stress ratios
sufficiently high to cause initial liquefaction also
causes extremely high shear strains in the sand. However,
for relative densities greater than 45%, the development
of initial liquefaction results in only a limited amount
of shear strain, the corresponding shear strain potential
decreasing with increasing relative density. Figures 3.12
confirms the general trend of the shear strain potential
postulated in Figure 3.5. As explained earlier, dense
sands only remain momentarily in a liquefied state, which
in general does not imply instability.
Based on data such as those shown in Figure 3.12,
c Seed (145) proposed a tentative range of limiting shear
strain for natural deposits as a function of normalized
standard penetration resistance C1^ ) ^ , which is shown in
the upper part of Figure 3.13. ^n i^6o iS de f±ned as the
standard penetration resistance determined in SPT tests
where the driving energy in the drill rods is 60% of the
theoretical free-fall energy (153). The limiting strains
measured in tests on undisturbed sand specimens obtained
by freezing techniques have been related to the in situ
^N 1^60 v a ûes ky Tokimatsu et a l . (180) and the results
are superimposed on the original estimated range in Figure
3.13. According to Seed et al. (153), the generally good
agreement suggests that the indicated values of limited
114
w 2
c UJ 30-
< O
uj oc Estimated range (1 384)
X W __
co o. 20-
CD I Proposed Based on test data by
36 by Seed (1979)
I 1» Tokimatsu and Yoshimt
oc (1984)
. F*
03 OL
— High damage potential-jintermediate!—No significant d a m ag e-
0.6
Liquefaction with
~ 20% * 1 0 % =3%
No Liquefaction
(N.,) 6 0
Figure 3.13 Tentative Relationship between Cyclic Stress

Ratio, Values, and Limiting Strain
for Natural Deposits of Clean Sand (After
Ref. 153).
115
shear strains are of the right order of magnitude.
In summary, for a given cyclic loading condition,
medium dense to dense sand specimens are able to withstand
any number of stress repetitions without exceeding a lim
iting maximum strain. This is the significance of the
cyclic strain potential presented in Figures 3.5, 3.12,
and 3.13. Sands at high relative densities would have
very low strain potential under cyclic loading conditions
at moderate confining pressures, even if they develop 100%
pore pressure buildup during unloading stages. It is
important to note that the results in Figures 3.12 and
3.13 do not include the effects of initial sustained shear
stresses. Accordingly, their applicability is restricted
to cases in which these effects can be considered negligi
ble, as discussed in a later section. The effects of con
fining pressure on the limiting shear strain are yet to be
determined.
The shear strains resulting from cyclic loading may
be beyond what is considered to be acceptable for a struc
ture. Consequently, a failure criterion should be esta
blished for any given situation. For relative loose sands
a single definition of failure will usually suffice
because initial liquefaction and large deformations
develop almost simultaneously. For denser sands, however,
the relationship between the magnitude of the cyclic
stress ratio and the number of cycles required to cause
"failure," that is a predetermined level of strain, will
vary considerably depending on the failure criterion
adopted. Ishihara (74) has recently called attention to
the fact that the magnitude of the peak shear strain at
which 100% pore pressure buildup takes place may lie
within a relatively narrow range from 2.5 to 3.5% (in
terms of single amplitude), as indicated in Figure 3.10b.
Consequently, Ishihara recommends the use of the develop
ment of a peak shear strain of about 3%, which corresponds
to the development of initial liquefaction regardless of
the Dr, as a liquefaction criterion to consistently define
cyclic strength characteristics of sands at any density
from loose to dense states. In the case of loose sands,
intolerable large deformations are produced immediately
after the inducement of 3% cyclic shear strain accompany
ing the onset of liquefaction. In the author's opinion,
this criterion may be valid only if the relative density
is above the critical value or when the cyclic shear
stress amplitude is smaller than the steady-state
strength. As discussed later on, a process of flow defor
mati on in loose sand can be initiated at much smaller
shear strains.
, 3.2.3 Volume Decrease Potential and
C Liquefaction Resistance
It is well known that different sands at identical
relative densities may not have the same drained or
undrained stress-deformation characteristics
(94,118,123,125). Accordingly, it is recognized that
relative density is neither a unique index to represent
the effect of density of different kinds of sand on the
cyclic undrained strength, especially when the mineral
composition, size distribution and shape of the particles
are sharply different. As discussed, the potential for
liquefaction is associated with the tendency towards den-
sification under a series of stress applications in
f undrained conditions. Relative density indicates how the

V
current packing of a sand, in terms of void ratio, com
pares with its loosest and densest states, but it does not
give any indication of the actual volume changes between
the limiting states. Consequently, it has been suggested
(87) that liquefaction potential of different kinds of
sands should be more closely related to a parameter indi
cative of actual volume decrease potential, which under
cyclic loading conditions is given by
VD " e - *«!« ( 3 -U
where, VD , the volume decrease potential, is the differ
ence between the in situ void ratio, e, and the void ratio
118
corresponding to the densest state, em in * Thus,

c
(3.2)
The difference in VD , and hence in liquefaction
potential at the same Dr, arises from the differences in
composition, size distribution and shape of the particles
of different sands, as evaluated by the term
êmax ~ emin^* m a 7 tend to decrease as the average

sand grain increases (87).
Comprehensive studies by Ishihara et a l . (87) by
means of cyclic triaxial tests, have shown that there is
indeed a good correlation between the stress ratio causing
initial liquefaction and , as illustrated in Figure
3.14, in spite of the wide range in size distribution,
shape of the particles, origin and relative density of the
materials used in the investigation. Consequently, the
volume decrease potential, as defined, seems to be a more
convenient parameter for comparing liquefaction potential
of different kinds of sands at the same o . This is sup-

c
ported by the physical fact that during cyclic loading the
volume of the sand skeleton will tend to decrease from its
present state of packing to the densest state. Accord
ingly, the higher Vp , the more likely the sand is to
liquefy under any given loading conditions. Unfor
tunately, the use of relative density is so extensive
119
o 100
natural
80 11
sieved
cc :soil No.
Ui
2 60 - in figure
u_ below
»-
uj 40 -
O
cc
UJ
o. 20 -
0.01 0.1 1.0

P A R T I C L E SIZE (mm)
-- 1---r~ ~\
1-- 1---1 r "i r
0.6 Number of cycles
o Glass beads (D
: 20, D r - 4 0 - 7 6 % • Fuji river sand <2>
( 0.5
c r ^ - lO O kPa
a Toyoura sand
a Niigata sand
®
0
<=>Chiba sand (g)
0.4 ■ Shirasu (g)
v Shiriuchi sand (2)
0.3
b
CM
S ’ ° '2
0.1
Cyclic Triaxial Tests
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

V O L U M E D E C R E A S E P O T E N T I A L , e - e mjn
Figure 3.14 Relationship between Volume Decrease Potential

and Cyclic Stress Ratio Causing Initial
Liquefaction in 20 Cycles (After Ref. 87).
120
/' ■ among researchers and practitioners that its replacement,

V_/j
even for a more convenient parameter, seems to be unlikely
in the very near future.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that may be indi
cative of the tendency to contract and hence, of the
liquefaction potential because of continuous reversals in
the direction of shearing,- but it may not be indicative of
the tendency to flow deformation under monotonic loading.
First of all, the volume decrease potential during mono
tonic loading is determined by the critical void ratio
line as discussed in the next section. On the other hand,
a sand with rounded grains, which is highly susceptible to
collapse under increasing shear stresses, is likely to
c have a smaller VD than an angular sand at the same Dr.
summary, according to Figure 3.14, a sand with a low

In
has a higher liquefaction resistance. However, that sand
may be highly susceptible to flow deformation or strain
softening behavior on loading, as discussed later on.
3.2.4 Effect of Initial Confining Stress
There is yet another factor which itself strongly
influences the cyclic undrained strength of sands; namely,
the magnitude of the initial confining pressure. The mag
nitude of the shear stress level or the number of cycles
(or both) needed to cause liquefaction increases with
increasing confining pressure. This can be associated in
121
the first place with the fact that the higher the confin
ing pressure, the larger the distance the effective stress
path (Fig. 3.3) needs to traverse in order to approach the
failure line and finally the zero effective stress condi
tion. Moreover, for a given volume decrease potential the
forces resisting slippage at the grain contacts increase
with the confining pressure. However, the cyclic shear
stress which produces liquefaction in a given number of
cycles in general increases with increasing confining
pressure at a rate that is less than linear (17,103).
This behavior may be attributed to the increased contrac
tiveness of sands at higher confining pressures. Accord
ingly, although the cyclic shear stress level increases
with confining pressure, the cyclic stress ratio decreases
with increasing confining pressure ( 17 ,186,19A) , as illus
trated in Figure 3.15. Thus, in selecting cyclic shear
strengths, due cognizance must be taken of the in situ
confining stresses. The level of confining pressure is
likely to affect properties such as the critical relative
density and the limiting shear strains.
3.3 Monotonic and Cyclic Strength Relationship
3.3.1 Drained Behavior under Monotonic Loading
The macroscopic deformation of a specimen of cohe-
sionless soil under drained shear is the result of
c
Cyclic triaxlal tests
Tailings sand
0.4
Dr“ 70%
Axial strain, G fl= 2.5%
o
0.3
CM
>*
C q =2.0 kg/cm 1
0.2
16.0 kg/cm2
0.1
± .L
0 10 20 50 100
N U M B E R O F CYCLES, N
12 2
Figure 3.15 E f f e c t o f C o n f i n i n g P r e s s u r e on C y c l i c S t r e s s R a t i o Ve r s us
Number o f C y c l e s R e l a t i o n s h i p ( D a t a from R e f . 1 8 6 ) .
123
microscopic motion (rolling and sliding) of the grains
relative to each other at the contact points, producing
rearrangement of grains and corresponding changes in volume.
There may be some amount of particle crushing during the
process of deformation, especially breakage of sharp contact
points at higher confining pressures. Accordingly, during
drained monotonic shear tests, loose sands decrease in
volume, whereas dense sands increase in volume, that is,
they dilate. Nevertheless, due to the process of continu
ous deformation, the sand particles in either case eventu
ally reach a statistically steady-state condition, at
which the volume and the shear stress needed to continue
deformation remain constant. The void ratio at this state
is termed "critical void ratio." It is clear that after
large strains, the original structure of sand is drasti
cally altered. A "statistical fabric" is created, which
depends mainly on the mineral composition, size distribu
tion and shape of the particles, and on the level of
effective normal stress. The steady-state fabric exhibits
a constant resistance to continuous deformation.
The condition at which a sand specimen is continu
ously deforming at constant volume, constant effective
normal stress, constant shear stress and constant velocity
has also been termed "critical state" (137,144) or
"steady-state of deformation" (131). However, in the
author's opinion, it is not yet known whether the rate of
124
deformation at the critical state is really constant
(steady). Since dilation tendencies are smaller at higher
confining pressures, the critical void ratio for a sand
decreases as the confining pressure increases. Moreover,
for each type of sand, the relationship between void ratio
and confining pressure at the critical state is unique,
irrespective of the initial density of the specimen. Con
sequently, under drained shearing a loose sand contracts
and eventually approaches a steady-state volume. At the
same confining pressure a dense specimen of the same sand
dilates until it also reaches the same steady-state condi
tion (in terms of void ratio and shear resistance) as the
loose sand. The relationship between void ratio and con
fining stress at the critical state is represented by the
steady-state or critical void ratio line.
Consequently, the drained behavior of a sand is con
trolled in the first place by its initial state (in terms
of void ratio and level of confining stress) with respect
to the critical void ratio line. The void ratio versus
confining stress space is usually termed the state
diagram, in which the critical void ratio line separates
contractive from dilative states, as shown in Figure 3.16
for Sacramento River Sand (105). If a sand specimen with
initial state at point A is sheared under drained condi
tions, the void ratio would decrease at constant effective
confining stress until the critical void ratio line is
reached at point A".
125
o
1.0
3ontractiv« ■
0.9
Critical vo d ratio iinc
0.8
Con so idation stsie
Q>
RATIO,
0.7
VOID
0.6
0.5
Dilative
0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
EFFECTIVE CONFINING PRESSURE, (Kg/cm2 )
Figure 3.16 State Diagram for Sacramento River Sand

(After Ref. 105).
126
Test results have indicated that the drained behavior
of specimens with different initial states may be similar
if the initial conditions are such that there is an equal
proximity to the steady-state line (8,165). Consequently,
a state parameter for sands has been proposed (8), which
is defined as the void ratio difference between the ini
tial state and the steady-state condition at the same con
fining stress. For example, Figure 3.17 shows the drained
behavior of Kogyuk sand (8), corresponding to a wide range

*
of combinations of e and , mainly in the dilative side,
as a function of the state parameter, ij/, which in this
case was defined with respect to the steady-state line
obtained from undrained tests (8). The peak angle of
shearing resistance and dilation rate at the peak stress
c ratio for Kogyuk sand, are reasonably well-defined func
tions of the state parameter. In general, for specimens
with negative 'i' (initial dilative state), a clear peak is
observed in the stress-strain curve, which becomes less
marked with decreasing negative 4', until there is gen
erally no peak for specimens with positive ij> (initial con
tractive st ate ). The volumetric strain behavior may be
similarly dependent on state parameter. Strong dilation
will be apparent for high negative states with little or
negative dilation observed once the state parameter
becomes positive. The apparent dependence of sand charac
teristics on the state parameter means that the mechanical
properties of sands are influenced by actual volume
127
o a>
©
42 Fine content (%)
"O
40-
UJ
o 38-
U_ Z
o g
UJ CO 36r ■ ■.
m 05
0 UJ
z cc 34
< CD
Q Z
32 ■
| <
< UJ
£
Q x
co
301-
28
-0.15 -0.10 -0 .0 5 0 0.05
STATE P A R A M E T E R ^
a) P E A K A N G L E O F S H E A R I N G R E S I S T A N C E
c ■cl.«
)
0.8r
Fine content (%)
5 0.6
tif
•o
UJ
)-
< 0 .4 r
tr
z
Q
h- 0.2
<
—i
o
- 0.10 -0.05
STATE P A R A M E T E R
b) D I LA T I O N R A T E A T P E A K S T R E S S R A T I O
Figure 3.17 Drained Properties as a Function of State

Parameter for Kogyuk 350 Sands (After Ref. 8)
128
changes during shearing and not by the absolute magnitude
of either void ratio or confining stress. It is clear
that under high confining pressure, dilation will begin at
a much lower void ratio. However, it is the magnitude of
dilation which seems to determine strength, not the void
ratio at which dilation occurs (8). Thus, the state
parameter reflects the volume change potential upon shear
ing under the applied confining pressure.
The state parameter approach still has some limita
tions. First of all, it does not include the effect of
interparticle fabric of the sand, which might be the cause
of some of the scatter in Figure 3.17. It is well known
that a given cohesionless soil may have different fabrics
at the same void ratio or Dr. The initial fabric might
have a considerable influence on the behavior of sands,
especially under undrained conditions. Consequently, an
additional fundamental parameter of state is necessary to
describe fabric of sands (8). This is a goal yet to be
achieved. Secondly, the state parameter, as defined, does
not account for the effect of initial static shear stress
on the subsequent drained and undrained response, as will
be illustrated later herein. Nevertheless, it is impor
tant to emphasize that the critical void ratio line pro
vides a reference state which apparently is characterized
by a unique fabric or particle arrangement. This refer
ence state includes the combined effects of void ratio,
129
stress level, mineral composition, size distribution and
shape of the particles on the drained strength charac
teristics of sands.
3.3.2 Undrained Behavior under Monotonic Loading
In an undrained test, volume change is not permitted.
Consequently, the specimen is forced to remain at a con
stant (average) void ratio. However, the sand would still
try to reduce its volume, but since this is not possible,
it responds by transferring load from the grain structure
to the pore water. Accordingly, the path in the state
diagram traverses horizontally at a constant void ratio
until the change in effective confining stress and the
process of deformation brings the specimen into a steady-
state condition, such that the particular void ratio at
which the specimen is compelled to remain during shearing
becomes a critical void ratio (131). In principle, the
critical void ratio line from drained tests should be
reached at this stage, since no volume change tendency
after large strains would correspond to no changes in pore
water pressure, and hence a process of continuous deforma
tion under constant shear stress Is expected to develop.
However, experimental evidence suggests that the pore
pressure response of sand specimens in undrained shear
might not be uniquely related to potential volume changes
during drained tests, as measured by the critical void
130
ratio line. Figure 3.18 shows the results of undrained
monotonic load— controlled triaxial tests on "Banding sand"
(14), a uniform, clean quartz sand with subrounded to
subangular grains, at three different relative densities,

2
but at the same consolidation confining stress (4 Kg/cm ).
The paths in the state diagram corresponding to these
three tests are shown in Figure 3.19, together with the
critical void ratio line obtained from drained tests on
the same sand. It is observed that virtually none of the
state paths under undrained shear ends at the critical
void ratio line.
Specimen A exhibits a strain softening type of
behavior. After the peak point of the stress-strain
c curve, which occurs at a small strain,
reduction in strength with increasing strain until the

there is a marked
stress stabilizes at a ultimate or residual strength. As
indicated earlier, this type of deformation is termed
"flow deformation." During the softening process the
specimen underwent very large deformations which were
observed to occur in a time period less than a second.
The specimen reached a "steady-state of deformation" at a
very small residual strength and very small effective con
fining stress, which remained practically constant between
strains of 6 and 25%. At this strain the test was
automatically stopped. After large strains the original
structure of the sand has been drastically altered. The
131
o 8
^ c - 4 . 0 kg/cm '
CM
Eo 6
o> H Test; Drc - 47%

4 7 min. to £ - 1 5 %
?
CO 4
CO R Test; D fg* 4 4 %
UJ
cc 0 .4 sec. from
K Peak to £ - 1 8 %
co
cc
o
H 2
<
R Test; D rc * 3 0 %
>
UJ .0.2 sec. from Peak to £ - 2 5 %
o
0 .3 0 k g /c m 2
0
20
c r
AXIAL STRAIN, £ , %
Initial ^ “C“ 4 .0 kg/cm ' - 0.15 kg/cm

UJ
cc 4 — i— i— r ~ --- ~Y7Xl
3
CO
CO
UJ
cc
O.CM
UJ O 2
o ®
Q.
Q
UJ 3
o
3
3 0
0 5 10 15 20
AXIAL STRAIN, £ , %
Figure 3.18 Undrained Load Controlled Tests on Istropi-

cally Consolidated Specimens of Banding
Sand (After Refs. 13,14).
c
0.8
S Line: Critical void ratio line from drained 20

axial compression trlaxial tests
RELATIVE DENSITY, Dr (%)

Steady-state deformation -25
0.75
Q> ■oA -30
O
I-
<
cc
Consolidation states -35
9 At end of test
O 40
> 0.7 ,S Line
- 45
Limited steady-state -50

deformation
0.65 55
E F F E C T I V E M I N O R PRINCIPAL S T R E S S , CT' (kg/cm2 )
Figure 3.19 Undr ai ne d S t a t e P a t h s C o r r e s p o n d i n g t o T e s t s in Figure 3.18 u>

( D a t a from R e f . 1 3 , 1 4 ) . ro
133
steady— state of deformation is reached only after grain

G orientation and grain breakage, if any, are both com
pleted. The particles in the shear zone are oriented as
much as they can be under the applied stress state, such
that, the specimen exhibits a minimum resistance to con
tinuous shear deformation (131).
Specimen B, in Figure 3.18, exhibits also a strain
softening type of response but the reduction in strength
is less significant than for specimen A. For a limited
range of strains, the specimen deforms under a steady-
state condition (continuous deformation at constant shear
stress and constant pore water pressure). However,
further straining causes dilation and a corresponding
C regain in strength, i.e. a strain hardening response.
the contrary, specimen C exhibits only a strain hardening

On
type of response as dilation is soon initiated and the
strength increases with further straining. A steady-state
condition is not reached and dilation is still evident
after an axial strain of 14%. It is important to note
that the stress-strain response changes from strain
softening (specimen A) to strain hardening (specimen C) as
the relative density of the specimen increases from 30% to
47%.
In similar tests performed by Castro (14), it is the
author's interpretation that all the specimens with ini
tial states above the S line in Figure 3.19 exhibited
134
strain softening type of response, reaching in all cases a
steady-state of deformation. The state conditions during
steady-state deformation of all of these specimens were
found to define an approximately unique line in the state
diagram, which is shown in Figure 3.20 (line F) irrespec
tive of widely different initial states above the S line.
For specimens with initial states below the S line, the
behavior was observed to change gradually from limited
strain softening to strongly dilative as the initial state
moved further away from the S line. The strain hardening
behavior was clearly evident for initial states below the
F line, cases in which the undrained state path was
observed to move towards the right crossing the F line.
Apparently, the state paths corresponding to strongly
dilative specimens would have reached the critical void
ratio line eventually at strains larger than could be
applied in the triaxial apparatus.
Thus, the author concludes that the F line in Figure
3.20 represents the relationship between void ratio and
effective confining stress during steady-state of deforma
tion for specimens with initial states above the S line.
According to Casagrande (13), the letter F stands for the
critical void ratio in which flow deformation following
the collapse of the structure develops. At the same void
ratio, the undrained steady-state strength is about four
times smaller than the corresponding value during drained
135
steady— state of deformation (Fig. 3.20). At this stage,

o the shear stress is related to the effective confining
stress by a function of the steady— state angle of fric
tion, which (as will be shown later) corresponds to the
large strain drained angle of shearing resistance.
Although some experimental errors could have influenced
the large difference observed between the S and F lines,
the writer attributes part of it to the "collapsiveness"
or brittleness of the sand skeleton (2). In a brittle
skeleton, small shear strains can produce a sudden rear
rangement of grains and loss of contact points between
neighboring grains. Upon collapse of the structure, load
is suddenly transferred from the soil skeleton to the
water and the pore water pressure increases rapidly in

o spite of the reduction in applied shear stress. Conse
quently, the shear strength is substantially reduced and
the sand specimen undergoes large deformations in a very
short period of time, reaching a steady-state of deforma
tion .
Thus, in undrained shear, the very high sudden change
in compressibility and the associated inertial effects at
high rates of deformation produce a drastic change in the
mechanism of pore pressure generation leading to a reduced
steady-state strength. Accordingly, in the author's opin
ion, the pore pressure response of sands in undrained
shear is not uniquely related to the volume decrease
Q.
C
o
CD
Q.
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.
10
0.8
15
S Line: Critical void ratio line from drained -20

axial compression triaxial tests
25
(D 0.75 F Line: Undrained steady-state line from stress Q
o controlled axial compression triaxial tests ..
I-
30 >-'
< S Line
cc CO
z
o +35 J
o i
> Undrained path UJ
Consolidation state 40 >
^ Z L
- —- _ £ Drained path
45 Ul
cc
F Line + 50
0.65 55
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E F F E C T I V E M I N O R PRINCIPAL S T R E S S , (kg/cm2 )
Figure 3.20 Steady-State Di ag r a m s for Ba n d i n g Sand (Data from Ref. 14). u>
137
potential determined by the critical void ratio line. The

o pore pressure response is determined not only by the mag
nitude of the potential volume changes but also by the
variation of the contractive tendencies with respect to
the level of shear strain and the consequent changes in
particle arrangement. The author's views are further sup
ported by the fact that constant volume tests and
undrained tests may provide different results (139).
The collapsiveness of sand may be determined by a
combination of factors such as composition, size distribu
tion and shape of the particles, relative density, state
of stress, rate of loading, and possible other factors
such as particle arrangement and orientation, stress-
c strain history, cementation,
example,
and geologic aging.
the influence of the initial state of stress on

For
the "collapsiveness" of banding sand can be illustrated by
comparing the behavior of two test specimens initially
consolidated to points A and B, as shown in Fig. 3.20. In
undrained shear, specimen A collapses completely and —
under controlled loading — will reach the F line at point
A . A steady-state strength corresponding to
observed. On the other hand, subject to the same loading
conditions, specimen B will start to collapse and move
towards the F line (B ). Depending upon the initial state
of stress (cr _) specimen B may, or may not, reach the F
line but in any case dilation is soon initiated (new
138
contact points develop) and point B moves back towards the
S line (B"). Thus, only a limited collapse accompanied by
a short-lived flow condition takes place. A steady-state
strength condition (in terms of continuing large strains
at constant shear stress) is not observed. Consequently,
if the initial state of the sand specimen (void ratio and
state of stress) is between the F and S lines, its collap
siveness will be restricted and it may never reach the
steady-state line (line F) determined from initial states
that fall outside the S line.
Nevertheless, the key factor in the collapse mechan
ism appears to be an abrupt, very rapid change in compres
sibility with respect to shear strain, at small strain
amplitudes. The smoother, more rounded and finer the par
ticles, the higher the collapse potential and the further
apart the F and S lines tend to be. Accordingly, sands
with these characteristics exhibit the highest potential
for "flow deformation" or strain softening behavior, all
other factors being equal. On the other hand, the collapse
of a sand with angular and compressible grains is likely
to be very small. In this case, continuous particle break
age and hence gradual deformation may develop during
shearing without exhibiting a sudden rearrangement of
grains. Consequently, the drop in strength after the peak
strength, if any, and the corresponding rate of deforma
tion following the "collapse" are considerably reduced.
139
T h u s , If a sand is not inherently brittle the S and F
lines would tend to merge. It is clear that the shear
strength at the steady-state of deformation is affected by
the deformation characteristics of the initial structure
of the sand since pore pressure buildup and the resulting
strength drop are dependent upon it.
There is evidence that the pore water pressure gen
erated, during undrained shear, and hence the undrained
strength, depends on the particular strain rate that is
applied (13,63,150). In load controlled tests such as
those performed by Castro (14), the maximum possible
strain rate is that corresponding to free fall velocity.
However, the test rates of deformation, although high,
were smaller than that corresponding to free fall and
therefore were controlled by the sand properties. On the
other hand, in strain controlled tests it is postulated
that the faster the strain rate the greater the generated
pore pressure until a limiting strain rate is reached
irrespective of how fast we try to increase it. This lim
iting strain rate is solely a function of the soil charac
teristics and is observed in load controlled tests subject
to free fall conditions. Consequently, for collapsing
soils the F and S lines will move farther and farther
apart as the applied strain rate is increased until the
limiting F line is reached as controlled by the soil pro
perties. Thus, a unique steady-state line can be reached
140
only if the nature of the applied loads is such that the
initial buildup in pore water pressure is completely over-

l
ridden by the loading conditions. Otherwise, the unique
relationship between void ratio and effective confining
stress at the steady-state of deformation is a function of
the particular velocity of deformation. In an embankment
or slope, if large masses of soil collapse simultaneously,
the soil mass overlying the collapsed zone can move under
free fall. Under these conditions, the characteristics of
the collapsed soil will control the limiting F line as
determined by Castro's tests (14). For non-collapsing
soils the S and F lines tend to merge irrespective of the
strain rate.
Most experimental investigations on the steady-state
strength of sands have been performed by means of axial
compression triaxial tests (14,165,186), which implies
that the behavior has been investigated only along partic
ular stress paths. However, there is ample experimental
tions prevalent during deposition of most natural sand
deposits is highly anisotropic, which causes changes in
the undrained deformation-strength characteristics with
the direction of loading (55,118,119,169). Tests by
Reades (cited in Ref. 9) showed that the undrained
steady-state strength in axial extension for a Kq consoli
dated specimen was less than half that for an isotropically
141
consolidated specimen, at the same void ratio after
consolidation. This was attributed to the 90° rotation of
the planes of principal stress. Accordingly, it is felt
that the steady-state strength of sands may not be
independent of inherent anisotropy and the nature of the
stress path with respect to the orientation of the bedding
planes. The effects of stress path and fabric anisotropy
on the "steady-state" strength have thus far been observed
only in strain controlled tests: it is not yet know
whether they have an influence on the limiting F line.
It Is important to observe that the steady-state line
is a locus of points at which the sand specimen deforms
continuously after reaching a steady-state condition
(131). If the initial state of a specimen is at any point
along the F line, the corresponding state path during
undrained shear will move towards the right in Figure
3.20, as the change in structure occurs, probably trying
to approach the S line. Thus, the initial structure and
state of stress are such that the specimen exhibits no
contractiveness but a strongly dilative behavior. Thus,
if the initial state is on the F line, the F line does not
represent a steady-state condition.
From the foregoing discussion, it can be concluded
that the significant engineering properties, which charac
terize the behavior of "collapsing" saturated sands under
undrained monotonic loading are:
142
1. The peak shear strength, and the corresponding strain
level at which it develops. In this connection, it
is of fundamental interest to define the physical
factors and state conditions controlling the trigger
ing of the collapse of the structure, that is, the
initiation of the strain softening or flow deforma
tion response. As discussed later, this is espe
cially relevant in the evaluation of the response
under cyclic loading.
2. The magnitude of the strength drop from the peak
value to the steady-state strength and the associated
deformations. Once the structure of the sand has
collapsed, the extent of the failure under the acting
shear stresses will depend only on the shear strength
of the sand at the steady-state condition.
These properties are discussed in detail below.
Figure 3.21 presents the peak deviator stress,
(a -a,), corresponding to the tests on Banding sand in

X
which complete or limited strain softening behavior was
observed. As expected, the peak strength increases with
increase in either relative density or consolidation pres-

2
sure. However, at low confining pressures (<1.0 Kg/cm )
the effect of Dr on peak strength is small; at high con-

2
fining pressures (>5 Kg/cm ), Dr has an important effect
on peak strength.
c
V O I D RATIO, 6
0.8 0.76 0.72 0,70 0.68
%
o
D) Banding sand
*
^ Load controlled triaxial test
b
I Strain softening response: , CT c“ 10 Kg/cm 2
Limited strain
softening response: • a mr
co 5 '
CO
UJ
a:
H 4-.
CO 4
DC
O
£ 3 '
fij
O 4.0
UJ
CL
20 40 50
R E L A T I V E DENS I T Y , Dr (%)
143
Figure 3.2 1 Peak Undr ai ne d Shear S t r e n g t h as a F u n c t i o n o f R e l a t i v e
Density ( D a t a from R e f . 1 4 ) .
144
The state parameter approach has been also used for

G evaluating undrained behavior of sands (8). When the peak
deviator stress is normalized with respect to the consoli
dation confining pressure and plotted versus the state
parameter, i|>, the values fall within a relatively narrow
band as shown in Figure 3.22. For these specimens the
state parameter is defined as the difference between the
consolidation void ratio and the void ratio corresponding
to the undrained steady-state line (line F) at the same
consolidation pressure. The trend is clear with the nor
malized peak strength decreasing as the state parameter
increases, irrespective of the consolidation pressure.
The relatively well-defined relationship in Figure 3.22
suggests that the normalized peak strength depends on the

c proximity of the initial state with respect to the F line,
irrespective of the absolute values of void ratio and con
fining pressure at the consolidation state. The scatter
in-Figure 3.22 may reflect unavoidable differences in
specimen preparation procedures and experimental errors.
Moreover, it is not yet know whether the vertical distance
between the F and S lines is constant, irrespective of the
confining stress. If this is not the case, correlations
with a state parameter defined with respect to the F line
may show some scatter because at the same values, some
points may lie initially between the S and F lines whereas
others may be located above the S line, resulting in dif-
f ferent stress-strain behavior. However, results of

I
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction C
s
0.7.
Bandlng sand
NBA
w N
w N V
UJ N
cc
F a N n °
w 0.6 -
n n *
cc n
o QD
<c
a
a
*
< 0.5 -
LU
CL ° c (Kg/cm2 ) Symbol
O o •
UJ 0.3 N
N N»
□ 1.0 A A A 'N
<
5 4.0 □ ■
CC 0.4--
o 10.0 v ▼
2
-I- + + t- -I-
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
STATE PARAMETER, et-Of at <%'
Figure 3.22 No r ma l i z e d Peak Undrai nev’ Shear S t r e n g t h as a F u n c t i o n of
145
S t a t e Pa r a me t e r (Data frim Ref . 1 4 ) .
146
triaxial tests on two different sands reported by Sladen
et a l . (165), suggest that the state line separating the
region of limited strain softening from the region of
strain hardening behavior is essentially parallel to the
steady-state line (line F ) , in a e versus log plot.
The axial strains at peak deviator stress ep , are
plotted in Figure 3.23 versus the state parameter. It is
noted that, in general, the values of ep are relatively
small. Although the normalized peak strength correlated
well with the state parameter, it is observed that ep is
not uniquely correlatable to state parameter. On the con
trary, for a given state parameter value, the strain at
peak stress increases with increasing confining pressure.
A similar trend can be inferred regarding the undrained
Young's modulus, which is a measurement of the stiffness
of the sand structure, whereas the strain at peak reflects
the ductility of the soil skeleton. Accordingly, both
stiffness and ductility increase with increasing confining
pressure at the same value of state parameter, \|>. Conse
quently, these two properties, which define the stress-
strain characteristics of the specimen prior to the col
lapse of the structure, are not uniquely correlatal«le to
state parameter, i|>.
The fact that for a given value the normalized peak
strength reaches a "unique" value irrespective of , sug
gests that the triggering of specimen collapse might occur
C
3.0
5 Banding sand
vu
W 2zs5 -
V)
111
DC
I—
CO
g 2.0- 0 -»c = 10 Kg/cm'
K“
<
>
UJ
D 1.5-
*
<
UJ
Q.
1 .0 -
z
< 1.0
cc
h-
w 0.5 -
_l
<
X 0.3
<
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11
STATE PARAMETER, = e c - 0 F at crfc
Figure 3.23 A x i a l S t r a i n a t Peak D e v i a t o r S t r e s s as a F u n c t i o n of S t a t e
14 7
P a r a me t e r ( D a t a from R e f . 1 4 ) .
148
o at a particular value of the principal effective stress
ratio, which in turn relates to the mobilized angle of

*
shear resistance. Accordingly, the mobilized <|> at peak
deviator stress were calculated and plotted versus rela
tive density and state parameter as shown in Figures 3.24
and 3.25. The mobilized angle of shear resistance is
related to the peak deviator stress, ^ ai"°3 ^p the
expression
---------------- (3.3)
c°i— °3 > p « c » c—V
*
where a is the consolidation effective confining pressure
c
and Up is the pore pressure at the peak point of the
c stress-strain curve.
It is seen that the mobilized angle of shear resis
tance at peak strength for Banding sand increases with
increasing relative density but decreases as the confining
pressure increases in such a way that for initial states
at equal vertical distance from the F line, the mobilized

*
<j> becomes approximately a constant as indicated by the
relationship in Figure 3.25, especially if the confining

2
pressure is lower than 4.0 Kg/cm . The scatter of the
points corresponding to a consolidation confining pressure

2
of 10 Kg/cm is attributed in part to the fact that the F
line in Figure 3.20 is defined only up to a of 3.0

2
Kg/cm and therefore, some extrapolation was required.
V O I D RATIO, e
0.8 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72 0.70 0.68 0.66
CO
a>
a>
>_
O) 26- Banding sand
Q)
■a
8 24
LU
CC
f—
CO
22 -
a;
O 4.0
t- 10.0
<
> 20 -
at
Q
*
< 18 -
LU
Q_
16 - Strain softening response: o e> □ o

Q
UJ Limited strain softening: • * ■ ▼
N
5 14
O
5 --i------------ +
10 20 30 40 50
Figure 3.24 Angl e o f S h e a r i n g R e s i s t a n c e M o b i l i z e d a t Peak D e v i a t o r
149
S t r e s s as a F u n c t i o n o f R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y ( D a t a from R e f . 14)
28
w
0)
0)
& 26
2
w
(/> 9
UJ A
*4
DC
F-
(O
DC 22
O
<
>
UJ 20
□
*
< Banding sand
81 18
Q
UJ ic
16
CTc '(Kg/cm 2) Symbol
N 0.3 o •
to 1.0 A A
2 14 4.0 □ ■
10.0 V V
(
...
-I I- H -- -1- -t~- - I—
0.01 0.02 0 .0 3 0.04 0.05
0 .05 oto6
0 .06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
STATE PARAMETER, v|> ” e c - e F at CTc
Figure 3.25 Angl e o f S h e a r i n g R e s i s t a n c e M o b i l i z e d a t Peak D e v i a t o r

S t r e s s as a F u n c t i o n of S t a t e Par ame t e r ( D a t a from R e f . 14).
150
151
Consequently, for a given state parameter value the ini
o tiation of strain softening behavior occurs at a well
defined value of the principal stress ratio or mobilized
angle of shearing resistance. As pointed out by Leonards
(108), it is to be noted that the values of mobilized *
are considerably smaller than the maximum angle of shear
resistance, which from drained tests was found to be of
the oreder of 30° to 32°. Although mobilized $ at peak
stress correlates relatively well with *, as the confining
pressure increases, the level of strain required to mobil-

>•
ize * at peak strength also increases. The level of 0£
may have similar implications on the effects of cumulative
residual strain due to cyclic loading.
c It is also of interest to determine the magnitude of
the pore water pressure prior to the collapse of the
structure. From E q . 3.3 it can be readily obtained that
(sin* -1)
"p ' „ < °1 -V p * °c (3-4>
2 s l o *»ob.
By normalizing with respect to the peak deviator stress it
follows that
u_ sin* . -1 a
* mob* + ---- £ _ (3.5)
( al - ff3 )p 2sin *
mob.
152
The left hand term in E q . 3.5 corresponds to

o Skempton's A^ , the pore pressure parameter at failure. It
can be noted that for a given state parameter, the term
a is constant independently of the level of o .

c 1 3 P c
Consequently, there is a unique relationship between the
*
pore pressure parameter and mobilized $ at peak. This
relationship had already been identified by Leonards (108)
based on the same data and it is reproduced in Figure
3.26. The correlation is remarkably close reflecting the
direct relation between compressibility and . The

*
direct interrelationship between mobilized <p , the pore
pressure parameter A^ and state parameter is clearly evi
dent. However, it is more convenient to relate mobilized
$ directly to state parameter since A^ is a property

c which has to be measured. Unlike the state parameter, it
is not a measure of initial state conditions of the speci
men.
After the peak point, the strength decreases drasti
cally until the specimen reaches a steady-state of defor
mation. At this stage, the strength is related to the
steady— state conditions defined by the F line and the
angle of shear resistance, <f>_, mobilized after large

r
strains, by the expression
2sin<|>
( °l~°3)F ' . a3F < 3 ’6)
1— sinq>p
< 9-
H0- Initial porosity
MOBILIZED
8 -
n« 0 .4 1 5 to 0 .4 5 5
7"
In drained shear
6 -
<jb'-30*
15
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
P O R E P R E S S U R E P A R A M E T E R A f A T P E A K (O ^ -O s )
Figure 3.26 Relationship between Mobilized <(>' and Pore

Pressure A,— Parameter at Peak Deviator
Stress (Alter Ref. 108).
154
where c._ is the effective confining stress at the

3r
o steady— state of deformation. Figure 3.27 shows the mobil-
*
ized <|>_ at the steady-state condition for the tests on
F
Banding sand. It is evident that at the steady-state con
dition the effective angle of shear resistance is fully
mobilized. For Banding sand, <J> at large strain is found
to be rather independent of the confining pressure for
relative densities below about 50%. However, data
reported by Baldi et al. (7), show that the dependency of

^ *
i|i on o increases with increasing relative density,
c
To quantify the magnitude of the strength drop after
the peak in saturated loose specimens, Bishop (9) defined
a parameter that he called "brittleness index," which is
c the difference between the peak strength and the steady-
state strength normalized with respect to the peak
strength. This parameter is homologous to "sensitivity"
of quick clays. The brittleness index was determined for
the tests on Banding sand in which complete or limited
strain softening response was observed, and plotted versus
relative density and state parameter, as shown in Figures
3.28 and 3.29. It is seen that the degree of softening,
as measured by Iw , increases with decreasing relative den-
sity and increasing confining pressure. For very low
relative densities, the drop in strength may be close to
100% irrespective of the confining pressure (Fig. 3.28).
The combined influence of relative density and confining
r'.
C
VOID RATIO, e
0,8 0^78 0,76 0^74 0.72 0^74 0.68 0.66
40 — J - - -t
W Undrained Tests
Q)
<1)
i.
Banding sand
D) 38 O-c (Kg/cm 2 ) Symbol
©
TJ 0.3 o •
Z 1.0 A A
o
t- 4.0 a m
Q
Z 10.0 V V
o
0 34
Ul
t-
2
w 32
1 (0.5 ) (0.3) *
V
o * *
(1) *
i * (1)
< (0.3) 0 • * *
UJ 30
F- (0.3) * 14)
CO *
(4) (1 0 )
28 -
O
UJ ^ at peak devlator stress
N
□ in drained tests
5
m 26
o () Consolidation confining
2 o? pressure, K g / c m 2
■9- 24 — /V — i— -I
v 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 3.27 Angl e of S h e a r i n g R e s i s t a n c e M o b i l i z e d a t S t e a d y - S t a t e
155
C o n d i t i o n as a F u n c t i o n o f R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y ( D a t a from R e f . 1 •)
156
m
0)
CM >
XJ
as
a>
0)
ttS
©
«-i
O
e
o
•H
XJ
O
c
5
U-t
CO
CO
CO
CO
CO •
0)
co c *3*
0)
n
c CO
z
UJ
XJ •
XJ U-i
-H 0)
kt p£
CQ
E
Q T5 O
CJ Ul
UJ C <XJ
>
a. I- CO CO
U XJ
cr -- o
CM
< -o CO
cr c Q
UJ
oc
O >>
XJ
X •H
o CO
O' i-i c
CO e 0)
O) l-l O
■o oo
CM
CD'
0)
3
o co CO CM 00
o
aI ‘X 3 Q N 1 SS3N311J.jaa
157
pressure on the brittleness or collapsiveness of banding

o sand is such that Ig also correlates well with the state
parameter, as illustrated in Figure 3.29. A plot similar
to that in Figure 3.29 was recently presented by Sladen et
al. (165) based on triaxial tests on two different sands.
Either plot suggests that there exists a state parameter
value below which the brittleness index is zero. This is
a further indication of the fact that specimens with ini
tial states in the region just above the F line will show
a strain hardening type of behavior.
The state diagram as used by Casagrande and others
(13,14,15) only accounts for the relationship between void
ratio and confining pressure (or mean confining stress)
c during either drained or undrained shearing.
does not permit interpretation of the mobilization of the

However, it
shear resistance of the sand before and after the point of
collapse, if any, until reaching the steady-state condi
tion. Consequently, either a 3-D diagram, in terms of
mean confining stress, shear stress and void ratio (186)
or a combination of state diagram and stress-path plot
(144,169) is required to fully represent the most impor
tant stages during undrained monotonic loading of sands;
namely, the initiation of strain softening behavior, the
change for contractive to dilative behavior, when this is
the case and finally the undrained strength at the
steady-state condition.
i.a
Banding Sand
0.8..
CD
M
X
UJ
Q 0.6..
z
CO
CO
UJ
z
UJ
-I
0.4-
H
h Symbol
s
m
0. 2..
■ 4.0
10.0
■
+
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
STATE PARAMETER, t|/ = ec- eFat <r£
F ig u re 3.29 Index of U n d r a i n e d B r i t t l e n e s s as a F u n c t i o n of State

Parameter (Data fr om Ref. 14).
159
Based on the behavior of Banding sand, which may be
c / typical of other types of sand with similar characteris
tics, that is, uniform, clean quartz sands with subrounded
to subangular grains, the relationship between the state
diagram and the effective stress plot will be illustrated
schematically for three typical cases:
1. Constant relative density,
2. Constant consolidation pressure, and
3. Constant state parameter.
1.Behavior at Constant Relative Density. It is of
interest to analyze the undrained behavior of specimens
C with a constant relative density at different levels of
confining pressure. In this case, the state parameter
changes from negative on the dilative side to increasingly
positive as the consolidation pressure increases. The
resulting behavior is illustrated in Figure 3.30. On the
dilative side, as the effective stress path approaches the
failure line dilation prevails and as a result of the
decreasing pore water pressure the stress path exhibits a
turn around point or change in direction and climbs
approximately along the failure line. A peak point is not
observed and the maximum angle of shear resistance is
mobilized at the peak deviator stress, which occurs at
large strains. However, it is to be noted that at the
160
o S tate Diagram
S Line
Strain softening region

<D
O
cc o— — o--- o
9
o
> Transition region
Strain hardening region
F Line
c co
Stress Path Plot
S tead y-state
envelope
b
I CM
Locus of
II triggering
cr
states
(CSR line)
Figure 3.30 Undrained Behavior at Constant Relative

Density (Schematic).
161
point the stress path changes in direction the mobilized

o angle of shear resistance is only slightly smaller than
the corresponding to the failure line. As the confining
pressure increases the behavior changes from dilative to
limited strain softening behavior. The stress path shows
a peak point which gradually moves away from the failure
line as the confining pressure increases. F in al ly , for
initial states beyond the S line, the behavior becomes
complete strain softening and the mobilized $ at peak
approaches a constant value at high confining pressures in
accord with the trend observed in Figure 3.24. Conse
quently, the locus of points at which strain softening is
initiated defines a curve which at some point deviates
from the failure line and gradually becomes a straight
c *
line as the mobilized $ decreases to a constant value.
Hence, the locus of peak points defines a critical stress
ratio, CSR, line (186), that is, the line connecting the
points on the stress space surface marking the initiation
of strain softening behavior at different confining pres
sures. In the tests performed by Sladen et a l . (165) on
Nerlerk and Leighton Buzzard sands, the CSR line was found
to be a straight line. As the relative density increases,
the CSR line branches away from the failure line at a much
higher shear stress level since the behavior becomes con
tractive at much higher confining pressures.
162
2. Behavior aC Constant Consolidation Pressure. At

(
low relative densities the state parameter is positive and
becomes negative as the relative density is such*that the
initial state is below the F line. Consequently, as shown
in Figure 3.31, the stress path corresponding to low rela
tive densities reflects a strain softening behavior with a
large drop in shear stress accompanied by a high pore
water pressure increase. As the relative density
increases the mobilized <J> at peak increases as well as
the steady-state strength. For initial states between the
S and F lines the behavior may correspond to limited
strain softening. Accordingly, the stress path after the
peak moves downwards but at some point moves upwards
approaching the steady-state envelope. As the relative

C density continues to increase, the behavior becomes com
plete strain hardening (no peak in the stress-strain
curve) and the stress path climbs along the failure line.
An elbow or change in curvature in'the stress path is
observed at a stress ratio corresponding to a mobilized <j>
smaller than the angle of shear resistance, which
increases with increasing relative density but decreases
with increasing confining stress at high relative densi
ties.
3. Behavior at Constant State Parameter. Since the
normalized peak strength and the pore pressure parameter
at failure are both "unique" functions of state parameter,
163
State Diagram
S Line
-e A
-o B
F Line
Transition region
a y + cri
P =
c
Stress Path Plot S tead y-state envelope
co
CM
Locus of triggering states

(CSR line) t
c7
• S teady-state condition
Figure 3.31 Undrained Behavior at Constant Consolidation

Confining Stress (Schematic).
the corresponding effective stress paths in the q-p'
space become geometrically similar, as illustrated in Fig
ure 3*32 for a given state parameter value. Under these
conditions, the locus of peaks point defines a straight
CSR line, irrespective of the level of confining stress.
Although the A^ parameter at peak deviator stress is the
same for all the stress paths shown in Figure 3.32, it is
not to be concluded that the rate of pore pressure buildup
per a given increment of deviator stress is the same. As
illustrated in Figure 3.32, the higher the confining pres
sure the stiffer the specimen and consequently the lower
the pore pressure generated at the same shear stress
level. When the rates of pressure buildup are compared at
the critical stress ratio they happen to be equal since
all specimens have the same "contraction" potential as
measured by the state parameter. Thus, the higher the
confining pressure, the higher the deviator stress and the
consequent pore pressure at peak strength, such that A ^ ,
which is a function of ip (Figs. 3.25 and 3.26), remains
con st an t.
3.3.3 Effect of Sand Type on Undrained Behavior
As mentioned earlier, the brittleness or "collapsive-
ness" of sand skeletons, that is the susceptibility to an
abrupt, very rapid change in compressibility at small
strain amplitudes, has a crucial influence on the
165
o
S Line State Diagram
o A Consolidation states
© • S tead y-state condition

------oB
O
h-
<
cc
o
o F Line
>
^ (constant)
c Stress Path Plot
S teady-state
envelope
e\j
Locus of triggering
S tea d y -s ta te strength - states (CSR line)

cr
Figure 3.32 Ondrained Behavior at Constant State

Parameter (Schematic).
undrained behavior of saturated sands. It is clear that,
in addition to relative density and level of stress, the
type of sand, that is the mineral composition, size dis
tribution, shape and roughness of the particles, play an
important role in the collapse mechanism. Figures 3.33

*
and 3.34 present the mobilized $ at peak deviator stress
versus relative density and the steady-state lines,
respectively, for a uniform, fine to medium, clean sand
with angular, bulky grains composed of basalt, pla-
gioclase, magnetite and olivine (14). The corresponding
values for banding sand are also shown for comparison. It
is seen that at the same relative density the angular sand
mobilizes a higher $ at the peak than the banding sand

*
(Fig 3.33). It is also to be noted that <t> mobilized at
peak is closer to the maximum angle of shear resistance in
the case of the more angular sand. However, the effect of
confining pressure on the mobilized angle of shear resis
tance at peak deviator stress is significantly larger for
the angular sand, which was observed to be more compressi
ble. This is likely to result partly from breakage of
sharp edges during both consolidation and shearing stages.
On the other hand, at the same relative density the
steady-state strength of the more angular sand is larger
than for banding sand (Fig 3.34), which exhibited a more
pronounced strain softening behavior (14). It is also
noted that the difference between the F and S lines is
smaller for the more angular sand, which is also
<n 40
a>
2 38
O) /
a) 1.0 Symbol ( j j drained
~ 36 Angular sand a ■ 3 4 .5 °
0)
a 34 / Banding sand & □ 30.6"
a:
i- U
co 32
DC
o
h
CFc=4.0 K g /cnr
30
< ■ II ■
>
UJ
0 28
X.
<
Hi 26
01
I- 24 -
<
Q
UJ 22 -
N
§ 20 4.0
18
-e-
16 Ay-
10 20 30 40 SO
Figure 3.33 Angl e o f S h e a r i n g R e s i s t a n c e M o b i l i z e d at Peak D e v i a t o r
S t r e s s f o r Two D i f f e r e n t Sands ( D a t a from R e f . 1 4 ) .
168
i- Triaxial Tests 0 i
1
p 10-!
1 i
Line
--------------------------- 2 C ~
i
N
0.9 ^ 3p at Dr= 2 0 % S Line
Angular sand
DENSITY, Dr (%)
<£'*=35"
©
O
C l-
<
cc
o 0.8
RELATIVE
F Line S Line
0.7 - Banding sand

(Subrounded to subangular)
< £ '- 3 0 .6 °
i i i i i ii11
____ i i i i i iii
0.01 0.1 1 _ 10
E F F E C T IV E M INO R PR IN C IP A L S T R E S S , ^ 3 , k g / s q cm
Figure 3.34 Steady-State Diagrams for Two Different

Sands (Adapted from Ref. 14).
169
Indicative of a reduced degree of softening and smaller
collapsiveness of the structure.
Figure 3.35 compares the steady-state diagrams (F
line) for two other types of sand with angular and rounded
grains, respectively, possessing identical gradations
(186). The angular sand is identified as tailings sand,
which is composed of quartz (35%) and feldspar (65%)
grains. The rounded sand corresponds to Ottawa sand.
Both sands have a mean grain size of 0.4 mm and coeffi
cient of uniformity of about 1.5. For a wide range of
initial states the specimens of both sands only exhibited
limited strain softening response. Therefore, the effec
tive confining pressure values plotted in Figure 3.35
correspond to the values observed during the short-lived
steady-state condition. For relative densities below
about 38% the steady-state strength of Ottawa sand is con
siderably smaller than for tailings sand. The reduction
in strength associated with strain softening of Ottawa
sand was found to be much larger than for the tailings
sand under similar initial stress conditions. On the
other hand, at relative densities above about 38% the
steady-state strength of Ottawa sand becomes larger than
that corresponding to tailings sand, at comparable rela
tive densities. This is attributed to the fact that the
angular sand is still very compressible at relative densi
ties above 38%, due in part to crushing of grains but also
170
O 1.00
Triaxial Tests <f> -38.5 20
0.95 30
DENSITY, Drc (%)

40
0.90
50
O 0.85
60
0.80- ®d 70
80
RELATIVE
> 0.75
S te a d y -s ta te strength
0.70 -
0 .65
E F F E C T I V E C O N F I N I N G S T R E S S , O '3' (kgf/cm2 )
a) A n g u l a r Tailings S a n d
c Triaxial Tests <P =31.5
D ENSITY, Dr (%)
0.751-
- 0.70
5 0.6 5r
O 0.601-
RELATIVE
7 ' v-a
S te a d y -s ta te strengtn
0.1 0 .2 0.5 1.0 5.0 10.0 20.0 50.0 100.0

E F F E C T I V E C O N F I N I N G S T R E S S , 0~3 (kgf/cm^)
b) R o u n d e d O t t a w a S a n d
Figure 3.35 Undrained Steady-State Diagrams for Two
Different Sands (After Ref. 186).
171
to a larger volume decrease potential than that of Ottawa
sand, at the same relative density. As discussed earlier,
the volume decrease potential, VD , is the difference
between the initial void ratio and the minimum void ratio,
emin* Additionally, it is clearly evident that a small
change in relative density for Ottawa sand corresponds to
a large change in the steady-state strength, whereas a
similar change in Dr of tailings sand produces a less sig
nificant change in the undrained strength at the steady-
state condition. It is clear that the differences in
undrained steady-state strength, which reflect large
differences in compressibility, and collapsiveness of the
two sands, must be related to the differences in mineral
composition, size distribution, shape and roughness of the
particles of the the two sands. For Ottawa sand, it is
the relative density that essentially determines the
change from dilative to contractive behavior, since the
steady-state line is rather flat for confining pressures

2
below about 10 Kg/cm . It is apparent that at high rela
tive densities extremely high effective confining stresses
would be required for the behavior to become contractive
or strain softening. This is attributed to the low
compressibility of Ottawa sand. On the other hand, at any
relative density the behavior of tailings sand may change
from dilative to contractive as the confining stress
increases and the initial state points move to the right
side of the F line, due to the increased compressibility
at higher stress levels.
172
Based on the test results previously discussed, and
on the results of other Investigations regarding the
steady-state strength of saturated sands (8,14,18,34,186)
the author draws the following conclusions:
a. The slope of the steady-state line reflects the
compressibility of the sand skeleton, which in turn
is related to the mineral composition, size distribu
tion, shape and surface roughness of the sand grains.
Steady-state lines are steeper for sands with more
angular, rough particles such as mine tailings pro
duced by rock crushing. This is partly a consequence
of breakage of sharp edges of particles both during
consolidation and undrained shear deformation, and
also of the higher values of e that can be

max
achieved. The flatter lines correspond to sands with
more rounded bulky grains. The slope of the steady-
state lines may also increase with increasing fines
content (< #200 m e s h ) , which is consistent with a
trend towards greater compressibility with increasing
fine content, as compared to cleaner coarser sands.
On the other hand, a rounded sand with friable parti
cles is likely to behave like an angular sand, hence
exhibiting steeper steady-state lines.
b. The position of the steady-state line at low confin
ing stresses is related to the maximum void ratio of
173
the material, which Is also dependent on the size

O distribution and shape of the particles. e is
r r max
likely to be higher for more angular and well-graded
sands as compared to more uniform coarser sands.
Accordingly, the more angular and well-graded sands
may plot at higher void ratios for the same effective
stress at the steady-state conditions.
c. Sands with smoother, more rounded and finer particles
are more susceptible to sudden "collapse" than sands
with angular or compressible (friable) grains. The
higher the collapse potential the larger the magni
tude of strain softening after the peak strength, all
other factors being equal. Consequently, sands with
C smoother, more rounded and finer grains may plot in
the state diagram at a lower a, for the same void

vr
ratio or Dr over the range corresponding to loose
states. Sands with these characteristics are also
likely to exhibit flatter steady-state lines.
These conclusions clearly indicate that the effects
of the type of sand on the susceptibility to strain
softening behavior (or collapse) under monotonic loading
and on the liquefaction potential due to sudden reversals
in the direction of shearing, are opposite. As discussed
earlier, liquefaction potential increases with , the
volume decrease potential. On the contrary, as
174
Increases i.e. for angular sands, the steady-state lines

G become steeper. Moreover, they will be located at higher
*
a values over the range of Dr corresponding to loose
3F
states, reflecting a reduced degree of softening. As VD
decreases, i.e for rounded sands, the opposite is true.
In summary, sands with flatter steady-state lines are
highly susceptible to flow deformation but they have
higher resistance to liquefaction, at the same Dr. As the
slope of the steady-state line increases, the collapsive-
ness of the sand on loading decreases but its liquefaction
potential increases as a result of the higher volume
decrease potential.
3.3.4 The State Diagram and Cyclic Dndrained Behavior
C During cyclic loading, a sand specimen may be sub
jected to shear stress amplitudes below or above the
undrained steady-state strength under monotonic loading.
The cyclic undrained behavior for these two conditions is
discussed below.
1. t < t . Consider first a sand specimen with

cy ss
initial state at point A (Fig.3.36), which is subjected to
a series of shear stress applications of magnitude, Tc y *
As cyclic loading proceeds pore pressures are generated
and the effective stress path traverses towards the left,
eventually moving from the contractive to the dilative
region in the state diagram. It Is noted that as the
175
o State diagram
S Line

a>
O
i-
<
0c
9
o
>
F Line Transition region
p' _ i-P3
| Stress path plot

i
j
Clo
c Steady-state envelope
Monotomc loading
CSR line
Phase transformation line
Figure 3.36 Undrained Behavior under Cyclic Loading of

Magnitude Smaller than Steady-State Strength
( Schematic).
r
176
o effective stress path moves towards the left the principal
stress ratio, that is the mobilized angle of shear resis
tance gradually increases. However, as the shear stress
amplitude is smaller than the steady-state strength for
that particular void ratio, the stress path cannot reach
the critical stress ratio (CSR) line. Therefore, the
effective stress path traverses below the point
corresponding to the steady-state strength (point S in
Fig. 3.36), and approaches the failure line. Once the
effective principal stress ratio becomes slightly smaller
than the value corresponding to the failure line dilation
prevails and the stress path, corresponding to the cycle
in which this occurs, shows a turn around point or elbow
c and moves back along the failure line as observed during
monotonic loading (stress path starting at point B). Upon
reversal of the shear stress (point R in Fig. 3.36) the
pore water pressure increases significantly (downward
motion of grains) and the effective stress path approaches
the origin of the q-p plot determining the occurrence of
liquefaction.
It is clear that excessive pore water pressure upon
reversal of the direction of shearing only occurs after
the stress ratio reaches a threshold value which marks the
point at which dilation prevails completely on the dila
tive region of the state diagram. Consequently, the
stress ratio corresponding to the point at which the
177
stress path In monotonic loading changes in direction may

o be taken as the threshold separating two different
behaviors (82) . The change in behavior will be manifested
in the subsequent unloading and loading in the other
direction. Unless the stress ratio goes beyond the thres
hold, irrespective of the cyclic shear stress amplitude,
the specimen preserves the characteristics of a "solid"
body. Conversely, once the stress ratio is greater than
the threshold, excessive pore water pressure develops upon
unloading bringing the specimen to a liquefied state.
Accordingly, the angle defined by the threshold value of
the stress ratio has been termed (82) "angle of phase
transformation" since upon unloading from a stress ratio
c above the threshold value the behavior of the sand speci
men as a solid is lost and transformed into that of a
liquefied state. Thus, the value of the angle of phase
transformation may be read off from the stress path lines
and for loose specimens it would be slightly smaller in
magnitude than the stress ratio corresponding to the
failure line. In this case, liquefaction is likely to
develop during the first unloading state after the stress
path crosses the line of phase transformation. On the
other hand, as the relative density of the sand increases
the line of phase transformation moves away from the
failure line, since dilation would prevail at much lower
stress ratios. Accordingly, in dense sands many cycles of
loading may be required to reach the zero effective stress
178
condition after crossing the line of phase transformation
for the first time. H o w e v e r , as mentioned earlier, the
development of liquefaction in very dense sands does not
really imply a "transformation of phase."
It is interesting to note that once the stress path
and the state path reach the point p =0, the behavior of
the specimen is likely to be strongly dilative, according
to the state diagram. Consequently, after the deforma
tions which accompany the development of liquefaction
occur, further straining in the other direction permits
dilation to develop, the pore water pressure decreases and
the state point moves to the right towards the steady-
state line, reflecting an increase in the resistance of
the specimen (Point P in Fig. 3.36). If cyclic loading
continues the state path moves back and forth reaching the
*
point p =0 each time liquefaction develops. The
corresponding stress path moves upwards and downwards
along the failure line during the loading stages and
approaches the origin during the unloading phases. If the
steady-state strength of the sand is very low, it is
likely that initial liquefaction is accompanied by the
development of very large strains well beyond the capabil
ities of any testing equipment. Accordingly, these cases
constitute actual liquefaction. As the relative density
increases, the shear strains required to mobilize the
undrained steady-state strength after liquefaction
179
gradually decrease and become Insignificant at very high
relative densities. Dilation develops almost instantane
ously and the specimen withstands the cyclic shear stresses
without appreciable deformation.
In any case, strains mainly accumulate during the
periods of time the stress path point is within the two
lines of phase transformation, irrespective of the magni
tude of the applied shear stress, as long as x remains
smaller than the undrained steady— state strength, x .

ss
Consequently, it is expected that as the shear stress
amplitude increases the resistance to liquefaction becomes
less and less dependent on the cyclic stress ratio itself.
This is clearly evident from the cyclic undrained strength
c curves for Toyoura sand shown in Figure 3.37.
that virtually all strength curves for different relative

It is seen
densities have a similar shaê showing a maximum curvature
at a single value of the cyclic stress ratio, which has
been termed the critical cyclic stress ratio (175). When
the cyclic stress ratio is larger than the critical cyclic
stress ratio, whether cyclic undrained failure is induced
or not in a given sand having a given Dr depends mainly on
the number of cycles and it is less sensitive to the
cyclic stress ratio value. On the other hand, below the
critical value a small change in the cyclic stress ratio
causes a significant change in the number of cycles
required to cause cyclic undrained failure (175). It is
c
CYCLIC TORSIONAL
SHEAR TEST
TOYOURA SAND
AIR-PLUVIATED
'0 % = 9 8 kPa
15% DA SHEAR STRAIN
Critical 7cy/<7c
N U M B E R O F LOADING CYCLES, No
Figure 3.37 Conc ept o f C r i t i c a l C y c l i c S t r e s s R a t i o ( Da t a from R e f . 173).
180
181
also noted that although for each curve the slopes below
o and above the critical stress ratio are different, they
are essentially the same for all the curves, irrespective
of the relative density. Consequently, what seems to
really differentiate each curve is the number of cycles
required to cause undrained failure at the critical cyclic
stress ratio. The author associates the critical cyclic
stress ratio with the cyclic shear stress level which just
induces some dilation in each cycle of loading, that is,
the stress ratio which causes the stress path to cross the
phase transformation line. However, as the threshold
stress ratio at the phase transformation line increases
with decreasing relative density, it may well happen that
c the "elbow" of all the stress paths occurs at approxi
mately the same cyclic stress ratio, as indicated by Fig
ure 3.37.
This finding has excellent practical implications.
For cases in which strain softening is not a possibility
(icy smaller than steady-state strength) it would be
enough to determine the undrained strength curve for a
single relative density value. This single curve would
permit determination of the critical cyclic stress ratio.
Once the critical cyclic stress ratio is known, specimens
with different relative densities can be subjected to
stress applications at the critical amplitude in order to
determine the corresponding critical number of cycles. As
182
indicated in Figure 3.37 the critical number of cycles may
be of the same order of magnitude as the significant
number of cycles in an earthquake. A c c or di ng ly , the
author strongly supports the idea of Tatsuoka et a l .
(175) of using these two parameters, critical cyclic
stress ratio and critical number of cycles to represent
the resistance to liquefaction of saturated sands. This
would simplify testing work allowing at the same time a
more direct comparison of the cyclic strength characteris
tics of different sand types at different relative densi
ties, stress-strain histories, etc. It Is not yet known
whether the slopes of the cyclic strength curves are also
function of factors such as type of sand, etc.
2. TC v ^ Tss* w ^ en a specimen is subjected to cyclic
shear stress amplitudes larger than the undrained steady-
state strength corresponding to the consolidation void
ratio, in the course of cyclic loading the effective
stress path may reach the critical stress ratio line as
indicated in Figure 3.38. Accordingly, at this stage the
specimen will exhibit a strain softening response reaching
finally a steady-state of deformation. In such a case, it
will be of concern to define the following features of the
behavior:
a. the number of cycles of a given stress amplitude
required for triggering the Initiation of the strain
softening response,
183
S Line
®
o
t-
<
oc
o
5
>
F Line Transition region
Steady - State envelope

C
Monotonic loading
CSR line
Steady-state condition
b”
CM
Figure 3.38 Undrained Behavior under Cyclic Loading of

Magnitude Larger than Steady— State Strength,
184
s b. the position of the critical stress ratio line under
cyclic loading conditions, and
c. the steady-state strength after the collapse of the
structure is triggered by the cyclic loading.
It is important to note that if the specimen reaches
a steady-state of deformation the condition of initial
liquefaction will not develop since the specimen cannot
buildup a strength equal to the stress amplitude at which
the reversal in loading direction is compelled to occur,
and hence it remains at the steady-state condition.
Figure 3.39 presents the values of the angle of shear
resistance (<j>") mobilized at the initiation of strain
softening response during cyclic tests on Banding sand, in
which the specimens were subjected to axial compression
cycles at constant amplitude of deviator stress. The
numbers within parentheses correspond to the effective
confining pressure at the end of the cycle immediately
before the specimen collapsed. The values of mobilized <t>"
at similar initial stress conditions during monotonic
tests are also shown by the solid lines for comparison.
It is seen that the initiation of strain softening
response under cyclic loading occurs at stress ratios
larger than under monotonic loading. For example, under a

2 ~ Q
confining stress of 4.0 Kg/cm , $m o |j increases from 21
to nearly 26°, at a relative density of 32%. In
ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction
(1.4)
26 -
Banding sand ■(1.4) (5.0)
■(1.5)
(1.7)
24 -
Monotonic tests
22 -
CTq= 10 Kg /cnf 10.0

■(1.8 )
20 -
4.0
18 ■-
Cyclic tests
°"c (Kg/cm2) Symbol
4.0 ■
10.0 ▼
— +
10 20 30 40 50
R E L A T I V E D E N S I T Y , Dr (%)
Figure 3.39 Angle of Shearing Resistance Mobilized at Initiation of
Strain Softening Response during Cyclic Loading (Data
f rom Ref. 14)•
186
principle, this is in agreement with a trend towards a
more stable structure due to the cumulative strain history
effects during cyclic loading. Cyclic torsional shear
tests by Dobry et a l . (34) also showed that for clean
banding sand, triggering of the flow failure during cyclic
loading occurs when the effective stress path reaches a
line closer to the steady-state envelope ( aT = 26.5 )
while for monotonic tests on the same sand triggering of
strain softening response occurred along a line
corresponding to a lower critical stress ratio
(aT = 21.8 ) On the other hand, in the cyclic triaxial
tests performed by Vaid and Chern (186) on specimens of
angular tailings sand, triggering of strain softening
^ response was observed to occur at the same critical stress
ratio or mobilized <t>^, in both monotonic and cyclic tests,
irrespective of the initial state of the specimens. The
mobilized friction angle at the critical stress ratio line
was very close to <}>u , the interparticle friction angle for
a quartz-feldspar mixture of tailing sand. It is likely
that for angular sands the mobilized friction angle at the
initiation of flow deformation is mainly determined by
grain angularity and hence, it is relatively independent
of the initial state of the specimen.
Consequently, based on the limited number of studies
available, the author considers that cyclic loading may
influence the location of the critical stress ratio line,
187
especially in the case of sands with more rounded grains,

c /
where mobilized is more sensitive to changes in the
initial state of the specimen (see Fig. 3.24). However,
the exact magnitude of these effects is not yet known. In
this connection, it would be of particular interest to
establish the level of shear strain required to mobilize
the critical stress ratio (CSR) during cyclic loading.
Under monotonic loading the strain at peak deviator stress
is observed to increase with confining pressure (Fig.

*
3.23). It is yet to be established whether or not a has a
similar effect on the strain accumulated prior to the
specimen collapse during cyclic loading.
Another important engineering property is the magni
c tude of the steady-state strength following the collapse
of the structure during cyclic loading. Based on his
tests on banding sand, Castro (14) concluded that the
st ea dy — state line (line F) was unique and independent of
flow deformation having been triggered by monotonic or
cyclic loading. Dobry et a l . (34) arrived at the same
conclusion based on their cyclic torsional shear tests on
banding sand and on angular sands with different silt con
tent. Similarly, Vaid and Chern (186) found that for
tailings sand and Ottawa sand, which exhibited flow defor
mation over a limited range of strains, the steady-state
strength corresponding to this stage of flow was similar
at the same void ratio, under both monotonic and cyclic
188
loading. It is important to note that only the tests by
C }
Castro were load-controlled tests whereas the other tests
were strain controlled tests. In spite of the conclusions
drawn by these investigators, in the author's opinion, it
is too early to assert that the steady— state strength is
independent of the loading conditions. Differences are
expected to arise because of strain rate effects, as pre
viously discussed, and different changes in fabric induced
by each type of loading, among other factors. Additional
investigations on the steady-state strength of saturated
sands are urgently needed.
For some initial states (e.g. between the F and S
lines in the case of Banding sand), a specimen may exhibit
^ only a limited strain softening response. Consequently,
as shown in Figure 3.40, following the collapse of the
structure triggered by cyclic loading, (point T) the
specimen may reach a steady-state condition over a limited
strain range (point S) . However, further straining stops
the continuous movement as dilation develops and the
specimen is able to regain strength enough for the rever
sal of direction of loading to occur (point R ) . At this
stage the stress path has already crossed the line of
phase transformation. Consequently, upon unloading the
stress path moves towards the zero effective stress state
and initial liquefaction occurs. From this point on, the
behavior continues as explained earlier with alternating

i
\
189
O
S Line
© Strain softening region

o"
QC
O
5
> O A
Transition region
F Line
P' =
c b”
Monotonic loading
i eg
b~ Temporary Locus of
ii Steady-state Triggering
cr condition — . states (CSR line)
Figure 3.40 Development of Limited Flow Deformation and

Liquefaction during Cyclic Loading (Schematic)
190
cycles of liquefaction and large deformations followed by
stiffening upon loading in the opposite direction.
It is important to note that in these cas es , a speci
fied level of shear deformation during cyclic loading can
be on account of flow deformation or liquefaction, or a
combination of the two. Nevertheless, strain softening
behavior, if any, will always be observed before the ini
tial liquefaction because the locus of triggering line
corresponds to a critical stress ratio smaller than the
threshold stress ratio at the line of phase transforma
tion. It is common practice to normalize the cyclic
undrained strength (cyclic stress ratio versus N) with

2
respect to a effective confining pressure of 1.0 Kg/cm
(147). It is likely that at this stress level a sand like

c
Banding sand will undergo unlimited flow deformation only
for relative densities below 30% (see Fig. 3.20). In the
range of Dr between 30% and 40% limited strain softening
may occur in the course of cyclic loading, if the shear
stress amplitude is larger than the steady-state strength.
On the other hand, above Dr of about 45%, strain softening
is not possible and the accumulation of large strains in
the course of cyclic loading will be only on the account
of liquefaction each time the specimen is unloaded to an
isotropic state of stress. Depending on the confining
pressure, it is likely that for most sands the upper limit
for which unlimited flow deformation is a possibility lies
191
in the range between about 40% and 50% (13). It can be

o seen that in Figure 3.20 the steady-state strength of
banding sand increases at an increasing rate with increas
ing relative density, which resembles the cyclic undrained
strength versus relative developed on the density curves
presented in Figure 3.11.
In summary, irrespective of the terminology used by
investigators, it is evident that there is a clear rela
tionship between the undrained behavior under monotonic
loading and the phenomenon of liquefaction of sands due to
cyclic loading. The author could develop this relation
ship by understanding that the structure of a "loose" sand
may collapse either because the applied shear stresses are
c too high or as a result of continuous reversals in the
direction of shearing. Under undrained conditions, both
types of "collapse" result in a significant increase in
pore pressure and a consequent reduction in strength.
Hence, "flow deformation" and "liquefaction" are in nature
similar phenomena in the sense that both involve a drastic
reduction in the number of contact points between neigh
boring grains. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that
liquefaction only develops if in the course of cyclic
loading the sand is unloaded to an isotropic state of
stress. The effects of initial state of stress and in situ
boundary conditions on the cyclic undrained behavior are
discussed in the next section.
192
3.4 Effect of Initial State of Stress and

In Situ Boundary Conditions
O
The behavior of saturated sands under both nonotonic
and cyclic loading has thus far been discussed based only
on results from tests on isotropically consolidated speci
mens. However, it is clear that stress isotropy is not
typical of many in situ conditions. On the contrary, soil
elements near structures, in earth structures such as
slopes, embankments, dams, etc., and even under level
ground are generally consolidated under an anisotropic
state stress. Under level ground no static shear stresses
act on horizontal and vertical planes, which then
correspond to the principal planes of stress. On the
other hand, in soil elements under sloping ground condi

C tions or beneath a structure founded on a level ground
deposit, initial shear stresses will act on horizontal and
vertical planes. The presence of these initial static
shear stresses have a major effect on the response of soil
elements to the superimposed cyclic shear stress applica
tions during an earthquake, as discussed below.
In the past, it was conventionally assumed that the
test conditions in isotropically consolidated specimens
simulate approximately the stress conditions on an element
of soil at some depth below a horizontal ground surface
because for this condition there are no initial shear
stresses on a horizontal plane, the plane on which the

r
193
c cyclic shear stresses were considered to be applied by an
earthquake. Accordingly, the same condition is developed
on the specimen by applying an initial ambient pressure,
that is, by conducting a consolidated-isotropically-
undrained (CIU) test. The author strongly disagrees with
this reasoning because the behavior of a soil element can
not be expected to be dependent only on the stresses act
ing on a single plane. Nevertheless, because of fundamen
tally different reasons, it will be shown later that CID
tests indeed may simulate soil conditions in deposits
under level ground closer than other types of tests, if
these latter tests do not simulate the boundary loading
conditions that exist during an earthquake.
c The problem of undrained stability during cyclic
loading can be studied by considering the way in which the
in situ effective stress path approaches the failure line.
It is this path that determines the failure modes and the
resulting deformations. Starting from an initial aniso
tropic state of stress, the failure envelope can be
approached following different stress paths, which depend
on the nature and magnitude of the applied loads, and on
the boundary conditions. These effects are discussed
below.
194
3.4.1 Level Ground Conditions

o
As mentioned earlier, in this case the initial state
of stress is anisotropic to a degree that depends on the
value of the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, K q ,
which for NC sands is smaller than 1.0 (115). The hor
izontal and vertical planes are initially the planes of
principal stress. During an earthquake, alternating shear
stresses act on the horizontal and vertical planes causing
a cyclic rotation of the directions of principal stress
about a vertical axis (Fig. 2.6) and corresponding shear
deformations in the soil elements. However, it is clear
that under level ground conditions, which can be approxi
mately modeled by a half-space, lateral expansion or con
traction of the soil elements in the horizontal direction
cannot occur. Consequently, the soil elements undergo
shear deformations but without change in the cross section
perpendicular to the direction of shear wave propagation.
The deformations corresponding to the boundary conditions
just described have been termed "simple shear deforma
tions" (140). Under these conditions, the no lateral
strain boundary plays a major role in the response of soil
elements to cyclic shear stress applications as discussed
below.
The behavior of sand specimens under simple shear
conditions has been studied in the laboratory by means of
cyclic simple shear test or cyclic torsional shear tests
195
o In which lateral strain of the specimen is not permitted
(75,81,173,175,197). Typical results from torsional shear
tests in which the specimen cross section remains constant
during cyclic loading are presented in Figure 3.41. The
specimens were subjected to a number of cycles at a con
stant shear strain amplitude. The following events are
observed: The shear stress amplitude decays progressively
whereas the cell pressure increases gradually as cyclic
loading progresses, and eventually becomes equal to the
initial vertical stress (Fig. 3.41c) at the time the pore
water pressure builds up to the level where liquefaction,
that is, a zero effective stress condition, occurs. At
this stage, the strength of the specimens approaches zero.
c Accordingly, during cyclic loading there is a gradual
change in the ratio of total principal stresses from the
value corresponding to the initial K q value to 1.0,
irrespective of the initial K q value. However, it should
be noted that the rate of pore pressure buildup depends on
the initial K value; the smaller the K value (closer to

o ’ o
failure), the faster the increase in pore water pressure,
and accordingly, the smaller the number of cycles required
for he initiation of liquefaction. Consequently, under an
identical vertical effective stress, a sand deposit with
lower in situ earth pressure coefficient, Kq , will be more
susceptible to liquefaction. Nevertheless, over the range
of Kq in Figure 3.41 the differences are not significant.
C
1.00 -
S a g a m i River S a n d 0.75
K0= 0.50
Relative density: 4 2 % 0.50
r/'c = 2 0 0 kPa <r3'- K 0 aiJ
1c 0.25 (b) Pore Pressure
Shear Strain ±0.42%
1 3 5 7 10 15 20 30
(a) Variation in Shear Stress Kp= 0.75

0.3 Kq= 0.50

K0= 0.33
- (c) Variation in Principal Stress Ratio .
i_ -i-.J— i. i__ j_
20 30 1 3 5 7 10 15 20 30
N U MB E R OF CYCLES N U M B E R OF CYCLES
Figure 3.41 Typical Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests with no Lateral Strain
196
on ^-Consolidated Specimens (After Ref, 75).
197
o Thus, during cyclic undrained tests on anisotropi-
cally consolidated specimens in which lateral displacement
is not permitted to occur, the lateral stress gradually
increases until it becomes equal to the vertical stress.
At this stage, the specimen is subjected to an isotropic
state of stress, a prerequisite for initial liquefaction
to occur. Ishihara and Li (75) stated the problem in
approximately the following terms: 'when a sand element
at a depth z in the deposit is brought to the state of
complete liquefaction, each grain of the sand exists in
the water in the form of suspension, and therefore, the
element apparently behaves as a "heavy" fluid exerting an
ambient pressure, y z both vertically and horizontally.
c Consequently, during the process leading to liquefaction

*
(in which there is a decrease in o by y z and an increase
v
in pore water pressure by the same amount) there needs to
be an increase in total stress by (l-KQ )y'z in the hor
izontal direction, since the effective horizontal stress
is reduced by KQ y'z but the pore pressure builds up to the
amount y'z. This change in total horizontal stress must
occur for the sand element to reach a state of uniform
compression at liquefaction.' It is clear that this
increase in lateral stress is likely to occur in deposits
under level ground because the horizontal displacement is
prohibited to take place, as observed in laboratory speci
mens under equivalent boundary and stress conditions.
198
o It is of interest to compare the behavior of sand
specimens under no lateral strain conditions with the
behavior of sand specimens subjected to cyclic loading
under other boundary and stress conditions. In this con
nection, Figure 3.42 compares the results of a torsional
shear test with no lateral strain permitted on a sand
specimen anisotropically consolidated, with the results
from two tests, in which the lateral strain of the speci
mens was not restricted, on specimens consolidated aniso
tropically and isotropically respectively, at the same
vertical effective stress. It is observed that the gen
eral behavior of the specimen isotropically consolidated
and the specimen anisotropically consolidated with no
lateral strain during cyclic loading is quite similar in

c terms of shear stress decay, pore pressure buildup and
axial strains. In both tests the pore pressure ratio
approaches 100% while the cyclic strength drops to zero.
On the other hand, when the specimen is anisotropically
consolidated but the lateral strain is permitted during
cyclic shearing, the behavior is completely different; the
measureed shear stress does not change appreciably with
time, and the pore pressure increases much more slowly and
reaches a limiting value smaller than , irrespective of
the number of strain applications. Therefore, in this
case liquefaction does not develop. It is also of
interest to note that the vertical strain it, considerable
when the specimen is permitted to deform laterally.
1.00 K0= 0.50
0.75 K= 1.00
S a g a m i River S a n d
Relative density: 4 2 % 0.50
&i'c = 200 kPa " Ko % 0.25 K= 0.50
Shear strain y - + 0 . 4 2 % (b) Pore Pressure

($)No lateral strain 30
© & © Lateral strain permitted
15.0 (c) Vertical Strain
# 12.5
0.5
(a) Variation in Shear Stress
0.4 K= 0.50
% r“ <
O 5.0
0.2
I-
oc 2.5
= 1.00 111
>
■ Kn= 0.50 ,
30 1 3 5 7 10 15 20 30
N U MB E R OF CYCLES
Figure 3.42 Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests under Different Boundary and
199
Stress Conditions (After Ref. 75).
200
Because of the constant volume conditions, the lateral
G expansion must he compensated by a contraction in the
vertical direction. The axial strains of the specimen
isotropically consolidated are small since it is not sub
jected to sustained shear stresses which could induce sig
nificant lateral expansion.
The effective stress paths for tests with a constant
cyclic shear stress amplitude and the same initial stress
and boundary conditions as in Figures 3.41 and 3.42, are
compared schematically in Figure 3.43. The effective
stress path A represents the process leading to liquefac
tion of sand deposits under level ground. As the pore
pressure builds up and the lateral stress increases in the
C course of cyclic loading,
down and towards

the effective stress path moves
the left, reflecting continuous reduc
tions in the static shear stress, until it finally reaches
the zero effective stress state. It is noted that while
the principal stress ratio with respect to total stresses
increases to a value of one during cyclic loading from its
initial value of Kq , the effective principal stress ratio
may remain approximately constant. It is also important
to note that the position of the locus of triggering
states or the reversal of shear stresses (hydrostatic
state of stress) are not relevant to the cyclic undrained
behavior under no lateral strain conditions. Prior to
liquefaction, the specimen remains under an anisotropic
O
<S> No lateral strain
Lateral strain permitted:

S'
sin <f> -tan Q '
© Isotropic consolidation / a *
© Anisotropic consolidation
Initial state of stress

• for ® & ©
<r'
o-(,« k0cr'
'Liquefaction Stress reversal
Figure 3.43 P o t e n t i a l E f f e c t i v e S t r e s s Pa t h s d u r i n g C y c l i c Loadi ng
201
u n d e r D i f f e r e n t Boundary and S t r e s s C o n d i t i o n s (Schematic).
202
stace of effective stress with a stress ratio smaller than
the value corresponding to the critical stress ratio line.
From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that
tests on anisotropically consolidated specimens in which
lateral strain is permitted (stress path C in Fig. 3.43)
cannot be used to determine the cyclic undrained strength
of sand deposits under level ground conditions. As dis
cussed later, they may simulate the behavior of soil ele
ments for example close to a slope, a case in which
lateral displacements are not constrained. On the other
hand, tests on isotropically consolidated specimens at the
same vertical effective stress (stress path B in Fig.
3.43) appear to provide a closer but not exact simulation
of the behavior under no lateral strain conditions. The
main differences illustrated in Figures 3.42 and 3.43
between these two types of test may be associated with the
fact that the rate of pore pressure buildup during the
first cycles of shear stress applications may be higher
for the anisotropically consolidated specimen. Moreover,
at the same a , the distance that the stress path has to

v
traverse to reach the origin of the q— p' plot is larger
for the isotropically consolidated specimen. On the other
hand, a complete shear stress reversal occurs each time
the stress cycle through the hydrostatic state in the iso
tropically consolidated specimen, which favors an increase
in the rate of pore pressure generation. Therefore, due
203
o to these counter balancing effects, it is felt that tests
on isotropically consolidated specimens may slightly
overestimate the cyclic undrained strength of sand depo
sits under level ground at the same effective vertical
stress. This fact is clearly illustrated by the data
shown in Figure 3.44 from stress-controlled torsional
shear tests with no lateral strain permitted on specimens
of Fuji river sand. On the other hand, if the comparison
of strength is made at the same mean confining stress, o ,

in
the cyclic plane strain strength of KQ -consolidated speci
mens may be larger than the corresponding strength of iso
tropically consolidated specimens, as indicated by the
data shown in Figure 3.45 for Toyoura sand, which were
c also obtained from stress-controlled cyclic torsional
shear tests. The difference is significant for relative
densities above 70%. This may be related to the effects
of dilation as a result of a higher mobilized friction
angle in the anisotropically consolidated specimens. Con
sequently, it is very likely that to simulate the behavior
of dense sand elements in deposits under level ground,
simple shear tests or plane strain torsional shear tests
on K -consolidated soecimens cannot be avoided,

o
As shown in Figure 3.41, the rate of pore pressure
buildup and hence the resistance to liquefaction depends
on the initial value of K with increasing susceptibility

o
to liquefaction with decreasing Kq . It is clear that the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction P
0.6
Fuji river sand
Dr= 55%
Torsional test
0.5
<r' = 100 kPa
0.4
i
k°
h 0.3
<
cc
CO
CO 0.2
id
DC
t—
CO
o 0.1
_J
o
>-
o
1 10 100
N U M B E R O F C Y C L E S T O INITIAL L I Q U E F A C T I O N
Figure 3.44 C y c l i c Undr ai ne d S t r e n g t h from P l a n e S t r a i n T o r s i o n a l Shear
204
Tests ( Ad a p t e d from R e f . 8 1 ) .
Reproduced with permission P
CYCLIC TORSIONAL SHEAR TEST

TOYOURA SAND
of the copyright owner. Further reproduction
a ir - p l u v ia t e d
o Nc= 1 0
1 5 % DA SHEAR STRAIN
bE ^ m c = 9 8 kPa
>»
o
NO LATERAL STRAIN
< Kq-C O N S O LID A TIO N
cc
CO
CO
UJ
DC
h-
CO
O ISOTROPICALLY
_J CONSOLIDATED
o
>-
o
40 50 60 70 80
Figure 3.45 Cyclic Undrained Strength from Torsional Shear Tests at

Constant Mean Confining Stress (Adapted from Ref. 173).
205
206
Kq value in situ is dependent on the stress history of the
deposit. When overconsolidation is induced in a horizon
tal deposit of sand by the removal of overburden pressure
the lateral deformation is prevented and, therefore, the
coefficient of earth pressure at rest, Kq , increases.
Consequently, the cyclic undrained strength of a sand
deposit which has experienced an overconsolidation process
is likely to be higher than that corresponding to a NC
deposit, not only because of the favorable changes in
fabric and density but also because the Increased K value

J o
(81). It should be noted that a rise in the level of the
ground water table, which also causes overconsolidation of
a sand deposit, does not produce an increase in Kq , as has
, been suggested elsewhere (81).
VJ
Ishihara and Takatsu (81) performed plane strain
cyclic torsional shear tests on overconsolidated specimens
of Fuji river sand with a relative density of 55%. Over
consolidation was induced by increasing the axial and
radial stresses along stress paths with K0 values of 0.5,
1.0, and 1.5 respectively. The results of these tests are
summarized in Figure 3.46, in terms of the cyclic stress
ratio required to cause initial liquefaction in 20 cycles.
The cyclic undrained strength increase with both increas
ing Kq and OCR values. When the strength of OC specimens
is normalized with respect to the NC strength for a given
K value, the curves approximately collapse into a single

o
207
G >
Nc- 2 0 Fuji river sand
0.5 Dr - 5 5 %
Torsional tests
6 ^ - 1 0 0 kPa
co
CO
LU
cc
I- 0.2
co
o
0.1 Kg- 0.5
o
>-
o
Overconsolidation ratio, O C R
C 3
Fuji river sand
NU-20
o D r - 55%
0 V - 100 kPa
Ik 2
S i OCR
0
Overconsoiidation ratio, OCR
Figure 3.46 Effect of Overconsoiidation on Plane Strain

Cyclic Undrained Strength (After Ref. 81).
208
one (Fig. 3.46b), which seems to suggest that cyclic

o undrained strength of 0C specimens increase with the
square root of the overconsoiidation ratio, OCR, irrespec
tive of the K value. It is not yet known whether this

o
relationship is valid at other relative densities or for
other types of sand.
3.4.2 Sloping Ground Conditions
Under sloping ground, sand elements also exist under
an anisotropic state of stress. However, in this case
shear stresses act on horizontal and vertical planes and
hence these planes are not planes of principal stress.
Moreover, close to sloping ground soil elements must
c remain under an anisotropic state of stress in the course
of cyclic loading, due to the need of maintaining equili
brium of shear stresses imposed by geometry. Lateral
deformations are not constrained and therefore, under the
superimposed cyclic shear stresses the soil elements may
undergo shear deformations and lateral displacement as
well. Consequently, the boundary conditions close to
sloping ground are such that the initial shear stresses
are likely to remain unchanged during the application of
cyclic loading. The presence of these initial shear
stresses have a major effect on the response of soil ele
ments to the superimposed cyclic shear stresses as dis
cussed below.
209
Sloping ground conditions and those where the pres-

C f
ence of a structure produces Initial shear stresses on
horizontal planes in a deposit under level ground have
been simulated in the laboratory by means of cyclic triax-
ial or torsional shear tests on anisotropically consoli
dated specimens in whi ch lateral deformations are permit
ted. However, it is important to note that neither one of
these two tests provides a complete simulation of what
might be considered a simplification of the in situ condi
tions. This is illustrated in Figure 3.47. The idealized
in situ state of stress during cyclic loading is charac
terized by the following features:
a. The vertical and horizontal planes are not planes of

C principal stress under either cyclic or static load
ing,
b. The maximum applied cyclic shear stress and the max
imum static shear stress act on different planes, and
c. When the cyclic shear stress acts in a direction
opposite to the direction in which the static shear
stresses on the horizontal and vertical planes act,
the maximum shear stress will be reduced. Accord
ingly, the corresponding Mohr's circle becomes
smaller. The reverse is true when the cyclic and
static stresses act in the same direction.
210
(
T
Static state of stress
a) Idealized Field Conditions
+■ T cy
T - T cy
Pole//45'
C
Consolidation state
b) Triaxial Test S p e c i m e n s
+T
Consolidation state
c) Torsional Test S p e c i m e n s
Figure 3.47 States of Stress under Cyclic L o a d i n g .
211
d. If Che cyclic shear stress amplitude is larger than

o the static shear stress on the horizontal and verti
cal planes, a shear stress reversal will occur on
those planes. However, at the stress reversal on the
vertical and horizontal planes, the soil element
still remains under an anisotropic state of stress

* *
with a minimum shear stress equal to ( a - o^)/2.
Therefore, the maximum shear stress never reverses in
spite of the rotation of the plane on which it acts.
The corresponding rotation of the planes of principal
stress is limited such that the angle between the
direction of the major principal stress and the vert
ical axis is always smaller than 45° (Fig. 2.6).
Accordingly, the total rotation of the planes of
c principal stress is much less than 90°, which pre
cludes a complete shear strain reversal. Note that

^ *
if a = o, stress reversal on the vertical and hor-
v h
izontal planes bring the soil element to an isotropic
state of stress.
In cyclic triaxial tests on anisotropically consoli
dated specimens, an alternating deviator stress of equal
positive and negative value is added to the initial or
static deviator stress, producing a cyclic shear stress
which is symmetrical about the initial value. It is to be
noted that the horizontal and vertical planes are the
212
planes of principal stress throughout the loading stages.

O Moreover, the cyclic and the maximum consolidation shear
stress act on the same planes, which are 145° planes,
irrespective of their magnitudes. Additionally, when the
cyclic deviator stress is equal or greater than the static
deviator stress, the specimen is cyclicly brought to an
isotropic state of stress, which is followed by a 90°
rotation of the planes of principal stress. In situ this

* *
would occur only in the case of a = c^. Consequently, it
is evident that' a great deal of judgment must be exercised
if cyclic triaxial tests are used for evaluating the
cyclic undrained strength of sands close to sloping
ground. The significance of stress reversal or non
c reversal in cyclic triaxial specimens, which has received
a great deal of attention by many investigators
(17,121,155,184,186,193) is thus irrelevant if the in situ

* ^
state of stress is such that and are not equal, a
case in which an isotropic state of stress cannot be
reached, irrespective of the magnitude of the applied
cyclic shear stresses. Stress reversal in cyclic triaxial
tests leads to an isotropic state of stress. As mentioned
earlier, this is a prerequisite for "initial liquefaction"
and very large deformations to develop. Accordingly,
results from cyclic triaxial tests in which stress rever
sal occurs are meaningless for evaluating the undrained
stability of a cut slope or the outer part of an embank
c ment in cases where the in situ state of stress remains
213
anisotropic, and therefore initial liquefaction is not a

0
possibility.
On the other hand, stress conditions in torsional
shear tests specimens become closer to the idealized field
loading conditions. The maximum consolidation shear
stress and the applied cyclic shear stress act on dif
ferent planes. A shear stress reversal on the horizontal
and vertical radial planes does not produce an isotropic
state of stress. The specimen remains subjected to the

^ *
maximum consolidation shear stress given by ( a - a )/2.
z r
Even initial or static shear stresses can be applied on
the horizontal section of the specimen (43,70), which per
mit a complete simulation of the assumed in situ condi
c tions. However, in most cyclic torsional shear tests the
torsional loading is superimposed to the anisotropic state
of stress created by the axial and radial stresses, which
results in the stress conditions indicated in Figure
3.47c.
Based on the previous considerations, the cyclic
undrained behavior for sloping ground conditions will be
illustrated for two extreme cases:
1. Case A: The initial state of stresses is anisotropic

*
but a * a,
v h
c
v
214
2. Case B: The initial state of stress is anisotropic

*
O with respect to principal stresses but ®v “ •
Nevertheless, it should be kept in mind that changes
in the initial state of stress, including rotation of the
planes of principal stress may occur as a result of shak
ing during an earthquake. This is attributed to the ten
dency towards densification and slips at the grain con
tacts and the corresponding stress changes depend on the
magnitude of the applied loads, the initial state of
stress, and the boundary conditions. For example, the
difference between a and may change even if the static
shear stress remains unchanged. Determination of the way
in which the state of stress actually changes within an

r
earth structure in the course of earthquake loading is a
goal that still remains to be achieved.
Case A: Anisotropic state of stress with o * a, .

* v h
It is clear that the response of anisotropically consoli
dated specimens to shear stress applications is determined
by the combination of at least the following factors:
a. Initial principal stress ratio or magnitude of static
shear stress
b. Amplitude of the cyclic shear stress applied
c. Location of the locus of triggering states (CSR line)
215
d. Magnitude of the steady-state strength

G
Three different conditions can be identified.
1. The magnitude of static shear stress Tg , plus the
cyclic shear stress, TC y> is smaller than the undrained
steady-state strength. Under this condition, the behavior
of anisotropically consolidated specimens during cyclic
loading has been conclusively observed to be as follows
(75,155,184): as cyclic loading proceeds pore pressure
and strains accumulate gradually reaching eventually a
terminal or residual value. The pore water pressure cycles
above and below the terminal value but it never approaches
the confining pressure. The effective stress path
C corresponding to this behavior is illustrated in Figure
3.48. As the pore pressure builds up, the effective
stress path moves horizontally towards the left at a con
stant distance from the p" axis reflecting the presence of
a constant static shear stress. The rate of strain accu
mulation increases as the effective stress path crosses
the phase transformation line and approaches the failure
line. However, with further cycling the effective stress
path stabilizes along the failure line and strain accumu
lation slows down by virtue of dilative tendencies (185).
It can be noted that in Figure 3.48 the residual or termi
nal pore water pressure, u ^ , depends on the location of
the initial state of stress with respect to the failure
('
Reproduced with permission C
sin » tan Q *
(CSR lino)
Steady-state strength
'ss
Consolidation
Phase transformation state of stress
line--------------------- v
static \ ” rs
er
Figure 3.48 Torsional Shear Test on Anisotropically Consolidated

Specimen with (t +x ) Smaller than Steady-State
216
Strength (Schematic^.
217
line. For small cyclic shear stress amplitudes, is

O given approximately by the expression
c K -1 1-sin
, 4.
_,, > „ ,„
Ur = 3c " “ 2“ "sinjT > ( 3 *7)
where a. and K are the confining pressure and the prin-

jc c
^ *
cipal stress ratio, a / a , at consolidation, respec-
1c 3c
tively. The residual pore water pressure decreases with
increasing Kc at a constant confining pressure.
As the initial static shear stress increases (larger
K c ) the closer the specimen approaches a failure condi
tion. Accordingly, more strains accumulate in the initial
stages of loading. However, the higher the initial shear
stress, the shorter the distance the stress path need

c
traverse to reach the failure line, and hence less oppor
tunity for strain accumulation (121). Moreover, the rate
of strain accumulation after the stress path crosses the
phase transformation line may slow down as the level of
static shear increases (185), which may be due to stronger
dilative tendencies. Consequently, the cyclic undrained
strength in terms of the number of cycles at a given
stress amplitude required to induce a fixed strain level
in the specimen may indeed increase slightly as the ini
tial shear stress increases as long as (t + x ) remains

s cy
smaller than the undrained steady-state strength. Under
this condition there is no stress reversal, hence the rate
218
o of pore pressure generation is considerably smaller than
in isotropically consolidated specimens subjected to simi
lar loading conditions.
2. The magnitude of the static shear stress Tg is
smaller than the undrained steady-state strength but
(Tg + TCy) larger than the undrained steady-state
strength. C on se que nt ly , under this condition, in the
course of cyclic loading the effective stress path reaches
the locus of triggering states as indicated in Figure
3.49. Accordingly, at this stage the specimen will exhi
bit a strain softening response reaching finally a
steady-state of deformation. The specimen remains at the
steady-state condition because it cannot build up a
c strength up to the cyclic shear stress amplitude at which
the reversal of direction of deformation is predetermined
to occur. In a corresponding in situ condition, it is
likely that the continuous deformations stop once the
shear stress level drops below the undrained steady— state
strength. It is important to note that as the initial
shear stresses increase, the number of cycles of a given
stress amplitude required to bring the stress state of the
specimen to the critical stress ratio line decreases.
Consequently, the cyclic undrained strength decreases sig
nificantly as the initial shear stress increases.
3. The static shear stress is larger than the
rV undrained steady-state strength. This is a very critical
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction r \ n

(CSR line)
S teady-state strength
SS
Consolidation-
state ot stress static \“‘s
Figure 3.49 Torsional Shear Test on Anisotropically Consolidated
219
Specimen with (t + t ) Larger than Steady-State
Strength (Schematic^.
220
condition. Small cyclic stress applications may suffice

o to bring the effective stress state of the specimen to the
CSR line causing the initiation of a flow failure (Fig.
3.50). After the collapse of the structure, the specimen
reaches a steady-state of deformation under the driving
static shear stresses. It is to be noted that the
phenomenon is not avoided even if cyclic loading is
stopped. In an equivalent in situ condition, after break
down of the structure is triggered in the course of cyclic
shear stress applications, the mass of sand will flow,
spreading out until the shear stresses acting within the
soil mass become small enough to be compatible with the
reduced steady-state strength (14,132). It is important
to note that a very small cyclic stress ratio may be

c enough to cause a flow failure if the initial static shear
stress is high enough. Accordingly, this phenomenon is
considered a kind of spontaneous flow failure since the
extent of the failure may appear disproportional as com
pared to the magnitude of the triggering disturbance
(14,110).
From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that in
sloping ground conditions the main design concern is to
establish whether or not a flow failure can be triggered
in the course of cyclic loading. Therefore, the analysis
Involves the evaluation of the following engineering pro
perties :
Q.
C
o
CD
Q.
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction
sin < fj - tan O t

(CSR line)
Steady-state condition
Consolidation - static \ -
state of stress
O ’’ cn
Figure 3,50 Torsional Shear Tests on Anisotropically Consolidated
221
Specimen with Static Shear Stress Larger than Steady-State
Strength (Schematic).
222
a* the steady-state strength,
b. the location of the locus of triggering states (CSR
li n e ) ,
c. the existing static shear stresses needed to sustain
equilibrium, and
d. the flow failure potential.
Flow failure potential is the relationship between
the number of cycles and the cyclic stress (or strain)
amplitude required to trigger the flow failure. This
should be determined whenever the total shear stresses
(cyclic + static) are expected to be larger than the
steady-state strength . The only flow failure potential
curve known to the author is presented in Figure 3.51
obtained from strain controlled cyclic torsional shear
tests on anisotropically consolidated specimens of three
silty subangular sands (34).
The exact determination of the locus of triggering is
extremely important for practical applications, as this
determines how much pore pressure buildup can occur in a

• J ^ A a. 1. _ .C _ _ J a. > J «.U ^
g X V CU O V X X CXCIUCUU UCX.WXG XU 9 0 u i c u g u u u x u p o UV uuc
steady-state strength (34). Once the triggering envelope
is known the maximum allowable residual pore pressure
increase which can be caused by the earthquake itself
before triggering, uT , is given by (34),
223
Sand A - 1 3 % silt
05 Sand B - 32 % silt
Sand C - 6 3 % silt
05
05
100 -
Silty Sands A.B.C

CyT - CAU Tests
u. Kc - 2
0.01 0.1 1
Cyclic S h e a r Torsional Strain, yQ , %
Figure 3.51 Flow Failure Potential from Strain

Controlled Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests.
where $ is Che mobilized friction angle at the triggering
m
envelope or CSR line. From E q . 3.7» it is seen that
increases as K decreases for a given consolidation con-

c
fining pressure.
An important aspect of the behavior is the effect of
the consolidation stress ratio, K on the locus of

c
triggering line and the corresponding steady-state
strength, which previously were evaluated from tests on
isotropically consolidated specimens. Based on his tests
on Banding sand, Castro (14) concluded that at a constant
void ratio the steady-state strength was not affected by
the consolidation stress ratio with Kc in the range from
1.0 to 2.0. However, this conclusion was based on a lim
ited number of tests. Castro did not draw any conclusion
regarding the triggering envelope. Vaid and Chern (186)
based on their tests on tailings sand concluded that both
the mobilized friction angle at the peak strength and the
steady-state strength were not affected by the consolida
tion stress ratio, with K£ also in the range between 1.0
and 2.0. The author finds it rather difficult to visual
ize these results. A greater rearrangement of grains is
likely to occur with increasing mobilized friction angle
(higher Kc ) causing changes in the contractive charac
teristics of the sand skeleton. For example, it seems
unlikely that under a very high stress ratio (Kc > 2.0) a
225
j sand specimen exhibits the same fabric than a correspond-

( )
ing specimen isotropically consolidated at the same void
ratio. It has been shown conclusively that different
fabrics, at the same Dr. affect the undrained and drained
strength characteristics of sands. As the effects of
anisotropic consolidation on the mobilized friction angle
and the steady— state strength are imperfectly known, in
the author's opinion, it is too early to conclude that
they are independent of the consolidation stress ratio.
More effort should be dedicated to this topic in future
investigations on the undrained behavior of sands.
Although the triggering envelope and the steady-state
strength can be approximately determined from undrained
c monotonic tests, cyclic torsional shear tests on aniso-
tropically consolidated specimens are required to define
the flow failure potential in terms of the number of
cycles of a given stress amplitude for triggering the col
lapse (34). It is clear that for the occurrence of a flow
failure under a given series of stress applications three
conditions should be satisfied:
1. The initial state of stress is such that the specimen
is susceptible to strain softening behavior,
2. the static shear stress is larger than the undrained
steady-state strength corresponding to the initial
c state conditions, and
226
3. the number of stress repetitions is high enough that

C the effective stress path reaches the locus of
triggering states or CSR line.
As the relative density of the sand increases, the
level of confining stress at which the specimen exhibits a
strain softening behavior is significantly higher; so is
the corresponding steady-state strength. Accordingly, the
possibility of a flow failure is greatly reduced, provided
t is smaller than t . The behavior may be limited flow

s ss
deformation at moderate confining pressures or completely
dilative of low confining pressures . As mentioned ear
lier, it is likely that for dilative sands the cyclic
undrained strength increases with the consolidation stress

C ratio. Consequently, at low confining pressures the
cyclic undrained strength increases as the consolidation
stress ratio increases. At moderate confining pressures,
as the behavior may be limited flow deformation, hence,
the cyclic undrained strength specified at small failure
strain level decreases with increasing initial static
shear stress but increases with xg at large specified
failure strain levels for the range in which xg is larger
than the steady-state strength (186). On the other hand,
at high confining pressures the behavior becomes of com
plete flow failure and therefore, if xg is larger than the
steady-state strength, the cyclic undrained strength
c always decreases with increasing shear stress ratio since
227
the initial state of stress is closer to the triggering
O envelope and a smaller number of cycles of a given ampli
tude, or smaller cyclic stress amplitudes for a given
number of cycles, will be required to cause the initiation
of a flow failure. Not only the cyclic undrained strength
decreases with increasing initial shear stress if limited
or complete flow failure develops, but also the deforma
tion associated with the strain softening response as well
as the loss in shear strength until the steady— state is
reached increase with increasing shear stress (186).
Case B: Anisotropic state of stress with a = c, .

v h
In this case, the maximum consolidation shear stress and
the cyclic shear stress act on the same plane. Conse
C quently, if the cyclic shear stress is larger than the
static shear stress a stress reversal occurs bringing the
specimen momentarily to an isotropic state of stress.
Large strains develop easily when stress reversal occurs,
which is a prerequisite for the occurrence of transient
liquefaction states (states of zero effective stress).
Therefore, in addition to the conditions analyzed for the

^ *
case Ov * a^, there exists the possibility of stress
reversal (isotropic state of stress) when the vertical and
horizontal effective stresses prior to cyclic loading are
equal. This is illustrated in Figure 3.52. It is evident
that the possibility of stress reversal is enhanced as the
initial shear stress becomes smaller. Apparently, this
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction rs c
(CSR line) \
q
Phase trasnsformation line
•Pole
VH - T
Stress reversal
In situ state of stress
228
Figure 3.52 In S i t u E f f e c t i v e S t r e s s Pat h w i t h S t r e s s Reversal during
C y c l i c Loa d i n g (Schematic).
229
might be the only case, although rare, for which the

o cyclic triaxial test is likely to provide some useful
information on the effect of the initial static shear
stress on the cyclic undrained strength.
As the initial static shear stress increases, there
is a decrease in the degree of reversal for the same
cyclic shear stress. This should always result in lower
strains, and thus in an increased cyclic strength. A
further increase in may result in the elimination of
the stress reversal and in a greater increase in the
cyclic strength. However, once the total shear stress
(static + cyclic) becomes larger than the steady-state
strength the cyclic undrained strength decreases with
c increasing static shear stress due to the increased poten
tial of a flow failure. Consequently, for those cases in
which stress reversal is a possibility, the relationship
between the cyclic undrained strength and the initial
shear stress should have a clear peak or turning point
reflecting first an increased strength due to a reduction
in the degree of reversal and later a decreasing cyclic
strength as the flow failure potential increases. The
effects of initial shear stress on the cyclic strength of
tailings sand is illustrated in Figure 3.53 at two levels
of consolidation confining pressure. It should be noted
that if flow deformation develops strains well in excess
of 2.5% will develop.
230
O
0.6 -
(a) Tailings Sand
^ 3 C- 2.0 k g f/c m *
0.5
ec « 0.801 ± 0 . 0 0 2
Drc - 6 9 .5 ± 0.5%»
0.4
0.3
Liquefaction
0.2
N -1 0
0.1
0.20 .Liquefaction Lim ited strain softening
(b) Tailings Sand

c ^ 3 C- 16.0 k g f/c m
ec- 0.800 ± 0 .0 0 6
Drc - 7 0 .0 ± 1 . 6 %
N -1 0
1.5 2.0
K,
Figure 3.53 Effect of Static Shear Stresses on the

Resistance to Strain Development under
Cyclic Triaxial Loading Conditions
(After Ref. 186).
231
CHAPTER 4
LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND TESTING PROGRAM
4.1 New Resonant Column/Torsional Shear Test Apparatus
The resonant column and torsional shear tests have
been used separately to obtain the variation in shear
modulus and damping ratio over the range of shear strain
amplitude required for dynamic analysis
(36,38,59,68,88,171). The use of two separate pieces of
testing equipment implies that the dynamic properties of
the tested material, over the range of shear strains of
interest, are determined on different specimens, which are
unlikely to have identical characteristics. Moreover,
very often there is no overlap between the ranges of shear
strains for which results are available from each test.
This is a significant limitation when investigating either
the reduction of shear modulus as a function of shear
strain amplitude or the existence of a critical shear
strain at which the fabric of the sand eventually yields
during a given loading sequence. These drawbacks led to
the design of a new torsional shear apparatus which com
bines the features of both the resonant column and tor
sional shear devices and permits the determination of soil
232
properties over the whole range of strains of engineering

<J interest as well as a better simulation of the stress
paths associated with earthquake loadings.
The main part of the apparatus was built by Soil
Dynamics Instruments (166), based on ideas and specifica
tions provided by the author's advisors, Professors G. A.
Leonards and J. L. Chameau. The apparatus, which is
shown in Figure 4.1, has the capability of testing solid
or hollow specimens, consolidated either isotropically or
anisotropically. The solid specimens are 71 mm in diame
ter. The hollow specimens may be constructed with 71 mm
O.D. and 38 mm I.D., or 100 mm O.D. and 71 mm I.D. The
specimen height is approximately 200 mm. These dimensions
c satisfy the criteria recommended by Saada et a l .
for dimensioning hollow cylinders to reduce the effects of

(140)
end restraints.
The torsional cyclic loading may be either dynamic or
quasi-static, combining into the same device the features
of a resonant column test apparatus and a torsional shear
test apparatus. The dynamic and quasi— static loadings are
controlled independently and may be applied simultane
ously. In either case, the torsional loading is applied
to the top of the soil specimen which is rigidly fixed at
its base.
233
Air piston
Stepper
motor system
Hardin
oscillator
A ir piston
c Pressure
control panel
control
Vacuum
regulator
a) Gene r a l view
Figure 4.1 New Resonant Column/Torsional Shear Test

App aratus.
234
c Air Piston
LVDT
Signal
Cond.
LVDT
Stepper motor
system
Rotating
shaft
Hardin
oscillator
Proximity
i transducers
Platform
c ham b e r
c L o ad cell
Torque
Differential
pressure
> transducer m transducer
Analog control
i 1
MACSYM 350
Stepper motor control Signal conditioning
Data acquisition
system
b) S c h e m a t i c
235
^ Confining pressures up to 700 kPa can be applied
inside the Lucite chamber by means of air, water or any
other fluid as a confining medium. The effective confining
pressure is measured by means of a 350 kPa differential
pressure transducer located at the base of the apparatus.
Anisotropic stress conditions are applied by adjusting the
pressure in a double acting air cylinder mounted on a
frame on top of the chamber lid, a modification to the
initial design that was added after proof testing. The
cylinder can apply either an upward or downward force to
the loading shaft. The shaft of the actuator follows any
change in length of the specimen and mates with the rotat
ing shaft for applying torque through a bearing system
which allows free rotation. The axial load on the speci

C men is measured by means of a 3.3 kN load cell located
within the chamber, underneath the bottom platen. In this
way friction related problems are avoided and the actual
axial load applied to the specimen is effectively meas
ured. Changes in the length of the specimen during any
stage of the test are measured by a linear variable dif
ferential transformer (full scale displacement 25 mm),
LVDT, located on a yoke just above the bearing connection
between the piston shaft and the rotating shaft.
The apparatus has special provisions for volume
change measurements and flushing and backpressuring of the
specimen. Inert ceramic porous discs are used at the face

r
v
236
of each platen to distribute or collect pore fluids.
o These porous stones have coarse surfaces and are screwed
into the platens to avoid any slippage during torsional
loading. The bottom platen has two drainage lines, one of
which connects to the differential pressure transducer.
The other line connects to a three-way valve allowing CO^
gas purging followed by water saturation. The top platen
has only one drainage line, which also connects to a
three-way valve, which in turn connects to a vacuum line
and a saturation water line. The vacuuming system for
holding the specimen during preparation is set up in such
a way that CC>2 can be percolated into the specimen as it
is prepared. This procedure facilitates the process of
saturation of the specimens under a reduced backpressure.
c During consolidation, drainage can be allowed through
either or both platens, and the volume change measured in
a burette.
Other features of the apparatus associated with
either the resonant column or the torsional shear modes
are described below.
4.1.1 Resonant Column System
A Hardin type electromagnetic oscillator is used to
apply torsional vibrations that vary sinusoidally with
time. The oscillator is essentially a single-degree of
freedom system in which a spool-shaped spring couples a
central mass and the specimen cap attachment to a hollow
cylindrical mass with very large rotational inertia. A
sine wave generator capable of producing a sinusoidal vol
tage with frequency varying from 5 Hz to 600 Hz is used to
power the coils and permanent magnets of the oscillator,
which are wired to produce a torque about the axis of the
specimen. The large inertia mass of the oscillator essen
tially provides a fixed reaction such that the forcing
torque produces vibration of the central mass and specimen
cap. The output of the sine wave generator is amplified
electronically to provide enough power to induce vibra
tions of the specimen with the shear strain, y, ranging

-4
between minimum and maximum values of about 10 % and 1.5
c x 10 respectively. The minimum strain limit is
determined by the sensitivity of the displacement measur
ing system, whereas the maximum strain limit is controlled
by the stiffness of the soil specimen and the torque capa
city of the oscillator.
The torsional motion of the soil cylinder is moni
tored by a piezoelectric accelerometer mounted on the top
platen at a known distance from the axis of rotation. The
accelerometer produces an electric charge which is propor
tional to acceleration. A charge amplifier is used to
convert the electrical charge to voltage and then it is
read with a conventional voltmeter. Since the motion is
sinusoidal, the displacements are deduced from the meas-
c ured acceleration values.
238
The frequency of excitation is adjusted to produce

o
resonance of the system composed of the specimen and its
attached platens and the vibration excitation device. The
phase relationship describing the resonance condition is
established by observing the Lissajous figure formed on an
X —Y oscilloscope by the torque and acceleration signals.
For a fixed bottom specimen, first resonance occurs at the
frequency for which the sinusoidal excitation torque and
the acceleration signals are 90° out of phase (40). In
this case, the trace on the screen of the oscilloscope
corresponds to an ellipse with vertical and horizontal
axes (40,57).
The shear modulus and damping ratio are determined
c from the vibration response of the system. The resonant
frequency of the system is used to calculate the shear
modulus, G. Damping is determined from either the magnif
ication factor at resonance or the decay in amplitude of
the free vibration of the system. In the first case, the
driving voltage and thus the input torque are known by
measuring the voltage drop across a 5 Q precision (tem
perature and frequency stable) power resistor in series
with the driving coils. Detailed information on the data
reduction procedure and calibration factors of the
resonant column test is presented in Appendix A. A gen
eral view of all the electronics associated with the
resonant column test is shown in Figure 4.2 and a wiring
e
Power am plifier
C h arg e
am plifier
F req u en cy
m eter -------
O scilloscop e
C o n tro l box Sine w ave g e n e ra to r
239
Figure 4.2 Electronic S y s t e m for R e so na nt Co lum n Tests.
240
o schematic for the resonant column system is given in Fig
ure 4.3.
4.1.2 Torsional Shear System
In the torsional shear mode, a quasi-static load is
applied to the specimen by a torque motor system which
consists of a stepper motor and a gear reduction system
with reduction ratios of 200 to 1 and 3200 to 1. The
motor system is mounted on the pressure chamber lid.
Gears of the reduction box match gears on the rotating
shaft which passes through the chamber lid and is rigidly
fixed to the inertial mass of the Hardin oscillator. The
latter in turn is fastened to the top platen by means of a
c special coupling. During assembly, the oscillator remains
attached to the shaft, which is locked to the chamber lid.
After the chamber lid is put into place, the lock is
released, and the oscillator head is lowered to meet the
top platen. The shaft is again locked and the coupling is
completed with a tool inserted through the center of the
piston, which is hollow. Hence, rotation of the shaft
causes the entire Hardin oscillator and the upper platen
to rotate with it. Since the torsional oscillator has
some torsional stiffness of its own, a small amount of
torsional energy will be stored in the torsional oscilla
tor, which is of little practical consequence (166). A
torque transducer, which is mounted within the chamber
241
O
Audio Bangs
Oscillator Oscilloscope
Digital
Freq.Meter Vert. Horiz.
In. In.
Power
Amplifier
Switch Box
Digital
Multimeter
To Drive Coils
Charge To Accelerometer
Amplifier
Figure 4.3 Wiring Diagram for Hardin Resonant

Column Apparatus.
24 2
base, allows measurement of the torque applied to the

O specimen up to a maximum of 56*5 N-m. The bottom platen
rests on top of the load cell which in turn is screwed
into the head of the torque transducer. This sensing head
is not in contact with the chamber base and hence, the
actual torque applied to the specimen is accurately meas
ured.
The relative rotation between the bottom and the top
of the specimen is measured by two non-contacting dis
placement transducers located on a cylindrical platform
which is fastened to the lower platen of the specimen.
The transducers focus on non— concentric circular cams
attached to the top platen and measure the distance
between the cams and the transducer face. As the top pla
c
ten rotates relative to the bottom, the distance changes,
which causes the transducer output to change. Output from
these transducers is linear for small rotations but varies
with the sine of the rotation angle for larger values of
rotation. This system is designed to be unaffected by
lateral translation of the top platen or by length changes
of the specimen up to approximately 20 mm. It allows
measurement of rotation angles up to a maximum of 30° in
either direction from the at rest position of the speci
men.
Control for the stepper motor is provided by a motor
js- control unit and an analog control. The stepper motor

V.
24 3
o control unit has provision for controlling the rate and
direction of rotation of the stepper motor either manually
or automatically. A local speed control allows for mono
tonic loading in either direction, clockwise or counter
clockwise, with a rate of rotation adjustable over a wide
range. The torsional loading continues until it is manu
ally shut off. In the automatic mode the rate of rotation
is selected by a rotary switch. The stepper motor moves
in 1.8 degree steps, or 0.9 degree steps, depending on
whether full or half steps are applied. The rotary knob
selects the number of pulses (or steps) per second (PPS)
which are applied to the stepper motor. Since the gear
reduction ratios are known, these PPS translate directly
c to rates of rotation of the top platen as follows,
steps degrees
Rotation rate -------- », (4.1)
sec step gear ratio
Further, since the geometry of the specimen is known
and will not change very much, the values of PPS also are
related to rates of shear strain. The PPS values can be
varied as a power of 2 from 4 to 2048 pulses per second
allowing changes in the shear strain rate between

-3
4 x 10 % to 2% per second.
In the automatic mode, the motor control unit is used
in conjunction with an analog control, which triggers the
reversal of the rotation of the motor at preset levels of
244
either rotation (shear strain) or torque (shear stress).

o The rotation continues through the neutral position to the
same value of rotation or torque in the other direction.
Thus, the apparatus is capable of performing both strain
controlled and stress controlled tests. In the strain
controlled mode, reversal may be preset at different rota
tion angles by adjusting a rotary knob on the analog con
trol. The maximum amplitude of the twist angle, 6DaX ,
depends on the gear ratio. It is 2.88° for the reduction
ratio of 3200 to 1 and 28.8° for the gear ratio of 200 to
1. The rotary knob on the analog control selects a vol
tage divider, VD, to reduce the peak rotation as a power
of 2 from 1 to 32 times. The corresponding period of
c. loading will depend on the gear ratio, the number of
pulses per second, and the voltage divider and can be
obtained as
(4)(0 )
_ . , , sec N max Gear Ratio
Period (cy c l e ) - (VD) x steps ..de gr ee ,( 2)
sec step
For example, in order to obtain a period of about 10
to 12 seconds per cycle, the PPS and VD switches should be
set as indicated in Table 4.1. Depending on the specimen
size, the rotation range in Table 4.1 corresponds approxi
mately to a single amplitude shear strain spanning from

_2
1.8 x 10 % to 10%. Thus, the Hardin oscillator and the
torsional shear system essentially overlap in their strain
24 5
Table 4.1 Switch Settings for Peak Rotation
Gear ratio » 3200

Motor deg/step = 0.9 (half-step)
Cycle time = 10 sec.
Peak Rotation PPS Voltage Divider
2.88 _
1
1 .44 2048 2
0.72 1024 4
0.36 512 8
0.18 256 16
0.09 128 32
Gear ratio = 200

Motor deg/step = 0.9 (half step)
Cycle time = 12.5 sec.
Peak Rotation PPS Voltage Divider
28.8 2048 1
14.4 1024 2
7.2 512 4
3.6 256 8
1 .8 128 16
0.9 64 32
24 6
, amplitude ranges and provide a range in strain amplitudes
from 10_ 4 % to 10%. However, the frequency of loading is
very different in the two tests. In the torsional shear
mode, the maximum frequency is on the order of 0.2 Hz,
whereas the frequency at resonance in the resonant column
test varies with shear strain amplitude and confining
pressure and in general is greater than 100 Hz.
In the stress controlled mode, the output of the
torque transducer is amplified electronically and input
back into the analog control. A torque limit set dial on
the analog control unit is calibrated to cause torque
motor reversal at any level of voltage between zero and
ten volts. The dial of the ten turn potentiometer is
^ divided into 1000 units. Hence, each division corresponds
to 0.01 volts. By setting the dial equal to the voltage
level associated with any desired stress level within the
limits of the apparatus, motor reversal will occur at
approximately those levels.
Figure 4.4 displays the main components of the tor
sional shear system. The stress and deformation limits
that can be achieved with the apparatus are summarized in
Table 4.2, according to specimen size. Detailed informa
tion on the data reduction procedures is presented in
Appendix B.
R eproduced w ith perm ission o f the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited w itho ut
perm ission.
248
Table 4.2 Stress and Deformation Limits of New Apparatus
O
Specimen Solid Hollow Hollow
Outer diameter (mm) 71.1 71.1 101 .6
Inner diameter (mm) 38.1 71.1
Length (mm) 203.2 203.2 203.2
Maximum cell pressure, or (kPa) 700 700 700
Maximum deviator stress

( °z ” °r^ * (kPa> 840 1178 807
Maximum axial strain (%) 12.5 12.5 12.5
Maximum shear stress,

tz8 (kPa) 533 690 310
Maximum single amplitude

shear strain, y 0 (%) 6.1 7.3 11.2
z0
c Table 4.3 Properties of Ottawa 20-30 Sand*
Composition 100% quartz (sj°2 ^
Specific gravity 2.65
Particle shape Rounded
0.71 mm
D 10
0.81 mm
°9 0
Uniformity coefficient cu = 1.1
Minimum void ratio 0.489
Maximum void ratio 0.732
* After McDonald and Raymond (111)
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited w ith o u t perm ission.
24 9
4.1.3 Data Acquisition System

O
Output signals from all the transducers are
transferred directly to a data acquisition system and
recorded synchronously. The system is a MACSYM 350 and
consists of a set of measurement and control devices, con
figurated around the MACSYM 150 work station, which is a
16-bit microcomputer with integral disk storage and inter
nal RAM up to 1 megabytes. Specialized Input/Output cards
(Dual Serial Interface cards) plug directly into a six
slot internal backplane of the MACSYM 150 work station.
The purpose of these cards, which are two channel cards,
is to provide serial communication capabilities from the
MACSYM 150 to peripherals, printers, terminals, plotters,
C etc. They also provide analog and digital input and out
put, RAM memory expansion and a Winchester disk interface.
The other major elements of the MACSYM 350 system are the
MACSYM 200, and the ADIO (Analog/Digital Input/Output)
cards. The MACSYM 200 is an intelligent, general purpose,
precision measurement and control front-end. When using
the MACSYM 200 with the MACSYM 150 work station, the sys
tem is known as the MACSYM 350. The major components of
the MACSYM 200 consist of a single control board, a six
teen slot card cage with backplane and a power supply.
The control board has all the power and features of a sin
gle board computer, combined with precision analog meas
urement capabilities. Processing power is derived from a
r
V
250
5 MHz, 16-bit 8088 microprocessor with up to 64 Kilobytes

G of on-board memory. The system features analog/digital
conversion, variable sampling rates and a capacity of up
to 512 channels of input/output. Analog/Digital
Input/Output (ADIO) cards plug directly into the system
backplane and provide signal conditioning for a wide range
of sensors and transducers. All the cards can be readily
addressed through software.
The output from the sine wave generator is connected
to a frequency input card (FIN01 card) which allows MACSYM
users to interface directly to variable frequency sources
and measure the corresponding frequency in the range from
1.6 Hz to 500 KHz. The outputs from the rotation trans
ducers (provided by the analog control), the torque trans

C
ducer (after being amplified) and the LVDT (after being
demodulated), are read through a multichannel analog/input
card (AIM03 card), which handles up to 32 channels of high
or low level electrical signal from sensors, transducers,
transmitters and various instruments. A four— channel
analog/input card (AIM05 card) is used to interface the
system to the differential pressure transducer, the load
cell and the torque transducer which are all four-arm
bridges. This card allows MACSYM users to interface to a
wide variety of strain-gage-type transducers requiring
constant voltage excitation. The board contains four
independent channels providing bridge completion
251
c amplification, filtering and excitation of 5 or 10 volts
DC for various bridge configurations. The card allows
direct Interfacing of one, two or four-arm bridges to
MA CSYM main frame systems. The excitation voltage was set
at 10 volts DC for calibration of all the transducers.
The system has been complemented with a dot matrix
printer and a multi-pen plotter. The data acquisition
system allows for immediate data reduction and plotting of
the results of each test, a feature highly advantageous
for comprehensive testing programs.
4.2 Materials and Testing Procedures
Tests were performed on reconstituted specimens of

c standard Ottawa 20-30 sand, which has the properties sum
marized in Table 4.3. Specimen preparation procedures for
solid cylindrical specimens were similar to those in con
ventional triaxial testing by using a membrane covered
split mold which forms the outer diameter of the specimen.
For hollow cylindrical specimens a membrane covered man
drel was used on the interior of the specimen to form the
inner diameter. This interior membrane is sealed to the
upper and lower platens by means of packers which squeeze
an 0-ring against the membrane and hold it to the interior
wall of the platens. The elements used for construction
of hollow cylinder specimens are shown in Figure 4.5.
252
Figure 4.5 Elements Used for Construction of Hollow

Cylinder Specimens.
253
Solid and hollow specimens were prepared by pluviat-

O ing the sand in air through a funnel attached to a glass
tube which extended to the bottom of the mold. Loose
specimens were obtained by keeping the tube full of sand
and slowly refracting it from the mold. Denser specimens
were prepared by reducing the diameter of the glass tube
ahd/or increasing the height of free fall from the tube.
Before taking off the forms, the specimen was subjected to
a low effective confining stress of about 25 kPa by apply
ing vacuum to the porous space.
A thin steel circumferential tape called a Pi tape,
which can be wrapped around the specimen and is calibrated
to read the diameter directly with an accuracy of 0.001
c inches (0.0254 mm), was used to measure the outside diame
ter near the top, near the middle, and near the bottom of
the specimen. This technique is easier and is considered
to be a more accurate measurement technique (79,159).
These measurements were averaged to obtain the gross out
side diameter. The net outside diameter of the specimen
was obtained by subtracting the average double thickness
of the exterior membrane. The Pi tape was also used to
measure the inside diameter in the case of hollow cylinder
specimens. The specimen length was determined by measur
ing the distance between the edges of the top and bottom
porous stones with a vernier caliper with an accuracy of
0.0005 inches (0.0127 mm).
254
4.2.1 Drained Test

O
Drained tests were performed to determine the varia
tion of shear modulus with shear strain amplitude given
certain initial conditions regarding density, state of
stress, and stress-strain history. After preparation,
each dry specimen was subjected to the desired initial
static state of stress by adjusting the cell pressure and
the pressure applied to the bellofram piston. For some of
the specimens this step included prestressing along a
predetermined stress path.
The specimen was first subjected to dynamic loading
in the resonant column mode. The resonant frequency of
c the oscillator/soil system was measured for oscillations
as small as possible, i.e. for the power applied to the
oscillator as low as practical. The shear modulus of the
soil specimen at very low strains was determined from this
frequency. Then, the applied power was doubled and the
corresponding modulus measured. This operation was
repeated until the maximum capacity of the oscillator was
reached. These experiments provided shear moduli at sin-
gle amplitude shear strains ranging form 10 % to about

_o
1.4 x 10 %. Following the resonant column tests, the
specimens were subjected to strain controlled torsional
cyclic loading with a loading period of about 10 to 20
seconds per cycle. The tests were performed in stages,
c with the amplitude of rotation being doubled between
255
, successive loading stages in accord with the values listed
in Table 4.1. During each stage, several cycles (10 in
average) were applied at the predetermined amplitude of
the twist angle. For the first stage, a minimum single

-2 -2
amplitude shear strain between 1.2 x 10 % to 2.0 x 10 %
could be applied, depending upon the size of the speci
mens. The maximum single amplitude shear strain applied
during the last stage ranged between 3% and 10%.
In some cases, the variation of shear modulus with
shear strain amplitude was determined after the specimens
had been subjected to previous cyclic strain histories of
varying magnitude. In other cases, "virgin" specimens
were subjected directly to cyclic loading in the torsional
^ shear mode in order to quantify the effects of stage test
ing associated with performing resonant column tests at

-4 -2
shear strains ranging from 10 % to about 10 %. In these
cases, each specimen was subjected to more than 50 cycles
at the chosen shear strain amplitude. Therefore, the
variation of shear modulus with number of cycles at a con
stant shear strain amplitude could also be evaluated. A
few tests were performed to study the effects of consoli
dation stress ratio and stress history on the maximum
shear modulus, G .
max
256
o 4.2.2 Undrained Tests
Stress controlled cyclic undrained tests were per
formed on saturated sand specimens under different Initial
stress conditions to evaluate the deterioration of the
sand stiffness as a result of the pore pressure buildup
and consequent shear strain development. For these tests,
CC>2 was percolated through the specimen by setting up a
small difference in absolute pressure between the vacuum
line connected to the top of the specimen and the CO^
purging line at the bottom. Following CO^ purging,
deaired water was allowed to seep through the specimen
under a very small gradient. Then, with the top drainage
line open to atmospheric pressure, seepage was allowed to
c occur for at least half an hour. Finally, to ensure com
plete saturation, a back pressure of 300 kPa was applied
for at least two hours before applying the desired conso
lidation stresses. The saturation procedure resulted in
values of the B parameter always larger than 0.98.
In spite of keeping the effective stress constant at
about 25 kPa, some axial strains occurred during the
saturation stage. These strains were carefully monitored
and the void ratio of the specimen was corrected by assum
ing a volumetric strain equal to three times the axial
strain. During application of consolidation stresses,
volume changes were monitored with the burette to deter
c mine the changes in void ratio of the specimen. Volume
257
o changes measured in Che burette are generally subject to
some error due to penetration of the membrane into the
voids between soil grains. These errors were estimated
based on previously published results (165,188). However,
the corrections were in general very small since confining
pressures of only 100 kPa or less were used in most of the
tests .
After the consolidation stage, the shear modulus of
the specimen was determined by performing resonant column

-4
tests at very small shear strains on the order of 10 %.
The agreement of Gmax was used as an index for specimen
replication throughout the testing program. Finally, the
drainage lines were closed and specimens were subjected to
c a number of torsional loading cycles, with reversal occur
ring at predetermined levels of shear stress. The loading
period was of about 10 to 20 seconds per cycle. This low
frequency loading permits detailed examination of the
phenomenon of pore water pressure generation and conse
quent strain development within each cycle of loading.
In some cases, specimens were reconsolidated after
initial liquefaction in order to evaluate the effect of
prior strain history on the cyclic undrained strength. A
few specimens were sheared monotonically or were subjected
to cyclic loading with reversal occurring at predetermined
levels of shear strain. Shear strains larger than those
corresponding to the rated capacity of the transducers

c
258
o used for measuring rotation developed in most undrained
tests. Therefore, beyond the range of the transducers,
shear strains were estimated by using the elapsed time and
the rate of straining which for each test was essentially
co n s t a n t .
4.3 General Purposes and Scope of the Investigations
Preliminary tests were performed under both drained
and undrained conditions to evaluate the whole range of
capabilities of the new apparatus and to compare these
results with those available in the literature, which had
been obtained using other devices and similar (or dif
ferent) types of sand. After these tests, a comprehensive
testing program was initiated in accord with the main

c
goals.of the investigation, as described earlier. How
ever, the testing program was from time to time adjusted
as the author developed a better understanding of response
of sands to cyclic loading under both drained and
undrained conditions or as a result of unexpected or espe
cially interesting results. Nevertheless, the main
aspects of the behavior of sands on which attention was
concentrated the most were as discussed below.
Some researchers have recommended the development of
a relationship between shear wave velocities and liquefac
tion potential of sands (29,32,33,89,147). It is con
sidered that shear wave velocities can be readily

c
259
determined by means of geophysical tests in situ and that
all the factors known to affect the maximum shear modulus
of dry sand will also affect the stress-strain behavior
and liquefaction potential of the materials when subjected
to undrained loading in a saturated condition. In this
connection, stiffer soil deposits are considered to be
less susceptible to liquefaction (32), whereas lower shear
modulus values will be reflected by higher pore water
pressures during undrained loading (160). On the other
'land, it is claimed that elastic wave velocities respond
to fabric differences (29,36,38,39).
Consequently, the determination of shear moduli by
means of resonant column tests, at strain levels
corresponding to those produced in geophysical tests for

C
measuring in situ shear wave velocities, would be a power
ful way of monitoring the effects of factors such as
stress-strain history and aging on the strength-
deformation characteristics of sand. As discussed ear
lier, these effects are reflected in the sand structure,
since they affect the predominant grain orientation or the
conditions at the grain contacts. To evaluate the vali
dity of these views shear moduli at low strain levels
corresponding to those produced in geophysical tests were
determined on dry specimens which had been prestressed
along different stress paths or subjected to previous
cyclic strain histories of various magnitudes. In most of
260
the cases, the complete variation of shear modulus with

o shear strain amplitude was determined over the whole range
^ *
of strains of engineering interest, from 10 % to 10%.
Accordingly, the effects of the factors listed above on
the small strain and large strain behavior could be
evaluated.
As discussed in Chapter 3, there is experimental evi
dence which indicates the existence of a threshold shear

_2
strain for sands on the order of 10 % (24,32,33,43). If
cyclic strains below this value are induced in the sand
deposit, it is considered that there is neither densifica—
tion of dry sand nor pore pressure buildup in saturated
sands. It is claimed that the threshold shear strain is a
constant characteristic of each type of sand for a wide

c
range of particle arrangements, relative densities and
confining pressures. In the author's view these findings
appear to conflict with the results of a significant
amount of research, which shows that the mechanical
behavior of granular materials is affected significantly
by factors such as fabric and its associated anisotropy,
stress-strain history, stress path, etc. among others, as
discussed throughout this dissertation. It was thought
that under drained conditions the threshold shear strain
could be identified as the shear strain marking the ini
tiation of degradation in the shear modulus, that is, the
shear strain at which the behavior of sands theoretically
261
changes from linear elastic to nonlinear and inelastic.

O Accordingly, all the results from the tests described in
the previous section were carefully analyzed in the light
of the threshold shear strain concept. A few resonant
column tests and torsional shear tests were performed on
saturated specimens in order to validate the existence of
the threshold shear strain under undrained conditions and
establish its relationship with the modulus reduction
curves from the drained tests.
As discussed earlier, there is ample experimental
tions prevalent during deposition of most natural deposits
is highly anisotropic, which causes changes in the
C undrained deformation-strength characteristics with the
direction of loading (55,118,119,120,169). However, most
investigations on the undrained steady-state strength of
sands have been based on axial compression triaxial tests,
and hence they have been limited to a particular stress
path. Moreover, only recently some researchers had
attempted to establish a relationship between the mono
tonic and cyclic undrained behavior of sands
(34,121,165,184,185,186). In fact, most of these research
reports became available to the author after developing
the concepts and the detailed frame of understanding
presented in Chapter 3. Some of these results support the
author's views but there are still conflicting opinions on
262
o critical aspects of the undrained behavior of sands such
as:
a. the effect of initial fabric on the large st.rain
deformation characteristics
b. the effect of consolidation shear stresses (anisotro
pic consolidation) on the subsequent behavior under
undrained shearing, and
c. the state conditions marking the initiation of strain
softening behavior and hence the relationship between
monotonic and cyclic loading of sands.
Consequently, it was of great interest to study some

C of these aspects in the new torsional shear apparatus.
Actual steady-state conditions were difficult to develop
since the strain rate capabilities of the new apparatus
are far from the strain rate levels which have been
observed to develop at the steady-state limiting condi
tions (2). Therefore, investigation of these effects was
limited to a particular strain rate.
Saturated loose specimens isotropically consolidated
were subjected to monotonic and cyclic loading under dif
ferent cyclic shear stress amplitudes. In some cases, a
static shear stress was applied during the consolidation
stage. In other cases, specimens were reconsolidated
after initial liquefaction in order to evaluate the
o effects of prior strain history, and hence of changes in
fabric, on the monotonic and cyclic undrained strength.
c.
3 5 on
Me, i . r e
c
CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN AND LIQUEFACTION
CHARACTERISTICS OF SANDS
VOLUME II
A Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
Purdue University
by
(
Adolfo Alarcon— Guzman
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Doctor of Philosophy
August 1986
<r
264
CHAPTER 5
TESTS RESULTS AND ANALYSES
The types of tests performed are listed in Table 5.1.
The results from these tests are presented in the follow
ing sections. In evaluating the tests results, considera
tion is given to the effects of shear strain level, ini
tial state of stress, prestressing, and prior stress his
tories along different stress paths on the cyclic drained
stress-strain behavior of sands; the effects of prior
strain history on the undrained behavior are also exam

c ined. Emphasis is placed on the relationship between
monotonic and cyclic undrained behaviors, as it reflects
on a physical appreciation of the complex response to
loading of granular soils.
5.1 Drained Cyclic Shear Tests
5.1.1 Effects of Specimen Geometry
Figure 5.1 presents a typical relation between shear
modulus and shear strain amplitude, obtained from tests
run on dry, solid and hollow sand specimens with a rela
tive density of about 55% (e = 0.598). For both cases,
r
Table 5.1 Summary o f T e s t s P e r f o r me d .
a) Drained Tests
Test Specimen 0 0 0 Results

z r m
No. type1 e kPa kPa kPa OCR In Fig. Descript inn
2 S 0.592 100.0 100.0 100.0 1 .0 5.1 G versus y

3 II 0.549 108.0 108.0 108.0 1 .0 5.2 G versus y
4 II 0.529 108.0 108.0 108.0 1 .0 - G versus y
5 II 0.599 100.0 100.0 100.0 1 .0 5.1/5.2 G versus y
15 II 0.631 106.5 101 .0 102.8 1 .0 5.2/5.4 G versus y
16 H 0.626 107.0 101 .6 103.4 2.0 5.13 G versus y
17 H 0.593 211.1 205.7 207.5 1 .0 5.8 G versus y
18 H 0.585 104.0 50.1 68.0 1 .0 5.8 G versus y
IP H 0.619 103.5 50.1 67.9 4.0 - G versus y
20 II 0.624 101.1 50.3 67.2 1 .0 5.11 G versus y
21 H 0.620 100.0 50.0 66.7 4.0 5.14 G versus y
22 II 0.641 71.5 66.7 68.3 1 .0 5.4 G versus y
23 H 0.623 101.0 50.0 67.0 4.0 5.14 G versus y
24 H 0.643 205.4 200.0 201.8 1.0 5.4 G versus y
25 II 0.622 100.6 50.1 66.9 1.0 5.11 G versus y
26 H 0.629 100.4 50.2 66.9 ** 5.18 G versus y

after prestresslng
27 11 0.620 100.4 50.1 66.9 — 5.18 G versus y
after prestressing
28 II 0.612 100.5 50.2 67.0 *" 5.17 G versus y
after prestraining
29 II 0.632 100.2 50.0 66.7 5.17 G versus y
after prestralnlng
30 II 0.534 109.0 100.6 103.4 1 .0 - G versus y
31 S 0.591 103.9 50.0 68.0 1-10 5.15 G versus OCR
5.16 Gm a* versus o
32 H 0.622 32.4 27.3 29.0 1 .0 - Grav§rsus y m
33 H 0.596 103.9 50.0 68.0 1.0 - G versus N
34 II 0.632 32.0 26.9 28.6 1 .0 5.4 G versus y
35 II 0.614 105.0 50.0 68.3 - 5.19 G versus y
36 II 0.619 105.6 50.9 69.1 I .0 5.20 G versus N
37 II 0.624 104.9 50.3 68.5 1.0 5.20 G versus N
38 H 0.633 104.3 50.0 68.1 1 .0 5.20 G versus N
II 0.518 106.7 100.0 102.2. 1.0 5.2 G versus y
265
39
40 II 0.509 106.9 100.2 102.4 1 .0 - G versus y
60 S 0.626 - - 100.6 1 .0 5.12 Gmax versus K
266
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a
o•
< CO < fl D < 6 3 < 0 3 < 0 3 < 6 3 < CO < B W
V N N ® 0v0vO"<Nn*J-<-^Nrt<<in*eNB«O“ —
• ( ■ - t ^ N < 9 4 « < 9 < 4 4 < 7 < ^ < i n i n i n i n u ,,i i n i n i A i A ( n i n i r )
t- z
r
Ottawa 20-30 sand

120
e - 0* 5 9 6
Dr - 5 5 %
cr'z = O r - 100 K p a
a. 100
Solid cylinder s p e c im e n
BO
(D=71mm)
Hollow cylinder specimen A ft

60 I O D = 7 1 m m , I D “3 8 m m )
Resonant column tests
40 Torsional shear tests

20
10-1 1 10
s h e a r ; STRAIN, y ,%J
F i g ur e 5.1 Ef fect ; o f Speci men Geometry on Shear Modulus - Shear
267
Strain Relationship.
268
Che average shear strain (as obtained by integraCing an
assumed linear variation over the specimen cross-section)
was used in the comparison. The shear modulus values from
torsional shear tests presented in Figure 5.1 and in most
of the succeeding Figures correspond to the average value
in approximately 10 cycles. As discussed later, when the
stage testing procedure described in section 4.2.1 was
used, the shear modulus, G, did not vary appreciably with
number of cycles (see Fig. 5.20). The modulus reduction
curves obtained with the solid and hollow cylinder are
comparable, and the results are in general agreement with
those previously published (22,88). Chung et a l . (22)
also concluded that the type of specimen used (solid or
hollow cylinder) had no significant effect on the shear

c moduli and damping ratios obtained from resonant column
-4
tests for shear strain amplitudes between 2 x 10 % to 4 x
2
—
10 %. However, differences on the order of 5% to 15%
were found in this investigation when comparing shear
moduli from dry hollow cylinders and saturated solid
cylinders which the author attributes to the inevitable
differences resulting from the preparation procedures of
the specimens. It is noted that a 10% variation in shear
modulus may be reflected in a larger difference in pore
pressure response. The results in Figure 5.1 cover the
full range of shear strains of engineering interest, from

-4
10 % to 10%, reflecting the capabilities of the new
apparatus.
269
5.1.2 Effects of Relative Density
Figure 5.2 presents the relation between shear
modulus and shear strain amplitude obtained from tests run
on dry specimens at four different relative densities,
isotropically consolidated under the same mean confining
stress, a , of 100 kPa. Although the shear modulus

in
increases as the void ratio decreases, especially in the
low strain range, it is important to note that a signifi
cant change in relative density (from 40 to 90%) is
reflected by only a modest change in shear modulus. This
result has to be taken into account when comparing the
effects on the shear modulus of other factors such as
stress path or stress history. As the shear strain
increase the modulus reduction curves seem to collapse
into a single curve suggesting that in the process of
cyclic loading at increasing shear strain amplitudes the
density or void ratio of the specimens was approaching a
limiting or residual value, independently of the initial
void ratio.
The maximum shear modulus values corresponding to

—4
shear strains of about 10 % (from Fig. 5.2) are plotted
versus relative density in Figure 5.3. The modulus values
determined using two previously published empirical equa
tions obtained from test results on different sands
(58,88) are also shown for comparison. The measured
values closely follow the trend predicted by the empirical
140
Ottaw a 2 0 - 3 0 sand
120 ^
H ollow cylinder specimens
cr'z =»<r’r s ioo kPa

100
Dr,%
0.513 90
0.549
CD
0.598 55
w 60-
_i
D Resonant column tests • * 0.635 40
Q
0
2 Torsional shear tests

a: 40-
<
ui
1
c/>
2 10 1 10
SHEAR STRAIN, y i% )
270
Figure 5.2 E f f e c t o f R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y on Shear Modulus - Shear S t r a i n
Relationship.
271
Empirical Equations:
c
(A) Hardin (1978) G - 700 [F(e)] cr *m round grains
y <io-4
e < 0.8
Iwasaki et al (1978) G - 9 0 0 [F(e>] cr’m 1'2 clean sands
X * 10 ~6
0.61 < e < 0,86
F(e) * (2.17 - e)2 / (1+e)
G, in K g / c m 2
s
Q.
1 180'
x
a
E
® 160-
co*
3
=5
a 140-
o
cr
< 120
in -
x
co
Eq.®
=> 100 -
s
x
< o Data from Fig. 5.1
80- Ottawa 2 0 - 3 0 sand
e m a x = 0-732
e min 1 = 0,4891
u 1 ------------------------------- — -
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 5.3 Effect of Relative Density on Maximum

Shear Modulus.
272
equations although the absolute values differ by about

c 30%. In some cases, this difference can be even higher
(see Table 1 in Ref. 22). Therefore, empirical equations
should be calibrated for the particular type of sand being
studied. It is also noted that, for sands with differ
ences between e and e . larger than that corresponding

max min °
to Ottawa 20-30 sand, the variation of shear modulus with
relative density will be more significant than the varia
tion observed in Figures 5.2 and 5.3. Accordingly, a
unique correlation between shear modulus and relative den
sity for all sands is not possible. As discussed in
Chapter 3, at the same relative density, different sands
will not have the same drained or undrained stress-
deformation characteristics.
(
5.1.3 Effects of Mean Confining Stress
*
The influence of mean confining stress, a , on the
modulus reduction curve is illustrated in Figure 5.4, for
specimens with a relative density of about 40%. Unlike
the limited influence of void ratio, the considerable

*
effect of c on the shear modulus is clearly evident. The
m
shear modulus values corresponding to different shear
strain levels (from Fig. 5.4) are plotted versus the mean
confining stress in Figure 5.5. At small shear strains
the shear modulus values are proportional to the square
root of the mean confining stress whereas at large shear
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction r ' n
160
140
Ottawa 20-30 sand
Hollow cylinder specimens
120 e ° 0.635
Dr - 40%
Test
100
202
103
80
68.3
28.6
60
40
Resonant column tests ■ a • *
Torsional shear tests o a on
r4 10-1 1
SHEAR STRAIN, /(%)
273
Figure 5.4 E f f e c t o f Co n f i n e me n t on Shear Modulus - Shear S t r a i n
Relationship.
274
L
-3-
o
CM m
Fig
o
CM
from
©
CO
(Data
©
CO
Stress
co
a.
JC
E
b
Confining
co
o CO
UJ
QC
h-
CO
C C5
Mean
o
Versus
co O
<
UJ
Modulus
<0
^
CM © Shear
o
CM
5.5
N.
Figure
o O O o O o
CD CM O ® co rr CM
( V d i w d ‘s m n a o w u v s h s
275
strain amplitudes the shear moduli become a linear func-
c tion of o .
m
These results confirm previous test results
on various sands (22,58,59,88,89). Therefore, the

*
exponent of with which the modulus varies is a function
of the shear strain amplitude. In Figure 5.5 this

-4
exponent changes from about 0.5, at shear strains of 10 %
or less to 1.0 at shear strains of about 0.65%. It is
considered that at small shear strains the modulus depends
not only on frictional forces but also on particle inter
locking, whereas at large strain amplitudes the modulus
depends mainly on the frictional component of the shear
strength of the sand, which in turn is proportional to the
confining stress level.
Figure 5.6 presents the modulus reduction curves from

c Figure 5.4 normalized with respect to the shear modulus
values determined at a shear strain amplitude of about

-4 "
10 %. It is noted that the mean confining stress, a
in
affects not only the values of G , but also the shape
J max* r
and location of the modulus degradation curves with
respect to the shear strain axis. The reduction in
modulus, expressed as a percentage of Gm a x , is larger for
lower o at the same shear strain level. Although the

m
curves look close because of the log scale, the largest
difference between the upper and lower curves is on the
order of 60%. Moreover, it has been shown that the shape
and location of the modulus degradation curves
276
CM co CD
Reduction
CO so CO
CM CD CM
CM
Modulus
the
of
Shape
a?
(Data from Fig. 5 .A).

on the
CM <
cr
c o
co
cr
of Confinement
<
UJ
I
CO
co
o Effect
Curve
5.6
Figure
o CO CO ■M- CM
o d d
XBUJ0/9 ‘o u va sm naow h v h h s
277
(G/G versus y ) depend also on the void ratio and on the

max
c soil type (59). It will be shown later that stress his
tory and the number of prior stress cycles also affect the
modulus degradation curves. Consequently, the simplified
procedure, which in common practice utilizes a single
average modulus ratio, G/G , versus shear strain curve

6 * max*
for cohesionless soils (146,154), can result in signifi
cant errors in the interpreted values of shear modulus.
Hardin and Drnevich (59,60) suggested that the varia
tion of shear modulus with shear strain amplitude could be
closely represented by a hyberbolic relation of the form
(5.1)
G 1+yJyr
max
(
where yr was defined as the reference shear strain and
equals
Yr = (5 .2 )
max
where t corresponds to the maximum shear strength of

max
the soil. In other words, the reference strain, Yr,
represents the level of shear strain that the soil would
experience under an applied shear stress equal to t , if

’ max
the behavior of soil were "elastic" with a shear modulus
equal to G . Hardin and Drnevich (59,60) found that, by

d dX
representing test data in the normalized form of
278
G / Gjjax v e r s u s Y/Yr, the data fell along a single curve,

c Irrespective of a
*
m or Dr. In order to determine the
reference strain, both t and G should be known.

* max max
However, according to E q . 5.1, at a shear strain equal to
the reference strain the shear modulus ratio becomes equal
to 0.5. Therefore, the reference shear strain, Yr, can be
estimated directly from the modulus degradation curves as
the shear strain level at which the shear modulus becomes
a half of G , even without knowing t . Using this

max * & max
approximation, if the the data in Figure 5.6 are plotted
with respect to the normalized shear strain, y / y r , they
do, indeed, tend to collapse into a single curve, as
illustrated in Figure 5.7. It is noted that the data
points essentially follow the hyperbolic relationship pro

c posed by Hardin and Drnevich (59,60), who adjusted
slightly the definition of the reference strain in order
to get a perfect match between the theoretical and experi
mental values. However, for cases in which only approxi
mate shear modulus values are required, the values given
by E q . 5.1 seem to be close enough. The values of the
reference strain as a function of the mean confining
stress are also presented in Figure 5.7. It is interest
ing to note that yi was found to increase with the square
root of o . This is not completely surprising since in

m
*
Eq. 5.2, t increases proportionally to a whereas G
* max m max
increases with the square root of o (see Fig. 5.5).
m
Reproduced with permission
Ottawa 20-30 sand

x
CO Hollow cylinder specimens
E 1.0
0 0*R. Dr = 40%
0 I'A.
0.8
< \Q G 1
cc
to Gmax 1+ X/Xr
D V4
_J 7
D 0.6 \
Q
0
2
CC
<
cr’m xr
Ui 0.4 Symbol A \
1 (kPa) (%) \
to □ V
ON
□ 202 0.0470
A 103 0.0335 \
0.2 o 68.3 0.0273
V 28.6 0.0173
Remark: Xr = 0.00331 m)1/2
10 -3 10’2 10'1 1 10 100

NORMALIZED SHEAR STRAIN, //X r
Figure 5.7 Dimensionless She ar Modulus - Shear S t r a i n R e l a t i o n s h i p .
279
280
From the foregoing discussion, it follows that the
c modulus reduction curve for a given o can be readily

Cl
obtained simply by knowing G and yr. Moreover, if G
r J J max * max
and yr both increase with the square root of a a single
Cl
shear modulus versus shear strain curve is all that would
be required to estimate the modulus degradation curves at

*
different levels of Om . These findings support the sim
plified procedure recommended by Drnevich (39), which con
sists in determining the maximum shear modulus G , at

& max *
*
increasing levels of c and then determining the complete
variation of shear modulus with shear strain amplitude on
the same specimen but only at the highest value of o^
required for the case under consideration. Since the
variation of G with o is known, the values of yr can

max m
( be scaled in accord with E q . 5.2. This procedure was
checked by using the data obtained from tests run on dry
specimens with a relative density of about 60%, consoli
dated under mean confining stresses of 68.0 and 207.5 kPa,
respectively. G and yr for a of 68 kPa were estimated

max m
*
from the values obtained from the test with a equal to
m
207.5 kPa, by assuming a scaling factor proportional to
1/2
a . The comparison between the predicted and measured
m
values is presented in Figure 5.8. The remarkable agree
ment needs no additional comments. Nevertheless, it
should be noted that stress/strain histories also affect
the modulus degradation curves, and hence, the reference
strain, y ^ , as discussed in a later section.
180
160
Ottawa 2 0 -3 0 sand
« Hollow cylinder specimens
o.
5 140
Dr ■= 60%
O
co Test fr'm, |<pa
O 120
Predicted curve \
=> 207.5
□ (Assumed Y t - 0.03%)
0 100 if
68.0
5
cc
<
UJ 'max
1
CO
\A
Resonant column Tests *

Torsional Shear tests o &
SHEAR STRAIN. (%)
281
Figure 5.8 P r e d i c t i o n o f Modulus R e d u c t i o n Cur ve.
282
The hysteretic damping ratio values corresponding to

c the tests reported in Figures 5.4 to 5.7 are presented in
Figure 5.9. Damping values from resonant column tests
were determined by using the magnification factor at reso
nance (see Appendix A), whereas damping values from tor
sional shear tests were determined by measuring the area
of the hysteretic stress-strain loops (see Appendix B).
The damping ratio, D, increases as the mean confining
stress decreases, especially for shear strain amplitudes

_2
above 10 %. However, all the curves approach a limiting
value as the shear strain amplitude increases. The sharp
increase in damping values above a shear strain of about

-2
10 % seems to correspond to the degradation in shear
modulus in Figure 5.7. In fact, in the author's opinion,
the equivalent shear modulus and damping values are not
necessarily two independent variables. As loading takes
place under increasing mobilized friction (larger shear
s t r a i n s ) , the plastic nature of the behavior gradually
becomes dominant. This is primarily due to irrecoverable
displacements and permanent changes in the fabric or grain
arrangements, which cause a reduction in the shear modulus
and a consequent increase in the size of the loop result
ing from the unloading and reloading stages. In this con
nection, Hardin and Drnevich (59,60) attempted a direct
relationship between the modular ratio, G/G , and damp-

r max
ing values. By assuming that the initial slope of the
stress-strain curve upon reversal is equal to G ,

e max
50 • Hollow cylinder specimens
Dr - 4 0 %
40 -
Symbol
(kPa)
30- 202 Range of results
O
F*
<
103
o: 68.3
| 20-
28.6
CL
5
<
O
10 - Resonant column tests Torsional shear tests
10-' 1
S H E A R STRAIN, / <%)
Figure 5.9 E f f e c t of Conf i n e me n t on Damping R a t i o - Shear S t r a i n hO
00
Relationship. lo
284
Irrespective of the shear strain amplitude, Hardin and
Drnevich concluded that D is approximately related to
6/6 by the expression

max 3
D = D (1 - T-2-) (5.3)
max G
max
where D is the limiting damping value. At large shear

HIclX
strain amplitudes, 6 becomes almost zero and hence, D
equals D . O n the other hand, at very small shear

n max * J
strains, 6 is close to Gmax> resulting in a damping ratio
of approximately zero. If the data from Figure 5.9 are
plotted with respect to the shear modulus ratio, they col
lapse approximately into a simple curve, as illustrated in
Figure 5.10. However, the relationship is not linear as

( implied by E q . 5.3. This is attributed to the fact that
the initial slope of the stress-strain curves after rever
sal becomes smaller than 6 as the shear strain (or

max
stress ratio) increases, as will be discussed later on.
An evaluation of previous investigations on the
nature of damping in sands (54,56,59,89,160,171,172) per
mits drawing the following general conclusions:
a. Although the energy losses within cyclicly loaded
sand masses are caused by interparticle slip and
friction at particle contacts, which develop hys
teretic damping, the decay of free vibrations of a
60
50
Ottawa 20-30 sand
Dr = 4 0 %
Q
O Symbol c r’m.kPa
E 202
£ 30
0 103
z Range of results
a 68.3
< 20 28.6
a
D = D m a x (1- G m a x
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
S H E A R M O D U L U S RATIO, G / G m a x
285
Figure 5.10 Damping Ratio Versus Shear Modulus Ratio.
286
specimen of granular materials resembles the vibra

c tions of a viscoelastic system;
b. Damping ratios increase significantly with increasing

*
shear strain amplitude but decrease as cr^ or the
number of cycles increases;
c. The effects of void ratio and methods of specimen
preparation seem to be small;
d. The maximum damping ratio. D , seems to be a

* max’
characteristic of the type of sand. Damping ratios
of clean sands seem to be slightly larger than those
of other natural sands, especially if they include
particles finer than 0.074 mm. Damping ratios appear
to decrease as the average grain size decreases.
Accordingly, the damping ratio values for standard
Ottawa 20-30 sand are observed to be higher than
those of other typical sands used for dynamic studies
such as Toyoura or Monterrey No. 0 sands, which are
finer. Therefore, the use of a single damping ratio
versus shear strain relationship for all sands
(146,154) is likely to introduce significant errors;
e. Damping ratio values are likely to be affected by
stress history as well as by consolidation stress
ratios. However, these effects are much less impor
tant than the effects of shear strain amplitude and
mean confining stress;
287
f. It is difficult to obtain accurate damping ratio
c values. Accordingly, damping values measured by dif
ferent investigators using different testing devices
may show a considerable scatter.
5.1.4 Effects of Frequency
The results presented in Figures 5.1 to 5.10 cover
the full range of shear strains of engineering interest,

—4
from 10 % to 10%, and the shear moduli at a shear strain
—2
amplitude of about 10 % obtained from the resonant column
(high frequency tests, f > 100 Hz) and torsional shear
tests (low frequency tests, f Z 0.1 to 0.2 Hz) agree
approximately, in spite of the great disparity in fre—
^ quency. This agreement has also been reported by previous
investigators (42, 88,136), leading to the conclusion that
the frequency of loading does not affect the response of
sands to cyclic loading. However, in the author's opin
ion, it is too early to assert that frequency has no
effects on the stress-strain response of sands. Besides
frequency, the number of loading cycles is also very dif
ferent between the two tests. The relative contribution
of each one of these factors to the response of sands in
the resonant column tests is not yet fully established,
although the effects of changes in frequency say be impor
tant in clayey soils (31). Accordingly, the torsional
shear test apparatus is being modified to expand its
288
frequency range, and to reduce the lower limit of shear

c strain amplitude that can be measured accurately. More
over, it will be shown later that when stage testing pro
cedures are not used, the shear modulus values from the
two tests may differ significantly, depending on the
number of cycles in the torsional shear test at which the
results are compared.
5.1.5 Effects of Shear Strain Level
As discussed previously, shear modulus values
decrease as the shear strain amplitude increases and the
corresponding modulus reduction curve is not unique with
respect to shear strain. Differences of up to 60% in the
G/Gmax values are observed in Figure 5.6 depending on the
shear strain amplitude and on the level of mean confining

*
stress, o . If the values of G/G in Figure 5.6 were
m max °
plotted against shear stress instead of shear strain, the
horizontal distance between two adjacent curves would
increase considerably, resulting in differences of up to
250%. Therefore, at a given G/G value, the range in

m oX
shear strains is smaller than the corresponding range in
shear stresses. However, it is not to be concluded that
the applied shear strain is the only factor controlling
the response of sands under different loading conditions,
as claimed by some researchers (24,34,70). For example,

*
the effect of a on the degradation of shear modulus at
m
c
289
the same strain amplitude is evident in Figure 5.6. More

c
over, it is well known that different types of sand or
sands with different fabrics may mobilize different
strength values under both drained and undralned condi
tions, even if they are compared at the same shear strain
level. Although, shear stresses and strains are depen
dent, their relationship is not unique. It is affected by
factors such as mean stress, fabric, aging, etc.
It should be noted that all the modulus reduction
curves in Figures 5.2 and 5.4 show some degradation in the
shear modulus even at small shear strain amplitudes in the

-4 -3
range from 10 % to 10 %. This was also observed by Har
din et a l . (59). From this point of view, if a threshold

-4
( shear strain exists, its value is less than 10 %. How
ever, the results in Figure 5.9 suggest that a sharp
increase in damping, which reflects the non-linear and
inelastic properties of the sand, only occurs for shear

-2
strain amplitudes slightly above 10 %. This strain level
has been suggested as the threshold shear strain, if , i.e.

— 2 -2
the strain level (10 % to 2 x 10 %) below which the pore
pressure buildup during cyclic loading of saturated sands
is negligible (24,32,33,43). This seems to be the case
also for Ottawa 20-30 sand, as will be illustrated later
with results from undrained tests. Nevertheless, it is
interesting to observe that a considerable reduction in
shear modulus has already occurred at a strain level of
290
_2
10 %. At this strain level, the corresponding shear
c modulus ratio, G/G , in Figure 5.6 is observed to range
max °
between 0.70 to 0.85. The reasons for this behavior are
not clear to the author. At a first glance, one tends to
think that there is a significant increase in the rate of
degradation in shear modulus for shear strains slightly

_2
above 10 % (see Figs. 5.4 and 5.6), which could reflect
in higher pore pressures under undrained shear. However,
when the shear modulus values are plotted versus shear
strain in an arithmetic scale, it is noted that the rate
of degradation of shear modulus essentially decreases with
increasing shear strain amplitude. Accordingly, it should
be kept in mind that the semilog scale, although con
venient, may obscure the relative effects of shear strain

(
v amplitude on the shear modulus and damping values of
sands.
5.1.6 Effects of Stress Ratio
Two replicate hollow cylinder specimens with the same
relative density of about 45% were tested in the resonant
column/torsional shear apparatus. One specimen was iso-

*
tropically consolidated with a mean confining stress,
of 68.3 kPa. The o.her specimen was anisotropically con-
solidated along a stress path with a stress ratio, a2 / ar *
of 2 .0 , but with approximately the same mean confining
stress as the first specimen. The shear modulus values
291
obtained for these two specimens were plotted as a func

c tion of shear strain and resulted in essentially the same
modulus degradation curve, as illustrated in Figure 5.11.
Hence, at the same mean normal stress an initial static
stress ratio of 2.0 had little effect on the shear
modulus-shear strain relation in drained shear, for shear

—4
strain amplitudes ranging from 10 % to 1%.
The effects of stress ratio on the shear modulus are
further illustrated by the results presented in Figure
5.12. A solid cylinder specimen with a relative density
of about 44% was isotropically consolidated to a mean con
fining stress of 100.6 kPa. After determining G by

max
means of resonant column tests, the axial and radial
( stresses were gradually changed keeping constant the mean
confining stress, until a stress ratio of 1.5 was
obtained. At this stage, the maximum shear modulus was
determined again. The procedure was repeated at higher
stress ratios until failure developed, providing che vari
ation of G with stress ratio. The maximum shear

max
modulus decreased as the stress ratio increased above 1.5.
The apparent increase in G at the failure condition can be
due to an increase in the circumferential stresses associ
ated with end restraint effects. At this stage, bulging
of the specimen was significant. Nevertheless, it is
interesting to observe that the reduction in G from an

6 max
isotropic state of stress to the failure condition was
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction C'
120 Hollow cylinder specimens
e = 0.623
'max’ 95,3 Dr = 45%
| 100
O Test
^ 'z.k P a 100.2 71.5

80
D ° ” r,kPa 50.2 66.7
O
O
5
<J"m,kPa 67.1 68.3
< 60
LU Kc = o " 2 /cr*r 2.0
1 100 1.07
<n
ry
Resonant Column
o A Torsional Shear
20
20
20 40 60 80 100
c'r.kPa
r‘' 1(T3
SHEAR STRAIN %
Figure 5.11 E f f e c t of C o n s o l i d a t i o n S t r e s s R a t i o on Modulus R e d u c t i o n
292
Curve.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction /■“"N
Solid cylinder specimen
Dr = 4 3 .6 %
= 100.6 kPa
120 -
a f
Q. \
1 100
o
CO
D Axial compression
^ 80 max
o <T'z /°"r
o
S
E 60 -
<
UJ
X
CO Secant / Torsional loading
40 '
> o-'z = cr'r

Tangent J T z0 increasing
20
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

S T R E S S RATIO, <r'i/0"3
Figure 5.12 E f f e c t of S t r e s s R a t i o on Maximum Shear Modul us .
293
294
only of 15%. In the author's opinion, this behavior
implies that Gm a x is not significantly affected by changes
in fabric since the particle arrangement certainly changes
in a drastic manner as the stress ratio increases. It Is
considered that under anisotropic states of stress, fabric
anisotropy increases resulting in a larger number of nor
mals at the contact points in the direction of the major
principal stress (5,126,127,178). This increased aniso
tropy is reflected by only a modest reduction in stiffness
under torsional loading.
Yu and Richart (198,199) reviewed previous investiga
tions on the effects of stress ratio, and then presented
the results of a comprehensive series of resonant column
tests in which the effects of static stress ratio, o /a ,

\ * z r’
and stress paths on the shear modulus at a shear strain
-4
amplitude of about 6 x 10 % were evaluated. Their
results and those of others (172) also showed that
increasing the stress ratio decreases the maximum shear
modulus, G . However, it is interesting to note that

m ax
stress ratios as high as those corresponding to failure
only decrease G up to a maximum of 30%. The effects of

incix
stress ratio on G seem to be relatively unimportant for
max
stress ratio below the range 1.5 to 2.5. The reduction in
modulus is also dependent on the stress path as a result
of the relation between the direction of the major princi
pal stress with respect to the orientation of the principal
295
axes of anisotropy. Thus the fact that G is not

e max
affected significantly by stress ratio reflects the step
wise nature of the stress-strain characteristics of sands,
which in turn is associated with their frictional nature.
In other words, the stress-strain curve of a granular
material is really composed of small "steps," which essen
tially seem to have the same initial slope, irrespective
of the shear strain amplitude. These initial slopes are
only up to 30Z smaller at strains approaching shear
failure.
The effects of stress ratio and hence of initial
shear stress, in principle, should be more evident as the
level of shear strain increases. In this connection, also

/
( shown in Figure 5.12 are the values of the secant and
tangent shear moduli for the specimen as a function of
stress ratio under torsional loading. The effects of
stre%: ratio on the small strain parameter and on the
large strain behavior (tangent modulus) are significantly
different. Accordingly, as the initial shear stress
increases, smaller cyclic shear strains should be required
to produce a given reduction in the secant shear modulus
with respect to G (59). The effects of stress ratio

r m ax
cannot be independent of the effects of shear strain
level. For low stress ratios (below about 2.0), induced
shear strains are small and hence, neither the maximum
shear modulus nor the shape of the modulus curve is
296
affected significantly by the initial anisotropic static

L stress conditions, as observed in Figure 5.11. However,
at higher stress ratios the modulus reduction curve may
not be independent of the initial static shear stress.
The actual relationship is still imperfectly known.
On the other hand, it is felt that resonant column
tests cannot reflect stress ratio effects even at rela
tively large shear strain amplitudes because of the large
number of cycles applied by the oscillator to the speci
men. Shortly after the first few cycles, the stress-
strain loops due to the superimposed cyclic shear stresses
correspond to unloading and reloading stages, regardless
of the initial shear stress (or strain) level. Conse
quently, the resonant column tests measures the
unloading-reloading secant modulus after several hundred
cycles, which is considerably higher than, for example,
the tangent modulus during the stage of virgin loading in
the first cycle. The unloading-reloading modulus at very
small shear strains after unloading from the virgin curve
will vary with stress ratio in a similar fashion as the
G values presented in Figure 5.12.

max
In the torsional shear test, the number of applied
cycles is significantly smaller than in the resonant
column test. However, it is still unlikely that an
equivalent secant shear modulus, which only considers the
changes of stress and strain at the maximum amplitude
297
p o i n t s , be completely appropriate to account for stress
c ratio effects. If an initial static shear stress is act
ing on the sand specimen, the difference in behavior
between the first cycle and the subsequent ones cannot be
measured by a single secant shear modulus. On the con
trary, the stress-strain model should consider the changes
of stress and strain throughout each loading and unloading
stage, especially if correlations are to be made for exam
ple with behavior under undrained cyclic loading. Conse
quently, more attention should be given to the effects of
stress ratio on the first few cycles of loading.
In view of the foregoing discussion, the author con
cludes that G values which inherently cannot account

max
( for stress ratio effects will not reflect the Initial
buildup in pore water pressure in an undrained cyclic test
under anisotropic stress conditions, which are charac
teristic of most in situ conditions. Accordingly, the
attempted correlation between shear wave velocities meas
ured at very small shear strain amplitudes and liquefac
tion potential (29,32,33,89,147) becomes also question
able. Furthermore, It is felt that not even drained
behavior can be correlated to G . There is experimental

max
evidence which suggests that the compressibility of sands
is controlled by the magnitude of the major principal
stress for a wide combination of o and stress ratio

m
values (102,105,186). In this connection, two specimens
298
under different o values will exhibit different G

/ m max
values but their compressibility may still be similar
depending on the relative magnitude of o^ and stress
ratio.
5.1.7 Effects of Stress History
Figure 5.13 presents the variation of shear modulus
with shear strain amplitude obtained from a hollow
cylinder specimen with a relative density of about 43.5%,
which was prestressed along the stress path ABA shown in
the Figure (overconsolidation ratio, OCR, of 2.0). The
results from a normally consolidated specimen at the same
mean confining stress are also shown for comparison. The
two modulus reduction curves are essentially the same.
Therefore, at the same mean confining stress, a , isotro-

m
pic prestressing with an OCR of 2.0 had a negligible
effect on the shear modulus - shear strain relation in
drained shear, for shear strain amplitudes ranging from

—4
10 % to 2%. Tatsuoka et a l . (172) also found that the
effects of isotropic prestressing on shear modulus values
were negligible.
Figure 5.14 shows the shear modulus values obtained
from two replicate specimens with the same void ratio and
initial state of stress, which were prestressed along the
stress path CBC shown in the Figure (OCR of 4.0). This
stress path corresponds approximately to the K q line
OT = 101.6 kPa
:> 80
_i
r>
Q
O
2
oc 60
< Test results after prestressing
UJ
X along ABA (OCR = 2.0)
to B /--J
200 • Resonant column
40f «
£ 150 o Torsional Shear
50 100150 200
^ 'r.kP a
10 -« 101 1 10
SHEAR STRAIN. (%)
Figure 5.13 E f f e c t o f ' I s o t r o p i c P r e s t r e s s i n g on Shear Modulus - Shear
299
O ttaw a 2 0 -3 0 sand
NC Specimens
e = 0.623
G m ax=95.3
100 (awcTr =1&2 Dr = 45%
at same cr')
/ 101 kPa
50 kPa
= 67 kPa
n
0.
Gmax = 84
5
</> OC Specimen
r>
-i Test results a fte r prestressing
o
o along path CBC (OCR*4):
5
• Resonant column
oc
< ° Torsional Shear
UJ
X
V)
100 200 300
SHEAR STRAIN, / ( % )
300
F ig u re 5.14 E f f e c t of A k i a l Co mp r e s s i o n P r e s t r e s s i n g on Shear Modulus -
Shear S t r a i n R e l a t i o n s h i p .
301
(axial compression) for Chls specimen. The results from a

G
normally consolidated specimen with corresponding void
ratio and state of stress (curve 1 from rig. 5.1i) are
also shown for comparison. Frestresslng along the K=2
line causes a degradation of the shear modulus of the
specimen at low shear strains, but the degradation is not

_2
significant for shear strain amplitudes above 2 x 10 %.
The unfavorable effect of the applied prestressing can be
attributed, in part, to the fact that the stress path dur
ing prestressing differs from the one followed during
cyclic loading. As mentioned earlier, the prestressing
effect is considered to be more significant when the
reloading stress path is the same as the one followed dur-
^ ing the prior stress history, as a result of the stiffen
ing effect associated with the orientation of normals at
the contacts in the direction of the major principal
stress. For other stress paths the effect may be more or
less favorable than the case illustrated in Figure 5.14.
It is important to observe that although both the NC
specimen and the prestressed specimen have been subjected
to the same maximum stress ratio of about 2 .0 , the maximum
shear modulus values are different (95.3 and 84 MPa,
respectively) due to the stress history effect. In addi
tion to the stress path effect, it is felt that the reduc
tion in modulus could be related to the level of shear
strain and consequent disruption of contacts induced
302
during the stress history. This level of shear strain
depends not only on the stress ratio but also on the mag
nitude of the applied stresses.
Yu and Richart (198) also investigated the effects of
stress history on the maximum shear modulus. In their
study, prestressing consisted of loading and unloading by
increasing the stress ratio. K. Degradation of the shear
modulus, G , due to the applied stress histories was

max
observed for both compression and extension stress paths.
Yu and Richart (198) concluded that "it is the maximum
value of stress ratio that governs the modulus reduction,
and the effect of stress histories, involving lower stress
ratios is negligible." The results shown in Figure 5.14
show that prestressing along a stress path with constant K
also causes a degradation of the shear modulus hence
stress ratio alone cannon account for stress history
effects, as proposed. Consequently, the effects of over
consolidation along a stress path with constant K must
also be considered. This fact is clearly illustrated by
the data shown in Figure 5.15, which show the variation of
G with overconsolidation ratio, OCR, obtained from a

max
solid cylinder specimen with a relative density of about
58%. The reduction in G in Figure 5.15 is attributed

max
only to the prestressing effect. The modulus values were
corrected to account for void ratio variations during
prestressing by using a void ratio function (58,88,198).
No lateral strain
unloading (estimated)
(0
« 110"
a.
x
at Ottawa 2 0 -3 0 sand
E
0 1 0 0 -,at A' Solid cylinder specimen
CO e = 0.591
ID
_l
D Dr = 5 8 %
Q 90--
Path ABA© °"z = 103.9 kPa
O
2 Path ACA <7"r = 5 0 kPa
a: 1000 •
<
UJ 80 S. 800+
x
CO
600- 2 /c
Path ABA
ID
2 70"
X
<
5
<>
200 400 6008001000
cr'r, kPa
6 8 9 10 11
OVERCONSOLIDATION RATIO
303
F igu re 5.15 Effect of Axial Compression Prestressing on Maximum Shear
Modulus of Medium Dense Sand Specimen.
304
Although prestressing decreased the void ratio, there was
also a reduction of up to 20% in the uncorrected shear
modulus. Hence, the effects of stress history on the
shear modulus are of the same order of magnitude than
stress ratio effects discussed in the previous section.
The shear modulus values measured on the same speci
m e n at normally consolidated stages (points A, B, C, and D
in Fig. 5.15) are shown in Figure 5.16. These results
confirm that the relationship between shear modulus at
small strains and mean confining stress presented in Fig-

*
ure 5.5 is also valid for a as high as 600 kPa. However,
m
a slight decrease in the exponent of <?m is observed for a
change in relative density from 40 to 58%. This is attri
( buted to the increased effect of particle interlocking as
the relative density increases, resulting in a relative

*
reduction in the contribution of a on the shear modulus.
I&
This is consistent with prior test results, as discussed
elsewhere (109).
The difference between prestressing and cyclic load
ing stress paths must be considered when comparing the
cyclic stress-strain behavior and liquefaction potential
of normally consolidated and prestressed sands. Results
in Figures 5.14 and 5.15 reflect the effects of prestress
ing along a stress path with constant stress ratio, which
result in G decreasing with increasing OCR. It is not

max
yet known whether this reduction in G will be reflected
J max
305
Speci men
(A
to
Dense
Medium
o
to
^3*
of
o
Modulus
to
CO CO
CL
Shear
E
CO
b
( CO
co
on
UJ
ac
t-
Confinement
CO
O
CNJ
O
O
CO
UJ
of
Ef f ect
CNJ
CD cc
5.16
to
Figure
o o
to to to
CM
1
.
smnaow u v 3h s
306
c in higher pore water pressures in undrained shearing.
This is considered to be unlikely. In fact, prestressed
sands have been found to exhibit a lesser tendency to pore
pressure buildup than NC sands (6,145). On the other
hand, a stress path with a constant stress ratio during
unloading may not be representative of actual in situ con
ditions. For example, it is felt that the effect of OCR
on G may be more pronounced for no lateral strain tests.
It is well known that prestressing without permitting
lateral strain during the unloading stage produces an
increase in the lateral stress, which might become even
larger than the vertical stress for OCR values higher than
about 5 (67,115). Under these conditions, the fabric of
the sand deposit is likely to get stiffer in the horizon
tal direction, which is the direction of particle motion
under the earthquake induced shear stresses. Moreover,
the increase in mean confining stress, itself causes an
increase in the stiffness o f 'the sand. Based on the
correlations developed by Mayne et a l . (115), the coeffi
cient of earth pressure at rest, Kq , for Ottawa 20-30 sand
was estimated as a function of OCR, by using the expres
sion
(Kq )oc = (1 " sin*') 0CRS±n<r (5.4)
At a void ratio of 0.591, the angle of shear resistance
was estimated to be on the order of 32.2° (115). The
307
estimated (K . values were 0.92, 1.26, and 1.62 which

° OC
correspond to OCR values of about 3.4, 6.1 and 9.8,
respectively. These values were used to estimate the
plane strain Gffiax values by correcting the values in Fig-

*
ure 5.15 according to the increase in o^ corresponding to
plane strain conditions under the same vertical stress, a

r * 2
of 103.9 k P a . The estimated values are also shown in Fig
ure 5.15, resulting in an increase in G with OCR of up

° max
to about 16%. This trend does agree with the tendency to
higher liquefaction resistance with increasing OCR. These
values could be considered a lower bound of the effects of
plane strain prestressing on the maximum shear modulus,
G
max
Nevertheless, it should be noted that in either case,
stress history effects only change Gmax on the order of
15% to 20%. The changes in compressibility in drained
shear or in pore pressure response in undrained tests are
known to vary within a much wider range (23,82,202,209).
Hence, G , which reflects the behavior of sands at very

* max
small shear strains does not seem to be sensitive enough
to account for stress history effects on pore pressure
generation in undrained shear. The results of this inves
tigation and those from previous studies on the effects of
prestressing in sands (7,23,101) permit to draw the fol
lowing general conclusions:
308
c a. Prestressing affects significantly the stress-strain
characteristics of sands. These effects are related
to changes in void ratio, and in the conditions at
the contact points between neighboring grains.
Accordingly, the actual effects depend on the stress
and boundary conditions during prestressing, the
level of mean stress and relative density.
b. Prestressing along a particular stress path does not
necessarily result in stiffening of the sand specimen
when reloaded along other stress paths. When loading
and reloading occurs along a particular stress path,
the increase in stiffness is more significant for OCR
values in the range from 1 to 2 (see data in Refs.
7,23,109). For OCR values higher than 2 the addi
tional increase in stiffness is moderate.
c. It is considered that a modular ratio, MR (ratio
between the overconsolidated and the normally conso
lidated moduli) is strongly dependent on the type of
modulus and the strain conditions during unloading,
and that MR increases as the mean confining stress
decreases or as the relative density decreases (109).
In terms of Young's moduli for axial compression, the
modular ratio may be much larger when the stress
ratio is held constant during unloading, compared to
the condition of no lateral strain (23,109). This is
attributed to the effects of rotation of the planes
of principal stress, and hence in Che direction of
shearing, under plane strain conditions at high OCR
values C(Ko )0C > 4.0).
5.1.8 Effects of Cyclic Prestraining
The effects of cyclic prestraining on the shear
modulus are illustrated by the results presented in Figure
5.17. These results were obtained from specimens with the
same initial conditions as in some of the previous tests

^ »»
(D Z 45% and stress ratio, o /a » 2.0), but which had
r * z r *
been cyclicly prestrained in the resonant column mode.
The modulus degradation curve for a specimen without a
prestraining history (solid curve) is also shown for com
parison. Before prestraining the specimen, a maximum
shear modulus, G , of about 95.3 MPa was determined in

* max
stage A. This value compares very well with that for the
normally consolidated specimen. In stage B, the specimen
was prestrained cyclicly using the resonant column mode

-2
with a shear strain amplitude of about 1.3 x 10 %. At
this strain level, the measured shear modulus (about 71
MPa) also agrees with the value for the NC sand. Follow
ing stage B, the complete modulus degradation curve was
determined by means of resonant column tests (stage C) and
torsional shear tests (stage D ) .
The torsional prestraining (stage B) caused the shear
modulus to Increase above the value corresponding to the
Test stages:
120
Low strain RC *
Large strain RC ■
NC specimen (Prestraining)
100
RC after B •
TS after C
a 80
2
(9
W RC3 Resonant column
D TS= Torsional shear
60
D
O
O
2
OC
40
iu
X Ottawa 20-30 sand
(0 Hollow cylinder specimens
e=0.623
Dr=45%
20 °"z =100.2 kPa
cr'r =50 kPa
-4 -3 -2
SHEAR STRAIN, /( % )
Figure 5.17 E f f e c t of T o r s i o n a l P r e s t r a i n i n g on Shear Modulus - Shear

311
NC specimen without any prestraining, for shear strains
below the shear strain amplitude used during cyclic pres
training. The maximum shear modulus, G , increased from

max
95 to 100 MPa. For shear strain amplitudes larger than
-2
the previous maximum of 1.3 x 10 %, the shear modulus was
insensitive to the previous strain history. A similar
behavior has been observed in previous investigations
(42,160,172). The increase in shear modulus due to cyclic
prestraining has been considered to result from the elimi
nation of local instabilities at the contact points, and
consequently better interlocking of the particles, even
without any general rearrangement or densification taking
place (36,42,47,196). The stiffening effect is greatest
as the number of cycles increases (42,160). For the

( present tests, the increase in shear modulus can also be
attributed, in part, to the fact that the loading paths
during prestraining (stage B) and reloading (stage C) are
the same, which favors an increase in shear modulus. This
was not the case when the two loading paths differed (Fig.
5.14). Nevertheless, it should be noted that the differ
ence between the G values at stages A and C is rela-

max
tively small.
The effects of torsional prestressing and prestrain
ing and of the level of shear strain associated with them
are further illustrated by the results obtained from tests
on two hollow cylinder specimens presented in Figure 5.18.
:eproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction
120
Test stages:
Gmax = 102
NC Specimen (A) Low strain RC A
(5) TS: 2 cycles D

* CD)
(Prestessing
Gmax = 91.8 (§ ) RC a fte r B
(D) RC a fte r c
(E) TS a fte r D
«
Q.
2 60
O
Increase in shear
<0
modulus due to
_J
3 prior strain history
D 40 -
O O ttaw a 2 0 -3 0 sand
5 Hollow cylinder specimens
DC
< e = 0.623
UJ
Dr = 45 %
w 20
CT’z = 100.4 kPa
<7"r = 50.1 kPa
-4 -1
10 10 10 " 2 10
SHEAR STRAIN. X(%)
Figure 5.18 Effect of Torsional Prestressing on Shear Modulus - Shear

313
For reference the modulus reduction curve for a normally
consolidated specimen without prior stress or strain his
tory, but under the same initial conditions, is also given
in Figure 5.18 (continuous line). In stage A, the initial
maximum shear modulus, G , was measured to be about 94.7

max
MPa. In stage B, each specimen was subjected to two
-2
cycles of shear strain with amplitude of about 2.2 x 10 %
using the torsional shear mode. The secant shear modulus
values measured in the second cycle for the two specimens
were 32 and 36 MPa, respectively. These values correspond
to shear modulus ratios, G/G , of 0.34 and 0.38, respec-

nioX
tively. The influence of these two strain cycles, stage
B, on the stress-strain response at smaller shear strains
was evaluated during stage C using resonant column tests.

(
The two cycles of shear strain with an amplitude of
_2
2.2 x 10 % caused the shear modulus at low shear strains
(stage C) to decrease slightly below the initial Gmax of-
the specimen (G reduced from 94.7 to 91.8 MPa). This

r max
observation can be interpreted as the result of two coun
terbalancing effects: an increase in G value due to pres
tressing effects and a degradation of G associated with
the larger levels of prior shear strain. For the sequence
of stages A, B, and C, the latter effect is slightly dom- -
inant. After stage C, the specimen was subjected to a
second series of resonant column tests starting again at
very low strains (stage D ) . The prior strain history
314
ing stage C produced a regeneration of the shear modulus

L.
during stage D, giving modulus values higher than the
shear modulus of the specimen prior to any loading history
(G increased from 91.8 to 102 MPa). Therefore, the

max
prestraining effect due to the cyclic loading with
increasing shear strain amplitude during stage C overrode
the degradating effects of prestressing involving rela
tively large shear strains (stage B ) . However, it should
be noted that stage C (resonant column tests) included a
significant number of cycles at small strains with
increasing amplitude, whereas in stage B (torsional shear
tests) only two cycles of strain were applied. Accord
ingly, stage B has been described as a "prestressing"
stage.
Finally, the variation of shear modulus in the large
shear strain range was determined using torsional shear
tests (stage E ) . The effect that the prior strain history
(stages C and D) had on the shear modulus values at large
strain is considerable: the shear modulus increased by
about 65% between stages B and E at a shear strain ampli-

_ 2
tude of 2.2 x 10 %. At this strain level, the shear
modulus of the specimens prior to any cyclic strain his
tory (results obtained during stage B) is much smaller
(32-36 MPa) than the values (55-60 MPa) obtained after the
specimens have been subjected to the strain histories
corresponding to stages C and D. Although the shear
315
_2
moduli at Y * 2.2 x 10 % are very different, it is impor-
tant to note that G of the prestrained specimens (102

m sx
MPa) and Gmax of the specimens prior to any strain history
(94.7 MPa) only differ by about 7%. Therefore, specimens
with essentially the same Gmax may exhibit a drastically
different "large strain" behavior. In the light of these
results, Gma x does not seem to be an appropriate parameter
to be correlated with the response of sands to cyclic

—2
loading involving shear strains larger than about 10 %.
Tests with various strain levels at stage B (two
cycles at constant shear strain amplitude) gave similar
results to those presented in Figure 5.18. These results
are summarized in Figure 5.19, which fully illustrates the
effects of prior strain history. The magnitude of these
effects seems to conflict with those observed by previous
investigators (160,172). For example, Silver and Park
(160) reported that the shear modulus values for fresh or
"virgin" dry specimens were slightly larger than for stage
tested specimens, in the shear strain range from 0.08 to
0.44%. Since staged testing involves the application of
repeated shear strains at increasing amplitude, the
effects of this technique on shear modulus correspond to
strain history effects. According to Figure 5.19, at y =
0 .1%, or greater, prestraining seems to have little
effect. On the other hand, Silver and Park (160) obtained
their modulus values by means of cyclic triaxial tests,
120
Resonant column tests Torsional shear tests
100 Stage tested

specimen
80
«
I 60
Increase in shear
modulus due to
_i prior strain history
D
O 40 O ttaw a 2 0 -3 0 sand
o
5 Hollow cylinder specimens oV
oc
< e « 0.623
UJ
m 20 Dr = 45%
c 'z = 100.4 KPa
’Virgin" specimens sO
cr'r = 50.1 KPa
(2nd cycle)
10 " 4 10 _1 1 4
SHEAR STRAIN, / (%)
316
Figure 5.19 E f f e c t o f S t r a i n H i s t o r y on Shear Modulus - Shear S t r a i n
Relationship.
317
which involve a limited number of cycles even if stage
L testing procedures are used. For these reasons, Silver
and Parkis results did not reflect effects of a large
number of prior strain cycles. However, if staged testing
includes the determination of shear moduli by means of
resonant column tests, it can lead to a significant
overestimation of shear modulus for sand with no prior
cyclic strain history even at shear strain amplitudes as
low as 1.1 x 10"2% (Fig. 5.19).
It is interesting to note that in Figure 5.17 a bene
ficial effect of staged testing is not observed (compare
stages B and C ) . This is due to the fact that stage B
already includes stage testing effects. Since the meas
urement of G in the resonant column mode implies the

(
application of a considerable number of cycles, which pro
duces a significant stiffening of the specimen. Accord
ingly, the measured shear modulus corresponds to the
unloading-reloading secant modulus after several hundred
cycles. It is not yet known at which shear strain level
the stress-strain characteristics of sands as measured by
resonant column tests, change as a function of the number
of cycles. According to the data in Figure 5.18, resonant

-4
column tests at shear strains of about 10 % do not pro
duce stiffening of the specimen (compare stages A and B ) .
Most of the modulus reduction curves in this investigation
were obtained by using stage testing procedures, and hence
318
, the results are affected by strain history effects. This
does not invalidate any of the conclusions regarding the
maximum shear modulus. G . However, it should be

max
pointed out that the stiffening effects associated with
performing resonant column tests in the strain range from

_A —2
10 % to 10 % can override the degradating effects of
stress ratio (Fig. 5.11), prestressing (Fig. 5.14), and of
large strain prestraining (Fig. 5.18), in the range of

_3
medium to large shear strains (10 % to 0 .1%).
From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that the
number of stress (or strain) repetitions has an important
effect on stress-strain behavior even for "virgin" speci
mens, which results in an increase in G with increasing
( number of cycles. This is attributed to the elimination
of local instabilities at the contact points and to the
changes in density. To quantify these effects, specimens
with no prior strain history were subjected to cyclic
loading in the torsional shear mode. Each specimen was
subjected to more than 50 cycles of constant shear strain
amplitude. Figure 5.20 shows the variation of shear
modulus with number of cycles obtained from these tests.
The values for prestrained specimens (at the noted shear
strain levels) with similar density and stress conditions
are also shown for comparison. Although G increases with
the number of cycles, it is noted that the stiffening
effect is more significant during the first 10 to 20
60 Prestrained spec i m e n
r
000
5 0 --0 0 '
0 0©
O <,0 o o O o ° ® ° 0 ° ° 0 o G G
cd
Q.
2 40 00 00 O
O .0 ®
•»
CO S p e c i m e n with n o
ZD
_J 30 -- o prior strain history
D
Q
O Ottawa 2 0 - 3 0 sand
5
Hollow cylinder spec i m e n
cc 20
<
UJ e = 0.633
X Dr = 4 0 . 7 %
CO
10 a 'z = 104.3kPa
-
a) Sh ea r strain, y = ±2.21 x 10 “2
°"'r = 50.0kPa
G = 94.1MPa
max
4- + + + + + +
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
N U M B E R OF CYCLES
319
Figu re 5.20 Effect of N um b e r of Cycles at C on sta nt Shear Strain Amplitude
on Shear M od ulu s,
60
50 -f
Cyclic prestraining
73
CL Prestrained s p e c i m e n (Resonant c o l u m n m o d e )
§
0 40 - / /.
q Q O q Q 0 0 O0
co" 3O00000000
D O O 0 0 0 0 00 0® ® 0000O°
30 - 0 0 °°
S p e c i m e n with n o Ottawa 2 0 - 3 0 sand
prior strain history Hollow cylinder s p e c i m e n s
DC
<
HI 20 •*
X e = 0.62
CO Dr = 4 6 %
°"z = 105.6kPa
10 -
°"r = 50.9kPa
b) S h ea r strain, Y = ±4.4 x 10 "2 %
G m a x = 9 5 -8 M P a
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
N U M B E R OF CYCLES, N
320
Figure 5 . 2 0 , continued.
321
c in
in
c
in
o
Oi co
CO
HI
in
CM o
>
o
li.
o
cc
111
in CD
eo "o S
Ql 3
Z
continued
CM CM <0 CO CM
CO Tf' 0 ©
in
5.20,
Figure
o o o o
co in CO CM
(Bdv\i)0 ‘s m n a o w dvaHS
322
cycles, depending on the shear strain amplitude. This
range corresponds approximately to the significant number
of cycles in an earthquake. Figure 5.20 also permits
visualization of the tremendous effects of prestraining
due to small shear strain cycles of increasing amplitude
(resonant column tests). However, it is clearly noted
that the effects of small strain prestressing decrease as
the shear strain amplitude increases (compare Fig. 2.20a
and 2.20c). Moreover, it is interesting to note that the
variation of G with number of cycles is considerably
smaller for the prestrained specimen than for the "virgin"
specimen.
These findings have an important implication regard
ing commonly used numerical methods for dynamic analysis.
The simplified procedure which consists of using a single
modulus degradation curve (146,154) or defining an
equivalent shear modulus at the tenth cycle (8 8 ) is not
conceptually satisfactory since the strain history effects
resulting from the previous cycles or from the relative
order in which the stress cycles are applied in a given
loading sequence, are not accounted for.
In summary, it can be concluded that the influence of
prior stress or strain histories is controlled by three
different factors:
323
1. the prestress effect itself, which is dependent on
c stress path and strain level,
2. the destructuration that occurs as shear strain
increases, and
3. the number and magnitude of prior cyclic strain or
stress repetitions.
The second factor has an effect opposite to that of
the other two. In this regard, the results in Figs. 5.14
to 5.20 clearly illustrate the important difference
between prestressing effects from those due to cyclic
strain history.
The test results previously discussed show that in
addition to shear strain level, the stress-strain charac
teristics of sands under drained cyclic loading are
affected by relative density, mean confining stress,
stress ratio, stress history and prior number of strain
applications. However, the behavior at very small shear
strains, as measured by G is mainly affected by the

* J max J
mean confining stress and Dr. The effects of stress
ratio, stress history and cyclic prestraining on Gmax are
not significant. Consequently, a direct correlation
between G and "large" strain behavior such as liquefac-

max 6
tion potential which is affected by those factors, is not
appropriate. For the same reasons, the attempted
3 24
correlation between shear wave velocities measured at very
small shear strains and liquefaction potential of natural
sand deposits becomes also questionable.
5.2. Dndrained Cyclic Shear Tests
5.2.1 Results of Typical Stress and Strain Controlled Tests
Figure 5.21 presents the results of a test on a solid
specimen with Dr = 63% (e = 0.578) consolidated isotropi-

*
cally to a mean confining stress, a , of 100 k P a . A
m
cyclic shear stress with a maximum amplitude of 26.8 kPa
was applied at a constant strain rate. The residual shear
strain that developed at the end of each of the first two
cycles is very small (Fig. 5.21a) while the pore pressure
Increased progressively at a relatively rapid rate (Fig.
5.21b). Then, the residual shear strains become larger
with the largest net increment occurring during the first
half of the 4th cycle. It is important to note that after
the 3rd cycle, the mechanism of pore pressure generation
changes drastically. Peak pore pressures develop whenever
the applied shear stress approaches zero, while a decrease
in pore pressure is observed after large cyclic strains.
At the end of the 4th cycle the pore pressure becomes
equal to the confining pressure, that is, "initial
liquefaction" develops. The pattern repeats itself
thereafter with continual reduction in the net increment
of the residual strain at the end of each cycle (Fig.
325
c
D r- 63%
Crz -CTr -1 0 0 kPa O tta w a 2 0 - 3 0 sand
T z e - 2 6.8 kPa Solid cylinder specimen
STRAIN, /< % >
4—
2 .. Load
cycle
\2Q 40 <60 80 100

SHEAR
2 --
4 --
H alf
cycle
TIM E. SEC .
C onfining p ressu re
PRESSURE, kPa
PORE
50-L
H alf
cycle
Load
.. cycle
• Points o f z e ro shear s tre s s
20 40 60 80 100 120
TIM E, SEC.
Figure 5.21 Undrained Torsional Shear Test on Isotropi-

cally Consolidated Specimen (Dr=63%).
326
20
SHEAR STRAIN.X(%)
40 ,
P h a s e tra n s fo rm a tio n lin e
(
o 10*0
1 3 kPa
J
>. (2 -3 7 ° (^>-490)
-4 0
EFFECTIVE CONFINING STRESS. P' <*Pa)
327
5.21a). As discussed In Chapter 3, this behavior Is
characteristic of dense sands.
Figure 5.21 shows that the stress-strain curves dur
ing the first two cycles of loading resemble a simple
closed loop. However, as loading progresses the stress-
strain relationship becomes complex and simplification of
the behavior in terms of an equivalent secant shear
modulus is no longer appropriate. It is noted that the
residual strains in one direction of rotation are larger
than those in the opposite direction, although the
corresponding rotation of principal stresses is symmetri
cal with respect to fabric anisotropy. It is thought that
this may be due to the fact that a significant increment
c in residual strain first occurs in that direction, which
corresponds to the direction in which loading was ini
tiated. It is also important to note that during the last
loading cycles large cyclic shear strains occur as the
shear stress reverses sign (e.g. goes from positive to
negative.). At these stages of the test the specimen
exhibits a very low strength since the pore pressure
reaches a value close to the confining pressure.
The effective stress path plot (Fig. 5.21d) permits
visualization of the relationship between pore pressure
buildup and strain development during cyclic loading. As
the number of cycles increases the effective stress path
gradually moves towards the left. However, a drastic
328
change in curvature, or elbow, in the shape of the stress

c path is observed in the second half of the third cycle
(point A in Fig. 5.21d). Dilation develops and the stress
path moves back towards the right, reflecting a reduction
in pore pressure. Hence, as the effective confining pres
sure decreases and the stress path approaches the failure
line, the behavior changes from contractive to dilative on
loading. Larger shear strains are also observed at this
stage (Figs. 521a and 5.21c). Upon reversal in the direc
tion of shearing (point B in Fig. 5.21d), a sharp increase
in the pore water pressure is observed and the stress path
moves again towards the left. The author associates this
behavior to the fact that the sudden reversal in the
c direction of shearing causes a downward motion of the
grains in the "dilated” structure of the sand specimen and
probably a reduction in the number of contact points
between neighboring grains. Consequently, a large strain
increment occurs after the shear stress reverses sign
(point C in Figs. 5.21c), reflecting a reduction in the
strength of the specimen. However, further straining
causes dilation to develop (new contact points develop)
and the stress path moves back towards the right (point D
in Fig. 5.21d) as the pore pressure decreases. The
effects of dilation are clearly reflected on the steepen
ing of the stress-strain curve between points D and E in
Figure 5.21c. The contractiveness increases in the next
unloading stage and the stress path moves finally towards
329
a state of zero effective st re ss , corresponding to the
occurrence of Initial liquefaction. As the shear stress
reverses (point F in Fig. 5.21c), the stress-strain curve
becomes very flat as a result of the loss of strength.
However, once again, after further straining dilation
develops, the pore pressure decreases and the stress path
moves back along the failure line. The development of new
contact points after large shear strains allows dilation
of the sand skeleton since the effective confining pres
sure is extremely low. Thereafter, the specimen experi
ences cycles of limited liquefaction on unloading and
large deformations with gradual stiffening on loading in
either direction. However, it is noted that the increment
of residual strain at the end of each cycle apparently

( d e c r e as es .
The states of stress at which the behavior changes
from contractive to dilative on loading defines a locus .of
points that have been called lines of phase transformation
(82), which mark a drastic change in the mechanism of pore
pressure generation and in the consequent stress-strain
characteristics of sands. As the loading stress paths
cross the phase transformation line, dilation develops
causing a reduction in pore pressure and in the rate of
shear strain accumulation. On the other hand, as the
unloading stress paths move into the area limited by the
two phase transformation lines contractiveness increases,
330
which is reflected in high pore water pressures and in the
development of larger shear strains. Accordingly, the
corresponding stress-strain curves become flatter. It
will be shown later that once the stress path is at a
state of zero effective stress (liquefaction), the amount
of shear strain required to mobilize a given shear resis
tance, in the opposite direction, increases significantly
as the relative density of the sand decreases. After the
collapse of the structure due to the reversal in the
direction of shearing, the looser the specimen the larger
the shear strains required for new contact points to
develop.
Figure 5.22 presents the results of another tests on
a looser solid specimen with Dr = 50% (e = 0.61) consoli-
dated isotropically to a mean confining stress, a of

m
104.3 kPa. A cyclic shear stress with a maximum amplitude
of about 23.0 kPa was applied at a constant strain rate..
As in the previous test (Fig. 5.21), although the pore
pressure increased progressively, the shear strains that
developed during the first two cycles of loading are rela
tively small (Fig. 5.22a) and the corresponding stress-
strain curves resemble a simple close loop (Fig. 5.22c).
However, a large shear strain increment accompanied by an
additional large increase in pore pressure (Fig. 5.22b)
developed in the first loading stage of the 3rd cycle.
This stage of deformation and pore pressure buildup
331
Solid cylinder specimen o"z - o"r - 104.3 kPa
e - 0.61 Dr - 50 .% r cy - 22.6 kPa
Load cycle
z
<
cc
I-
co
cc 20 30 40 ,50 60 70 80
<
til
I -2
CO
-4 Half cycle
-6 ■
TIME, sec.
-8 ■
Confining pressure
100 ■
( 90
80 ■ Half
CO
CL cycle
. 70 •
w
cc
3 60 ■
CO
CO
£ 50 ■
B 4.:
o
a
30 ■
20
Load cycle
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
TIME, sec.

cally Consolidated Specimen (Dr=50%).
332
30
25
20
STRESS, kPa
-10 -9
SHEAR
4th cycle -5
-10
3rd cycle
-20
-2 5
SHEAR -3 0 STRAIN, %
40 ■
30 ■
20 ■
SHEAR STRESS, kPa
IU ‘
■JO 20 40 50 80 90 100 T t = 8.7
-1 0 •
t kPa
-20 ■
Phase transform ation

^-30 • line a -3 2 .5 (0 1 = 39.6)
EFFECTIVE CONFINING STRESS.kPa

-4 0 •
333
^ occurred under an approximately constant shear stress
amplitude, which is reflected by the fact that the stress
path moves almost horizontally towards the failure line
(between points A and B in Fig. 5.22d). It should be
noted that this type of behavior was not observed in the
specimen with Dr of 63% (Fig. 5.21).
After a shear strain of about 3% a slight dilation is
apparent, which slows down the rate of deformation and
allows the specimen to buildup strength up to the stress
amplitude at which reversal of rotation occurs (point B in
Fig. 5.22d). At this point the specimen collapses almost
completely causing a sharp increase in pore pressure,
which becomes close to the confining pressure. As the
( shear stress reverses sign the stress-strain curve becomes
flat (point C in Fig. 5.22c) reflecting the loss of
strength. This state practically corresponds to initial
liquefaction. As a result of dilation with further
straining the pore pressure decreases, the specimen builds
up strength at an increasing rate while the stress path
climbs along the failure line from point C to point D
(Fig. 5.25d). Reversal of the direction of shearing at
point D causes a second collapse of the structure bringing
again the specimen to a liquified state-. It is interest
ing to note that after "liquefaction" at point C a shear
strain of about 8% is required for the specimen to build
up a strength of 23 k P a . However, after the second state
334
of liquefaction the strength mobilized after a shear
strain of 12% is only 10 kPa. Therefore, in this case,
the shear strains which accompany the development of tran
sient states of liquefaction increase as cyclic loading
progresses. This is the behavior characteristic of medium
loose s a n e s • -
The behavior of medium loose specimens is further
illustrated by the results presented in Figure 5.23, which
were obtained from a test on a solid specimen with a Dr of
48%. The specimen was subjected to cyclic loading with a
smaller shear stress amplitude (18.2 kPa) than in the pre
vious tests in order to obtain more detailed information
on the mechanisms of pore pressure and strain development
with increasing number of cycles. The residual shear
strain that developed at the end of each of the first six
cycles is very small (Fig. 5.23a) while the pore pressure
increased progressively with each loading cycle (Fig.
5.23b). During the loading stage of the second half of
the 7th load cycle, large shear strains suddenly develop
together with a sharp increase in pore pressure (point A
in Figs. 5.23a and 5.23b) and a small drop in the strength
of the specimen (Fig. 5.23c). It is evident that at this
stage the structure of the sand has partially collapsed,
thereby imparting the brittle (strain softening) behavior
observed in Figure 5.23c. Once the sand structure starts
to collapse (at - 19.6°), the specimen becomes
335
5t
L 4
O tta w a 2 0 - 3 0 san d
S olid c y lin d e r specim en
=<r-r » 100.8 kPa
= 18.2 kPa
3 e - 0.614 G m ax ■ 116.6 MPa
Dr - 4 8 %
2
* 1 L o a d c y c le
X 1/ 2 3
< 80 100 180 200 220 240

cc 1
H
CO H a lf c y c le
cc 2
<
UJ
X 3
CO
5 TIM E SEC.
110 T
C o n fin in g p re s s u re
100
( 90 -
80 -
€ axial
I«L 7 0 ..
6 0 -■
UJ
cc
^ 5 0 ■■
CO
CO
g 40
Q. H a lf c y c le
UJ 30 ■ L o a d cycle
CC
o
0. 20-- I 2
1
10 -
20 40 60
TIM E, SEC.

cally Consolidated Medium Loose Sand
Specimen (Dr=48%).
336
25 t
7th c y c le
20 .
T (kPa)
STRESS,
-5
SHEAR
8th c yc le
-1 0
S H EA R STRA IN , X %
40
STRESS, q(KPa
30-
Phase transform ation
line „
20 --
10 - L o ad cycle
SHEAR
..C 20 30 40 50 BD 9 0,
-1 0 •
M A X IM U M
-20
E F F E C T IV E C O N FINING STR E S S , p ' (KPa)
337
unstable, and the stress path moves quickly towards the
failure line. It is noted that the almost horizontal
movement of the stress path towards the failure line
(between points A and B in Figure 5.23d) is larger than
that observed during the 3rd cycle In the previous test
(Fig. 5.22d), reflecting a larger increase in pore pres
sure even though the shear stress amplitude is smaller.
The effective stress path in Figure 5.23d also shows that
the specimen becomes unstable when the mobilized friction
angle is only a fraction of the maximum angle of shear
resistance. The mobilized friction angle at peak strength
corresponds to a critical principal stress ratio of 2.0
which is reached at a shear strain of about 0.3% (Fig.
5.23c), whereas the pore pressure at the same strain
corresponds to 45% of the confining pressure. As dis
cussed in Chapter 3, this behavior is characteristic of
medium loose to loose sands. The conditions determining
the collapse of the structure under cyclic torsional load
ing will be discussed in more detail in a later section of
this Chapter.
After a shear strain of about 1.3%, dilation becomes
apparent resulting in a slight gain in strength with
Increasing strain as reflected by some steepening of the
stress-strain curve. However, further straining is
abruptly interrupted at a shear strain of 2 .2% when the
reversal of rotation occurs. At this point (B in Fig.
338
5.23) the pore water pressure has increased to about 60%
of the confining stress. Reversal of the direction of
rotation and the sudden rearrangement of grains associated
with it (collapse) cause once more a drastic change in the
mechanism of pore pressure generation, which is clearly
evident by the change in curvature (elbow) in the shape of
the stress path. The pore pressure continues to increase
as the shear stress is reduced to zero. At an early stage
of reloading the pore pressure reaches a value close to
the confining pressure (point C in Figs. 5.23b and 5.23d).
The specimen then exhibits a very low strength, and very
large shear strains develop (8 th cycle in Fig. 5.23c).
After a shear strain of about 8% the specimen has only
mobilized a strength of 7 kPa. At this strain level,
dilation is again apparent (a second "elbow" is observed
at point C in Fig. 5.23d) and the stress path is moving
back along the failure line. The corresponding stress-
strain curve is becoming slightly steeper (Fig. 5.23c).
Figure 5.23c shows that the stress-strain behavior
during the first six cycles of undrained loading resemble
a simple closed loop. The equivalent secant shear modulus
values are plotted on Figure 5.24 as a function of the
average mean confining stress during each load cycle. The
shear modulus values calculated from results of stage-
tested dry specimens at the same mean confining stress and
shear strain level are also shown for comparison. The
e = 0.614
Dr = 4 8 %
G m a x = 116.6MPa
t eye = 18.2kPa
40-
o Measured values
• Estimated from results of
30- staged tests on dry specimen
<
Q.
5
Sw*
(D
20-
CO
D
_l
D
Q
O
5 10-- Sample collapse
CC
(7=0.176%)
<
UJ
L o ad cycle
X
CO
6 5 4 3 2 1 0
20 30 40 50 60 80 90 100 110
E F FE C T I V E C O N F I N I N G S T R E S S , p' (kPa)
'Igor. 5.24 Shear M o d u l u s - E f f e c t i v e C o n f i n i n g St ress R e l a t i o n s h i p d uri ng

u>
Undrained Cyclic Loading (Data fron Fig. 5.23c and 5.23d). U)
VO
340
measured and estimated shear modulus values resulted in
essentially the same curve, except at small shear strains.
This difference is attributed to staged testing effects
which are likely to be more pronounced in the dry speci
men. However, as discussed earlier, prestraining has lit
tle effect for shear strain amplitude larger than about
0.1%. Consequently, over this range the modulus values
agree very well. It is interesting to observe that the
equivalent shear modulus during undrained loading
increases slightly during the first few cycles reflecting
also strain history effects. These effects also cause a
reduction in the rate of pore pressure buildup with
increasing number of cycles during the first six cycles
(Fig. 5.23b), which will be discussed further in a later

c section. In the second half of the 7th cycle the specimen
collapses and the stress-strain relationship becomes com
plex. As pointed out earlier, simplification of the
behavior in terms of an equivalent secant shear modulus is
no longer appropriate.
Figure 5.25 illustrates the behavior of a loose
specimen with Dr = 44%, which was subjected to cyclic
loading with a maximum shear stress amplitude of 16.5 kPa.
The residual shear strain that developed at the end of
each of the first nine cycles is very small (Fig. 5.25a)
whereas the pore pressure increased progressively,
although at a decreasing rate. In the first loading stage
341
10
V -
Ottawa 20-30 sand o-'z ,o " r - 100.3 kPa
Said cyfnder specimen Tcy ■ 16.5 kPa
e - 0.625
Dr - 44 %
60 120 180 240 300 3 60
ye 0
S -2
<
« —4
CO
oc -6 10 th cycle
<
£ -8
co
-10
-1 2
-1 4
-1 6
TIME, sec.
-18
-20
Confining pressure
100
'S te a d y - state'
deformation
( 90 ■
80
m
CL
JC 70
a.
3 60
CO
CD
UJ
tr 50
CL
UJ 40 Load cycle
CC
o
CL
30
Collapse
20
60 120 180 240 300 360
TIME, sec.
Figure 5.25 Undrained Torsional Shear Tests on Isotropi-

cally Consolidated Loose Sand Specimen
(Dr=44%).
342
20
STRESS, kPa
-6 -4 -2
S tead y-state
SHEAR
deformation -4
-8
-16
SHEAR STRAIN, %
■ -20
40
30 ■
20 ■
STRESS, kPa
10 •
20 30 40 50 60 83 90
SHEAR
(fr'mob = 15.5"
.* S tea d y -s ta te "
-20
deformation
vff'= 30.7"(<£’ =36.41
-30
EFFECTIVE CONFINING STRESS,kPa
Figure 5.25, continued
343
of the tenth cycle, the specimen becomes unstable exhibit
ing a marked strain softening behavior after a cumulative
residual shear strain on the order of 0.3%. The collapse
of the structure is manifested by a significant increase
in pore pressure and a consequent reduction in strength.
The stress path moves quickly towards the failure line
reflecting the increase in pore water pressure and the
reduction in strength (between points A and B in Fig.
5.25d). The mobilized friction angle at the point of col
lapse (A in Fig. 5.25) is only 15.5°, whereas the cumula
tive pore pressure corresponds to only 39% of the confin
ing pressure. However, at point B the pore water pressure
has increased up to 88% of the confining pressure, whereas
the mobilized friction angle corresponds to 36°, the large
c strain angle of shear resistance. These results clearly
support the author's view that loose sands show a strain
softening behavior because at some stage in the loading
process there is a sudden rearrangement of grains or loss
of contact points between neighboring grains, thereby
transferring load from the soil skeleton to the water.
This is the only plausible explanation for the drastic
change in the rate of pore pressure buildup that is
observed at point A in Figure 5.25b. It should be noted
that the results presented in Figure 5.25 were obtained
from a strain controlled test. Under load-controlled con
ditions, the "collapse" and consequent strain softening
behavior are likely to develop in a considerably shorter
period of time (14).
344
The process of continuous deformation after the "col-

<*■ *
L lapse" at point A ($ , Z 15.5 ) in Figure 5.25d causes a
mo d
reduction in the rate of pore pressure buildup (Fig.
5.25b) and consequently a reduction in the rate of loss of
strength (Fig. 5.25c). It is thought that this is due to
the fact that the tendencies to contract on shearing gra
dually decrease as the arrangement of particles approaches
the "critical state," as discussed in Chapter 3. After a
shear strain of about 7% the pore pressure becomes essen
tially constant and the specimen reaches a steady-state of
deformation (131) at a residual strength of about 7 kPa
(point B in Fig. 5.25d). Further straining beyond a shear
strain of about 12% causes dilation of the sand skeleton,
the pore pressure decreases and the stress path moves back
( along the failure line. Steepening of the stress-strain
curve is also evident (Fig. 5.25c). It should be noted
that in the test presented in Figure 5.25 a condition of
initial liquefaction did not develop because after the
collapse the specimen deformed undirectionally without
mobilizing a strength equal to the shear stress amplitude
at which the reversal of rotation was programmed to occur
during the test (T 16.5 kPa) . After a shear strain of
about 19% in the clockwise direction the test was manually
stopped. On the other hand, strain softening behavior did
develop because the cyclic shear stress amplitude was
apparently larger than the "steady-state" strength
(T 7 k P a ) , as discussed in Chapter 3. This relationship
345
will be discussed further later on.
L
The previous tests results provide a clear picture of
the undrained behavior of Ottawa 20-30 sand under cyclic
loading over the range in relative density corresponding
to initial states from medium dense to loose. The results
confirm the behavior illustrated schematically in Figures
3.36, 3.38 and 3.40 in Chapter 3. From the detailed
description of these tests it is evident that under cyclic
loading loose sands may experience very large deformations
even without the development of a condition of initial
liquefaction (Fig. 5.25). This is attributed to the col
lapse of the structure oil l o ad in g, which leads to a sharp
increase in pore pressure and a consequent reduction in
^ strength. Since this collapse occurs at a stress ratio
significantly smaller than that corresponding to the phase
transformation line, it will always occur before a condi
tion of initial liquefaction can develop, provided the
shear stress amplitude is larger than the steady-state
strength. Consequently, a specified level of shear strain
in loose sands under cyclic loading may result from either
the shear strains that develop before the stress path
reaches the phase transformation line (including strain
softening beha vi or ), or the strains accompanying the
development of initial liquefaction, or a combination of
the two mechanisms of strain accumulation, as observed in
Figures 5.22 (3rd cycle) and 5.23 (7th and 8th cycles).
346
On the other hand, as the relative density increases, the

c strains that develop before the stress path reaches the
phase transformation line decrease (see Fig. 5.21) and
therefore, a given level of shear strain is mainly on the
account of the strains associated with transient states of
liquefaction after the stress path crosses the phase
transformation line. However, the denser the sand the
lower the rate of strain accumulation after initial
liquefaction.
Strain controlled tests have also been used to evalu
ate the behavior of saturated sands under cyclic loading
(34,43,75,161). Typical results from this type of tests
are presented in Figure 5.26, which were obtained from a
test on a hollow cylinder specimen with a Dr of 55.6%.
The specimen was consolidated isotropically to a mean con
fining stress of 101 kPa and subjected to cyclic loading
in the strain controlled mode of the new apparatus, with a
shear strain amplitude of about 0.'67%. It may be seen
that under strain controlled conditions the mobilized
shear stress gradually falls off (Fig. 5.26a) as the gen
erated pore water pressure increases (Fig. 5.26b). How
ever, it should be noted that the reduction in the mobil
ized shear stress produces a reduction in the rate of pore
pressure buildup until a condition of initial liquefaction
develops. This condition is manifested by the fact that
the specimen does not mobilize any strength over the range
40
V Ottawa 20-30 sand e - 0.597
Hollow cylinder specimen Dr - 55.6 %
30
o”z =o-’r « 101 kPa
Xcy - = 0.67 %
20
a
a.
JC
co
CO
Ui
cc
cc I240 306 36
< 60 1210
UI
X
» -1 0
-20
Load cycle
-30 TIME, sec.
-40
Confining pressure
c CO
CL
JC
100
uj 80
or
D
CO
CO Load cycle
Ui
8
&F 60
UJ
cc
o
40
o Points of zero shear strain

20
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 48 0
TIME, sec.
Figure 5.26 Typical Results of a Strain Controlled

Torsional Shear Test on Isotropically
Consolidated Specimen.
348
40
30
20
Q.
= - 1.0 - 0.8 '0.6 0.8 1.0 1-2
-20
-30
SHEAR STRAIN. %
-40
50
c 40
30
o
a.
20
3 0 / 40 \' 50
cc t=11
ui -1 0 kPa
-20
-30
-40
-50
349
within which the shear strains are controlled. The hys

c teresis loops showing the stress-strain relationship for
the saturated sand become progressively flatter with
increasing number of cycles (Fig. 5.26c). At initial
liquefaction, the slope of the stress-strain curve is
practically zero. These results clearly indicate that
once initial liquefaction develops shear strains much
larger than 0.67% are required for Ottawa 20-30 sand at a
Dr of about 56% to be able to mobilize any strength.
As cyclic loading progresses the effective stress
path moves towards the left reflecting not only the
increase in pore pressure but also the reduction in the
mobilized shear stress (Fig. 5.26d). The change from con-
^ tractive to dilative behavior on loading is clearly evi
dent. However, as the strains are controlled, the
increase in pore pressure upon reversal in the direction
of shearing gradually decrease (Fig. 5.26b). It is
interesting to observe that the decaying peak points of
the effective stress path lie along a slightly curved line
which passes through the origin, reflecting a clear rela
tionship between the shear strain amplitude and the mobil
ized angle of shear resistance, <j> , , which decreases

BOD
slightly as the effective confining stress increases. In
other words, strain controlled tests are approximately
equivalent to tests in which the principal stress ratio
(which depends on <j> , ) is maintained constant. A

moo
350
c comprehensive discussion on the relation between $
pore pressure development was presented in Chapter

nob
. and
3.
The discussion of the results in Figure 5.26 permits
the author to emphasize once more the significant effects
of the boundary conditions on the response of saturated
sands to cyclic loading. First of all, the drastic
difference between stress controlled (Figs. 5.21 to 5.25)
and strain controlled tests (Fig. 5.26) is evident. In
stress controlled tests the principal stress ratio and the
consequent shear strains increase gradually as a result of
the pore pressure buildup. Moreover, the rate of pore
pressure buildup suddenly increases as the specimen col
lapses or as it is brought close to a state of liquefac
tion. On the other hand, in strain controlled tests the
principal stress ratio remains approximately constant for
a given shear strain amplitude, whereas the rate of pore
pressure accumulation decreases with number of cycles. In
the author's opinion, the results of these two types of
tests cannot be correlated directly, as suggested by
Sil\rer and Park (161). They concluded that the number of
cycles and the corresponding mobilized shear stress at
which the pore pressure in a strain controlled test
becomes equal to 50% of the initial confining pressure can
be taken as the equivalent undrained strength (in terms of
cyclic stress ratio and number of cycles) under stress
controlled conditions. The results presented in Figure
351
5.26 clearly do not meet this criterion, since after the
first cycle the pore pressure is already close to 50% of
the confining stress. It is evident that more than one
cycle at a constant shear stress amplitude equal to the
shear stress mobilized in the first cycle would be
required to develop a condition of initial liquefaction.
(However, it should be noted that the strain controlled
triaxial tests performed by Silver and Park (161) only
covered the range of axial strains from 0.03 to 0.31%).
In addition, since the stress ratio remains constant
throughout the strain controlled test, it cannot reflect
some features of stress controlled behavior especially in
the case of loose sands. For example, if the stress ratio
associated with the maximum shear strain amplitude is

c smaller than that corresponding to the critical stress
ratio (CSR) line (see Figs. 3.30 to 3.32), strain soften
ing behavior cannot develop in a strain controlled tests.
Nevertheless, a basic relationship must exist between
stress and strain controlled tests as a result of the
direct interrelationship between shear strain amplitude,
pore pressure buildup and mobilized angle of shear resis
tance, as discussed in Chapter 3. However, in the
author's view, the issue is not whether results from
stress and strain controlled tests can be correlated but
to delineate the conditions to which the conclusions based
on results from each type of tests are applicable. Each
352
in situ situation is characterized by an initial state of
stress and by specific strain boundary conditions, which
affect the response under cyclic loading. For example, as
discussed earlier, in a soil deposit under level ground
lateral strains are constrained. Consequently, the cyclic
loading due to an earthquake is applied under conditions
corresponding to plane strain. It was shown that under
these ci ditions the total lateral stress increases with
number of cycles in such a way that the effective stress
path moves down and towards the left whereas the principal
effective stress ratio at the end of each cycle remains
approximately constant. It is evident that this stress
path resembles the envelope of decaying peak points of the
stress path in Figure 5.26, which also corresponds to an
approximately constant stress ratio. Moreover, it should
be noted that cyclic loading under plane strain conditions
may lead to the development of initial liquefaction,
irrespective of the initial state of stress or strain. In
other words, a wide range of initial conditions may have
the same limiting condition (liquefaction). The initial
state of stress changes during cyclic loading as much as
required by the imposed boundary conditions. It is clear
that under these conditions the effect of the initial
state of stress (or strain) on the behavioral trend
decreases significantly. (Nevertheless, it should be
noted that the further the initial state of stress is from
the origin of the q-p' plot, the larger the number of
353
cycles at a given shear stress (or strain) amplitude
required for a sand to reach a condition of initial
liquefaction under undrained conditions.) In fact, this'
conclusion has been drawn based on results from strain
controlled cyclic tests (69,70). However, it is not
applicable to cases in which strain controlled conditions
do not prevail such as in the case of soil elements close
to sloping ground. Lateral strains are not constrained
and the Initial shear stresses are sustained during the
application of cyclic loading due to the need to maintain
equilibrium imposed by geometry (2). These initial shear
stresses have a significant effect on the cyclic undrained
behavior (see discussion in section 3.4.2).
A remark on the advantages of the torsional shear

c
tests can be drawn from the test results presented in Fig
ures 5.21 to 5.26. In the first few cycles subsequent to
the first cycle, the stress paths are essentially symmetr
ical about the normal stress axis since the mean confining
stress and the orientation of the principal stresses is
such that the response of the specimen is expected to be
the same whether it Is rotated right or left. This condi
tion cannot be obtained in cyclic triaxial tests.
5.2.2 Threshold Shear Strain
First of all, it is noted that in the test results
presented in Figures 5.21 to 5.26 pore pressure buildup
354
becomes apparent during the first loading cycle at a shear
o stress level, t , which ranges from about 5.0 to 13 kPa,
depending upon the relative density of the sand. Below
this shear stress level the stress paths are essentially
vertical. The range in t corresponds to a shear strain
of about 0.012% to 0.018%. It may be expected that the
accumulation of pore water pressure under cyclic loading
at a shear stress (or strain) amplitude below the levels
given above is likely to be negligible. Accordingly,
these ranges may constitute practical threshold shear
stresses (or strains) marking the initiation of signifi
cant pore pressure buildup In specimens of Ottawa 20-30
sand at a relative density ranging from about 45% to 65%.
A threshold shear strain on the order of 0.012% to 0.018%
agrees with the values reported by other investigators
(24,32,33,43). On the other hand, as discussed previ
ously, a sharp increase in damping ratios, which reflect
the non-linear and inelastic properties of the sand, was
also observed at shear strain amplitudes slightly above
0.01% (see Fig. 5.9), reflecting the direct relationship
between pore pressure buildup and the development of plas
tic deformations.
A few tests were performed to investigate further the
existence and magnitude of the threshold shear strain.
Figure 5.27 presents the results obtained from a test per
formed on a solid cylinder specimen with an initial relative
355
V...
120 -
O ttaw a 2 0 - 3 0 sand
S o lid c y lin d e r sp ecim en ,
as
X
2 100 -
5
CO
X
_J
X
a
o
2
EC
<
LLJ
X
03
40-
Test D r.% ^ ’m, kPa

20 ”
E © 4 0 .8 22.C
( b 0.15-
3 © 4 2 .3 5 3 .4
©
O
K © 4 3 .6 9 9 .8
<
X 0 .10 --
LU
X
X
03
03
UJ
X 0 .0 5 -
X
UJ
X
X
o
10 10-3 10-2 10 _1
SH EA R S T R A IN , (% )
Figure 5.27 Results of Undrained Resonant Column Tests

on Isotropically Consolidated Specimen.
356
density of about 41%. The specimen was first conso-
lidated isotropically to a mean confining stress, o , of

m
22 kPa. After consolidation, the specimen was subjected
to dynamic loading in the resonant column mode under
undrained conditions over the range of shear strains from

—4 -2
10 % to about 1.6 x 10 %. The procedure was repeated
after reconsolidating the specimen to mean confining
stress of 53.4 and 99.8 kPa, respectively. The results in
Figure 5.27 show the variation of shear modulus and pore

*
pressure ratio, u/a , as a function of shear strain ampli-

m
tude for the three stages of the test. It may be seen
-3
that for shear strain amplitudes below 10 % the pore
pressure buildup was essentially zero. Above this strain
level, the relative increase in pore pressure as measured

c by the ratio u/a
Cl
increases with increasing shear strain
amplitude. However, it is noted that a shear strain

—2
amplitude of 10 % the maximum pore pressure ratio is only
^ —
5% (fo-r a = 2 2 kPa), irrespective of the several hundred

m
cycles applied by the Hardin oscillator at each strain
level.
Although the tests results in Figure 5.27 are influ
enced by the changes in density and the effects of staged
testing (strain history), it is apparent that the lower
the mean confining stress the higher the pore pressure
ratio, u/o , which is consistent with a trend towards

m
greater reduction in stiffness (Fig. 5.6) and higher
357
damping (Fig. 5.9) with decreasing confining stress at a
given shear strain amplitude. However, it should be noted
that absolute value of the pore water pressure actually
increases with increasing confining stress at the same
shear strain amplitude. This is attributed to the greater
tendency to contract under higher confining stresses.
Hence, it is clear that the generated pore water pressure
depends not only on the magnitude of the plastic deforma
tions (which reflects in reduction of stiffness) but also
on the tendency towards densification (which increases
with a ). Although these counterbalancing effects may

m
reduce the effects of the mean confining stress, it cannot
be concluded that the relationship between pore pressure
ratio and shear strain is independent of stress level, as

c proposed elsewhere (24). The compressibility of sands
increases with a at a rate that is less than linear

m
(102,105). A similar trend can be inferred regarding the
magnitude of the pore pressure generated under undrained
conditions at the same shear strain (or stress ratio)

*
level. Consequently, the ratio u / v e r s u s shear strain
relationship cannot be independent of a , as illustrated
by the results in Figure 5.27.
Two other solid cylinder specimens with a relative
density of about 44% were tested in the resonant
column/torsional shear apparatus under undrained condi
tions. Both specimens were consolidated isotropically to
a mean confining scress of about 101 kPa. One specimen (A
in Fig. 5.28) was first subjected to cyclic loading in the
resonant column mode over the range of shear strains from

-4 -2
10 % to 1.4 x 10 %. Thereafter, the specimen was sub
jected to a series of cyclic loading stages at constant
shear stress amplitude in the torsional shear mode. The
shear stress amplitude was increased after each sequence
of five cycles. The other specimen (B in Fig. 5.28) was
directly subjected to a series of five cycle loading
stages in the torsional shear mode in order to evaluate
the effects on the pore pressure response of the pres
training associated with performing resonant column tests

-4 -2
in the range of shear strains for 10 % to 10 %. The
average shear moduli and the pore pressure ratio values at
the end of each loading stage obtained from these two
specimens are plotted as a function of shear strain in
Figure 5.28. It is seen again that below a shear strain

_3
of about 10 % the pore pressure buildup is essentially
zero. Thereafter, the generated pore pressure increases
with increasing shear strain amplitude. However, it is

-2
noted that at a shear strain of 10 %, the pore pressure
ratio is only 3% for specimen A and 2% for specimen B.
The pore pressure ratio becomes higher at shear strains
above 10 ^%.
It is surprising to observe that the pore pressure
buildup curves are essentially the same for the two
359
140'
O tta w a 2 0 - 3 0 san d
S o lid c y lin d e r sp ecim en s 0 .6 2 6 0 .6 2 4
SHEAR MODULUS, G (MPa)
120 " Or (% ) 4 3 .6 4 4 .6
°" z (k P a ) 1 0 2 .5 102.2
o ^ r(k P a ) 1 0 0 .3 1 0 0 .4
100 "
80"
6 0 --
40"
PORE PRESSURE RATIO, “ /^r
R e s o n a n t co lu m n te s ts
Stress controlled torsional
S h e a r te s ts (5 c y c le s )
0.3- 19.3
T c y = 17.8kP a
0.2 - 16.2
14.6 17.4
1 1 .7 \
10l\
14.3
10.2
5.7
S H E A R STRAIN, (%)
Figure 5.28 Pore Pressure Ratio Versus Shear Strain

Relationship.
specimens even Chough specimen A has been subjected to a
number of cycles several hundred times large than specimen
B. Hence, the rate of pore pressure buildup per cycle is
larger in the torsional shear mode than in the resonant
column test at the same strain amplitude. In undrained
cyclic tests performed by Drnevich (36) pore pressures
were also observed to be higher in torsional shear tests
than in resonant column tests when compared at the same
shear strain amplitude. Although the effects of frequency
are still unknown the author attributes this behavior par
tially to the prestraining of the specimen due to resonant

-2
column tests at shear strains below 10 %. As discussed
earlier, it causes stiffening of the specimen, which
apparently reflects in an increased resistance to pore
pressure accumulation. Accordingly, it is thought that
undrained cyclic loading which involves small shear strain
amplitude also causes strain history effects even though
the pore pressure may increase continuously with number of
cycles. Strain history effects are clearly manifested by
an increase in shear modulus and a reduction in the rate
of pore pressure buildup, as discussed in more detail in a
later section. In this connection, it is interesting to
note that average shear modulus values for specimen A are
slightly larger than for specimen B at a shear strain

-2
amplitude of about 10 %, although the pore pressure
ratios are slightly larger for specimen A (Fig. 5.28).
361
Figure 5.29 shows the actual variation with number of
cycles in the shear modulus values for the two specimens
at different loading stages with approximately the same
shear stress amplitude in the torsional shear mode. It is
noted that for specimen A (prestrained) the shear modulus
values remain relatively constant whereas for specimen B
(no prior strain history) the shear moduli increase with
number of cycles. This behavior was also observed in
strain controlled drained tests (see Fig. 5.20).
Another solid cylinder was subjected to a large
number of cycles (N = 520) in the torsional shear mode
with a shear stress amplitude of about b.2 kPa. This
stress level is similar to the shear stress amplitude
applied to specimen B (Fig. 5.28) during the first stage
of cyclic loading. However, in this case, before applying
the cyclic loading the new specimen was consolidated under
a mean confining stress of 101 kPa and a static shear
stress of 11.2 kPa with rotation occurring in the clock
wise direction. Hence, the initial state of stress in the
specimen was anisotropic. Results from this test are sum
marized in Figure 5.30. First of all it is noted that
larger shear strains (Z 0.08%) and pore pressures (; 5%)
accumulated during the first five cycles of loading than
in the case of specimen B in Figure 5.28, reflecting the
effect of the initial static shear stress. Secondly, it
is evident that as cyclic loading progressed the residual
362
Specimen® ^ © & a (prestrained)

S p e c i m e n (B) • a ■ (no prior strain history)
70
65 - TCy = ± 10.2 kPa
60
10.6
M O D U L U S , G (MPa)
14.6
5 5 --
5 0 --
14.3
45 " 17.4
SHEAR
•?
4 0 -- —a -Q-
17.8
30
1 2 3 4 5
N U MB E R OF CYCLES
Figure 5.29 Effect of Number of Cycles at Constant

Shear Stress Amplitude on Shear Modulus
(Data from tests reported in Fig. 5.28).
363
Ottawa 20 - 30 sand ° " z - o " r - 100.1 kPa

0.08
Solid cylinder specimen Ts - - 11.2 kPa
e » 0.627 Tcy - = 6.2 kPa
0.04
Dr - 4 3 .2 %
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
i -0 .0 4
fc -0 .0 8 5th cycle
50th cycle 120th cycle

-0.16
- 0.20
iimii
-0.24
TIME. sec.
-0 .2 8 ’
100
c a
90 •
80
Confining pressure
Q.
70 •
UJ
cc
3 60
CO
CO
UJ
cc 50 ■
Q.
UJ 40 •
CL
30 ■
120th cycle
50th cycle
20 ■
5th cycle
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
TIME, sec.
Figure 5.30 Torsional Shear Tests with Small Cyclic Shear

Stress Amplitude ( t =11.2 k P a ) .
e.& <
CO
.30»
tig
o\\oe proP''
(fodo
rep’
f u ^ et
COPV^
0U^ e
;\ss\o°
e rff"!
dM M^ '
duce
ptepf0 '
365
shear strain in the clockwise direction increased,
o although at a decreasing rate. However, it is noted that
after the first few cycles, the peak to peak cyclic shear
_o
strain remained on the order of 0 .02% (10 % single ampli
tude). Strain accumulation and pore pressure buildup vir
tually stopped after 120 cycles (Figs. 5.30a and 5.30b).
Figure 5.30c displays the stress-strain curves correspond
ing to approximately the first 40 cycles of loading.
These results confirm that if an initial static shear
stress is acting on the sand specimen the stress-strain
behavior in the first cycle and in the subsequent ones
cannot be represented by a single secant shear modulus, as
discussed in section 5.1.6. On the other hand, it is evi-
dent that after the first few cycles, the stress-strain
"loops" due to the superimposed cyclic shear stresses
correspond to unloading and reloading stages, regardless
of the initial shear stress. As the number of cycles
increases, the accumulation of residual strains gradually
decrease until the behavior becomes essentially elastic
with no additional increase in pore water pressure (Fig.
5.30b) .
Although based on a limited number of tests the
author has to recognize that the accumulation of signifi
cant pore pressures seems to be unlikely at shear strain

_o
amplitudes smaller than 10 %. However, whether signifi
cant pore pressures accumulate or not in the course of
366
cyclic loading depends not only on the level of applied
stress (or strain) but also on the initial state of stress
(see Fig. 5.30). Moreover, it is dependent on the strain
boundary conditions, as discussed throughout this disser
tation. As the initial static shear stress increases
(anisotropic consolidation), it is very likely that cyclic
loading produces greater shear strains and pore pressures
during the initial stages of loading as compared with iso-
tropically specimens. However, the larger the initial
shear stress, the smaller the degree of stress reversal,
if any, in such a way that after a number of cycles at a
given stress amplitude the rates of pore pressure buildup
and of the consequent strain development become negligi
c ble, as observed in Figure 5.29 provided that CTs+ T Cy)
remains small enough such that a strain softening behavior
cannot be initiated. On the other hand, the rate of pore
pressure buildup in isotropically consolidated specimens
may be smaller in the first cycles of loading as compared
to anisotropically consolidated specimens but as cyclic
loading proceeds the rate may remain steady or even
increase due to the continuous stress reversals, which
enhance the tendency to contract until liquefaction
develops. The relationship between initial state of
stress and pore pressure buildup is still imperfectly
known.
367
In the author^s point of view, the concept of a
threshold shear stress (or strain) should be defined not
as the level of shear stress (or strain) below which there
is no accumulation of pore pressure but as the level below
which the rate of pore pressure buildup becomes zero after
a number of stress (or strain) repetitions under certain
stress and strain conditions. This condition may be

_2
reached even if shear strains larger than 10 % develop
(Fig. 5.29). Some accumulation of pore pressure occurs at
virtually any shear strain level (see Figs. 5.27 and
5.28). It is claimed that the shear strain level at which
pore pressure buildup is initiated, that is, the so called
"threshold shear strain" is independent of fabric, stress
level and relative density (24). It is felt that the
threshold shear strain as defined may be another "small
strain" parameter of characteristics similar to G and

max
hence, relatively independent of some of these factors.
This is again attributed to the stepwise nature of the
stress-strain characteristics of granular soils (see dis
cussion in section 5.1.6). However, this conclusion can
not yet be extended to the behavior at larger shear
strains. Additional research in this area is needed in
order to clarify these conflicting views. In this connec
tion, it becomes Important to be able to operate the tor
sional shear test apparatus at low frequencies in the

—2
range of shear strains below 10 % in order to avoid the
undesirable prestraining effects produced by any type of
368
oscillator of high frequency. Only by means of these
tests, will it be possible to determine at which strain
level the stress-strain characteristics of sand and the
consequent pore pressure buildup start changing as a func
tion of the number of cycles. This strain level may
correspond to a "true" threshold shear strain, which seems
to be smaller than 10” ^% (see Figs. 5.27 and 5*28).
On the other hand, in addition to the number of
cycles, the pore pressure response may be affected by the
frequency of loading itself. In this regard, the conclu
sions drawn by previous investigators are conflicting
since experimental evidence has been presented showing
either that frequency does not affect the undrained
behavior of sands at least in the frequency range from
0.05 to 5 Hz (175,194) or that the dilatancy tendencies of
sands and hence the consequent pore pressures increase
significantly at higher rates of deformation (63,150).
The only information the author has on the effects of fre
quency is based on a test performed on a replicate solid
cylinder spec men which was subjected to about the same
loading sequence as in the test performed on specimen B
reported in Figure 5.28. However, in this case, the rate
of straining was increased four times which resulted in
higher pore water pressures by about 25% at the end of the
first two stages of loading, and 70% at the end of the
third stage of five cycles. The specimen collapsed
369
o completely in the fourth stage. The results of this test
are presented in a later section (see Fig. 5.36). More
tests are needed before we can draw definitive conclusions
on the effects of frequency. In this connection, as men
tioned earlier, the torsional shear apparatus is being
modified to expand its capabilities to the frequency range
more characteristic of earthquake loadings (0.25 to 0.50
H z ) . and to reduce the lower limit of shear strain ampli
tude at which reversal of the direction of rotation can be
controlled automatically.
5.2.3 Monotonic and Cyclic Strength Relationship

under Torsional Loading
In order to evaluate the relationship between the
monotonic and cyclic undrained behaviors of Ottawa 20-30
sand under the stress and strain loading conditions of the
new torsional shear apparatus, a series of tests were per
formed on replicate solid cylinder specimens with a rela
tive density of about 43 to 46%. Most of the specimens
were first consolidated isotropically to a mean confining
stress of about 100 kPa and then they were subjected to
either monotonic or cyclic loading under undrained condi
tions. In a few cases, a static shear stress (torsional
loading) was applied under drained conditions before the
stage of undrained shearing.
Figure 5.31 presents the results of a monotonic load-
.
— ing test with rotation occurring in the clockwise
370
Ottawa 2 0 - 3 0 sand
20 e - 0.627 a"z « o*'r«ioo.3 kPa
Dr - 4 3 .3 % Clockwise rotation
'S teady state'

deformation
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300

TIME, sec.
Confining pressure
100
90 ■
80
as
a. 'S teady state'
70 ■
UJ deformation
cc 60 ■
=5
CO
CO
UJ 50 ■
cc
a.
UJ 40 •
cc
O
a. 30
20
Collapse ( / = 0.42 %)
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
TIME, sec.
Figure 5.31 Monotonic Torsional Shear Test on Isotropi-

cally Consolidated Specimen.
371
STRESS, kPa
SHEAR 20
’Steady state'
deformation
y - 0.44 %
20 24
SHEAR STRAIN, %
50
40 ■
30 a ‘= 30 « £ ’ = 35*)
'Steady state'
STRESS, kPa
deformation
20 •
<£' mob = 13*

SHEAR
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-1 0
-20

-3 0
372
direction. After a shear strain of about 0.44% (Fig
5.31c) the specimen exhibits a marked strain softening
behavior with the strength decreasing from 18 kPa to about
8 kPa whereas the pore pressure increases up to about 83%
of the confining stress (Fig. 5.31b). After the peak
shear stress (point A in Fig. 5.31d) is reached, the
stress path moves quickly toward the failure line reflect
ing both the reduction in strength and the increase in
pore water pressure. Thereafter, the specimen exhibits a
short lived steady-state condition over the range of shear
strains from about 7.5% to 12.5% during which the shear
stress (Fig. 5.31a) and the pore water pressure (Fig.
5.31b) remain essentially constant. Further straining
c causes dilation, the pore pressure decreases and the
specimen regains strength (Fig. 5.31c). At this stage,
the stress path climbs back along the failure line (Fig.
5. 3Id) .
The author wants to call attention to the fact that
shortly before the specimen mobilizes the peak strength
there is an increase in the rate of pore pressure buildup
as reflected by the change in curvature of the pore pres
sure versus time plot (Fig 5.31b), in spite of the small
scale used. As in the case of strain softening behavior
induced by cyclic loading (Fig. 5.25), the author postu
lates that small shear strains may be enough for the meta
stable structure of a loose sand to collapse, that is, to
373
experience a "sudden" tendency to rearrangement of grains
L or a reduction in the number of contact points between
neighboring grains. This structural instability* which
occurs close to the mobilization of the peak strength,
results in a significant increase in pore water pressure
and a consequent reduction in strength. To the author's
knowledge, this feature of the behavior of loose sands has
not been reported by any of the previous studies on the
undrained behavior of sands. All the test results avail
able to the author, which basically were obtained from
aXxax uvuipicooxvu wt xaAxax lco uo i*rj } ouuw a nj
bolic" type of relationship between pore pressure and
axial strain, which implies that the rate of pore pressure
buildup is reported to be higher in the initial stage of
C loading and smaller close to the peak point of the
stress-strain curve. In the author's view, this pore
pressure response was not consistent with the initiation
of a softening process after the peak strength.
After the author improved his understanding of
apparatus and techniques for shear testing of soils he
could realize that the "hyperbolic" type of pore pressure
response was a consequence of the limitations of the
triaxial test. As discussed in Chapter 2, in the triaxial
test, pore pressure buildup is a consequence of both the
applied shear stresses and changes in the mean normal
stress. The pore pressure increase due to a change in
374
c mean normal stress Is equal to 1/3 of the applied devlator
stress, Ao, and hence becomes higher as the peak point Is
approached, overriding the changes in pore pressure due to
the dilative tendencies of soil. On the other hand, after
the peak Ao/3 decreases and the tendency to contract due
to shear stresses takes over the pore pressure response.
When the two components are combined the pore pressure
versus axial strain curve resembles a "hyperbolic" rela
tionship, which is not representative of the actual rela
tionship between pore pressure buildup and mobilized shear
strength, unless the loading conditions involve changes in
the mean confining stress. Consequently, in the author's
opinion, pore pressure curves from triaxial tests should
c: be corrected to account for changes in mean confining
stress. When this is done, it becomes also evident that
the rate of pore pressure buildup due to the applied shear
stresses on loose sand specimens is higher close to the
peak strength and not at the initial stage of loading. The
sharp change in the rate of pore pressure buildup result
ing from the "collapse" of the structure of loose sands
becomes more evident under cyclic loading at shear stress
amplitudes smaller than the peak strength, as illustrated
conclusively in the succeeding sections.
Figure 5.32 presents the results of another monotonic
loading test performed on a solid cylinder specimen, which
after consolidation was subjected to a static shear stress
375
c Ottawa 2 0 -3 0 sand
20 ■ e - 0.629 c ’z =o"'r * 100.2 kPa
Dr - 42.5 % Clockwise rotation
ffl
a
.sc Starting point of
CO undrained shear
CO
Ui
CE
K
CO
CE
<
ui
X
CO
' Steady state

deformation
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
TIME, sec.
Confining pressure
100
r
80
'Steady state*
tu deformation
cc
=3 60
CO
CO
UJ
cc
CL
£ 40
O
a.
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300
TIME, sec.
Figure 5.32 Monotonic Torsional Shear Test on Specimen

with an Initial Static Shear Stress.
376
20
Starting point of
undrained shear
STRESS, kPa
SHEAR
Steady state*
deformation
20 24
SHEAR STRAIN, %
50
40 •
30 •
* S te ad y-S tate *
STRESS, kPa
deformation
20 ■
SHEAR
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-10
-20

-30
377
of about 13.8 kPa under drained conditions, with rotation
occurring again in the clockwise direction. This shear
stress level was chosen to be larger than the strength of
the previous specimen at the short lived steady-state con
dition. Undrained shearing was continued in the clockwise
direction. It is noted that strain softening behavior was
initiated after applying a shear stress increment of just
4 kPa. The pore pressure buildup during the first second
of loading (At Z 3 kPa) was negligible. Thereafter, the
specimen collapsed and pore pressure increased up to about
8 8 % of the confining pressure. At this stage the specimen
exhibited also a short lived steady— state condition fol
lowed by stiffening due to dilation, in a similar fashion
c as the previous specimen.
It is interesting to note that the initial shear
stress essentially had no effect on the peak stress, the
pore pressure and the "steady-state" strength as compared
to the isotropically consolidated specimen. It is also
Interesting to note that in either case, the trace of the
stress— strain curve after the peak point shows minute
fluctuations reflecting the stepwise (frictional) nature
of the stress-strain characteristic of sands. The same
behavior was also observed whenever strain softening was
caused by cyclic loading. The results in Figure 5.32 show
that if the initial static shear stress is larger than the
steady-state strength small stress increments may be
378
enough to cause the initiation of a flow failure, which

L under stress controlled conditions such as close to slop
ing ground is of catastrophic consequences.
Once it was established that specimens of Ottawa 20-
30 sand exhibited strain softening behavior at a relative

*
density of about 44% (o *= 100 kPa), replicate specimens
m
were subjected to cyclic loading at different shear stress
amplitudes larger than the steady-state strength of about
8 kPa. The main issue was to determine the conditions at
which strain softening behavior, if any, developed under
cyclic loading and their relationship with strain soften
ing under monotonic loading. As discussed in Chapter 3,
there are conflicting opinions on this aspect of the
c undrained behavior of loose sands. Accordingly, it was
thought that the collapse could occur:
a. at the same stress ratio ( <j> , = 13 ) as in the moiuo-

mob
tonic test as concluded by Vaid et a l . (186) based on
triaxial tests on Ottawa and tailings sands; or
b. at a higher unknown value of $ as suggested by the

mob
results for banding sand presented in Figure 3.39
(data from Ref. 14), which the author attributed to
strain history effects; or
c. when the stress path reaches a line close to the
steady-state envelope as reported by Dobry et a l .
379
(34) based on strain controlled torsional shear tests

a on anisotropically consolidated specimens.
Typical results from one of the present cyclic tests
at a constant shear stress amplitude of about 15.2 kPa are
presented in Figure 5.33. It became apparent pretty soon
that none of the predictions was right. As illustrated in
Figure 5.33c , strain softening behavior was initiated at a
stress ratio ($ . ) corresponding to a point on the mono

mob
tonic stress path (from Fig. 5.31) at the same shear
stress amplitude. In other words, collapse occurred at
the instant the stress state during cyclic loading reached
the effective stress path from the monotonic test at the
same Dr. After the collapse the two stress paths are
essentially the same. Up to the point of collapse the
cumulative shear strain was on the order of 0.38% (Fig.
5.33a) whereas the pore water pressure increased progres
sively (although at a decreasing rate) up to about 50% of
the confining pressure (Fig. 5.33b). The initiation of
strain softening behavior is clearly characterized by a
sharp increase in pore pressure (Fig. 5.33b) and the
development of large shear strains (Fig. 5.33a). The
stress path moves quickly towards the failure line (Fig.
5.33c), reflecting the reduction in strength due to the
increase in pore water pressure and the reduction in the
number of contact points between adjacent grains (col
lapse) .
°"z - <rr = 100.I kPa
z
<
cc
I—
w 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
oc
<
Ui Collapse
I
CO -2
85th cycle
-4
-6
TIME, sec.
Figure 5.33 Cyclic Torsional Shear Test with Shear Stress Amplitude
380
Larger than Steady-State Strength.
381
continued
5.33,
Figure
Bd>l ‘aunssaad 3 dOd
382
continued
5. 3 3 ,
Figure
383
c Tests performed at different shear stress amplitude
yielded similar results, which are summarized in Figures
5.34 and 5.35. The numbers within parentheses in Figure
5.34 correspond to the cumulative shear strain up to the
point of collapse. It is noted that the locus of stress
states triggering the collapse during cyclic loading
defines an envelope which essentially corresponds to the
stress path under monotonic loading (Fig. 5.34). Accord
ingly, it is concluded that a given relative density the
monotonic stress path constitutes a "collapse" surface
which determines the initiation of strain softening
behavior under cyclic loading, provided the cyclic shear
stress amplitude is larger than the steady-state strength.
Consequently, the angle of shear resistance mobilized at

(
the triggering state is not a constant value but a vari
able one depending upon the cyclic shear stress amplitude.
It is also interesting to note that the shear strain accu
mulated up to the collapse is essentially the same (I
0.3%), irrespective of the amplitude of the cyclic shear
stress.
It is surprising to the author that cyclic loading
seems to affect neither the stress conditions nor the
cumulative shear strain at the initiation of strain
softening behavior. It was thought that a specimen with a
more "stable" structure resulting from the prior strain
cycles could mobilize a larger angle of shear resistance
Reproduced with permission
30
Ottawa 20 - 30 sand ( ) Cumulative shear strain

Dr - 43 - 45 %
a ' z - o - r - ioo kPa
a.
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 too
<f)’mob - 18.4'
Collapse surface
-10
,? /(0 .2 9 )
(0.29) (0.29)
~ — ft-.
-20
<f>'mob - 13
-3 0
Figure 5.34 S t r e s s C o n d i t i o n s fit I n i t i a t i o n o f S t r a i n S o f t e n i n g B e h a v i o r
384
under C y c l i c Loadi ng.
(.0
"O
3
Q.
C
o
CD
Q.
with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction
(0
CL
J*
18-
Ui
Q
D
H
_i
Q. 16 -
5
<
<0
Ui
Ui
a:
t~
Ui 14 -
tr
<
Ui ?
I
Ui Ottawa 2 0 -3 0 sand
□ 12 + Dr 4 3 -4 6 %
O 0"z =cr'r = lOOkPa o Collapse
>-
o
End of test
10 20 50 100 200 500
NUMBER OF CYCLES
Figure 5.35 Number o f C y c l e s t o I n i t i a t i o n o f S t r a i n S o f t e n i n g B e h a v i o r .
386
before collapsing. In other words, it was thought that

L cyclic loading could push outwards the corresponding col
lapse surface. This seems not to be the case. Neverthe
less, it should be noted that cyclic loading does affect
the rate of pore pressure buildup in the subsequent load
ing stages. This is clearly observed in Figures 5.33b and
5.33c. The rate of pore pressure buildup is higher in the
first few cycles of loading. As cyclic loading progresses
the rate of pore pressure buildup decreases significantly
as reflected conclusively by the gradual reduction of the
spacing between subsequent cycles in the stress path plot.
This is attributed to a stiffening effect associated with
the elimination of local instabilities at the contact
points and the collapse of looser particle groups. How

C ever, as the stress path approaches the yield surface, the
rate of pore pressure buildup increases again up to the
point where the collapse and consequent sharp increase in
pore pressure occur. This pore pressure response confirms
the behavior illustrated schematically in Figure 3.6.
Since the collapse surface is relatively flat after the
peak point (A in Figure 5.34) the number of cycles to the
initiation of the strain softening behavior is very sensi
tive to small variations in the cyclic shear stress ampli
tude, as illustrated in Figure 5.35. As discussed ear
lier, this type of plot represents the resistance of the
specimen to develop a "flow deformation" type of failure.
387
It is considered that the behavioral trends observed
in Figures 5.31 and 5.35 should be valid for other stress
and density conditions under which Ottawa 20-30 exhibits
strain softening behavior. The relationship between the
collapse surfaces defined by means of torsional shear
tests (Fig. 5.34) and cyclic triaxial tests is yet to be
established. The effects of initial static shear stresses
on the position of the collapse surface are also imper
fectly known at this point. Only one specimen was
cyclicly loaded after being subjected to an initial static
shear stress of about 11.2 kPa. The cyclic shear stress
amplitude was 6.2 k P a . However, at this stress amplitude
pore pressure buildup completely stopped after 120 cycles
and the stress path never approached the collapse surface,
irrespective of the facts that more than 500 cycles were
applied to the specimen (see data in Fig. 5.30) and the
total shear stress (xg + TCy) was periodically larger than
the steady-state strength.
The collapse surface presented in Figures 5.33c and
5.34 has characteristics very similar to those of the
state boundary surface used by Symes et a l . (169) to
account for the effects of principal stress rotation on
the undrained behavior of sands. Symes et a l . (169) per
formed a test on a hollow cylinder specimen in which the
orientations of the principal stresses, and , were
cyclicly rotated between ± 22.5° from their initial vertical
338
and horizontal directions, respectively, while keeping
c the deviator stress, ( - <*3 )* constant. Cyclic rotation
of the principal stresses caused continuous accumulation
of pore pressure even though the applied shear stresses
remained constant during the test. It was observed that
the specimen became "unstable", that is, it developed
larger pore pressures and consequently larger shear
strains, once the pore pressure accumulation caused the
stress state to reach the post peak part of the effective
stress path corresponding to a monotonic test in which the
orientation of the major principal stress was 22.5° from
the vertical.
Although Symes et al. (169) reported a single test,
the results in Figure 5.34 are full evidence of the rela

c
tionship between the stress path from monotonic tests and
the behavior under cyclic loading. It is interesting to
note that Symes et al. (169) concluded that the shear
strains appear to more directly related to the position of
the effective stress state with respect to the failure
envelope rather than with respect to the state boundary
surface. However, the data in Figure 5.34 suggest a clear
relationship between the effective stress state and shear
strains at the collapse surface, which mark a rapid change
in the stress-strains relation. Of course, the absolute
magnitude of shear strain increases as the failure surface
is approached. Figure 5.33c also illustrates the
389
convenience of using stress path plots in order to define
behavioral trends. Unfortunately, effective stress paths
from cyclic triaxial tests are not available for com
parison.
It should be noted that in torsional shear tests on
isotropically consolidated specimens the shear stress
increases gradually and the axis of the major principal
stress changes its orientation from -45° to +45° from the
vertical (Fig. 2.5) in the course of reversing the shear
stress from clockwise to counterclockwise. Hence, the
collapse surface in Figure 5.34 corresponds to a specific
orientation of the principal stresses (±45° from the vert
ical). As the orientation of the major principal stress
changes it is likely that the collapse surface or state
boundary surface also changes as discussed by Symes et a l .
(169). From this point of view, triaxial tests and tor
sional shear tests will yield different collapse surfaces.
For the same reasons, the cyclic undrained strength cannot
be independent of the initial state of stress since it
influences the magnitude of the rotation of the planes of
principal stress (Fig. 2.6) and the orientation of the
principal axes of anisotropy. The pore pressure buildup
depends not only on the magnitude of the applied shear
stresses but also on the degree of rotation of the planes
of principal stress.
A few specimens were subjected to cyclic loading in
the torsional shear apparatus with non— uniform shear
stress amplitudes. Results from one of these tests are
presented in Figure 5.36. The specimen was subjected to a
series of loading stages at constant shear stress ampli
tude, which was increased after each sequence of five
cycles, as shown in Figure 5.36a. Strain softening
behavior was triggered also in accord with the collapse
surface presented in Figure 5.34. It is interesting to
note that in each one of the loading stages prior to the
collapse, the rate of pore pressure buildup increases with
shear stress amplitude but decreases with number of cycles
(Fig. 5.36c and 5.36d), reflecting once more strain his
tory effects. After a shear strain of about 4% following
the collapse at point A (Fig. 5.36c) the direction of
shearing was suddenly reversed at point B (Fig. 5.36b),
stopping the unidirectional deformations of the specimen.
Upon reversal of the direction of shearing the specimen
experience a second collapse which reflects in a further
increase in the rate of pore pressure buildup (Fig.
3.36c). It Is noted that at point B the stress path was
already close to the failure line and hence, near the
phase transformation line. After point B, the stress path
moves towards the failure line and as the shear stress
reverses sign (Fig. 5.36a) the specimen exhibits a reduced
strength. However, further straining causes dilation, the
pore pressure decreases and the stress path moves back
391
20 Ottawa 2 0 - 3 0 sand
e - 0.62 Dr - 46 % o"z « o " r 100.2 kPa
12 •
eo
O
J.£
CO
CO
LU
cc
c 120 240 300 360

<
HI -4
X
CO
-8
-1 2
-1 6
-20
5r
4 •
2
<
CC
i- 60 120 180 240 360
CO
cc
<
HI
X
CO
-2 ■
-3
-4
-5
Figure 5.36 Cyclic Torsional Shear Test with Non-Uniform

Shear Stress Amplitude.
f
392
C onfining pressure
C 100
Collapse on
reversal —
80
«
Q.
UJ
CC
3 60
CO
CO
UJ
cc
Q.
UJ Collapse on
cc 40
O loading —
a.
120 180 240 360

TIME, sec.
40
c 30
d)
a 20
CL
JC
CO
CO 10
UJ
cc
V-
co
cc 10 2 40 50 60 70 80 100
<
UJ
X
CO
-1 0 •
Forced
reversal
-2 0 -
-30
-40L EFFECTIVE CONFINING STRESS.kPa
Figure 5.36, conCinued.
393
along Che failure line, reflecting a gradual regain In

o strength. Figure 5.36c clearly illustrates the main
stages in the process of pore water pressure generation
under cyclic loading; namely
a. the pore pressure buildup during the first cycles of
loading due to the initial tendency to contract,
which proceeds at a decreasing rate as the fabric
becomes more stable due to the prior cycles,
b. a sharp increase in pore pressure upon the collapse
of the structure on loading, which also proceeds at a
decreasing rate as the specimen approaches the criti
cal state,
r
c. an additional increase in pore pressure as the struc
ture collapses again upon reversal in the direction
of loading, and
d. reduction in pore pressure due to dilation after
large strains under very small confining stresses.
These results further confirm the behavior illus
trated schematically in Figure 3.6.
In the previous tests, reversal of the direction of
shearing was forced after a shear strain of 4% following
the initiation of strain softening behavior (Fig. 5.36).
It was of great Interest to study the effect of reversal
394
in the direction of shearing at smaller strains after the

C — ^)' collapse. These effects are illustrated by the results
presented in Figure 5.37. A solid cylinder specimen was
cyclicly loaded until collapse (point A in Fig. 5.37).
After a shear strain of about 1% a reversal in the direc
tion of shearing was forced at point B and the specimen
was subjected to half a cycle in the opposite direction.
It is seen that as the stress path moves away from the
state boundary surface the pore pressure buildup slows
down (between points B and C in Fig. 5.37b). As the
stress path approaches again the collapse surface, the
specimen experiences a second collapse on loading (point C
in Fig. 5.37d), and the rate of pore pressure buildup
c increases again (Fig. 5.37b).
experiences a second stage of strain softening as

Thereafter the specimen
reflected by the stress-strain curve in Figure 5.37c.
After a unidirectional deformation of about 10.5% a second
reversal of the direction of rotation was compelled to
occur and the specimen was brought to a state of liquefac
tion (Fig. 5.37b). The specimen was rotated in the
counter-clockwise direction until reducing the residual
strain to about 3.8%. At this stage the specimen was
reconsolidated under the initial state of stress and sub
jected to a second stage of undrained cyclic loading. The
results of this second loading are presented in the next
se ct io n.
395
o Ottawa 2 0 - 3 0 sand
e - 0 .62 3 Dr - 4 5 % o -’z - ° " r - 100 kPa
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
z
< -2
cc
t-
CO
cc -4
<
UI
X
CO
-6
-8
-10 ■
TIME. sec.
-12
Confining pressure
100
c 80
Collapse on
reversal —
Liquefaction
Second collapse
on loading
cc
Z) 60
CO
CO
UJ
CE
First collapse
0. on loading —
UJ
CE 40
o
CL
20
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480

TIME, sec.
Figure 5.37 Cyclic Torsional Shear Test with Reversal

Shortly after Initiation of Strain
Softening Behavior.
Is
396
20
STRESS, kPa
-1 2 -11
SHEAR
-4
-8
-12
-16
SHEAR STRAIN, %
-20
40
30 ■
20
STRESS, kPa
20 30 40 [50 60 311 90 100

SHEAR
-1 0
Forced
-20 reversal Forced
reversal
-30

-40
R eproduced with perm ission o f the copyright owner. F urther reproduction prohibited w itho ut perm ission
397
The results in Figure 5.37 and from other replicate

o tests show that after the triggering of strain softening
behavior high pore pressures continuously develop if the
stress path remains on the collapse surface. However, if
the loading conditions cause the stress path to move away
from the collapse surface the process of significant
increase in the pore pressure slows down, provided the
shear strains after the collapse are not too large and the
stress path is far away from the phase transformation
line. A sudden interruption of the softening process is
clearly evident in Figure 5.37c (point B ) . However, it
should be noted that Figure 5.37 reflects only the effects
of the cyclic shear stresses. It static shear stresses
/ exist such as close to a slope, the softening process will
be interrupted only when the applied shear stresses become
compatible with the reduced strength, as discussed in
Chapter 3. This may imply very large deformations.
In summary, based on the results previously discussed
it can be concluded that the undrained behavior of sands
susceptible to strain softening behavior under both mono
tonic and cyclic loading is characterized by the following
f ea t u r e s.
a. A "collapse" surface or "state boundary" surface,
which depends on the orientation of the principal
stresses, defines a region outside which no stress
398
state Is possible, although it is not a failure cri
terion. The effective stress path approaches the
failure line along the state boundary surface. At a
constant void ratio and for a given orientation of
the major principal stress, the state boundary sur
face seems to be defined by the effective stress path
from a monotonic test. In addition to the contrac
tive region, the stress path may show a dilative
region.
b. The state boundary surface also provides the boundary
between "stable" (small strains) and "unstable"
(strain softening) states. If the stress state of a
specimen is on the pre-peak region of the state boun
C dary surface it will be in a "stable" state.
ever, If the stress state of a specimen is on the

How
post-peak region of the state boundary surface it
will show an "unstable" behavior. Accordingly, when
a specimen is subjected to cyclic loading at a shear
stress amplitude smaller than that corresponding to
the peak point of the collapse surface, strain
softening behavior will be initiated when the effec
tive stress state reaches the post-peak region of the
collapse or state boundary surface.
c. The collapse surface seems to constitute a kind of
strain contour corresponding to the cumulative shear
strain causing the initiation of strain softening
399
behavior, irrespective of the cyclic shear stress
amplitude. After the collapse, the magnitude of
shear strain increases as the effective stress path
approaches the failure surface along the state boun
dary surface.
d. Cyclic loading conditions may be such that the stress
state of the specimen is compelled to remain on the
state boundary surface or to move away from it. The
pore pressures that develop when the stress state of
the specimen remains on the state boundary surface
are substantially larger than when the stress path
moves away from such a collapse surface provided the
stress state is far from the line of phase transfor
mation. Unloading in the region of the state boun
dary surface beyond the phase transformation line
(dilative region) also produces significant pore
pressure buildup which may lead to a state of
l iq ue fac ti on.
e. The effects of initial shear stresses on the collapse
surface are still imperfectly known. Also, the col
lapse surface in stress space is probably strain rate
d e p e nd en t.
400
r- 5.2.4 Effects of Prior Cyclic Stress/Strain History
O
In the author's view, cyclic stress/strain history
effects are of concern regarding the following aspects of
the undrained behavior of sands:
1. The effects of prior stress (or strain) cycles on the
pore pressure and strain development during the sub
sequent cycles within the same loading sequence,
2. The undrained strength-deformation characteristics of
the sand under monotonic loading either immediately
after the end of the stage of cyclic loading or after
reconsolidation, and
^ 3. The effects of prior strain history on the resistance
to liquefaction under subsequent cyclic loading after
dissipation of the induced pore pressure has taken
place.
1. Strain History Effects within a Loading Sequence.
As mentioned earlier, cyclic strain history effects are
reflected by a reduction in the rate of pore pressure
buildup with increasing number of cycles, provided that
neither the state boundary surface nor the phase transfor
mation line are reached in the course of cyclic loading.
At either of the latter state conditions, the rate of pore
pressure buildup increases again leading to either strain
A 01
softening behavior or liquefaction. The reduction in the
rate of pore pressure buildup before collapse in the
course of cyclic loading was conclusively illustrated in
Figures 5.23,5.25,5.30.5.33,5.36 and 5.37. This was attri
buted to a kind of "stiffening" of the sand structure,
which is also reflected in a reduction in the magnitude of
shear strain increments that develop during the initial
stages of subsequent loading cycles under stress con
trolled conditions, irrespective of the fact that the pore
pressure continuously increases. This behavior is illus
trated in Figure 5.38, which shows the variation in secant
shear modulus with number of cycles from some of the tests
performed at different shear stress amplitudes on solid
cylinder specimens with a Dr in the range from 44 to 46%.

c As pointed out earlier, the stress-strain curves during
the first cycles of undrained loading resemble simple
closed loops. Accordingly, simplification of the behavior
in terms of an equivalent secant shear modulus is con
sidered appropriate. The results in Figure 5.38 clearly
indicate that the variation in shear modulus with number
of cycles under undrained cyclic loading is the result of
two counterbalancing effects: an increase in G due to the
"prestraining" caused by the prior cycles and a degrada
tion in G associated with the progressive increase in pore
water pressure. Accordingly, it is seen that the shear
modulus first increases with number of cycles but after a
number of cycles it starts decreasing again. Hence,
45 Solid cylinder specimens
Dr « 4 4 - 4 6 %
i~cy = 13.0 kPa
40 - Peak
(0 1 o
OL 0 ,i>-o-0 -o-o^-ooO"Oo-o-o-o-o-A oo-0-- 0 0 o “ °‘£>"0'0'00-Cl-0--0 0-(j0-0-00.0-0-<i N = 165
5 Q-O'o'o
35 15.2
0 I.
CO
/ » s 4<T \
D 0 a'
_l / A'
ZD 30 1 'L
Q I * * 16.5
0
5 0/n/Q d'od /
DC
25
/ n/
< " \ N = 80
111 K o
1 □ \ A ►
CO \
□ (Imminent collapse)
Collapse
20
t
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
NUMBER OF CYCLES, N
Figure 5.38 E f f e c t of Number o f C y c l e s on S e c a n t Shear Modulus under
402
Und r a l n e d C y c l i c L o a d i n g .
403
during the first few cycles the prestraining effects com
pletely override the degradating effects of the pore pres
sure buildup. It is noted that the number of cycles
corresponding to the peak value of shear modulus decreases
significantly as the shear stress amplitude increases.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that the shear modulus
becomes smaller than the value corresponding to the first
cycle only when the specimen is about to collapse. There
fore, the cumulative effects of prior strain history on
the shear modulus are essentially dominant over most part
of the loading sequence prior to the initiation of strain
softening behavior.
2. Monotonic Undrained Strength after Cyclic Load
c ing. At the state boundary surface there is a rapid
change in the shear stress-shear strain relation, which
reflects a drastic change in the particle arrangement or
structure of the sand. The magnitude of this change
depends on the level of shear strain accumulated after the
collapse. As the shear strain increases the arrangement
of particles approaches the "critical” state. As dis
cussed in Chapter 3, at the critical state, a soil may
exhibit "continuous" deformations at a constant shear
stress, depending on the initial density and stress condi
tions. If, after the collapse, the sand is subjected only
to monotonic loading (see Fig. 5.25), the subsequent
undrained behavior is controlled by the steady-state
404
strength, which apparently is not affected by the prior
strain history. This is based on the fact that the stress
paths from cyclic tests and mcnotonic tests defined the
same collapse surface (see Fig. 5.34). The same conclu
sion has been drawn by other investigators (34,132,186).
On the other hand, if after the initiation of strain
softening behavior, a sudden reversal in the direction of
shearing occurs, it may lead to a condition of initial
liquefaction, provided the effective stress path has
already approached the phase transformation line (see
Figs. 3.36 and 3.37). Once this condition develops, it is
of interest to establish the strength-deformation charac
teristics of the sand under subsequent monotonic loading
in either direction. This aspect of the behavior is
illustrated in Figure 5.39.
A solid cylinder specimen was cyclicly loaded until
collapse was initiated (point A in Fig. 5.39). A uni
directional shear strain in the clockwise direction of
about 10.5% was applied until the pore pressure stabilized
(point B ) . A reversal in the direction of shearing was
then forced at point B, bringing the specimen to a state
of initial liquefaction. Thereafter the specimen was
rotated monotonically in the counter-clockwise direction.
It is noted that after initial liquefaction the specimen
undergoes large deformations without mobilizing appreci
able strength (Fig. 5.39c). However, further straining
405
28
e 24 •
20 ■
e - 0.625 Dr - 4 4 %
o-'z - o - r -1 0 0 .2 kPa
£
z
<
cc
oc
<
HI 60 4 20 480 540 600 660 720
z
CO
-4
-8
TIME, sec.
-12
Confining pressure
100
c 80 Liquefaction
60 •
Collapse on reversal
o- 40
2C .
Ill
Sj 20 Collapse on
C/3 loading
C/3 -
Ui 0
GC
0.
ui -2 0
cr
o
“■ - 4 0
-6 0
-8 0
TIME, sec.
-100
Figure 5.39 Monotonic Torsional Shear Test after Develop

ment of Initial Liquefaction Due to Cyclic
L o ad in g.
406
•120
o
100
80
60
40
20
-12 -8 -4
20 24 28
-7.2
"20 S H E A R STRAIN, %
120r
c 100 •
80 ■
cs
CL.
CO 60
CO
LL1
CE ' = 30.5 (<£' = 36*)
a. 40
<
m
x
CO
20
20 40 100 120 140 160 180
-20 Forced
reversal
407
allows dilation to d e v e l o p , the pore water pressure

o decreases (Fig. 5.39b) and the specimen starts mobilizing
strength at an increasing rate with the stress path climb-*
ing along the failure line (point C ) . It is interesting
to note that the mobilized strength increases continuously
up to 100 kPa and dilation is still evident after a resi
dual shear strain in the counter-clockwise direction of
about 21%. At this strain level the test was terminated.
The increase in strength due to dilation will continue
until cavitation develops. In this connection it should
be noted that if the magnitude of the back pressure
applied to a laboratory specimen is significantly higher
than the anticipated initial pore pressure in the field,
c then the magnitude of the induced negative pore pressure
before cavitation occurs will cause excessively high meas
ured strengths which most likely will not occur in the
field (140).
Some researchers (18,132) claim that after 100% pore
pressure buildup (initial liquefaction) under cyclic load
ing the undrained steady-state strength from monotonic
tests still remains. The results in Fig. 5.39 show that
this is not the case. Upon reversal of the shear stress a
shear strain of about 15% developed before the specimen
again mobilized a shear stress equal to the "steady-state"
strength in the opposite direction (point B'). In gen
eral, a certain amount of shear strain under essentially
408
zero shear strength will be required to mobilize any

L. appreciable shear resistance after initial liquefaction.
This shear strain is clearly a function of the relative
density of the sand as discussed in Chapter 3. However,
it should be noted that after large strains the specimen
in Figure 5.39 mobilizes a strength considerably higher
than the "steady-state” strength, without showing strain
softening behavior. The author attributes this behavior
in the first place to the fact that after the collapse the
"brittleness” of the sand skeleton on loading disappears.
In other words, the residual particle arrangement is less
metastable than the original one. On the other hand, at
initial liquefaction the state point is located in the
c hardening or dilative region of the state diagram (see
Figs. 3.36 and 3.40). Consequently, upon monotonic load
ing the state path will move towards the right probably
approaching the S line, as discussed in Chapter 3. More
over, as indicated earlier, at a relative density of 44%
and under a of 100 kPa, Ottawa 20-30 sand only exhibits

m
limited strain softening behavior (see Fig. 5.31), that
is, only a limited collapse accompanied by a short-lived
flow condition takes place under monotonic loading.
Therefore, the state of stress moves first towards the
left in the state diagram but once dilation is initiated
it moves back also towards the S line, in a similar
fashion as shown schematically in Figure 3.20. Unfor
tunately, the S and F lines for Ottawa 20-30 sand are not
409
s yet available. The effects of prior strain history on the
cyclic undrained strength after reconsolidation are dis
cussed next.
3. Cyclic Undrained Strength after Reconsolidation.
Based on the results discussed in the previous sections,
the author considers that if cyclic loading stops before
the effective stress path reaches the state boundary sur
face, the prestraining effect will reflect in a higher
resistance to pore pressure buildup under similar
undrained loading conditions after reconsolidation. Of
course, for a given shear stress amplitude, the prestrain
ing effect increases as the number of cycles (or residual
shear strain) increases. The increase in cyclic undrained
c strength will be due not only to the prestraining effect
but also to the increase in density that occurs during the
process of dissipation of pore water pressure. However,
it should be noted that prior strain history apparently .
does not influence the location of the state boundary sur
face at a given Dr (see Fig. 5.34). More tests are needed
to confirm whether this conclusion is valid or not even
after reconsolidation.
On the other hand, if cyclic loading stops after the
effective stress path has reached the state boundary sur
face, the fabric (and hence the undrained strength)
remaining after reconsolidation depends on the magnitude
of shear strains that accumulate between the point of
410
collapse and the end of the cyclic loading. The larger
the shear strain, the closer the fabric after reconsolida
tion is expected to be to the fabric corresponding to the
critical state and consequently the higher the "deforna-
bility" or compressibility of the sand skeleton at the
same level of applied shear stress. In other words,
"yielding" of the sand structure, that is, the development
of large pore pressures and consequently large shear
strains, is triggered by smaller shear stress amplitudes.
This is attributed to a lesser degree of "interlocking"
between neighboring grains within a particle arrangement
which is close to the "critical" fabric. This behavior is
illustrated by the results presented in Figure 5.40, which
c were obtained from a second stage of undrained cyclic
loading on a solid cylinder specimen that experienced
large shear strains (2 10.5%) during the first loading.
The results of the first undrained cyclic loading were
presented in Figure 5.37.
During reconsolidation after initial liquefaction the
relative density of the specimen increased from 45% to
about 52.2%. It is noted that the residual shear strain
after reconsolidation was of about 3.8% in the clockwise
direction. The cyclic shear stress amplitude during the
first and second loadings was essentially the same (Z 15
kPa). It is interesting to note that a shear strain
increment of about 5.5% (also in the clockwise direction)
411
e - 0.605 a-z «o"r«ioo.1 kPa
Dr - 52.2 % First loading in Fig. 5.37
60 120 180 240 300 360
After reconsolidation
Z -4
<
c
Hc
-
CO
oe -8 •
<
LU
X
CO
-1 2 •
-1 6 -
TIME, sec.
-20
Confining pressure
100
Initial liquefaction
80
CB
a
til
•3 60
CO
CO
UJ
cc
a.
LU 40
a:
o
a.
20
60 120 180 240 300 360

TIME. sec.
Figure 5.40 Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests on Reconsolidated

Specimen with Residual Shear Strain (— 3.8%).
412
20
STRESS, kPa
-18
SHEAR
-4
-8
-1 2
-16
S H E A R STRAIN, %
-20
30-
20 ■
STRESS, kPa
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
SHEAR

-20-
v£Z'= 32.2 «#= 39*)
413
developed in the first loading stage of the first cycle

c (Figs. 5.40a and 5.40c ), whereas the pore pressure
increased to about 70% of the confining pressure (Figs.
5.40b), which is reflected by the fact that the stress
path moves quickly towards the failure line in the first
stage of loading (Fig. 5.40d). These values are signifi
cantly higher than the pore pressure and shear strain that
develop at the same stage during the first loading (see
Fig. 5.37), at the same shear stress amplitude, even
though the relative density of the reconsolidated specimen
was higher. It is also noted that the "threshold" shear
stress is smaller for the reconsolidated specimen than for
the specimen with no prior strain history. On the other
c hand, the maximum shear modulus, G

max
reconsolidated specimens was essentially the same (102 and
of the virgin and
°
98 MPa, respectively). These results indicate that the
degradating effects of large strains during the first
loading on the deformability of the fabric existing after
reconsolidation completely overrode the increase in
"stiffness" associated with the increase in density of the
specimen. However, the reconsolidated specimen only exhi
bits a slight strain softening behavior (after point A in
Fig. 5.40c). This is attributed to the increase in the
residual strength of the specimen. Hence, after reconso
lidation the structure of the sand is more deformable but
less brittle.
414
Towards, the end of the first loading stage in the
first cycle, a slight dilation is apparent, which slows
the rate of deformation (Fig. 5.40c) and allows the speci
m e n to build up strength up to the shear stress amplitude
(2 15 kPa) at which the reversal of rotation occurs (point
B in Fig. 5.40d). It is evident that at this point the
effective stress path has already crossed the phase
transformation line and therefore the specimen collapses
as the direction of shearing reverses. The pore pressure
increases again and the stress path moves towards the ori
gin of the q-p" plot (Fig. 5.40d). A drastic reduction in
strength is observed as the shear stress reverses sign
(point C in Fig. 5.40c). Thereafter, the behavior is as
observed in other previous tests. As a result of dilation
with further straining the pore pressure decreases, the
specimen builds up strength at an increasing rate while
the stress path moves backwards close to the failure line.
Reversal of the direction of shearing at point D causes a
complete collapse of the specimen, which reaches a state
of initial liquefaction (Fig. 5.40b). As the shear stress
reverses again the specimen undergoes very large deforma
tions (; 18%) before mobilizing a strength equal to the
shear stress amplitude of about 15 k P a .
The most important feature of the behavior shown in
Figure 5.40 is that the reconsolidated specimen, which is
denser, develops a condition of initial liquefaction at
415
y the end of the first cycle, as compared to more than 10
^ cycles that were required to bring the specimen into a
"liquefied" state during the first loading (Fig. 5.37).
Then, it is clear that the pore pressure buildup and con
sequent strain development under cyclic loading depend on
the deformation characteristics of the initial structure
which in turn depends not only on the relative density but
also on the initial particle arrangement. The latter is
drastically altered by prior strain histories which
involve large shear strains. It is considered that the
drastic change in behavior due to different initial parti
cle arrangements cannot be accounted for by the small
difference in the G values of the two specimens.

max
^ In the previous test, after a unidirectional deforma
tion of about 10.5% in the clockwise direction, the speci
men was rotated in the counter-clockwise direction until
the residual shear strain was reduced to about 3.8% (Fig.
5.37c) before reconsolidating it under the initial confin
ing stress of about 100.1 kPa. However, the reduction in
resistance to liquefaction due to prior strain histories
with large shear strain amplitudes is observed even if the
residual shear strain at the end of the first loading is
smaller. This is illustrated by the results presented in
Figures 5.41 and 5.42. Another solid cylinder specimen
was first cyclicly loaded until collapse was initiated
(point A in Fig. 5.41). After a unidirectional shear
416
o Ottawa 2 0 - 3 0 sand
e - 0^622 Dr - 45.2 % ° " z - o " r - 100.4 kPa
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480
z
<
DC -2
H
CO
DC
<
Ui -4
z
CO
-6
-8
TIME, sec.
Confining pressure —^
100
Collapse on
c reversal Liquefaction
80 ■
a
a.
UJ
tr
=> 60
CO Collapse on
CO
UJ loading —
a.
a.
Ui 40
cc
o
CL
20
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480

TIME, sec.
Figure 5.41 Cyclic Torsional Shear Test on Virgin

Specimen (t =15.6 kPa).
cy
417
20
STRESS, kPa
-9 -8 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2
SHEAR
-4
-8
-12
-16
SHEAR STRAIN, %
-20
40 r
30 ■
20 ■
STRESS, kPa
10 •
20 30 40 50 60 90 100
SHEAR
Forced
-20 reversal 11th cycle
-30

-40
418
c 8
6
e - 0.604
Dr - 52.7 %
o~z - 0 " r - 100.2 kPa
First loading in Fig. 5.41
4
2
* 0
60 120 80 240 300 360 420 480
-2
<
GC
h -4
CO
GC
< -6
U]
X -8
CO
-10
-1 2
-1 4
-1 6 TIME, sec.
-1 8
Confining pressure
100
Liquefaction
80 •
UJ
GC
X 60
CO
CO
UJ
GC
CL
UJ
ac 40
o
CL
20
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480

TIME, sec.
Figure 5.42 Cyclic Torsional Shear Test on Reconsolidated

Specimen with Residual Shear Strain (-1.0%).
419
20
STRESS, kPa
-18 -16 -14 -1 2 -10 -8 -6
—4
SHEAR
-8
-12
-16
SHEAR STRAIN, %
-20
40
30
20
STRESS, kPa
SHEAR
30 40 50 60 70 80 90
-1 0
-20 Phase transformation line
-30

-40*-
420
strain of about 7% in the clockwise direction, a reversal

o in the direction of shearing was forced at point B and the
specimen was rotated back in the counter-clockwise direc
tion until the residual strain was reduced to less than
1%. It in noted that after reversal at point B initial
liquefaction develops (Figs. 5.41b and 5.41d) and the
specimen exhibits essentially zero strength over a wide
strain range (Fig. 5.41c). After this stage, the specimen
was reconsolidated under the initial confining stress and
subjected again to cyclic loading under undrained condi
tions at the same shear stress amplitude (I 15.6 k P a ) .
The results of the second loading are presented in Figure
5 .42.
r
During reconsolidation the relative density of the
specimen increased from 45.2% to about 52.7%. It is seen
again that the reconsolidated specimen (Fig. 5.42)
develops larger pore water pressures and larger shear
strains in the first loading stage of the first cycle than
the "virgin" specimen (Fig. 5.41) and that initial
liquefaction also develops at the end of the first cycle
(Fig. 5.42) compared to 11 cycles before the development
of initial liquefaction during the first ioading (Fig.
5.41). Therefore, the behavior of the reconsolidated
specimens in Figures 5.40 and 5.42 is essentially the
same, although the pore pressure and shear strain during
the first cycle and the shear strain required to mobilize
421
a strength equal to the shear stress amplitude after ini

o tial liquefaction are slightly larger in Figure 5.42.
This attributed in part to the fact that the shear stress
amplitude in Figure 5.42 (2 15.6 kPa) is slightly larger
than in Figure 5.40 (T 15 kPa). However, it should be
noted that both the maximum shear strain during first
loading and the residual shear strain after reconsolida
tion were larger in the test presented in Figure 5.40. In
any case, the main issue is that the resistance to
liquefaction of the reconsolidated specimens with a rela
tive density of about 52 to 53% is significantly smaller
than that of the specimens with no prior strain history,
which have a lower Dr (2 45%). This is attributed to
c degradating changes in fabric resulting from the develop
ment of large strains during the first loading stage.
In the previous two tests, the specimens were tested
after reconsolidation with a residual shear strain towards
the clockwise direction. The first loading stage in the
first cycle was also in the clockwise direction. There
fore, it was of great interest to study also the effects
of a residual shear strain in the direction opposite to
the direction of first loading. These effects are illus
trated by the results presented in Figures 5.43 and 5.44
which were obtained from a cyclic test on another solid
cylinder specimen with a shear stress amplitude of 17.5
kPa. The specimen collapsed in the second cycle of the
422
10 r
e - 0.62 Dr - 45.9 %
o - z - c r r - 100.2 kPa
SHEAR STRAIN,
30 90 120 150 180 210
-2
-4
-6
-8 TIME, sec.
-10
Confining pressure
100
First Second
80 ■ liquefaction iquefaction
PORE PRESSURE, kPa
60
Collapse on
40
loading
20
30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330
TIME, sec.
Figure 5.43 Cyclic Torsional Shear Tests on Virgin

Specimen ( t =17.5 kPa).
r cy
423
/ 20
—4
-8
-1 2
SHEAR STRAIN, %
-20
40
c 30
20 •
as
Q.
■X
CO
CO
Ui
IT 40 100
I- 50 60 70 80 90
co 0
cc
<
UJ
^ -10
Forced
-20 reversal
-30

-40
4 24
u Ottawa 2 0 - 3 0 sand
e - 0.598 <r-z - c r ’r = io 0.2 kPa
Dr - 55.2 % First loading in Fig. 5.43
5 2
<
cc ■i
6 0‘ .60 120 240 300 420 480
cc
ui -2 •
x
CO
-4 •
-6
-8 •
TIME. sec.
-10
Confining pressure
100
c to
80 •
Liquefaction
a£.
J
UJ
CC
3 60 •
CO
CO
UJ
cc
a.
UJ
cc 40 •
o
a.
20 •
60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480

TIME, sec.
F ig u r e 5 .4 4 C y c lic T o r s io n a l S h e a r T e s ts on R e c o n s o li
d a t e d S p e c im e n w i t h R e s i d u a l S h ear S tr a in
(+0.5%).
425
O 20
-4
-8
-12
-16
SHEAR STRAIN, %
-20
40
c
30 •
20 ■
co
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1D0
til
-1 0
co
-20 Phase transform ation line
-30

-40
426
first loading (point A in Fig. 5.43d). After a unidirec
tional shear strain of about 8 .2% in the clockwise direc
tion, a reversal in the direction of loading was forced at
point B, bringing the specimen to a state of initial
liquefaction. Thereafter, the specimen was rotated until
a residual shear strain of about 4.7 developed in the
counter-clockwise direction (Fig. 5.43c). It is noted
that after a peak-to-peak shear strain of about 13%, the
specimen mobilized a shear stress of only 4 kPa (point C
in Fig. 5.43c). A second reversal in the direction of
shearing was forced at point C, bringing the specimen
again to a state of liquefaction. Rotation in the clock
wise direction continued until the residual shear strain
was reduced to about 0.5%. It should be noted that the
residual shear strain remained towards the counter
clockwise direction. At this stage, the specimen was
reconsolidated under the initial confining stress of about
100.2 kPa, and subjected to cyclic loading at the same
shear stress amplitude (” 17.5 k P a ) . The results of the
second loading are presented in Figure 5.44.
During reconsolidation the relative density of the
specimen increased from 45.9 to about 55.2%. Contrary to
what was observed in the previous two tests, it is noted
that the reconsolidated specimen (Fig. 5.44) developed
smaller pore pressures and smaller shear strains in the
first half of the first cycle than the virgin specimen
427
(Fig. 5.43). However, during the second half of the first
G cycle the opposite was the case. Hence, the prior strain
history reverted the stress-straln characteristics of the
specimen, which became stiffer on loading in the clockwise
direction and softer on loading in the counter-clockwise
direction. This behavior is clearly reflected by the
stress— strain curves (compare Figs. 5.43c and 5.44c) and
the stress path plots (compare Figs. 5.43d and Fig.
5.44d). During the first loading of the second cycle the
reconsolidated specimen exhibits a slight strain softening
behavior, (after point A in Figs. 5.44c and 5.44d) which
is arrested by a reduction in the pore pressure due to
dilation after a unidirectional shear strain of about 5%.
Thereafter, the specimen rebuilds strength up to the level
of the applied shear stress amplitude at which the rever
sal of the direction of rotation occurs (point B in Figs.
5.44c and 5.44d). Upon reversal the specimen collapses
and a state close to initial liquefaction develops. As
the shear stress reverses sign (point C in Fig. 5.44c) the
stress-strain curve becomes flat reflecting the loss of
strength. However, as in previous cases, the specimen
mobilizes strength with further straining due to a reduc
tion in the pore pressure caused by the dilative tenden
cies. After a peak-to— peak shear strain of about 11% the
reconsolidated specimen mobilizes a strength of 17.5 kPa
(Fig. 5.44c). It should be noted that after a unidirec
tional shear strain of about 13% following initial
428
liquefaction the virgin specimen only mobilized a strength

o of 4 kPa (Fig. 5.43c). In relative terms, it can be con
cluded that the reconsolidated specimen exhibited a larger
resistance to pore pressure and strain development than
that of the virgin specimen. This is based on the fact
that the reconsolidated specimen is less susceptible to
strain softening behavior and that small shear strains
develop upon the occurrence of initial liquefaction. The
author attributes in part the more favorable behavior of
the reconsolidated specimen to the fact that the first
loading at a shear stress amplitude of 17.5 kPa caused a
higher increase in density than in previous tests at
smaller shear stress amplitudes. Hence, it is considered
that the hardening effect due to densification overrode
the weakening effect due to changes in fabric caused by
large strains during the previous cyclic loading.
The tests results presented in Figures 5.40 to 5.44.
clearly show that prior strain histories which involve
large shear strain amplitudes create a particle packing
which, although denser, may be more susceptible (Figs.
5.40 and 5.42) or less susceptible (Fig. 5.44) to pore
pressure buildup and strain development during subsequent
cyclic loading at the same shear stress amplitude. In
addition to the overall changes in Dr and fabric, another
factor controlling the behavior seems to be the relative
direction and orientation of previous cyclic loading,
especially of the last loading stage, as compared to the
orientation and direction of the subsequent cyclic loading
after reconsolidation (77, 78, 178» 182‘, 196) . For example,
it is noted that the first loading in Figures 5.37 and
5.41 was terminated with rotation of the specimen in the
counter-clockwise direction. As illustrated in Figures
5.40 and 5.42, the second loading of these two specimens
was initiated with rotation in the clockwise direction.
Therefore, the initial direction of rotation in the second
loading was opposite to the direction of rotation in the
final stage of the first loading. It was pointed out that
regardless of the residual shear strain towards the clock
wise direction, the reconsolidated specimen was softer and
more compressible than the virgin specimen and that the
stress path approached the failure line in the first stage
of loading in the clockwise direction. On the other hand,
it is noted that the first loading in Figure 5.43 was ter
minated with rotation of the specimen in the clockwise
direction while the second loading in Figure 5.44 was ini
tiated also with rotation in the clockwise direction. It
was pointed out that in this case the specimen became
stiffer in the clockwise direction but softer in the
counter-clockwise direction.
Consequently, it is considered that prior strain his
tories involving large shear strains create a fabric or
particle arrangement which exhibit a highly anisotropic
430
stress-strain behavior, that is, a behavior very sensitive
to changes in the direction of loading (77,78,178,182).
Apparently, if the second loading is initiated with rota
tion in the direction opposite to that during the terminal
stage of the previous cyclic loading, the resistance to
pore pressure buildup and strain development in the first
loading cycle decreases significantly. This is attributed
to the fact that under very small confining pressures such
as after initial liquefaction the particles become
strongly oriented in the direction of rotation with most
of the normals at the contact points, if any, oriented in
the direction of the major principal stress. Moreover,
after large unidirectional shear strains dilation develops
since the effective confining stresses are very low.
Accordingly, at the end of the first cyclic loading the
group of particles could be left in a "dilated" condition
(198). It is clear that under these conditions reversal
in the direction of shearing in the second loading causes
an immediate collapse of the structure and the consequent
development of large pore pressures and shear deformations
in the first loading cycle, as observed in Figures 5.40
and 5.42. In other words, the residual fabric after
reconsolidation requires a significant rearrangement of
grains in order to withstand the load in the opposite
direction, which result in a greater tendency to contract,
larger pore pressures and lower stiffness (178).
431
On the contrary, it follows that if the second load

o ing is initiated with rotation in the same direction that
during the last portion of the first cyclic loading the
resistance to pore pressure buildup and strain development
in the first loading cycle increases as observed in Figure
5.44. It should be noted that it is the direction of
shearing during termination of the first loading and not
the direction of the maximum shear strains that seems to
control the behavior in the first loading cycle under sub
sequent cyclic loading. In this connection, it is noted
that in Figure 5.43 the specimen experienced larger defor
mations in the clockwise direction than in the counter
clockwise direction. Nevertheless, the specimen became
f stiffer when reloaded in the clockwise direction (Fig.
5.44), because the previous cyclic loading was also ter
minated with rotation in the clockwise direction under a
very small effective confining stress.
In summary, it can be concluded that the effects of
prestraining involving large strains on the undrained
strength of sands after reconsolidation are controlled by
two counterbalancing factors: an increase in density and a
drastic change in fabric. In the test results presented
in Figures 5.40 and 5.42 the latter effect was dominant.
On the other hand, in the case of Figure 5.44, the
increase in density controlled the subsequent undrained
behavior under cyclic loading. It must be pointed out
that the highly anisotropic stress-strain characteristics
of the fabric created by prior stress histories involving
large strains have practical implications only in the case
of monotonic loading or of a single application of cyclic
shear stress after reconsolidation. Under continuous
cyclic loading the direction of shearing continuously rev
erses and , thus, the relative importance of stiffening in
a particular direction disappears. The main issue in this
case is that prestraining at large strains may create a
fabric which is very susceptible to collapse on either the
first loading or the first reversal, depending on the
relative orientation and direction of the first cycle of
the subsequent cyclic loading with respect to the final
stage of the prior loading sequence.
The discussion of the results presented in Figures
5.38 to 5.44 permits the author to emphasize once more the
fact that the undrained stress-strain characteristics of
sands at a given Dr are not independent of the initial
fabric or particle arrangement, as suggested elsewhere
(18,132). The initial fabric may be significantly altered
by prior cyclic strain histories, which in turn is
reflected by drastic changes in the tendency towards den-
sification, and the resulting pore pressures under
undrained loading.
In summary, the results of this investigation and
those from previous studies on the effects of prior strain
433
history on the cyclic undrained behavior of sands
(47,77,78,151, 167,178,182,196) permit to draw the follow
ing conclusions:
a. Undrained cyclic prestraining involving small shear
strain amplitudes, with subsequent drainage of excess
pore pressures, causes the resistance to liquefaction
to be higher than that of a virgin specimen. Cyclic
prestraining with very small shear strain amplitudes
tends to eliminate local instabilities at the grain
contacts and thus, to produce a fabric with more
resistance to densification and pore pressure
buildup. These effects are independent of the direc
tion of loading.
b. On the other hand, if a sand specimen has experienced
large deformations in the course of prior cyclic
undrained loading, its resistance to liquefaction,
after reconsolidation under the initial state of
stress, may be considerably diminished although the
density of the reconsolidated specimen may have
increased. Undrained prestraining that generates a
condition of liquefaction or flow failure changes the
initial fabric to one more closely corresponding to
the critical or steady-state of deformation which,
although it may be denser, offers the minimum resis
tance to shearing. However, these effects depend not
434
only on the magnitude of the prior shear strains but
largely on direction of loading during the terminal
stage of the previous cyclic loading especially if
very low effective confining stresses develop at this
stage. Consequently, sands which have experienced
large deformations during prior undrained cyclic
loading exhibit a highly anisotropic stress-strain
behavior under subsequent undrained loading after
reconsolidation. The resistance to pore pressure
buildup is especially diminished if the direction of
shearing reverses between the terminal stage of the
first loading and the the initiation of the subse
quent undrained loading.
From the foregoing discussion, it is evident that the
relationship between the resistance to reliquefaction and
the level of shear strain during prior prestraining must
have a peak or turning point (167). Previous investiga-'
tions (47,167) suggest that when the shear strain during
prestraining exceeds the range from 0.5 to 3%, the
liquefaction resistance after reconsolidation becomes
lower than that of virgin specimens, although it depends
also on the relative orientation and direction of shearing
in the previous and subsequent loadings. As discussed
earlier, under certain conditions, large shear strains
only develop when the effective stress path crosses the
phase transformation lines. Accordingly, a stress/strain
435
o history for which the range of variation in stress states
is restricted to the domain bounded by the two lines of
phase transformation has been termed "small preshearing"

"7 *7\ _ _ j i n ^ _ — .r * pm . ; C;
' —i i a « V « ••
( / / /£ 63 X XX U3wi 6 u Xu £Xgui ^ J • 4^ • £1O UIOJ.1 pi COU C 61*
i n g ” stress history causes an increase in the resistance
to liquefaction after reconsolidation. On the other hand,
a stress history where the change in stress crosses the
lines of phase transformation has been termed "large
preshearing" (77), which is very likely to cause a reduc
tion in the liquefaction resistance. In the author's
view, the criterion shown in Figure 5.45 may be valid if
the cyclic shear stress amplitude is smaller than the
steady-state strength or when the relative density is
c higher than the critical (Fig.
sands shear strains on the order of 0.5 to

3.11). For loose to medium
3Z may be suf
ficient to trigger the collapse of the sand structure and
the initiation of a flow failure, provided the cyclic
shear stress is larger than the steady-state strength
(Fig. 5.34). As discussed earlier, the initiation of
strain softening behavior occurs before the stress path
reaches the phase transformation. Consequently, it is
considered that if the sand is susceptible to strain
softening behavior it is the state boundary surface and
not the phase transformation lines that separates the
"small preshearing" and the "large preshearing" regions in
the stress space.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction n
v,...
q
Failure line
Line of p h a s e
transformation q
(a) Small preshearing

p' = \ (aa+20Y)
R a n g e of small
\ preshearin g q
Range of Large
preshearing
(b) Large preshearing
Figure 5.45 "Small Preshearing" and "Large Preshearing" Stress Paths

under Cyclic Loading of! Magnitude Smaller than Steady-State
436
Strength (After. Ref. 24).
437
CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
6.1 General Considerations
An integrated framework for understanding the
stress-strain behavior of sands under both monotonic and
cyclic loading was developed and is presented in this
dissertation. Emphasis was placed on the collapsiveness
of the sand structure, which is associated with sudden
rearrangement of grains and loss of contact points between
^ neighboring grains, either because the applied shear
stress approaches a threshold value on loading or as a
result of reversals in the direction of shearing under low
levels of confining pressure. Under undrained conditions,
both types of "collapse" result in a significant increase
in pore water pressure and a consequent reduction in
strength. The first collapse mechanism leads to "flow
deformation" whereas the second one results in "liquefac
tion," as defined in this dissertation. Hence, in the
author's view, "flow deformation" and "liquefaction" are
in nature similar phenomena in the sense that both involve
a drastic reduction in the number of contact points
between neighboring grains and, consequently, a drastic
reduction in strength.
438
Flow deformation is a consequence of strain softening
behavior, which is Initiated when the state of effective
stress (stress path) reaches a boundary surface, which is
referred to as the "critical stress ratio" or "state boun
dary" surface. On the other hand, liquefaction develops
during an unloading stage (reversal in the direction of
shearing), from an initial stress state beyond what has
been called "phase transformation" lines, at the instant
the state of stress becomes isotropic. If the loading
conditions do not bring the sand specimen to a hydrostatic
state of stress, liquefaction, that is, a condition of
zero effective stress cannot develop. The factors con
trolling the location in stress space of the critical
stress ratio and phase transformation lines (see Fig.
c 6.1), were discussed in detail in Chapters 3 and 5.
Under cyclic loading, a sand specimen is subjected to
continuous reversals in the direction of shearing, that
is, it experiences stages of loading, unloading, and
reloading. Under these conditions, it was shown that
depending on the initial state of stress and the cyclic
shear stress amplitude, the corresponding effective stress
path may reach the critical stress ratio (CSR) surface
during any loading stage causing large shear strains to
develop. If the stress path moves beyond the phase
transformation line dilatancy will develop and further
pore pressure development will be attenuated. However, in
439
this case, large pore pressure and consequent strains will
develop in the subsequent unloading stages. Consequently,
during cyclic loading of saturated loose sands, the level
of deformation after a sufficient number of cyclic stress
applications could be due to strain softening behavior (or
flow deformation) or to a combination of flow deformation
followed by liquefaction. Nevertheless, strain softening
behavior, if any, will always be observed before the
development of a condition of initial liquefaction because
the "collapse" surface corresponds to a critical stress
ratio smaller than the threshold stress ratio marking the
change in the behavior of sands from contractive to dila
tive on l o a d i n g , at the phase transformation line, as
illustrated in Figure 6.1
As discussed in Chapter 3, the problem of undrained
stability of a contractive saturated sand under earthquake
loadings can be studied by considering the way in which
the in situ effective stress path approaches the failure
envelope. It is this path that determines the failure
modes and the resulting deformations. Starting from an
initial anisotropic state of stress, which is typical of
most in situ conditions, the failure line can be
approached following different stress paths which depend
not only on the initial state of stress, and the nature
and magnitude of the applied loads, but also on the boun
dary strain conditions. For example, under plane strain
State b o u n d a r y surface
P h a s e transformation line ( C S R line)
Failure line
Liquefaction Collapse
X
Figure 6.1 Development of Limited Flow Deformation and Liquefaction under

Cyclic Loading.
440
441
conditions such as in deposits under level ground, initial
liquefaction may develop after a sufficient number of
cycles, irrespective of the initial state of stress, but
strain softening behavior is unlikely. On the other hand,
close to the surface of sloping ground, the lateral
strains are not constrained, and the susceptibility to
strain softening increases with the inclination of the
slope. In this case, liquefaction potential is very low
because the state of stress must remain anisotropic due to
the shear stresses needed to maintain equilibrium imposed
by geometry.
In summary, there are two extreme unfavorable
behaviors regarding undrained strength of saturated sands:
flow deformation and liquefaction. It is considered that
a combination of these "failure" mechanisms may contribute
to the failure of a complex structure, such as an earth
dam. It is noted, however, that determination of the way
in which the state of stress actually changes within an
earth structure during an earthquake and hence of the way
in which the in situ effective stress path approaches the
failure line in the course of cyclic loading, is a goal
that still remains to be achieved.
442
6.2 New Apparatus for Cyclic Shear Testing
o
As described In Chapter 4, a new apparatus was
designed and developed* which combines the features of
resonant column and torsional shear devices into a single
apparatus. In the past, one of the main advantages of the
resonant column test was considered to be the low shear
strain levels that can be applied to the specimen
corresponding to those produced in geophysical tests in
situ* thereby allowing one to judge if laboratory speci
mens have been replicated, or to examine to what extent
they have been reconstituted to an "equivalent fabric"
which exhibits a shear modulus in agreement with the
values determined from in situ seismic techniques. (In
this connection* see section 6.3.1, item 11.) On the other

c
hand, the torsional shear test is now recognized as having
superior capabilities for determining soil behavior under
earthquake loading, including liquefaction phenomena.
Particularly, it is considered that:
a. the test allows a better simulation of the cyclic
shear stresses and the resulting rotation of princi
pal stresses associated with earthquake loadings*
b. the orientation of the major principal stress with
respect to the potential planes of anisotropy is the
same in both halves of the loading cycles, and
443
c. Che pore pressure buildup in undrained tests is a
consequence only of Che applied shear stresses since
Che mean normal stress remains constant throughout
each cycle.
Some problems still remain regarding stress variation
across the section of a soil cylinder subject to torsional
loading as a result of curvature of the specimen and end
restraint at the specimen caps but they can be reduced to
acceptable limits with a properly selected specimen
geometry. The new apparatus can be used to determine the
variation of shear modulus, G, with shear strain ampli
tude, Y , on a single solid or hollow cylinder specimen
over the entire range of shear strain amplitudes of

-4
engineering interest, i.e. from 10 % to 10% under drained
conditions, and to monitor pore pressures, shear strains,
and effective confining pressures during cyclic shear
tests under undrained conditions. These capabilities are
not duplicated by any other apparatus known to the author.
6.3 Test Results
Torsional shear tests were performed with the new
hybrid resonant column/torsional shear apparatus on recon
stituted specimens of Ottawa 20-30 sand. Within the
design objectives, the apparatus performed in a superior
manner and provided test results which illustrate the
444
, stress-strain relationships under both drained and

V
^
J undrained conditions for a wide range of shear strain
amplitudes. The results of the tests performed were
presented and discussed in Chapter 5. The main conclusions
and findings of this investigation can be summarized as
follows:
6.3.1 Drained Conditions
1. For uniform Ottawa 20— 30 sand with bulky grains,

*
at the same o , a significant change in relative density
m
(from 40 to 90%) had only a relatively modest effect on
the value of the initial tangent shear modulus, G , and

6 * max’
on the pattern of its subsequent degradation with increas
c ing strain amplitudes.
modulus
As the shear strain increases,
reduction curves at different relative densities,

the
Dr, seem to converge into a single curve suggesting that
in the process of cyclic loading under drained conditions
at increasing shear strain amplitudes, the void ratio of
the sand approaches a limiting or residual value, indepen
dent of the initial void ratio.
2. The initial tangent shear modulus, G , of nor-

° max
mally consolidated dry specimens was found to be essen
tially proportional to the square root of the mean confin-

*
ing stress, o for relative densities in the range of 40
m
to 60%. However, at large shear strain amplitudes the
shear moduli were found to be a linear function of o .

m
445
Therefore, the exponent of a with which the modulus

in
o varies is a function of the shear strain amplitude.
3. At the same Dr and shear strain level, Y» the
reduction in modulus, expressed as a percentage of 6 ,

Q a X
*
is larger for lower values of mean stress, a . The shape
m
and location of the modulus degradation curves (G/G
luoX
versus y ) depend also on the void ratio and on the soil
type. Consequently, the simplified procedure, which in
common practice utilizes a single average curve of G/G

max
versus y , can result in significant errors in the inter
preted values of shear modulus. Nevertheless, if the
G/G values are plotted with respect to the normalized

max
shear strain, Y/Y » where Yp is a reference strain, the
c curves tend to collapse into a single curve, which can be
closely represented by a hyperbolic relation of the form
(59,60)
G = 1 + Y/Y (6.1)
max r
as y was found also to increase with the square root of

r
a . For a given soil, this relationship appears to be
m
independent of void ratio but the actual shape can vary
with different soils types (59).
4. At the same Dr, the damping ratio, D, of dry
specimens increases as the mean confining stress
decreases, especially for shear strain amplitudes above
446
—2 "
10 %. However, all the curves at different a approach a
m
limiting value at large strains. The increase in damping
values with increasing shear strain seems to correspond to
the degradation in shear modulus. In fact, if the D
values are plotted with respect to G/G , the curves at

max
*
different a collapse approximately into a single curve,
suggesting that the equivalent shear modulus and damping
ratio are not independent variables. However, the rela
tionship between D and G/Gmax is not linear, as suggested
elsewhere (59,60).
5. Degradation in the shear modulus of dry specimens
was observed even at small shear strain amplitudes in the

-4 -3
range from 10 % to 10 %. From this point of view, if a
threshold shear strain exists, its value is less than

-4
10 %. However, a sharp increase in damping, which
reflects the non-linear and inelastic properties of the
sand only occurs for shear strain amplitudes above .10 %.
On the other hand, the pore pressure buildup in undrained

_2
tests at shear strain amplitudes below 10 % was observed
to be small, in spite of a considerable reduction in
m o d u l u s.
^ *
6. As the stress ratio during consolidation, <r2 /°r >
increases, the initial shear modulus, G , decreases.

max
However, stress ratios as high as those corresponding to
failure only decrease G up to a maximum of 20 to 30%.

013 X
This behavior implies that G is not sensitive to

max
447
, changes in fabric since the particle arrangement certainly
changes in a drastic manner as the stress ratio increases
to failure. The fact that 6 is not significantly

max
affected by stress ratio also reflects the slip/stick
frictional nature of the stress-strain relation for granu
lar materials, which is actually composed of small
"steps," which seem to have essentially similar initial
slopes (G ), irrespective of tv e stress ratio (or shear

max
strain amplitude). Moreover, it was concluded that
resonant column tests cannot reflect stress ratio effects
even at shear strains larger than that at which G is

° max
measured. This is because resonant column tests measure
the unloading-reloading secant shear moduli after several
c hundred cycles, which is considerably higher than, for
example, the tangent modulus during the stage of virgin
loading in the first cycle. Although in torsional shear
tests the number of applied cycles is significantly
smaller than in resonant column tests, it is still true
that under anisotropic stress conditions the difference in
behavior between the first cycle and subsequent ones can
be very significant. Therefore, stress-strain models
should consider the changes of stress and strain
throughout each loading and unloading stage, especially if
correlations are to be made, for example, with behavior
under undrained cyclic loading conditions.
7. At the same a , isotropic prestressing with an
m
OCR of 2.0 had a negligible effect on the shear modulus-
shear strain relation in drained shear, for shear strain

—4
amplitudes ranging from 10 % to 2%. Prestressing at
increasing stress levels (or increasing OCR) but along a
stress path with constant stress ratio (other than one)
was found to cause a degradation in the shear modulus sub
sequently measured at low shear strains. Consequently,
prestressing along a particular stress path to higher
values of OCR does not necessarily result in stiffening of
the sand specimen when reloaded along other stress paths.
In this connection, it was also estimated that G could

max
increase with OCR for tests with no lateral strain during
unloading. In any case, it is noted that stress history
effects only change G on the order of 15 to 20%.

J ° max
Accordingly, it was concluded that G is relatively
° max
insensitive to stress history effects.
8.
Cyclic prestraining at low shear strain amplitude
_o
(1.3 x 10 %) in the resonant column mode (several hundred
cycles) caused the shear modulus at lower strain ampli
tudes to increase slightly above the value corresponding
to that of a specimen without any prestraining. On the
other hand, two cycles, which can be considered as pres
tressing, at a constant shear strain amplitude (2.2 x

_2
10 %) in the torsional shear mode caused the shear
-4 —2
modulus at strains ranging from 10 % to 1.3 x 10 % to
449
decrease slightly below the values corresponding to the

o specimen with no previous stress history. It is evident
that the prestraining effects depend on the number and
magnitude of prior strain or stress repetitions.
Nevertheless, it is noted that in either case the change
in G was relatively small (I 5%), in spite of the fact

max J
that one case included a significant number of cycles dur
ing the prestraining stage. On the other hand, cyclic
prestraining in the resonant column mode at increasing

-4 -2
shear strain amplitudes ranging from 10 % to 10 %,
caused a significant increase in the shear moduli at shear

_2
strains larger than 10 %. Consequently, it was observed
that specimens with essentially the same G may exhibit

inaX
very different "large strain" moduli depending on the
c cyclic strain history. In the light of these results,
Gâx does not seem to be an appropriate parameter to be
correlated with the response of sands to cyclic loading

-2
involving shear strains larger than 10 %.
9. The determination of G in the resonant column
mode implies the application of a considerable number of
cycles, which produce a significant stiffening of the
specimen. It is not yet known at which strain level the
stress-strain characteristics of sands as measured by
resonant column tests, change as a function of the number
of cycles. Consequently, if staged testing includes the
determination of shear moduli by means of resonant column
4 50
tests at increasing shear strain amplitudes, it can lead
to a significant overestimation of shear modulus for sand
with no prior cyclic strain history even at shear strain

-2
amplitudes as low as 1.1 x 10 %.
10. In general, it can be concluded that the influ
ence of prior stress or strain histories is controlled by
three different factors:
a. the prestress effect itself, which is dependent on
stress path and strain level (OCR),
b. the destructuration that occurs as the shear strain
increases, and
c. the number and magnitude of prior cyclic strain or
stress repetitions.
The second factor has an effect opposite to that of
the other two. On the other hand, under earthquake load
ings, the planes of principal stress continuously rotate,
and, thus, the relative importance of prestressing along a
particular stress path may also change.
11. The stress-strain characteristics of sands under
drained cyclic loading are affected by relative density,
mean confining stress, stress ratio, stress history, and
prior number of strain applications. However, the
behavior at very small strains, as measured by G , is

1Q3X
451
mainly affected by o and Dr. The effects of stress

TO
o ratio, stress history and cyclic prestraining on Gmax are
modest. Consequently, a direct correlation between Gmax
and "large strain" behavior such as liquefaction potential
which is affected by the latter factors, is not possible.
For the same reasons, correlations between shear wave
velocities measured at very small shear strains and
liquefaction potential of natural sand deposits is ques
tionable.
6.3.2 Undrained Conditions
12. Once the effective stress path corresponding to
an undrained test is at a state of zero effective stress
(liquefaction), the amount of shear strain required to

c
mobilize a given shear resistance, in the opposite direc
tion, increases significantly as the relative density of
the sand decreases. After the collapse of the structure
due to the reversal in the direction of shearing, the
looser the specimen the larger the shear strains required
for new contact points to develop.
13. Under cyclic loading loose sands may experience
very large deformations even without the development of a
condition of initial liquefaction. This is attributed to
the collapse of the structure on loading, which leads to a
sharp increase in pore pressure and a consequent reduction
in strength. Since this collapse occurs at a stress ratio
452
significantly smaller than that corresponding to the phase
transformation line, it will always occur before a condi
tion of initial liquefaction can develop, provided the
cyclic shear stress amplitude is larger than the steady-
state strength. Consequently, a specified level of shear
strain in loose sands under cyclic loading may result from
either the shear strains that develop before the stress
path reaches the phase transformation line (including
strain softening behavior), or the strains accompanying
the development of initial liquefaction, or a combination
of the two mechanisms of strain accumulation.
14. In strain controlled undrained tests the princi
pal stress ratio remains approximately constant for a
given shear strain amplitude, whereas the rate of pore
pressure accumulation decreases with number of cycles.
Such tests cannot reflect some features of stress con
trolled behavior, in which case the principal stress ratio
increases as a result of the pore pressure buildup.
Therefore, the results of these two types of tests cannot
be correlated directly, as suggested elsewhere (161). For
example, if the stress ratio associated with the maximum
shear stress amplitude is smaller than that corresponding
to the critical stress ratio (CSR) line, strain softening
behavior cannot develop in a strain controlled tests
whereas it may develop in a stress controlled test.
453
15. In Che first few cycles subsequent to the first
cycle, the effective stress paths corresponding to tor
sional shear tests are essentially symmetrical about the
normal stress axis since the mean confining stress and the
orientation of the principal stresses is such that the
response of the specimen is expected to be the same
whether it is rotated right or left. This condition can
not be obtained in cyclic triaxial tests.
16. The accumulation of significant pore pressures
seems to be unlikely at shear strain amplitudes smaller

—2 "
than 10 %, irrespective of Dr and o . However, at larger
m
shear strains the pore pressure ratio u /a cannot be
m
independent of these factors, as suggested elsewhere (24).
-
( It was found that the lower a the higher the pore pres-
V ®
sure ratio, u/o , which is consistent with a trend towards
m
greater reduction in stiffness and higher damping with
decreasing confining stress at a given shear strain ampli
tude. However, the absolute value of pore pressure actu
ally increases with confining stress at the same shear
strain amplitude, due to the greater tendency to contract
under higher confining stresses. Hence, the generated
pore pressure depends not only on the magnitude of the
plastic deformations (which is reflected in a reduction in
stiffness) but also on the tendency towards densification

*
(which increases with a ). Whether significant pore pres-
m
sures accumulate or not in the course of cyclic loading
454
depends not only on the level of applied stress (or

o strain) but also on the initial state of stress and on the
boundary strain conditions.
17. Shortly before a sand specimen mobilizes the
monotonic peak strength there is an increase in the rate
of pore pressure buildup as reflected by a change in cur
vature of the pore pressure versus time (or shear strain)
plot. The author postulated that small shear strains may
be enough for the metastable structure of a loose sand to
collapse, that is, to experience a "sudden" tendency to
rearrangement of grains or a reduction in the number of
contact points between neighboring grains. This struc
tural instability, which occurs close to the mobilization
c of the peak shear strength, results in a significant
increase in pore water pressure and a consequent reduction
in strength. To the author's knowledge, this feature of
the behavior of loose sands has not been reported by any
of the previous studies on the undrained behavior of
sands. All the test results available to the author,
which basically were obtained from axial compression
triaxial tests, suggest a "hyperbolic" type of relation
ship between pore pressure and axial strains, which
implies that the rate of pore pressure buildup is highest
in the initial stage of loading, which is not consistent
with the initiation of a strain softening process at the
peak point. The sharp increase in the rate of pore
455
pressure buildup resulting from the "collapse" of the

o structure of loose sands becomes more evident under cyclic
loading at shear strain amplitudes smaller than the peak
monotonic strength.
18. The trace of the stress-strain curve after the
peak point under monotonic loading shows minute fluctua
tions reflecting again the stepwise (frictional) nature of
the stress-strain characteristics of sands. The same
behavior was also observed whenever strain softening was
initiated by cyclic loading.
19. The locus of stress states triggering the col
lapse during cyclic loading defines an envelope which
c essentially corresponds to the stress path under monotonic
loading at the same relative density. Accordingly, it is
concluded that the monotonic effective stress path consti
tutes a "collapse" or state boundary surface, which deter
mines the initiation of strain softening behavior under
cyclic loading, provided the cyclic shear stress amplitude
is larger than the steady-state strength. Consequently,
the angle of shear resistance mobilized at the triggering
state, <f> , is not a constant value but a variable one

* mob
depending upon the cyclic shear stress amplitude.
The state boundary or collapse surface seems to con
stitute a kind of strain contour corresponding to the
cumulative shear strain causing the initiation of strain
456
softening behavior, irrespective of the cyclic shear .
G stress amplitude and/or number of cycles. After the col
lapse, the magnitude of shear strain increases as the
effective stress path approaches the failure envelope
along the state boundary surface, which is postulated to
depend on the orientation of the principal stresses
(stress path). From this point of view, triaxial tests
and torsional shear tests are expected to yield different
collapse surfaces. Cyclic loading conditions may be such
that the stress state of the specimen is compelled to
remain on the state boundary surface or to move away from
it. The pore pressures (and shear strains) that develop
when the stress state of the specimen remains on the state
boundary surface are substantially larger than when the
C stress path moves away from such a collapse surface, pro
vided the stress state is far from the line of phase
transformation. Unloading in the region of the state
boundary beyond the phase transformation line (dilative
region) also produces significant pore pressure buildup
which may lead to a state of liquefaction.
20. Four main stages in the process of pore water
pressure generation in "loose" sands under cyclic loading
were clearly identified, namely:
a. the pore pressure buildup during the first cycles of
loading due to the initial tendency to contract,
457
which proceeds at a decreasing rate as the fabric

C I
becomes more stable due to the prior stress cycles,
b. a sharp increase in pore pressure upon the collapse
of the structure on loading, which then proceeds at a
decreasing rate as the specimen approaches the
"steady-state" condition,
c. an additional increase in pore water pressure as the
structure collapses again upon reversal in the direc
tion of shearing, and
d. reduction in pore pressure due to dilation after
large strains under small effective confining
stresses.
c 21. The prior stress (or strain) cycles during
undrained cyclic loading cause strain history effects on
the subsequent cycles within the same loading sequence.
These effects are reflected by a reduction in the rate of
pore pressure buildup with increasing number of cycles,
provided that neither the state boundary surface nor the
phase transformation line are reached in the course of
cyclic loading. This is attributed to a kind of "stiffen
ing" of the sand structure which is also reflected in a
reduction in the magnitude of shear strain increments
(increase in G) that develop during the initial stages of
subsequent loading cycles under stress controlled
458
conditions, irrespective of the fact that the pore pressure
continuously increases. Accordingly, the variation in
shear modulus with number of cycles under undrained cyclic
loading is the result of two counterbalancing effects: an
increase in 6 due to "prestraining" caused by the prior
cycles and a degradation in G associated with the progres
sive increase in pore pressure. However, the state boun
dary surface apparently is not affected by this prestrain
ing.
22. Dndrained cyclic prestraining involving small
shear strain amplitudes, with subsequent drainage of
excess pore pressures, causes the resistance to liquefac
tion to be higher than that of a virgin specimen. These
effects are independent of the direction of loading. On
the other hand, if a sand has experienced large deforma
tions in the course of prior cyclic undrained loading, its
resistance to liquefaction, after reconsolidation under
the initial state of stress, may be considerably dimin
ished although the density of the reconsolidated specimen
may have increased. Moreover, sands which have experi
enced large deformations during prior undrained cyclic
loading exhibit a highly anisotropic stress-strain
behavior under subsequent undrained loading after reconso
lidation. It follows that the resistance to liquefaction
after drainage of excess pore pressures depends on the
prior level of shear strain. If the sand is susceptible
459
/- to strain softening behavior, it is the state boundary
surface that separates the "small preshearing” and the
"large preshearing" regions in the stress space, and not
the phase transformation lines, as has been suggested
elsewhere (77).
6.4 Commentary
The most important practical implications of this
study can be summarized as follows:
1. It Is considered that "flow deformation," or strain
softening behavior, and "liquefaction," i.e. a condi
tion of zero effective stress, are in nature similar
phenomena in the sense that both involve a drastic
reduction in the number of contact points between
neighboring grains and, consequently, a drastic
increase in pore water pressure and corresponding
reduction in shear strength.
2. The maximum shear modulus, G , of sands is mainly

max
affected by the mean confining stress and to a lesser
extent by the relative density. The effects of stress
ratio, stress history and cyclic prestraining on G

SlSX
are very modest. Consequently, a close correlation
between G and "large strain" behavior such as

max
liquefaction potential, which is strongly affected by
the latter factors, is not possible. The same can be
460
said about correlations with shear wave velocities
measured at very small shear strains.
3. The determination of shear moduli by means of
resonant column tests involves the application of a
considerable number of stress cycles. This means
that the measured shear modulus corresponds to the
unloading— reloading secant modulus after several hun
dred cycles. This shear modulus is considerably
higher than, for example, the tangent modulus during
the stage of virgin loading in the first cycle. It
is not yet known at which strain level the stress-
strain characteristics of sands as measured by
resonant column tests, change as a function of the
c number of cycles. Consequently,
tests at shear strains larger than 10

resonant column
—4
% may lead to
significant overestimations of shear modulus for
sands with no prior cyclic strain history.
4. The conditions leading to the different modes of
undrained failure under both monotonic and cyclic
loading have been clearly delineated throughout this
dissertation. It is considered that the work will
serve as a useful point of departure for further
research on sand liquefaction.
The author hopes that in the future geotechnical
engineers will systematically study the problem of
461
undrained stability under cyclic loading by considering
the potential ways in which the in situ effective stress
path approaches the failure envelope. It is this path
that determines the failure modes and the resulting defor
mations. Starting from an initial anisotropic state of
stress, which is typical of most in situ conditions, the
failure line can be approached following different stress
paths which depend not only on the initial state of
stress, and the nature and magnitude of the applied loads,
but also on boundary restraint conditions. In this con
nection, we are still far from being able to predict accu
rately the way in which the state of stress changes within
earth structures during an earthquake.
The number of cycles of torsional shear stress
required to reach a stress ratio corresponding to strain
softening behavior appears to be very sensitive to the
applied shear stress ratio. As the number of cycles of
large shear stress amplitude during an earthquake is
decidely limited - generally ranging between 5 and 20
cycles - this sensitivity is a significant impediment to
the development of practical tools to predict flow defor
mation and/or liquefaction potential due to earthquake
loadings.
462
o
CHAPTER 7
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
7.1 Improvement of Laboratory Equipment
The new hybrid resonant column/torsional shear
apparatus is considered to have enhanced available tech
niques for measuring the response of granular soils to a
wide range of cyclic loading. However, its capabilities
can be further improved as discussed below.
One of the main advantages of the torsional shear
C test is that the cell pressure, axial stress and torsional
shear stress can be changed as desired to obtain any
orientation of the planes of principal stress. Conse
quently, the torsional shear test apparatus can be used in
fundamental investigations of anisotropy and principal
stress rotations in soils. To fully accomplish this,
automatic controls are needed to control simultaneously
the axial and torsional stresses and the cell pressure, a
capability that is not yet available in the new apparatus.
At present, only the torsional loading can be automati
cally controlled; however, computer controlled solenoid
valves can readily be added to control fully the entire
stress path.
463
Plane strain cyclic tests are required to properly

G simulate the conditions to which an element of soil within
deposits under level ground is subjected during an earth
quake. The new apparatus does not have this capability.
In principle, it would be possible to impose no lateral
strain by preventing any change in the volume of cell
water during torsional loading (75,81). This is not pos
sible in the new apparatus because the Hardin oscillator
cannot be submerged. Besides, the cross sectional areas
of the rotating shaft and of the specimens are not the
same. Under undrained shearing, a condition of plane
strain can be achieved by fixing the length of the speci
men (173). Alternatively, proximity transducers could be
used to measure radial displacements of the cylinder

C walls* However, this alternative is possible only for the
solid specimen. Proximity transducers sense the gap
between the transducer face and a target such as aluminum
foil attached to the membrane. Computer controlled
solenoid valves would then be used to change the cell
pressure automatically to prevent any radial displacement.
Shear strains larger than those corresponding to the
rated capacity of the transducers used for measuring rota
tion developed in most of the undrained tests performed by
the author. Therefore, beyond the range of the transduc
ers, shear strains were estimated by using the elapsed
time and the rate of straining, which for each test was
464
constant. This is a significant limitation, especially
under cyclic loading. An alternative system for measuring
rotations as the top platen cams rotate out of the range
of the proximity transducers is desirable. A rotary vari
able differential transducer, RVDT, could be a possibil
ity.
As described in Chapter 4, the new apparatus is
equipped with a differential pressure transducer, and,
therefore, independent measurements of the cell and pore
water pressures cannot be made. This is a limitation,
especially for accurate measurements of the pore pressure
B-parameters.
The volume change measurement system of the apparatus
is relatively crude. Accurate measurements of volume
changes can be made by monitoring the changes in the
height of water in a burette with an extremely sensitive
differential pressure transducer under close temperature
control conditions. This could allow continuous measure
ments of the volume change during cyclic loading under
drained conditions. In this way, the effects of changes
in void ratio of the specimen on the drained behavior can
be accounted for. On the other hand, if the cell pressure
is automatically controlled, a constant volume test can be
performed. Constant volume drained tests versus undrained
tests at the same Dr may be a way to check the differences
between the S and F lines. It should be noted that with
465
o automatic measurement of volume changes, K q conditions
during consolidation can be also imposed by automatically
adjusting the cell pressure so that the volumetric strain
remains equal to the axial strain.
As discussed in Chapter 6 , determination of G in the
resonant column tests implies the application of a consid
erable number of cycles, which produce a significant
increase in stiffness of the specimen. It is not yet
known at which strain level the stress-strain characteris
tics of sands as measured by resonant column tests, change
as a function of the number of cycles. Consequently, it
becomes important to be able to operate the new apparatus

_2
in the torsional shear mode at strains below 10 %, in
order to avoid the prestraining effects produced by any
type of oscillator of high frequency. Currently, the
lower limit of shear strain amplitude at which reversal of
the direction of rotation can be controlled automatically
is about 2 x 10
Besides the number of cycles, the frequency is also
very different between the resonant column and the tor
sional shear tests. The relative contribution of each one
of these factors to the response of sands in the resonant
column test is not yet fully established, although the
effects of changes in frequency are known to be important
in clayey soils (31). On the other hand, the maximum fre
quency in the torsional shear mode is currently limited to
466
about 0.1 to 0.2 Hertz. Consequently, the torsional shear

c apparatus must be modified to expand Its capabilities to
the frequency range more characteristic of earthquake
loadings, i.e. at least to 0.5 Hz.
7.2 Topics for Further Research
Throughout this dissertation, the author identified
topics which require further investigation. They can be
summarized as follows:
1. The effects of frequency of loading on both
drained and undrained behavior of sands are still imper
fectly known. The agreement in shear moduli at a shear

_2
c strain amplitude of about
column (high frequency tests)

10 % obtained from the resonant
and torsional shear tests
(low' frequency tests) has led some researchers to the con
clusion that the frequency of loading does not affect the
response of sands to cyclic loading under drained condi
tions (42,88,136). However, as discussed previously,
besides frequency, the number of cycles is also very dif
ferent between the two tests. The relative contribution
of each one of these factors is not yet known. In regard
to undrained behavior, the conclusions drawn by previous
investigators are conflicting since experimental evidence
has been presented showing either that frequency does not
affect the undrained behavior of sands, at least in the
frequency range from 0.05 to 5 Hz (175,194), or that the
467
dilatancy tendencies of sands and hence the consequent

o pore pressures increase significantly at higher rates of
deformation (63,150).
2. The effects of initial shear stresses, that is of
stress ratios during consolidation other than one, are
also subject to conflicting opinions. Although 6 may

IDa X
not be significantly affected by stress ratio, the modulus
degradation curve must be dependent on the initial shear
stresses. This relationship is still to be established.
Particular attention should be paid to the changes in
stress and strain during the first few cycles of loading,
especially if correlations are to be made with behavior
under undrained conditions. Simplification of the
behavior in terms of a single secant shear modulus is not

c
desirable. Of course, resonant column tests are ruled out
for this purpose. On the other hand, some researchers
have concluded that the compressibility of sands under
axial compression triaxial tests is controlled by the
major principal stress, for a wide combination of confin
ing pressure and stress ratio values (102,105,186). These
results conflict with the author's understanding of the
factors controlling the shear resistance of granular
soils. Accordingly, additional research is recommended in
this area. The effects of initial shear stresses on sub
sequent undrained behavior are not clear either at this
point. It is felt that stress ratio values other than one
468
could affect the location and shape of the state boundary
o surface, and, consequently, the values of the peak and
steady-state strengths* It is evident that stress ratio
effects cannot be independent of inherent anisotropy and
of the nature of the stress path with respect to the prin
cipal axes of anisotropy. Most investigations on the
steady— state strength of sands have been based mainly on
triaxial tests which correspond to a particular stress
path. Investigations to include other stress paths are
recommended.
3. It is claimed that the shear strain level at
which pore pressure buildup is initiated, that is the so
called "threshold shear strain" is independent of fabric,
stress level, stress path, and relative density

c
(24,34,70). These findings appear to conflict with a sig
nificant amount of research which shows that the mechani
cal behavior of granular materials is affected signifi
cantly by factors such as fabric and it associated aniso
tropy, stress-strain history, stress path, etc., among
others. The author concluded that the threshold shear
strain as defined may be another "small strain" parameter
with characteristics similar to G , and hence, rela-

max
tively independent of some of these factors. However, it
is felt that as the shear strain increases, the undrained
behavior is not independent of fabric, stress level and
relative density. Accordingly, a research program can be
469
o initiated to study the effects of these factors on the
relationship between the pore pressure ratio, u/a

*
and the
level of shear strain. The author recognizes that it is
the level of shear strain more than the level of shear
stress that seems to determine the mechanical behavior of
soils. However, it is not to be concluded that the
applied shear strain is the only factor controlling the
pore pressure response of saturated sands, as claimed by
some researchers. At the same shear strain level, volume
change tendencies, which determine the pore water pressure
buildup, are dependent on fabric, stress level, and the
like.
4. Other recommendations for further study relate
( to:
a. Additional tests, in many areas, at very low relative
densities, i.e. in the range from 20 to 40%. To
fully accomplish this, the specimen preparation pro
cedures need to be improved.
b. Additional studies of the effects of prestressing on

—2
shear moduli at shear strain larger than 10 %.
c. Investigations of the usefulness and limitations of
correlations between state parameter (8 ) and drained
and undrained behavior of sands.
470
o d. Effects of strain rate on the state boundary surface,
and hence, on the steady-state strength (F line).
(
v
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471
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California, June 1978, Vol. 1, pp. 91-178.
193. Yoshimi, Y. and Oh-oka, H . , "Influence of Degree of

Shear Stress Reversal on the Liquefaction Potential
of Saturated Sand," Soils and Foundations, JSSMFE,
Vol. 15, No. 3, September 1975, pp. 27-40.
194. Yoshimi, Y . , Tokimatsu, K . , Kaneko, 0., and Makihara,

Y., "Undrained Cyclic Shear Strength of a Dense Nii
gata Sand," Soils and Foundations, JSSMFE, Vol. 24,
No. 4, December 1984, pp. 131-145.
r\
491
195. Youd, T. L . , "Compaction of Sands by Repeated Shear

Straining, " Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foun
o dations Division, ASCE, Vol. 98, No. S M 7 , July 1972,
pp. 709-725.
196. Youd, T. L. , "Packing Changes and Liquefaction Sus

ceptibility," Technical Note, Journal of the
No. GT8 , August 1977, pp. 918-S23.
197. Youd, J.L. and Craven, T. N . , "Lateral Stress in

Sands During Cyclic Loading," Technical Note, Journal
of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol.
101, No. GT2, February 1975, pp. 217— 221.
198. Yu, P. and Richart, Jr., F. E . , "Stress Ratio Effects

on Shear Modulus of Dry Sands," Journal of Geotechni
cal Engineering, Vol. 110, No. 3, March 1984, ASCE,
pp. 331-345.
199. Yu, P. and Richart, Jr., F. E . , "Stress Ratio Effects

on Shear Modulus of Dry Sands," Closure, Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. Ill, No. 9, September,
1985, pp. 1157-1159.
c APPENDICES
492
Appendix A
Data Reduction Procedures for Resonant Column Tests
The principle of the resonant column test is to
determine the dynamic properties of sands (and of other
materials) from observation of the steady— state response
of a cylindrical specimen subjected to forced vibrations.
The measurement of properties of a material in the range
of dynamic loading is complicated by the fact that inertia
forces must be considered. It is clear that in order to
excite and measure the vibration of a system, it is
altered by the attachment of the vibration excitation dev
ice and the required transducers (54,56). The problem is
further complicated for soils since the specimen must usu
ally be encased in a membrane which needs to be sealed '
against the end platens by using O-rings. Consequently,
the observed vibration is not the response of the soil
specimen alone but of the system composed of the specimen
and its attached apparatus. In order to obtain an analyti
cal solution for the system, it is necessary to assume
some model for the soil material, so that the response may
be interpreted in terms of material constants (G and D ) ,
which could then be used with boundary conditions other
than those existing in test specimens.
493
In the new resonant column/torsional shear apparatus,

o the Hardin type electromagnetic oscillator applies tor
sional vibrations to the top of the specimen. For small
amplitude vibrations of generally high frequency, the
response of sand specimens is essentially elastic. Hence,
the theory of propagation of shear waves in elastic rods
can be used to interpret the resonant column tests
results. However, as the amplitude of vibration
increases, the stress— strain characteristics of sands
become nonlinear and inelastic. Accordingly, the theory
of wave propagation alone is not sufficient to model the
stress— strain response, and the energy dissipating proper
ties of the soil should be accounted for. Analytical
solutions for both small and large amplitude vibrations

c and the corresponding data reduction procedures are dis
cussed herein.
Torsional Vibrations in a Rod
Consider a cylindrical rod subjected to torsional
vibrations (Fig. A.la). The shear modulus and unit weight
of the material which constitutes the rod are G and t ,
respectively. At a distance x from the origin of coordi
nates, the rod is subjected to a torque T, which
corresponds to an angle of rotation 6. The torque at a
section located at a distance x + Ax will be given by T +
(3T/3x)Ax and the corresponding rotation by 0 t (30/3x)Ax.

(
X ■H AXH
e>T
T+ --- AX
) £>x
AX
c a)
Twisted zone
T acting for At
Wave front
ax = Vs At
b)
Figure A.l Torsional Vibrations of Elastic Rods.
495
Applying Newton's second law for torsional motion, the

G equation for the systems becomes,
2
-T + (T +-|Âx) = pi Ax — | (A.la)
3t2
or
_
ai =
T a2e
pi —
,. .
(A.lb)
where p * Yt /g is the density of the material in the rod
and I is the polar area moment of inertia of the cross
section of the rod. The torque is related to the angle of
rotation, 6 , by the expression,
C T = GI | | (A.2)
Substituting E q . A.2 into E q . A.lb and differentiating
gives
32 6 G a2 6
(A.3a)
at2 p ax2
or
a2 e 2 a2 e . .
5- = V 5- (A.3b)
atz s 3x
where Vg = \|G/p is the velocity of the torsional waves.
Eq. A. 3 constitutes the wave equation for torsional vibra
f tions in an elastic rod.
496
The fact that the term \|G/p corresponds to the velo

c city of propagation of the shear waves, Vg , can be demon
strated by using the principle of conservation of momen
tum. Consider that a torque T is applied at the end of
the rod for a small time interval At at time t * 0 (Fig.
A.lb) This torque will twist a small zone of the rod, and
the torsional wave will be transmitted to successive zones
as time increases. If the torsional wave is transmitted
at a velocity V , the length of the twisted zone in the

s
rod, Ax, will be given by Vg At and the corresponding angle
of rotation, A 6, by (T/GI) Ax. Consequently, A 6 at the
end of the time interval At is given by
A 6 - (T/GI) V At (A.4a)
s
c
or
TV
A6 ’s TT /,
it * — * VP ( A -41>>
where V is the rotational velocity (or particle velocity)

P
in radians per unit time. On the other hand, from momen
tum equilibrium it follows that
TAt = pIAxVp (A.5)
Substituting E q . A.4b into E q . A.5 and replacing Ax by
V g At gives
497
o or
P
(A.6a)
vs = \|g77 (A.6b)
Analytical Solution for Small Amplitude Vibrations
The Hardin oscillator applies torsional vibrations
that vary sinusoidally with time. It Is well known
(28>133) that for steady-state forced vibrations with a
sinusoidal forcing function, the solution of the wave
equation (Eqs. A.3) can be assumed of the form
0(x,t) « (Aj sin(wt) + A2cos(wt) ) ( B 1sin— + Bôs— ) (A.7)

s s
where w is the circular frequency of the applied vibra-
tions and A, jA - j B, and B, are constants which depend on

1 Z 1>
% to
the boundary conditions of the problem under considera- "
tion.
The theoretical model used for the resonant column
system and the boundary conditions in the new apparatus
are shown schematically in Figure A.2. It is noted that
for small amplitude vibrations, damping in either the soil
specimen (internal damping) or in the oscillator (external
damping) is not considered. The base of the specimen is
attached rigidly to a pedestal with large rotational iner-
tia (bottom platen) so that it is essentially fixed.
A 98
(Schem atic).
Vi
System
Column
c
Resonant
A .2
Figure
Cl -3 O □ CO
499
Consequently, 0(0,t) equals zero at any time t. In order

o to satisfy this boundary condition, the coefficient in
Eq. A. 7 should be also zero. It follows that,
0(x,t) - (AjSinCwt) + A 2cos(wt) ^ ^ s i n (A.8 )

s
As mentioned earlier, the Hardin oscillator applies a
torsional vibration to the top of the specimen. The
oscillator is essentially a single-degree-of-freedom sys
tem with negligible damping, in which a spool-shaped
"spring" couples a central mass (consisting of four solid
arms) and specimen top platen attachments to a hollow
cylindrical mass with very large rotational inertia. A
c sine wave generator capable of producing a sinusoidal
current is used to power the coils and permanent magnets
of the oscillator, which are wired in such a way that the
electromagnetic force produces a torque about the axis of
the specimen. The large inertia mass of the oscillator
essentially provides a fixed reaction for the spring such
that the driving torque produces vibration of the central
mass and specimen top platen system.
The rigid mass with rotational inertia (Fig. A. 2)
represents the top platen including a porous stone, the
0-ring seal, part of the membrane, the four-arm central
mass, and an acceleration transducer, which monitors the
response of the system at the top of the specimen. All
500
these elements are connected to the top platen in such a

O fashion that they are considered part of the platen and
move as a rigid body for the full range of frequency of
interest. The coils and permanent magnets are designed
such that there is no contact between the moving and sta
tionary parts.
In order to determine the boundary conditions at the
top of the specimen (x=L), the rigid mass can be con
sidered as a free body as shown in Figure A.2b. The equa
tion of motion for this rigid mass without apparatus damp
ing becomes
•N 2Q
J. (L,t) + K. S(L,t) + T(L,t) = T sin(wt) (A.9)
C 31
where JA is the polar mass moment of inertia of the

°
equivalent rigid mass, is the torsional spring constant
corresponding to the oscillator spring, T(L,t) is the
torque transmitted to the specimen, and T q is the ampli
tude of the sinusoidal applied torque. Substitution of
Eq. A.2 into E q . A.9 gives
2
JA^ - | (L ,t) + K A 0( L ,t) + GI-|| (L ,t ) = TQ sin(wt) (A.10)
31
where G and I are the snear modulus of the soil and the
polar area moment of inertia of the specimen, respec
tively .
f
K
V
501
The solution governing the natural frequency of the

O system under torsional vibration can be obtained by solv
ing Eq. A. 10 for the case of free vibrations. From E q . A .8
and after differentiation it follows that
2
2— j (L ,t) = -BjW2 sin ^ [AjSin(wt) + A 2 cos(wt)] (A.11)
dt S
0 (L,t) = B^sin ^ [A^sinCwt) + A^cosCwt)] (A.12)

s
30 w tjT,
Y ? (L,t) = Bj — cos — [AjSinCwt) + A2 cos(wt)] (A.13)
s s
Substituting Eqs. A . 11 to A . 13 into E q . A . 10 for the case
of free vibration yields
c
[JA w 2 - _
Ka ] sin —wL = GI— w cos —WL
r T . . _ - r /■ 14)
A 1 / \
(A.
s s s
2 2
By replacing KA by wA JA , G by Vg p, and I by J/pL, Eq.
A . 14 becomes
J y
A ,, , A N 2, wL . wL . /»ic\
J— [ 1 - (— ) ] Y ~ tan “ = (A.15)
s s
where J is the polar mass moment of inertia of the speci
men, and wA is the circular natural frequency for tor
sional vibration corresponding to the one-degree-of-
freedom system composed by the rigid mass of inertia JA
and the oscillator spring CÂ ). Finally, by defining
502
o and
( A . 16)
Equation A . 15 can be simplified to
T F TAN F - 1.0 (A.18)
where T is termed active end stiffness/inertia factor and
F is a dimensionless frequency factor.
Equation A . 18 constitutes the characteristic equation
for free vibrations of the system. This equation would
yield the natural frequency of vibration provided all the
other terms are known. However, the shear modulus, G, and
hence the shear wave velocity, Vg , are in general unknown.
At resonance under forced vibrations, the applied
frequency, w, corresponds to the natural frequency of the
system for torsional vibrations, from which the shear
modulus of the specimen can be calculated. With a known
value of T (Eq. A . 16), the value of F can be determined
either graphically or by trial and error from E q . A . 18.
Finally, in accordance with E q . A . 17, once the system
resonant frequency, w, and the value of F are known, the
shear modulus of the soil can be obtained as
503
G « V2 p * (f^)2 P “ 4*2L 2 p (f/F)2 (A.19)

O
where f is the natural frequency of the- system in cycles
per second.
Measurements of System Vibrations
A piezoelectric accelerometer monitors the response
of the system at the top of the specimen. The accelerome
ter is mounted horizontally oriented on one of the arms of
the vibrating central mass at a distance of 0.0349 meters
from the axis of rotation. This distance is termed the
transducer lever arm, TLA (37). The accelerometer pro
duces an electrical charge which is proportional to
c acceleration. This accelerometer was provided by Columbia
Research Laboratories with the calibrations that are
traceable to the National Bureau of Standards. This cali
bration is in the form of a charge sensitivity in peak
picocoulombs per peak "g" of acceleration. The value of
this calibration factor for this accelerometer (S/N 8 88)
is 27.0 pk -pc mb/ pk- g.
A charge amplifier is used to convert the electrical
charge to voltage and then it is read with conventional
voltmeters or oscilloscopes. The charge amplifier is also
a Columbia Research Laboratory (model 4102) . The
accelerometer charge sensitivity is set with a locking
dial on the unit and the output voltage of the charge
o amplifier becomes proportional to acceleration.
put is 2.5, 0.25 or 0.025 pk-Volt/pk-g depending on

The out
whether the left, center or right button on the front
panel is depressed. The left button is used for readings
below 5 Volts. For larger voltages, the center and right
buttons should be used and the recorded voltages multi
plied by 10 and 100, respectively, before using the cali
bration factor given below.
Since the vibrations of the system are sinusoidal,
displacement is related to acceleration by
2
Displacement = Acceleration/(2vf) (A.20)
where f is the frequency of the applied vibration (Hz).

C
The output from the charge amplifier is usually read
on a voltmeter calibrated to give root-mean-square values
of voltage Thus the value of the displacement
calibration factor, DCF, is given by
DCF=\ j2 [9.80 m/sec 2 /g] / [ (2 .5 V/g)(2Trf)2 rad/sec2 ] (A.21a)
DCF = 0.1404/f2 (meters/Volt rms ) (A.21b)
Hence, the rotational calibration factor, RCF,* is given
by
1. Most of the terminology is compatible with ASTM D
r 4015-81.
505
RCF - DCF/( 0 .0349meter) (A.22a)

( J
RCF - 4.02/f2 (Radians/Volt ) (A.22b)

r ms
Eq. A.22b indicates that for acceleration transducers the
vibration frequency should be included as a term in the
calibration factor. Consequently, the peak rotation
(radians) at the top of the specimen can be obtained as
6 (L ,t) - (RCF)(R T O ) (A.23)
where RTO is the rotational (acceleration) transducer out
put (Volts ).
r rms
In the case of torsional vibrations, the shear strain
c in each cross section of a hollow cylinder specimen varies
from a minimum at the inner perimeter to a maximum at the
outer perimeter of the specimen. For small rotations, the
shear strain, Y, at a distance r from the axis of rotation
is given by
Y(r) = j- r (A.24)
where 0 is the rotation angle in the cross section at a
height 1 from the bottom of the specimen.
Accordingly, the average shear strain, Ya v » can be
expressed as
506
O „
av “
JA T(r)da
JdA
2 6 , ro ~ rl .
3 1 ^2 _ 1 (A.2a)
o ~ i
where r and r. are the outer and inner radii of the

o i
specimen, respectively. Thus, the average shear strain
for each cross section occurs at a radius equal to
r 3 - r3
rav - I i 4 7 4 l <A '2 6 >
o i
In the case of a solid cylinder specimen, r^ = 0, hence
the average shear strain occurs at a radius equal to
(2/3)rQ . In terms of the outer and inner diameters, OD
and ID, E q . A.25 becomes,
c
âvJ I I l°?Y ~ IP2 ] CA *27)
OD - OD
Substitution of E q . A.23 into E q . A.27 yields the expres
sion for the average shear strain at the top of the speci-
ui 0 XX y
V. u,t) - 1 (RCF)(RTO) , OD3 - ID3 , (A>28)

aV OD 2 - ID2
For solid cylindrical specimens, E q . A.28 simplifies to
Yav (L ,t) = i (RCF)(RTO)(D/L) (A.29)
where D and L are the diameter and length of the specimen
respectively.
507
Measurement of System Resonant Frequency

O
The frequency of excitation is adjusted to produce
resonance of the system composed of the vibration excita
tion device, the specimen and its attached platens. The
system resonant frequency should correspond to the mode of
vibration of the specimen for which the only node isat
the fixed end of the specimen (57). This will be the
lowest system resonant frequency for the model in Figure
A . 2. At this resonant frequency, the mode shape of this
system is practically linear, that is the rotations
changes linearly from zero at the base to maximum at the
top of the specimen (36,192). The system will experience
resonance at various higher frequencies. However, as the
c damping of the system increases more of the higher reso
nances are damped out. The tendency for the higher reso
nances to disappear increases as the ratio increases.
This system approaches a single-degree-of-freedom system-
as JA /*J becomes very large (56).
The resonance condition is established by observing
the Lissajous figures formed on the screen of an X-Y
oscilloscope by the torque and acceleration signals. It
is well known that when two sinusoidal voltages are
applied to the vertical and horizontal (Y and X) channels
of an oscilloscope, the figure traced on the screen
depends on the frequency and phase difference of the two
f signals. Figure A. 3 shows the patterns obtained from two
508
/ .
\J SCREEN
Elliptical
V ERTIC AL INPUT
PATTERN
H O R I Z O N T A L INPUT
a) T h e tw o signals h a v e th e s a m e fr e q u e n c y
SCREEN-
c VERTIC AL INPUT
Butterfly
PATTERN
H O R IZO N TA L INPUT 12
b) T h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e v e r t i c a l i n p u t is
t w ic e th a t o f th e h o riz o n ta l input
Figure A.3 Lissajous Figures from Two Sine Waves 90

Out of Phase.
509
sinusoidal waves 90° out of phase. When the two sine
waves are of the same frequency, an elliptical patterns
appears on the screen. For a perfectly circular pattern
the two signals should be of the same amp li tud e. When the
vertical frequency is twice that of the horizontal fre
quency, a butterfly pattern, or a figure eight on its
side, appears on the screen.
The driving current and thus the input torque are
known by measuring the voltage drop across a 5 8 precision
(temperature and frequency stable) power resistor in
series with the driving coils. Consequently, this voltage
will be in phase with the forcing torque function applied
to the system. The voltage proportional to the driving
torque is applied to the horizontal amplifier of the
oscilloscope whereas the output from the accelerometer,
after being converted to voltage by the charge amplifier,
is applied to the vertical amplifier of the oscilloscope-.
As for the case of a damped single-degree— of-freedom sys
tem, the sinusoidal excitation torque and the acceleration
signals are 90° out of phase when the applied frequency
corresponds to the undamped natural frequency of the sys
tem (38,39,176). Resonance of the system can be esta
blished by adjusting the frequency of excitation to pro
duce an ellipse with vertical and horizontal axes
(38,40,57). The undamped natural frequency of the system
is determined by recording the frequency associated with a
510
90° phase difference between the driving torque and the

C /
rotational acceleration of the top mass. When the damping
of the system is negligible, this frequency is essentially
equal to the frequency that produces maximum amplitude of
displacement, velocity or acceleration of the vibration
end of the specimen (39,57).
Determination of Oscillator Constants
In order to calculate the shear modulus of the speci
men using Eqs. A.16 to A. 19, in addition to the system
resonant frequency, it is necessary to know the natural
frequency of vibration of the torsional motion, wA , and
the polar mass moment of inertia, , corresponding to the
top rigid mass (Fig. A.2). This rigid mass and the oscil
lator spring constitutes a single-degree-of-freedom sys
tem. As mentioned earlier, during a test, the top platen,
porous stone, 0-rings, etc., are rigidly attached to the
moving parts of the oscillator and hence their polar mass
moment of inertial must be considered as part of the
apparatus inertia, J^.
The natural frequency of vibration of the oscillator
top platen system, f ^ , can be determined by operating the
Hardin oscillator at resonance with the top platen, 0-
rings, etc. attached to it as if a test were to be per
formed but not having a specimen in place. In the new
apparatus the value of w^ varies according to the specimen
size and type (-T^.ble A.l).
511
Determination of the rotational inertia, J^, is com
plicated by the fact that all the components do not have
simple geometry. Consequently, it is very difficult to
determine the value of precisely from physical measure
ments and from values of the density of the mass. Thus,
indirect procedures have to be used for determining J^.
Some of these procedures are discussed below.
According to Drnevich et al. (40) a calibration rod
of known torsional stiffness (K ,) can be coupled to the

r od
platens in place of the specimen as shown in Figure A.4a.
With the calibration rod in place, the resonant frequency,
w ., of the system composed of oscillator, calibration

r od
rod and top platen components can be determined. Neglect
r ing the rotational inertia of the calibration rod, the
natural frequency of the system with two springs in series
4e
— ~ ft-w’o n Kxr
~J
K J + Ka
W rod A (A.30)
rod J.
A
2
Replacing by w^ in E q . A.30, the polar mass moment
of inertia of the top platen system, J^, can be obtained
as
ja 2 V * r (A*31)
tfrod - fI ]
512
Top platen system

O Ka
JA
Calibration rod
with Known
P, G, I, Krod
a) Drnevich’s Method
Ka Ka
J2
Calibration rod
with unknown
b) Tatsuoka and Silver's Method

Figure A.4 Methods for Determining Top Platen System
Rotational Inertia.
513
, A second alternative procedure Is to couple the metal
calibration rod to the platens in place of the specimen
and then use Eqs. A . 16 to A . 19 to back figure the top pla
ten system inertia, , from the known shear modulus of
the rod (40).
It is clear that in the two procedures just
described, the accuracy of the value of is based on the
accuracy of the values of J and 6 determined for the metal
calibration rod. Any determination of a value of J is
very sensitive to minor error in measuring the small diam
eter of the calibration rod. Furthermore, in some cases
it is not easy to determine a shear modulus value for the
calibration rod material.
c Tatsuoka and Silver (176) have presented a new method
in which the value of JA can be determined without having
to know the material properties of the calibration rod.
As shown in Figure A.4b, two calibration rods are required
which should be essentially identical except for the
dimensions of a mass, which is added at the top. The two
rods should preferably be machined from the same piece of
metal stock. However, the top portions of the two cali
bration rods should have different sizes but simple
geometry. Consequently, it is easy to determine the
values of and for the top portions of the calibra
tion rods from their dimensions and densities. After
determining the resonant frequency of the system with each

C
\
514
one of the calibration rods in place, and f ^ > the rota

c tional inertia of the top platen system can be obtained as
(176)
J2 - 4 f > 2 J 1
J. - s ------ (A.32)
12
(T1 )2 - 1
2
It should be noted that in this calibration method it is
not necessary to know the values of J, L, and G for the
thin calibration rod. In using this calibration tech
nique, the ratio Jj/J ^ should be chosen so that values of
f^ and f2 are not close together (176).
c Once w^ and
ten systems
are known for each one of the top pla
(hollow and solid cylinder specimens), the
torsional oscillator spring constant, K A , may be calcu-

A
lated from
kA = (2irfa )2 JA (A.33)
where is expressed in N-m/rad. Calculation of the
value of K.a> which should be unique for different top pla
ten systems, provides a check on the accuracy of the cali
bration procedures. The corresponding values of
, f^, and obtained for the new apparatus are summar
ized in Table A.l according to the specimen size. For
determining , a steel calibration rod with a diameter of

c
515
12.7 mm and 190.5 mm long was used.
Two additional calibration factors for the oscillator
are also required. They are the torque calibration fac
tor, T C F , and the oscillator (apparatus) damping coeffi
cient, A D C ^ . The purpose of these two factors is illus
trated in the next section.
The torque calibration factor, TCF, can be determined
by operating the oscillator at frequencies usually between
0.5 and 2 times the undamped natural frequency. For exam
ple, frequencies equal to (\|2/ 2 ) f^ and \ [2 f^ are typi
cally used. With the oscillator operating at these fre
quencies, the corresponding acceleration reading (RTO),
and the torque reading (CR) are obtained. The torque
reading, CR, corresponds to voltage drop across the 5fl
resistor associated with the current applied to the tor
sional coils.
It is well known (28,133) that for a single-degree-
of-freedom system with no viscous damping, the dynamic
amplification factor under forced vibrations is given by
6 = ---- 9 (A.34)
i - (-^r
n
where f and f are the frequency of the driving force and
the natural frequency of the system, respectively. It is
seen that for f/f = \ 12/ 2 , 8 equal 2.0 whereas for
516
c f/fA “ \ !2 the magnification factor
becomes equal to 1.0 .

(absolute value)
If the torque is applied statically to the vibrating
mass of the oscillator, the angular displacement, 6

s
corresponds to
Q Dynamic Rotation (RCF)(RT0)

s " -------- 3--------- =------3----- (A.35)
Accordingly, a relationship between the corresponding
static rotation and the voltage reading associated with
the current applied to the coils can be established. For
the case f = \ 12/2 fA , a constant is defined as
* (R C F ) (R T O ) -
c ° 1 ----- 2 CR. <A '3 6 >
whereas if the applied frequency is \|2 f^, the
corresponding constant becomes
* (RCF)(RTO)_
C2 STT <A ‘3 7 >
The values of Cj and should in general agree
within 10%.
Consequently, the torque calibration factor, TCF, can
be expressed as
* Consideration-of the apparatus damping can be given in
r the evaluation of the dynamic amplification factor.
517
o where TCF is expressed in (N-m)/volt as indicated in

( A . 38)
rms
Table A.I.
It follows that the torque applied by the oscillator
to the vibrating central mass at any stage of vibration
can finally be obtained as
T - (TCF)(CR) (A.39)
where the torque T is obtained in (N-m).
Although very low, there is some quantity of damping
associated with the spool shaped spring in the oscillator,
which is made of high strength aluminum. This damping is
referred to as apparatus damping. The corresponding
apparatus damping coefficient for torsional motion ADC^
can be determined by recording the amplitude decay curve
under free vibration of the apparatus. The apparatus
damping coefficient relates to the apparatus damping
ratio, Da , by the expression.
ADC.
A
D (A.40)
A 2(K a /Ja >
With the oscillator and the top platen attached and
the system vibrating at resonance, the power to the exci
tation device is cut off and the resulting free vibration

r
Table A,1 Calibration Factors for Hardin Oscillator.
Symbol Units Specimen

Solid Hollow Hollow
Outer diameter mm 71.1 71.1 101.6
Inner diameter mm 38.1 71.1
Accelerometer
Lever Arm m 0.0349 0.0349 0.0349
RCF1 Pk-Rad/V 4.02/f2 4.02/f2 4.02/f2

rms
N-m/Rad 420 420 420
ka
Hz 90.5 90.8 62.0

fA
L.
kg-m 2 1 .3xlO~ 3 1 .29xl0"3 2 .77x10**3
JA
2
ADC. (kg-m )/sec 4.71x10-3 5.37xl0" 3 4.69xl0**3
A
TCF (N-m )
'
/Vr m s 1.498xl0-2 1 .498xl0“ 2 1 ,498x10-2
1. Based on use of a charge amplifier with output of 2.5 peak

Volts per peak "g" of acceleration; f = frequency of oscillation
in Hz
519
decay curve Is stored on the screen of the oscilloscope.
A photograph of the stored trace can be taken and the log
arithmic decrement, 5^, calculated from
6A " (1/n) ln (A1/An + 1 ) (A.41)
where n is the number of decay cycles, A^ is the peak to
peak amplitude for the first cycle after power is cut off,
and Afl+j is the peak to peak amplitude for the n+1 cycle
after the power is cut off. The value of the apparatus
damping coefficient can be obtained from
ADC a = 2 fA JA SA (A.42)
c All the information on the calibration factors for
the new apparatus is summarized in Table A.l according to
the specimen size. It is noted that the apparatus damping
coefficient changes slightly as a function of the top pla
ten system size but it is indeed very low. The calibra
tion information for the three different specimen sizes
confirms the accuracy of the calibration procedures.
Analytical Solution for Large Amplitude Vibrations
As the amplitude of vibration increases, the stress-
strain characteristics of sands becomes nonlinear and ine
lastic, yielding a histeretic closed loop in the shear
stress-shear strain space when subjected to steady-state
520
^ ^ vibrations (40). Consequently, the energy dissipating
properties of the soil specimen should be accounted for in
the equation for torsional motion of the system shown in
Figure A.2. It is also appropriate to consider the con
tribution of the apparatus damping in the response of the
system.
The general steady-state solution for forced tor
sional vibrations of cylindrical sand specimens has been
obtained by using viscous damping theory, that is, by
assuming that a Kelvin-Voigt model represents the response
of the material (56,62). Equivalent shear modulus, G, and
damping ratio, D, for the soil specimen are defined as the
elastic modulus and the viscous damping ratio of a uni-
^ form, linear visco-elastic (Kelvin-Voigt model) specimen
of the same mass density and dimensions as the soil speci
men necessary to produce a resonant column having the
measured system resonant frequency and response due to a.
vibratory torque input (40,52). In other words, a model
for the system is assumed which includes parameters to
describe the end platen conditions, the specimen and the
excitation device. By using the analytical solution for
the system model, the unknown parameters (G and D) are
assumed and varied until the motion of the model matches
the motion measured in the test under a given torsional
vibration (39).
521
It is important to point out that the energy dissi

O pating characteristics of sands are not viscous in nature
but they are due to the nonlinear and inelastic stress-
straln characteristics of sands. Some of the applied
energy is consumed in producing permanent deformation and
displacement of the soil grains, or transformed into
energy of sound, heat, etc. Histeretic damping in soils
apparently is strain rate independent. The effects of
viscous damping, which is strain rate dependent seem to be
mino r for granular materials (171). Nevertheless, obser
vation of the decay of free vibrations on specimens of
granular materials suggest that the damping capacity of
sands behaves like viscous damping (54,56). Consequently,
the Kelvin-Voigt model has been considered to be a useful
tool for describing the behavior of sands subjected to
forced vibrations over a wide frequency range (39,56,62).
Since the resistance to torsional deformation is the
sum of "elastic" and "viscous" components, the shear
stress in any cross section of the cylindrical specimen
can be obtained as (56,62)
T (A.43)
where x^ and x^ are the elastic and viscous components,
respectively.
r (A.44)
2
where p is the shear coefficient of viscosity (N - s/s ).
Hence,
2
x(r,x,t) = Gr-|| + pr -^"at (A.46)
The torque T(x,t), acting on a section of the speci
m en at time, t, can be obtained by integrating E q . A.46.
Thus,
c T( x ,t ) = /A rxdA = GI i | + Pi-glgl
Substituting E q . A . 47 into E q . A.lb and differentiating

(A.47)
yields E q . A.48, which is the differential equation
governing torsional vibrations of the system shown in Fig
ure A.2,
iff , £ l!| + £ -41- (A.48)

3t P 3x P 3x 3t
The shear coefficient of viscosity, p, is related to the
shear damping ratio, D, by the expression (40)
D = I (l ^ ) (A.49)
in which w is the circular frequency of the driving

r
523
torque. The shear damping ratio, D, will also correspond
to the area of the stress-strain histeresis loop divided
by 4 it times the elastic energy stored in the specimen at
maximum strain amplitude (40,57,171).
The steady-state solution for E q . A . 48 takes the form
0(x,t) ■■ u(x)cos(wt) + v(x)sin(wt) (A.50)
where u(x) and v(x) are also functions of the specimen
properties, which include four arbitrary constants. The
expressions for u(x) and v(x) are presented elsewhere
(39,56,62). The four arbitrary constants are determined
according to the boundary conditions of the specimen-
oscillator system (Fig. A.2) as illustrated in the analyt
ical solution for small amplitude vibrations.
However, it is important to note that in order to
take apparatus damping into account, a new term has to be
included in the equation of motion for the rigid mass at
the top of the specimen. Thus, E q . A.9 becomes
•(L ,t ) + ADC,||(L,t) + (A.51)
K . 6( L ,t ) + T(L,t) = T sin(wt)
A O
5 24
o Substituting E q . A.47 into E q . 51 results in
(A.52)
Gl||(L,t) + pi
Because the response of the system is measured at the
top of the specimen, the analytical solution is usually
given as 0(L,t) « A^sin(wt — > in which A^ is the ampli
tude of rotation at the top of the specimen and <j>f is the
phase difference between the applied torque and the
resulting angular displacement at the top of the specimen.
Finally, to render the response in a dimensionless
form, a resonance factor can be defined as
A
f
R (A.53)
•f 0
s
in which 0g is the static angular displacement which is
given by
Figure A.5a shows a typical plot which illustrates the
relationship between the resonant factor, R^ , and the fre
quency of the driving torque, w, for a case in which
= 1.0 and no spring is attached to the top platen system
525
o
ka = o
o 0.20 V a iu e of
co
**— 0.40
CD 0.01
O
c 0.02
2 0.04
o
(0
ffi
cc
0.02
2 3 4
1T 0jL
V a i u e of F * = ----------—
2 Vs
a) Theoretical R e s p o n s e
100
Theoretical response for « 0.025 - 2D
29.13 psi
7.40 psi > Experimental response, (pressure)
c o
CO
«*-*
<r
10
J * / J = 0 .3 2 2
o ka =0
c
cc
c
o
CO
CD
CC
0.1
0.01
1 2 3 4 5
, IT C liL
V a lu e of F = — ------
2 Vs
b) M e a s u r e d R e s p o n s e of a S p e c i m e n
of D r y O t t a w a 2 0 - 3 0 s a n d
Figure A. 5 Steady-State Forced Vibrations of Fixed Base

Cylindrical Specimen (After Ref. 56).
526
(K a «0). The applied frequency is expressed in terms of a

O dimensionless frequency factor, F* , which is given by
The occurrence of various resonances is clearly evi
dent. However, as the damping increases, more of the
higher resonances are damped out. Figure A.5b compares
the theoretical and experimental steady— state response of
a specimen of dry Ottawa 20-30 sand, with a void ratio of
0.54 subjected to two different confining pressures (56).
The value of J./J was 0.322. The values of F* and

A
pw/G(=2D) for the theoretical solution were chosen such
c that there was good agreement between the theoretical and
experimental results at the first resonance. The
correspondence between the curves is good given the errors
which may exist in the measurements, confirming the vali
dity of the Kelvin-Voigt model. Consequently, it is con
sidered that the Kelvin-Voigt constitutive model is ade
quate for obtaining modulus and damping values under
sinusoidal excitation irrespective of the shear strain
amplitude and damping (39). It is noted that the theoret
ical curve with pw/G constant agrees well with the
results. This means that the shear coefficient of viscos
ity, y , decreases as the frequency increases such that the
ratio pw/G remains constant with frequency (56).
527
The general solution for the system in Figure A.2 is

o included in the computer program contained in ASTM D
4015-81 (3). Therefore, this program is useful for reduc
ing data for the Hardin-type oscillator which employs a
spring attached to the top platen system and with some
quantity of damping associated with it. Consequently, the
program uses the apparatus calibration factors, specimen
measurements and measured vibration data (that is, system
resonant frequency, f, amplitude of rotation, RTO, and
torque reading, CR) to calculate iteratively all pertinent
information about the specimen including shear modulus, G,
shear damping ratio, D, and average shear strain ampli
tude, y • The program is written in ANSI FORTRAN and all

av
c units in
sionless
the program are SI.
system frequency factor,

The unknowns are the dimen-
F= (wL/V ),
s
and the
specimen damping ratio, D. The program uses an Iterative
scheme to establish the value of F associated with the
undamped natural frequency of the system by setting the
phase angle equal to 90° at the active end of the speci
men. At the same time a second iterative scheme is used
to adjust the specimen damping ratio, D, until the calcu
lated displacements of the model match the displacements
measured during the test. It is important to note that
the data reduction procedure in the program is based on a
phase difference of 90° and not on maximum amplitude dis
placements. Accordingly, the "resonant" frequency of the
f system should correspond to the frequency which produces a
528
vertical ellipse on the screen of the oscilloscope,

O irrespective of the shear strain amplitude or damping
ratio. It is more efficient from the calculation point of
view to equal the phase difference equation to 90° than to
establish the F and D values corresponding to the maximum
points of the frequency response curves (39). As the
damping of the system increases, the difference between
the frequency producing maximum amplitude of rotation and
the frequency corresponding to a phase difference of 90°
between the torque and acceleration signals increases.
The latter corresponds to the undamped natural frequency
of the system.
The analytical solution for the Hardin oscillator—
c specimen system indicates that the system dimensionless
frequency factor, F, is relatively independent of damping
in either the apparatus or the specimen for small damping
values (176). With the new Hardin oscillator, dynamic
properties of sand specimens are determined at low shear
strain amplitudes usually ranging from 10 % to

-2
1.5 x 10 %. Consequently, for most cases the damping of
the system is low enough and close approximation may be
obtained by using the frequency equation corresponding to
the "elastic" solution of the system (Eq. A . 18), which
assumes that there is no damping any where in the system
and that one end of the specimen is perfectly fixed.
Accordingly, the shear modulus values can be calculated
529
from E q . A . 19. Thus
G = p (2irL)2 (f/F)2 (A.56)
where the values of the dimenslonless frequency factors
are obtained by use of Figure A. 6 . This figure gives
values of F as a function of the active end
inertia/stiffness factor, T,j, (Eq. A . 16), for cases in
which the apparatus damping coefficient is essentially
zero and the specimen damping ratio, D, is estimated to be
less than 10%.
Hardin (57) considers that the assumption of small
damping can be assumed to be valid when the damping of the
system including apparatus and soil damping is such that
the energy dissipated during one cycle of vibration is
less than 50% of the maximum strain energy stored in the
system at maximum displacement. This provision shall be
considered satisfied if the logarithmic decrement of the
system, as determined in the next section, is less than
0.4, or if the ratio of the displacement amplitude of
vibration at the system resonant frequency is five times
the displacement at a frequency equal to one half of the
system resonant frequency for a fixed excitation current.
From the foregoing discussion, it can be seen that
the damping characteristics of the soil specimen can be
indirectly determined from the measured steady-state
530
0.5
F
0.2
0.1
D < 0.1
0.05 ADC - 0
0.03
10 . 20. 50. 100 . 20 0 . 500. 1000.
Tt
c a)
3.
2.
1.
0.5 ADC » 0
0.3
0.1 0.2 0.5 1. 2. 5. 10 .
b)
Figure A .6 Dimensionless Frequency Factor for Resonant

Column Apparatus with Base of Specimen
Fixed (After Ref. 3).
531
response with due consideration to damping and strain

O energy stored in the apparatus. For a given system (J^/J),
the resonance factor is essentially a function of the
specimen damping. Since the oscillator is calibrated so
that the value of the forcing function, T(L,t), is known,
the dynamic magnification factor may be determined from
the measured amplitude of vibration at resonance as fol
lows
HMF - ifza - l 1 (A.57)

s
Substituting E q . A.22b into E q . A . 57 results in the sim
plified expression,
C MMF = [ ( 1 5 8 . 7 0 3 X RTO) / (TCF) ( CR) ] J (A.58)
Shear damping ratio, D, is given as part of the output if
the ASTM D 4015-81 computer program is used. Otherwise ,-
shear damping ratio values may be calculated from the
equation (3,40)
D(Z) = ^ (^r) (A.59)
In which A is an amplification coefficient. For the new
apparatus, approximate values of A are given as a function
of TT , in Figure A.7. N o t e sthat if the values of are
greater than about 2, the value of A is approximately
twice Tx .
2000.
1000.
500. ADC
200.
a d 100.
50.
G 20.
10.
5.
2.
1 .
0.1 0.2 0.5 1. 2. 5. 10. 20. 50. 100.200.500.1000.
Ty
Figure A.7 Damping Amplification Coefficient for

Resonant Column Apparatus with Base of
Specimen Fixed (After Ref. 3).
533
Determination of Specimen Damping Ratio from Free Vibrations
The specimen damping characteristics can also be
determined from observation of the amplitude decay of free
vibrations of the system, as was indicated in determining
the apparatus damping. With the system, vibrating at
resonance, the power is shut off and the logarithmic
decrement of the system, 6 , determined from the resulting

s
amplitude decay curve. The observed 6 is a property of
s
the system, including the specimen and its attached
apparatus. This procedure is theoretically exact only if
the bottom end (passive end) can be assumed to be rigidly
fixed (40).
Since in the Hardin oscillator the active end is res
trained by a spring with some damping, a system energy
ratio, S, must be calculated as follows (40)
(A.60)
Finally, the specimen damping ratio, D, can be calculated
from (40),
D(%) = 100 [6g (l+s) - S 6a ] / 2 * (A.61)
where 6^ is the apparatus logarithmic decrement.
Nevertheless, it is considered that the method of
free vibration decay for measuring damping is less

r“>\
534
desirable than the steady-state vibration method (3 9 ).

C
Besides being an added step in the testing procedure, it
does not allow full consideration of apparatus stiffness
and damping. Also for large damping, there are only two
or three measurable peaks, which impedes an accurate
determination of the system logarithmic decrement.
Appendix B
Data Reduction Procedures for Torsional Shear Tests
In the new resonant column/torsional shear test
apparatus a solid or hollow cylindrical specimen can be
subjected to a simultaneous application of a confining
cell pressure, a vertical compressional force and a tor
sional force. The axial force is applied by using a dou
ble acting air cylinder mounted on a frame on top of the
chamber lid whereas the torsional force is applied to the
specimen by a torque motor system which consists of a
stepper motor and a gear reduction box with reduction
ratios of 200 to 1 and 3200 to 1. Gears on the reduction
box engage with gears mounted on the shaft of the Hardin
oscillator, causing the entire oscillator and the upper
platen to rotate with it.
Stress/strain components and distributions, measure
ment system characteristics and calibrations as well as
the corresponding data reduction procedures for torsional
shear tests are discussed below.
536
Stress and Strain Components In Torsional Shear Test Specimens

(
Stress Components
Figure B.l shows the stress components on hollow tor
sional shear test specimens in terms of cylindrical coor
dinates. It is evident that the stress condition in tor
sional shear test specimens is axially symmetric and that
six independent stresses must be specified to completely
define the state of stress within hollow (or solid)
cylindrical specimens and consequently to analyze the
results of torsional shear tests. o and o correspond to

Z IT
the stresses associated with the vertical compressional
force and the confining cell pressure, respectively. The
applied torque develops shear stresses on horizontal

c planes, Tz 0> and complementary shear stresses develop
automatically on vertical radial planes, T 0Z » Since the
confining pressure acts through flexible membranes there
are no shear stresses on vertical circumferential sur
faces. Accordingly, r and t equal zero and the radial

rz zr
stress, , is a principal stress, provided there are no
end effects. It is noted that the only unknown stress is
the circumferential stress, O q , which is the normal stress
in the direction of particle shear deformation. This
stress must be estimated for analyzing the test results.
The relationship between the circumferential stress,
o Q , and the applied boundary stresses can be established
537
T ze
f
z
Oz
Tzi
Tez
O 'r
a) A pplied B o u n d a r y b) S t r e s s e s on an
S tresses E le m e n t in th e Wall
c
CE- a n g le b e tw e e n
CT\ d ire c tio n
T Pole
an d z a x is
ze
OS
9Z
c) M o h r 's C ircle D ia g ra m
Figure B -1 Stress Components in Hollow Torsional Shear

Test Specimens.
538
o by considering force equilibrium along the radial direc
tion, as illustrated in Figure B.2. The corresponding
equation for radial equilibrium becomes
°e - ° r = r -sir (B-2)
Since inthe new resonant column/torsional shear apparatus
there is no gradient of radial stress, , across the
cylinder wall (inner and outer pressures are the same),
the circumferential stress, o 0, will be equal to o^. The
same conclusion is reached from plasticity theory (198).
It is important to note that if end effects develop a new
term should be included in the equation for radial equili
brium as discussed in a later section. On the other hand,
c for an apparatus in which different pressures can be
applied to the inner and outer cells of a hollow cylinder,
a gradient of radial stress, o ^ , across the cylinder wall
will be established and the circumferential stress will
then be different from o ^ , as shown by equation B.l.
Once oz , Oq, T2 0 , and r Qz are known they can be
resolved to determine the magnitude and orientation of the
principal stresses, as illustrated in Figure B.l. It is
noted that the radial stress, o^ , corresponds to the
intermediate principal stress, o^ . The remaining princi
pal stresses, and , which act in the circumferential
plane, are given by

A
{
539
dr
c
Note: a ® is in de p e n d en t of ■&
(err) (rde ) + 2 c- 9- (dr d<t) = (^ r + Ser r ^ ) (r+ dr) d-e-
cr$ _ o*r .= r 6o~r

d r
Figure B.2 Radial Equilibrium in Torsional Shear

Test Specimens.
540
o /
°z + °e .
° i ------- 2 .
—
°z " °e>2 . _2
+ \ (-=“ 2--- > + T20 ( B .2a)
°z - °0 °2 " ° 6,2 . _2
a
\ ( 2--- > + T0z (B ,2b)
„
3 2
and the orientation of major principal stress, 0j, with
respect to the vertical axis can be obtained as
2 To
tan 2a = --- =-2- (B.3)
°z " 0
Equation B.3 reflects one of the main features of the tor
sional shear test. That is, the radial, axial and tor
sional shear stresses can be changed as desired to obtain
any orientation of the planes of principal stress. For
c example, if the radial stress, o ^ , is kept constant and
the axial and torsional stresses are changed so that their
ratio, t q/Ao remains constant, it follows that

* z0 z
“ ■* <2“> - , + I / 6- o - 2 - K < B -4 >

r z r z
indicating that a remains constant and that the cell pres
sure acting equally in all directions has no effect on the
direction of the major principal stress. Alternatively, a
test may be desired in which the mean confining stress,

*
a , is to remain constant. In this case, the cell pres-
hi
sure is decreased and the axial stress increased in the
ratio of 2 to 1 such that
541
2T>fl 4T, fl
( i tan ( 2 0 -------------------------------------------(b .5)
V / . , Z, 2
O + 4 0 - ( o r— )
r z ' r 2 '
Note that in this case Ac. - — Ac /2. However, the orien-

2 z *
tation of the principal stresses can be chosen to be the
same as in the test at constant radial stress, c^.
Figure B.3 shows some of the multiple stress paths
and the corresponding orientations of o^ that can be
applied on torsional shear stress specimens and depicts
the enormous capabilities of this test. As indicated in
Figure B.3d, even a continuous rotation of the principal
stresses can be produced by changing the applied boundary
stresses in such a way that the deviator stress ( 0^ - c^)
c remains constant. From Eqs. B.2a and B.2b it follows that
<°1 - °3> J °z * V , 2 . 2
2 \ ^ 2---- > + z9 <B -6 >
Continuous rotation of principal stress directions appears
to have an important role in properly simulating the
stress paths which are followed e.g. by elements beneath
ocean structures (83,181,182).
Equation B.6 implies that two components of the max
imum shear stress may exist within the specimen:
1. (oz - C q )/2 is the shear stress component associated
with the triaxial mode and
54 2
o a = angle b e t w e e n
a -.j direction a n d
z axis
zB
tan 2 a = 2 T ZS
-°e
2a
c a) Torsional loading
Isotropic consolidation
b) Torsional loading
Anisotropic consolidation
zB zB
c) C o n s t a n t a d) C o n s t a n t
deviator stress,
Figure B.3 Potential Loading Schemes for Cyclic

Torsional Shear Tests.
543
2. t Q is Che shear stress related to the torsional mode

Z o
of deformation.
It is obvious that automatic controls are needed to
change the axial, torsional and cell pressures simultane
ously with fixed ratios. This capability is not available
yet in the new resonant column/torsional shear test
apparatus. Only the torsional loading is automatically
controlled. Accordingly, only stress paths a_ and b^ in
Figure 6.3 can be applied. However, computer controlled
solenoid values can be readily used to enhance the capa
bilities .
It is of interest to consider the effect of the
intermediate principal stress, in the light of tor
sional shear tests. Conventionally, the contribution of
the intermediate principal stress to the strength-
deformation characteristics of soils has been analyzed in
terms of the parameter b which is given by the expression
(9)
b (B .7 )
Accordingly, in the axial compression triaxial test b=0
whereas in the axial extension triaxial test b=1.0. This
fact has been used to explain differences in behavior
between the two tests. From Eqs. B.2a and B.2b and
544
^ considering it follows that the parameter b
corresponding to the torsional shear tests is given by the
expression
(B.8)
M < °Z 2 °r > 2 + Tz 9
On the other hand, from Figure B.l it is observed that
a - a
z r
cos 2ct = — ■■ (B.9)
Substituting E q . B.9 into E q . B.8 yields
c
b - 1 - £?■?— 2-° (B .10)
2
Since cos 2a = 1 - sin a, the parameter b can be obtained
as
b = sin2 a (B.ll)
Consequently, there is a unique relationship between the
parameter b and the orientation of the principal stresses.
Changes in , and q may imply a change in b (and a)
and hence, on the magnitude of the intermediate principal
stress, <?2 , relative to and . It is to be noted that
equation B.ll holds for the case in which the pressure in
545
f , the inner and outer cells of a hollow cylinder specimen
are the same. When this is not the case, the parameter b
is a function of both the orientation of the principal
stress, a, and the pressure gradient across the wall of
the cylinder. This fact has been considered by some
investigators hoping to separate the effects of o^ from
the effects of a (65,66). In principle, by changing a and
the pressure gradient across the wall it is possible to
keep the parameter b constant, and hence the relative mag
nitude of . Unfortunately, a gradient of radial stress
across the wall implies additional non-uniformities in the
stress distributions. These non-uniformities are dis
cussed in a later section. On the other hand, it is not
clear whether the parameter b is enough to account for the

c effect of the intermediate principal stress (140). If the
two hypothetical tests described earlier are considered,
namely; torsional shear tests with a) constant radial
stress, o ,and b) constant mean confining stress, a , it

r m
is possible to change , a and q in such a way that
the two tests have the same a (and hence the same b).
However, in the first case o. = c remains constant

* 2 r
whereas in the latter case a^ is continuously decreased
(Ac, = -Ac /2). Consequently, in the author's opinion,

6 Z
torsional shear tests on hollow specimens under different
inner and outer cell pressures may not be as much of an
improvement as claimed elsewhere (65,66).
546
Strain Components
It is seen that if any circumferential sheet within
the cylinder (see Figure B.4) were unwound to a plane, the
deformation imposed on such an elemental cylinder by
twisting the top of the specimen which is rigidly fixed at
its base, would be similar to simple shear but without the
problems associated with the lack of complementary
stresses ever present in the simple shear test (5,140).
Consequently, the strain components in hollow torsional
shear specimens in terms of cylindrical coordinates are
the shear strain in the circumferential plane T2 q » the
axial strain e , the radial strain e and the circumferen-

Z IT
tial strain eQ . y and y Q are equal to zero,

o zr ro
c It is evident again that the strain (as with the
stress) condition is axially symmetric, that is, indepen
dent of 0 (198). In the absence of end restrain effects,
it is also independent of z. It is noted that in any case
the shear strain, Yz g^ is theoretically the same at all
cross sections along the height of the specimen. Minor
deviations from these "uniform" patterns have been attri
buted to the effect of the weight of the specimen under
low levels of confining stresses (174).
The radial strain, , and the circumferential
strain, e Q , are given by (65,69)
547
o
1.
:jjj_
ir
a) Distorsion of a s p e c i m e n d u e to torsion
li
c
A = dime n s i o n
b) Distorsion o n a circunferencial piane

at a distance r f r om axis.
Figure B.4 Strain Components in Hollow Torsional

Shear Test Specimens.
548
3u
(B.12)
O 3r
and
_u
■0 r
where u is the displacement of a point in the radial
direction. It is noted that if the behavior of the soil
were linear elastic the radial and circumferential strains
would be equal. Otherwise, eand 6g are different even
if o^ and Og are uniformly distributed across the wall of
the cylinder.
In addition to principal stress components, principal
strain components are defined as follow (181,182)
c
ez + e 0 1 (B .14a)
2 \ < £z - V 2 + Yz0
(B.14b)
ez + £0 1
2 \
(e - ea) + r2z 0 (B .14c)
The torsional shear tests has been successfully used
to simulate plane strain conditions (75,81,173,175). From
Eq. B.12 it follows that the requirement for a plane
strain condition is satisfied by the radial displacement,
u, being independent of r, so that uniform radial transla
tion is the required condition for plane strain (65). In
54 9
o other words, a plane strain condition develops if the
thickness of the cylinder wall is kept constant. This can
be achieved by adjusting the pressure in the inner and
outer cells of a hollow cylinder. However, this procedure
is rather complicated and as mentioned earlier, different
inner and outer cell pressures increase non-uniformities
of stresses across the cylinder wall.. On the other hand,
the need to apply shear stresses at the ends of the
cylinder is incompatible with the freedom for the cylinder
to change radius at the ends (radial translation). This
restraint will inevitably lead to non-homogeneous strain
if the whole cylinder is considered and the radius of the
cylinder changes away from the end platens. End restrain
c effects are discussed in detail in a later section.
should be noted that under uniform radial displacement

It
( er = 0 ) the circumferential strain, S q , does not equal
zero. It may vary across the wall, which contributes to
non-uniformities in the internal stresses.
Consequently, plane strain conditions in torsional
shear test specimens are more usually achieved by means of
tests in which no radial displacement is permitted. If
the cross-sectional area of the vertical loading piston is
the same as that of the hollow cylinder specimen, it is
possible to impose no lateral strain by preventing any
change in the volume of cell water during torsional load
ing (75,81). Under these conditions, the cell pressure

r
550
continuously changes without permitting any lateral defor
mation of the specimen. Continuous measurement of the
cell pressure permits the changes in lateral pressure
under plane strain conditions to be known throughout the
tests duration. Consequently, when a specimen is K -
consolidated and sheared under plain strain conditions,
where the cross area is kept constant, the mean confining
stress, , the direction of o^ , angle a, and hence b
change during torsional shearing (52). Since the specimen
is twisted without allowing lateral displacement, the test
is considered to simulate the stress conditions to which
an element of soil within deposits under level ground is
subjected during earthquakes (75,81). Under undrained
shearing, a condition of plane strain can be alternatively
achieved by fixing the length of the specimen (173). In
such a case, the axial stress and not the cell pressure
will change during torsional loading. In the case of
plane strain tests, without allowing radial displacement,
the cross section of the specimen is kept constant, there
fore
earea ' 0
However, the radial and circumferential strains may be
still different than zero such that
551
o It is difficult to know if the strains
torsional shear tests specimens under "plane strain" con

e and
r
e Q exist in
o
ditions. If there are not such strains there may be no
end restraints and hence, shorter specimens may be used
for plane strain tests (52).
The new resonant column/torsional shear test
apparatus does not yet have the capability to perform
plane strain tests. Change in the volume of the cell
water cannot be controlled since the Hardin oscillator
cannot be submerged. Besides, the cross-sectional areas
of the vertical loading piston and of the specimen are not
the same. One alternative would be to use a mechanism to
fix the height of the specimen during undrained torsional
c shear tests. Alternatively, proximity transducers
be used to measure radial displacements of the cylinder

could
walls. Proximity transducers sense the gap between the
transducer force and a target such as an aluminum foil
target attached to the membrane. Computer controlled
solenoid valves would then be used to automatically change
the cell pressure to prevent any radial displacement.
This feature would greatly enhance the capabilities of the
new resonant column/torsional shear test apparatus.
Stress/Strain Distributions
On a cylindrical column of soil subjected to tor
r sional loading, the shear strains range from a minimum at
552
Che inner radius to a maximum at the outer radius; the

O resulting variation in shear stresses will depend upon the
stress-strain properties of the tested specimen. For
small rotations, the shear strain, y at a distance r

Z o
from the axis of rotation is given by
Tz e (r) " I r (B.17)
where 6 is the rotation angle in the cross section at a
height 1 from the bottom of the specimen. Since 6/1
remains constant along the height of the specimen, y 0, is

zo
independent of z. Accordingly, the shear strain, Yz g> can
be defined at any cross section. For example, at the top
of the specimen, 6 equals the maximum twist angle and 1
c corresponds to the length of the specimen, L.
The average shear strain, y q , can be expressed as

av
ÂTzfl(r)dA 2 6 r ro “ ri ,
Tz0 JTdA 3 L 2 2 (B.18)
av ■'A r - r.
o i
where r and r. are the outer and inner radii, respec-

o i
tively. Thus, the average shear strain for each cross
section occurs at a radius equal to
3 - r3
rav = J 1 r2 _ r 2 5 (B . 19)
o ~ i
( In the case of a solid cylinder specimen, rQ = 0, and
553
c ^
hence the average shear strain occurs at a radius equal to
(2/3)r
o
. In terms of the outer and inner diameters, OD
and ID, E q . B.18 becomes
Y .e 0P* ~ l p -' 1 (*.2 0 )

av 3 L OD2 - OD2
The non-uniform distribution of shear strains induced
by twisting the top of the specimen leads to variations in
the shear stress, Tz g > across the cylinder wall. In gen
eral, the stress and strain distributions depend on the
materials constitutive law. For small shear distorsions,
the behavior of soils is considered to be approximately
"elastic." Consequently, in a hollow cylinder specimen
subjected to a torque T which produces small shear
strains, the shear stress, Tz g> can be assumed to vary
linearly with radius. From elasticity theory, the shear
stress, Tz g» is related to the shear strain, Yz g> by the
ex pre ssi on,
Tz e (r) = G Yz g(r) (B.21)
where G is the equivalent "elastic" shear modulus of the
soil specimen. Substituting E q . B.17 into E q . B.21 yields
Tz 6 (r) = G | r ( B. 22 )
On the other hand, the torque T can be expressed as

r~
K
554
x rn ro 1
(^} T - Jt° Tz6(r) [2irr]r dr » 2ir Jr° T20 (r)[rz ]dr (B.23)
By substituting E q . B.22 into B.23 and integrating, it
follows that
T - G ^ I (B.24)
li
4 4
where I * “ r^)/2 is the area polar moment of inertia
of the specimen cross section. By combining Eqs. B.22 and
B.24, the shear stress, t can be obtained as

zo
x2 0 (r) = I r (B .25)
The average shear stress t q can be expressed as

av
c
“ T rav <B '2 6 >
av
By substituting E q . B.19 into E q . B.26 the expression for
the average shear stress becomes
r3 - r3
Tz0 = Ifi? 7"2 2W 4 47 T (B .27)
av (ro - ri )(ro - r± )
and in terms of the outer and inner diameters E q . B.27
becomes
32 [OD3 - ID3 ]
z6 3 ir
(B.28 )
av [OD2 - ID2 ][OD4 - ID4 ]
555
At large shear strains, the assumption of linear dis

c tribution of shear stresses is incorrect. On the con
trary, as the shear strains increase the plastic nature of
the behavior gradually becomes dominant and the shear
stress tz g approaches a limiting value irrespective of the
radius, r. Consequently, it is more appropriate to assume
a uniform distribution of shear stresses across the
cylinder wall. In this case, the relationship between the
average shear stress, Tz g» ai*d the torque can be esta
blished from E q . B.23 as
T- *= ------^ --- =- T (B .29 )

9Z [rI - r»]
c and in terms of the outer and inner diameters,
Eq. B.29 becomes

OD and ID,
Tfw " -------- =5“ T (B .30)

02 * [OD3 - ID3 ]
In summary, there are two extreme behaviors regarding
deformation properties of soils: a perfectly linear elas
tic behavior and a perfectly plastic behavior. For these
two extreme cases, the relationship between the applied
torque and the average shear stress, Tz g» is given by
equations B.28 and B.30. The most correct relation
between torque and shear stress is non-linear shear strain
dependent and lies between these two extremes. However,
it has been found that the assumed stress distribution

c
556
does not s i g n i f i c a n t l y affect the relationship between the

O average shear stress and the applied torque (38,75,88).
Table B.l presents the values of the ratio Xgz /T (Eqs.

av
B. 28 and B.30) for the two extreme stress distributions,
according to the specimen sizes in the new resonant
column/torsional shear test specimens. It is evident that
the relationship between the average shear stress and the
applied torque does not differ appreciably (about 11% for
the solid cylinder) regardless of whether a linear varia
tion of shear stresses (elastic model) or a uniform shear
stress distribution (rigid plastic model) is assumed. The
difference is further reduced if the hollow cylinder is
used (about 1 to 3%). Consequently, either E q . B.28 or
E q . B.30 can be used without significant error in the cal

c
culated average shear stress, especially in the case of
hollow cylinders.
Although the average shear stress may not be affected
significantly by the actual stress-strain distributions,
the variation in T q z and in y 0 across the cylinder wall
is an undesirable feature of the torsional shear test,
especially if strain measurements are to be made in order
to generate constitutive equations. On the other hand,
since soils undergo volume changes when subjected to
shear, the non-uniform distribution of shear stresses,
x Q , causes different tendencies for volumetric strains

ZO
across the wall of the specimen, which in turn may cause
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction O
Table B.l Relationship Between Average Shear Stress

and Applied Torque for New Apparatus
S pecimen Solid Hollow Hollow
Outer diameter (mm) 71.1 71.1 101.6
Inner diameter (mm) 38.1 71.1
A = T /T 9446.5 12220.3 5485.8

(linearvdistribution)
B = TQV /T 10627.3 12559.9 5541.1

(uniform distribution)
A/B 0.889 0.973 0.990
* From Eqs. B.26 and B.28 with 0D and ID in meters
557
558
non— uniformities in the distribution of axial, radial and

O circumferential stresses, even in the case of equal inner
and outer pressures. Accordingly, the radial stress, o^,
need not be constant and equal to the circumferential
stress, Og, when a torque is applied, even to an isotropic
material. Only the average values of these stresses,
and U g , are equal. The actual distributions of these
stresses depend on the specimen geometry and the stress-
strain properties of the soil. For anisotropic materials
stress non-uniformities may arise, even without an applied
torque (65,66).
It is clear that with hollow cylinder specimens the
difference between the maximum and minimum shear stresses
c can be substantially reduced and with them the correspond
ing non-uniformities in the distributions of normal
stresses across the cylinder wall. Limiting values of the
deviation from a uniform shear stress distribution can be
established by comparing the maximum and minimum shear
stress values for a linear distribution with the average
shear stress defined by assuming a uniform distribution of
shear stresses. From Eqs. B.25 and B.29, it follows that
= 4 (! - - ° 0 (B .3la)
(Tz 0Jav 3 1 - n4”
and
559
O (B.31b)
where n corresponds to the ratio, r./r . Equations B.31a

1 o
and B.31b are shown graphically in Figure B.5, together
with the corresponding values for the different specimen
sizes in the new resonant column/torsional shear test
apparatus. The values for the hollow cylinder used by
Hight et al. (65) are also given for comparison. It is
evident from this figure that by adopting a specimen
geometry with a large outer radius and a thin wall, the
non-uniformities produced by the applied torque can be
minimized. For example, a ratio n = 0.70 leads to a max
imum relative difference in the distribution of the tor
sional shear stress of about 15 to 20% with respect to a
uniform distribution, which seems quite acceptable (140).
It is to be noted that the rate of improvement in stress
uniformity decreases as the radius ratio increases.
Accordingly, unpractical specimens sizes may be required
to obtain a further reduction in stress non-uniformities
for radius ratios above 0.7. It is important to note that
the shear stress differences shown in Figure B.5 decrease
significantly as one moves towards the mean radius and/or
as failure is approached.
There is yet another aspect related to stress distri
butions in hollow torsional shear test specimens which
requires some discussion. In common with all testing
1.4-
(linear)
1.2
Uniform
1. 0 -
T max
ez 0.8
n'0z)av
0.6 Linear Uniform
I.
0.4
w
io o
CM CM
0.2 — (r z0) min
(linear) o o
o -
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
n = ri/ro
F i g u r e B, 5 Shear S t r e s s Distributions i n Ho l l ow T o r s i o n a l Shear Te s t
5 60
Specimens.
561
o apparatus utilizing rigid loading platens, radial forces
due to frictional restraint and stiffness of the platens
are developed at the end of the specimen, if it has a ten
dency to expand or contract during torsional loading
(52,65,97,140). This tendency is always present when
there is large volume changes or a change in length at
constant volume. Lubrication of the platens is not possi
ble because in the torsional shear test apparatus friction
of the platens in necessary for transmission of torque to
the specimen (65). Restraint on radial displacement at
the specimen ends primarily results in the development of
radial shear stresses, Tz r » and then complementary
stresses, Tr z > which decay with distance from the platens
c (St. Venant's principle).
radial shear stresses,

It is clear that due to these
the intermediate principal stress,
, rotates out of the plane of the cylinder wall. The
radial frictional forces, which are self-equilibrating,
and the associated shear stresses also result in addi
tional circumferential (hoop) stresses, a Q, and in bending
moments which affect the distribution of the axial normal
stress, Oz . The stress components associated with end
restrain effects are illustrated in Figure B.6. Since the
shear stresses, Tz r » cannot be balanced by shearing
stresses on the inner and outer surfaces of the specimen,
a moment is developed which must be balanced by changes in
the axial stress (192). These stresses decrease the
applied axial stresses on the outer half of the specimen

fV
562
C Tez
O ’r
c
o ’z d u e to M
<,
Figure B.6 Stress Components in Hollow Torsional Shear

Test Specimens Including End Effects
(After Ref. 140).
563
and increase them on the inner half or vice versa depend

u ing on the direction of the radial frictional forces.
This can have important effect on e and e a for a fric-

r o
tional material (140).
It is important to note that once radial shear
stresses ( t z r ) develop, a new term should be included in
the equation for radial equilibrium (Eq. B.l). Conse
quently, O q cannot be assumed to be equal to , even if
the radial stress gradient, 3cr /3r, is zero. The average
change in <Jg can be expressed by (65)
r + r. 3t
A oe - ( ° 2 A ) (B.32)
C It is clear that stress distributions due to end restraint
effects are dependent on specimen geometry, the stress-
strain characteristics of the specimen and the applied
pressure and load combinations. These effects have been
comprehensively studied by Saada et a l . (140) and Hight et
al. (65). Saada et al. (140) used the elasticity theory
solution for a hollow cylinder subjected to a tangential
force F per unit length at both of its ends (see Fig. 3.6)
in order to estimate the distance beyond which the various
stresses caused by end restraint effects, which decay with
distance from the platens, become negligible. Based on
this analysis, Saada et a l . (140) concluded that the
stresses a , o_, and t due to end effects were all of

z 9 zr
the same order of magnitude and that in order to have a
V
564
c central zone in the specimen free from end effects with a
length at least equal to the length of the zone influenced
by a platen, the total length should be
L > 5.44 ^ - r^ (B.33)

o i
This requirement is satisfied for all specimen sizes in
the new resonant column/torsional shear test apparatus.
Based on linear elastic and plastic finite element
analyses, Hight et al. (65) concluded that
the distribution of o^ is not significantly affected
by end restraint
c b. changes in the distribution of both and a Q are
sensitive to geometry (more to height than to
ra di us) , to load/pressure combinations and to
Poisson's ratio,
c. the distribution of stresses is basically similar for
elastic and plastic materials,
d. stress non-uniformities due to end restrains obvi
ously increase as failure is approached, and
e. a reasonable uniform distribution of stresses can be
obtained with a suitably "high" specimen, at least
over a central position.
565
o These conclusions confirmed the previous ones drawn
by others (97,140). If end restraint effects cannot be
totally eliminated, their influence needs to be con
sidered, especially in the interpretation of strength.
For example, uncertainty in the value of the mobilized
friction angle, $, can arise when failure is approached
and the sample shows a tendency to bulge (169). The error
in friction angle would be mainly determined by the real
value of and by the unknown change in Og, which as
indicated is given by E q . B.32. Unfortunately, the value
of the end restrain force (and hence of XZ T ) depends on
the tendency to expand radially and there is no direct way
of measuring it or evaluating its magnitude (140).
c Measurement of Applied Boundary Stresses
The applied boundary stresses are measured by means
of a differential pressure transducer, a load cell and a
torque transducer. The characteristics of this measure
ment system and the corresponding calibration factors and
procedures are discussed below.
Differential Pressure Transducer
The differential pressure transducer is located
beneath the bottom of the chamber. The positive side of
the transducer is connected to the chamber while the nega
c tive side is connected to one of the drainage lines from
566
^ , the bottom platen. Accordingly, the transducer outputs a
voltage which is proportional to the effective confining
stress. This transducer is a four channel strain gauge
and was provided by Sensotec, Inc. (Model No. P30P). The
full scale capacity of the transducer is 344.7 kPa (50
psi) differential but pressures of 689.4 kPa (100 kPa) are
not supposed to harm the unit (166). The calibration fac
tor provided by the manufacturer is given in the form of
transducer output (millivolts) per volt of excitation for
a differential pressure corresponding to the full scale
capacity of the transducer. This calibration factor is
1.991 MV/V. With an excitation voltage of 10 Volts DC,
the pressure transducer calibration factor, PTCF, becomes
c equal to 17315.42 kPa per Volt output.
In the new apparatus, excitation to the transducer is
provided with an ADIO (Analog/Digital Input/Output) card
(AIM05), which plugs into the MACSYM 200 I/O back plane
and provides bridge completion, amplification, filtering
and excitation for a wide range of sensors, transducers
and actuators. The excitation voltage was set at 10 Volts
DC, the excitation voltage recommended by the manufac
turer. Under these conditions, the transducer was recali
brated by applying vacuum to the negative side of the
transducer (bottom platen connection) and using a 30 Hg-
inches vacuum gauge with an accuracy of about 3 kPa. The
results of this recalibration are presented in Tables B.2a
r
V
Table B.2 Results of Pressure Transducer Calibration.
CALIBRAT.RDR - VERSION OF 9/16/03

a)
Differential pressure transducer calibration
02/15/85 Calibration applying vacuum
LEAST SQUARES FIT
EQUATION OF LINE: Y *=.000056302 (X) +.00017246
pressure output CAL. output; DIFFERENCE ERROR 'A 1

kpa volts volts volts
33.0773 .002054 .00200253 -.0000285311 .50912

67.7546 .003995 .0039926 2.39769E-6 .0427853
95.8720 .005575 .00557796 -2.9644E-6 .0528979
96.2115 .005604 .00559706 6.93920E-6 .123827
67.7546 .00390 .0039926 -.00001260219 .224879
33.0773 .002075 .00200253 -7.53114E-6 .134389
33.8773 .002090 .00200253 .0000154680 .276031
37.4092 .002313 .00220610 .0000260226 .478632
MAX. ERROR (PERCENT FULL SCALE OUTPUT) = .509118

COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION ’ R’ ■"** a999939
567
STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE 0000104678
PTCF = 17736.2 kPa/Volt
Table B.2, continued.
CALIBRAT.RDR - VERSION OF S/16/83

b)
Pressure transducer calibration with vacuum
02/15/85 Including only readings for 10 and 20 Hg inches
LEAST SQUARES FIT
EQUATION OF LINE: Y =.0000564144 (X) +.000165167

pressure output CAL.output DIFFERENCE ERROR •/. FSO

Kpa volts volts volts
33.8773 .002056 .00207633 -.0000203331 .508964

67.7546 .003SS5 .0039875 7.50041E-6 .187745
67.7546 .00398 .0039875 -7.49948E-6 .187722
33.8773 .002075 .00207633 -1.3331B8E-6 .0333714
33.8773 .002098 .00207633 .0000216668 .542347
MAX. ERROR (PERCENT FULL SCALE OUTPUT) .542346

COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION ’ R’ .999885
STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE .0000183236
PTCF = 17726.1 kPa/Volt Ln
On
00
569
and B.2b, together with corresponding least square fit

G tings. It is noted that the transducer calibration factor
determined by this procedure differs at most by 2.4% from
the value provided by the manufacturer, confirming its
accuracy. The main characteristics of the pressure trans
ducer and all the other transducers in the new apparatus

are summarized in Table B.5. The effective radial stress,
a , can be obtained as
r*
ar = (PTCF)(PTO) (B.34)
where is obtained in (kPa) and PTO is the pressure
transducer output (Volts) after subtracting the reading
under zero differential pressure. It is to be noted that
C in the new resonant column torsional shear apparatus
independent measurements of the cell pressure and pore
water pressure cannot be made. Consequently, the pore
water pressure, u, at any time during an undrained test
must be calculated in terms of the consolidation effective

*
radial stress, a . It follows that
c
u = o (B .35)
c
Although differential pressure transducers avoid
errors due to differences in calibration of two different
transducers, an independent measurement of the cell pres
sure is required, especially for B— parameter (pore
570
pressure) measurements. At the present time the change in
the total confining pressure, , is measured with a 700
kPa pressure gauge, which does not have enough accuracy
for precise measurements.
Load Cell
Any additional axial load applied by the double act
ing air cylinder on the specimen is measured by means of a
load cell located within the chamber, underneath the bot
tom platen. In this way friction related problems are
avoided and the actual axial load applied to the specimen
is effectively measured. This load cell is also a four
arm strain gauge bridge and was provided by LEBOW Associ
ates, Inc. (S/N 2628), with calibrations that are trace
able to the U.S. National Bureau of Standards. This load
cell is designed in such a way that the readings are not
affected by changes in the external cell pressure. The .
nominal full scale capacity of the transducer is 3.336 KN
(750 pounds) with a static overload capacity equal to 50%
of nominal capacity. The calibration factor provided by
the manufacturer corresponds to 1.965 millivolts (output)
per volt of excitation under full load capacity in

«
compression. Consequently, for an excitation voltage of
10 Volts DC, the load cell calibration factor, LCCF, in
terms of the data provided by the manufacturer becomes
equal to 169.77 KN per volt output.
571
The excitation and signal conditioning for the load

G
cell is the same as described for the differential pres
sure transducer. With an excitation power of 10 DC volts,
the load cell was recalibrated by placing dead weights on
top of the bottom platen with a maximum load corresponding
to three different percentages of the rated capacity. The
results of this recalibration are presented in Table B.3a,
B.3b and B.3c. The difference between the load cell cali
bration factors calculated using least square fittings and
the nominal value provided by the manufacturer is at most
0.075%. A summary of the characteristics of the load cell
is also included in Table B.5. The axial stress incre
ment, Ao , can be obtained as

z
C 4C . ( L C C F ) d C O )
z A
where LCO is the load cell output (Volts) after subtract
ing the reading under zero axial load, A is the area of -

2
the cross section of the specimen (meters ) and A i s
obtained in k P a . It should be noted that the bottom pla
ten, the rotation transducer platform and the filling of
the cell with water contribute to changes in the load cell
readings. As we are concerned with the additional axial
load applied to the specimen, the "zero” load cell reading
ic taken after specimen preparation is completed.
572
/ v
Table B.3 Results of Load Cell Calibration.
CflLIBRftT.RDR - VERSION OF 9/16/83

a)
Calibration of load cell for measuring vertical loads
07/02/64 First calibration
LEAST SQUARES FIT
EQUATION OF LINE: Y =5.8859E-6 (X) +. 000187906
load out put CAL.output DIFFERENCE ERROR % FSO

newtons volts volts volts
0 .000187755 .000187906 — 1.50656E—7 .0139569

4.13855 .000212789 .000212265 5.24276E-7 .0485693
13.9456 .000270605 .000269988 6.17001E-7 .0571594
S3.7526 .000328422 .000327711 7.11007E-7 .0656681
33.5596 .000385642 .000385434 2. 0S005E-7 .0192697
.000442863 .000443157 -2.93978E—7 .0272343
c
43.3666
53.1736 .000501275 .00050088 3.95055E-7 .0365982
62.9904 .000559688 .000558661 1.02737E-6 .0951758
72.B072 .000616312 .000616441 -1.29279E—7 .0119765
82.624 .000673532 .000674222 -6.89994E-7 .0639214
92.440B .1000731349 .000732003 -6.53672E—7 .0605566
102.258 .000790954 .000789786 1.16829E-6 .108231
112.074 .000847578 .000847562 1.63564E-8 .00151526
121.891 .000905395 .000905344 5.1513BE-8 .00477227
131.71B .000962615 .000963184 -5.69213E-7 .0527322
141.554 .00102103 .00102108 -4.78467E-8 .00443255
151.4 .00107944 .00107903 4.09549E-7 .0379409
141.554 .00102162 .00102108 5.42146E-7 .0502248
131.71B .000963807 .000963184 6.22764E-7 .0576932
121.891 .000905395 .000905344 5.1513BE-8 .00477227
112.074 .000846982 .000847562 -5.79632E—7 .0536975
102.258 .000788569 .000789786 — 1.216715E—6 .112717
92.4408 .000731349 .000732003 -6.53672E-7 .0605566
82. 624 .000673532 .000674222 -6.89994E—7 .0639214
72.8072 .000616312 .000616441 — 1.29279E-7 .0119765
62.9904 .000559092 .000558661 4.31319E-7 .0399576
53. 1736 .000501275 .00050088 3.95055E-7 .0365982
43.3666 .000443459 .000443157 3.020IE—7 .0279784
33.5596 .000385642 .000385434 2. 08005E-7 .0192697
23.7526 .000327229 .000327711 -4.81989E—7 .0446517
13.9456 .000270605 .000269988 6.17001E-7 .0571594
4.13855 .000211596 .000212265 -6.68733E-7 .0619519
0 .000186563 .000187906 -1.342647E-6 .124384

COEFFICIIENT OF CORRELATION ’R’ = .999998
STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE = 5. 80856E-7
LCCF = 169.897 KN/Volt
573
O
Table B.3, continued.
CALIBRAT. RDR - VERSION OF 9/16/83

b)
Cali brat iori of load cell for vertical loads
02/16/B5 Second Calibration on June 13/84
LEAST SQUARES FIT
EQUATION OF LINE: Y =5.88984E-S (X) +.000187086
load output CAL. output DIFFERENCE ERROR ‘A FSO

0 .000185966 .000187086 -1.119814E-6 .0361226

4.13855 .000211596 .000211461 1.34765E-7 .00434721
43.4744 .000442663 .000443143 -2.8027E-7 .00904085
82.722 .000673532 .000674306 -7.73522E—7 .024952
122.048 .000905991 .00090593 6.1409IE—8 .00198091
161.237 .00113666 .00113675 -8.67294E—8 .00279769
200.435 .00136733 .00136762 -2.85847E—7 .00925302
c 298.505
396.575
.0019449
.00252306
.00194523
.00252285
—3.33996E—7
2.C3949E-7
.0107739
.00673698
494.645 •00310004 .00310047 -4.28176E-7 .0138119
396.575 .00252247 .00252285 -3.81144E-7 .0122948
298. 505 .0019455 .00194523 2.66009E-7 .00858083
200.435 .00136793 .00136762 3.13157E-7 .0101017
161.237 .00113845 .00113675 1.70327E-6 .0549436
122.048 .000907183 .00090593 1. 25339E-6 .0404313
82.722 .000673532 .000674306 —7.73522E-7 .024952
43.4744 .000443459 .000443143 3.15718E-7 .0101843
4.13855 .000211596 .000211461 1.34765E—7 .00434721
0 .000187159 .000187086 7.31961E-S .00236114

COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION ’R’ = .999999
STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE = 9. S1323E-7
574
o
Table B.3, continued,
CRLIBRAT. RDR - VERSION OF 9/16/83

c)
Calibration of load cell for vertical loads
02/16/85 Third calibration on June 13/84
LEAST SQUPRES FIT
EQUATION OF LINE: Y =5.88882E-6 (X) +.000188023
load output CAL.output DIFFERENCE ERROR '/. FSO

0 .000187159 .000188023 -8.63714E—7 .017058

4. 13855 .000211 .000212394 — 1.393899E-6 .0275289
102.209 .000788569 .000789913 —1.34448IE-6 .0265529
200.279 .00136673 .00136743 -7. 00355E-7 .0138317
298.349 .00194311 .00194495 —1.B3715E—6 .0362829
396.419 .00252187 .00252246 -5.94184E-7 .0117349
494.489 .00309885 .00309998 -1.131091E—6 •0223385
c 592.559
631.885
.00367761
.00390887
.0036775
.00390908
1.11992E-7
-2.11B76E-7
.00221178
.00418445
671.221 .00414073 .00414072 5.58794E-9 .000110359
710.409 .0043714 .0043715 -9.54606E-8 .0018853
749.60S .00460267 .00460233 3.3B536E—7 .00668592
788.855 .00483394 .00483345 4.89B76E—7 .00967482
828.083 .00506341 .00506446 —1.047272E—6 .0206831
788.855 .00483453 .00483345 1.07987E—6 .0213269
749.608 .00460207 .00460233 -2.61702E-7 .00516849
710.409 .0043714 .0043715 -9.54606E—8 .0018853
671.221 .00414133 .00414072 6.0536E-7 .0119556
631.885 .00390887 .00390908 -2.11876E-7 .00418445
592.559 .S3367761 .0036775 1.11992E—7 .00221178
494.489 .00310063 .00309998 6.48B99E—7 .0128155
396.419 .00252306 .00252246 5.95814E-7 .011767
298.349 .0019455 .00194495 5.52B55E—7 .0109187
200.279 .00136793 .00136743 4.99655E-7 .00986795
102.209 .000792146 .000789913 2.23255E—6 .0440919
4.13855 .000213981 .000212394 1.587C9E-6 .0313443
0 .000188947 .000188023 9.24279E-7 .0182541

COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION ’R’ =1
STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE = 1.20631E-6
575
C Finally, the total axial stress, oz , is obtained as
a * o + Ac (B.37)
z r z
c
Torque Transducer
The torque transducer is located in the base plate of
the chamber with the sensing head within the chamber and
the transducer body outside the chamber. The bottom pla
ten rests on top of the load cell which in turn is
attached to the head of the torque transducer. This sens
ing head is not in contact with the base plate and hence,
the actual torque applied to the specimen is effectively
measured. This transducer is also a four arm strain gauge
bridge and was provided by LEBOW Associates, Inc. (S/N
555), with calibrations that are traceable to the U.S.
National Bureau of Standards. The rated capacity of the
torque transducer is 56.5 N-m (500 In.Lbs) with an over
load capacity of 50%. The calibration factor provided by
the manufacturer corresponds to 1.968 millivolts (output)
per volt of excitation for clockwise rotation and 1.967
mV/V for counter-clockwise rotation. Accordingly, for an
excitation voltage of 10 volts DC, the torque transducer
calibration factor, TTCF, becomes equal to 2870.4 N-m per
volt output for clockwise rotation and 2871.86 N-m per
volt output for counter-clockwise rotation.
r
v
576
The excitation and signal conditioning for the torque

c transducer is the same as described for the pressure
transducer and the load cell. The torque transducer was
recalibrated by applying torque to the bottom platen by
means of a steel bar and two pulleys clamped to a fixed
support. Dead weights were suspended from the pulleys
which transmitted the load horizontally to the steel bar
with a lever arm of 0.508 meters. The results of this
recalibration are presented in Table B.4a and B.4b. Least
square fittings were performed considering all the data
points (Table B.4a) and considering independently the data
for clockwise rotation and counter-clockwise rotation
(Table B.4b). The calculated calibration factors differ
c from the nominal values provided by the manufacturer,
at most 0.8%. The torque applied to the top of the speci

by
men, T, can be obtained as
T = (TTCF)(TTO)/1000 (B.38)
where TTO is the torque transducer output after subtract
ing the reading under zero applied torque and T is
obtained in KN-m. By combining Eqs. B.28 and B.38 the
average shear stress, x ^ , acting on any cross section

av
of the specimen is given by
577
c
Table B.4 Results of Torque Transducer Calibration.
CALIBRAT. RDR - VERSION OF 9/16/83

a)
Data for- calibration of torque tranducer
07/03/84 Second calibration(June)
BI-POLARITY DATA
PQS. & NE6. BRANCHES INDEPENDENT.
LEAST SQUARES FIT
EQUATION OF LINE (NEG. BRANCH): Y =.00035147 (X)
torque output CAL. out put DIFFERENCE ERROR ’A FSO

newt on-met er volts volts volts
0 -.000171065 0 -.000171065 1.0466

-2. 10239 -.0008744 -.000738927 -.000135473 .828842
-7.08434 -. 0025773 -.00248993 -.0000873657 .534517
-12.0663 -.00427723 -.00424094 -.0000362853 .221999
c -17.0532
-22.0402
-. 00599504
-.00770986
-.00599369
-.00774647
-1.34902IE-6
.0000366126
.00825352
.224002
-27.0271 -.00944555 -.00949922 .0000536693 .328357
-32.024 -.011186 -.01125548 .0000694804 .425092
-37.0259 -.01291573 -.0130135 .0000977702 .598173
-42. 0328 -. 01465082 -.01477327 .000122455 .749198
-47. 0396 -.0163448 -.016533 .000188215 1.15153
-42. 0328 -.01480877 -.01477327 -.0000354955 .217167
-37.0259 -.01308262 -.0130135 -.00006912 .422887
-32. 024 -. 0113538 -.01125548 -.0000983197 .601535
-27.0271 -.00961006 -.00949922 -.0001108404 .678139
-22.0402 -.00789881 -.00774647 -.000152338 .932026
-17.0532 -. 006173B5 -.00599369 -.000180159 1.10224
-12. 0663 00442446 -.00424094 -.000183516 1.12278
-7.08434 -.00269353 -.00248993 -.000203596 1.24563
-2.10239 -.000956059 -.000738927 -.000217132 1.32844
0 -.000191927 0 -.000191927 1. 17424
0 -.000151992 0 -.000151992 .92991
0 -.000131726 0 -.000131726 .80592
MAX. ERROR (PERCENT FULL SCALE OUTPUT) = 1.32844

STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE = .000706588
TTCF = 284 5 .2 iv -iu /V o lt
r
v
578
Table B.4, continued,
a)
EQUATION OF LINE (POS. BRANCH): Y =.000345445 (X)
torque output CAL.output DIFFERENCE ERROR % FSO

newt on-met er volts volts volts
0 -.000171065 0 -.000171065 1.04955

0 -.000191927 0 -.000191927 1.17755
0 -.000151992 0 -.000151992 .932529
S. 10239 .000568032 .000726259 -. 000158227 .970785
7.08434 .00231326 .00244725 -.000133987 .822061
12.0863 .00406325 .00416824 -.000104988 .644142
17.0532 .00580609 .00589094 -. 0000848453 .520559
22.0402 .00755191 .00761367 -. 0000617574 .378905
27.0271 .00929773 •00933636 -.0000386341 .237035
32.024 .0110507 .0110625 -.00001181569 .0724938
37.0259 .0127912 .0127904 8. 028E-7 .00492549
42. 0328 .0145441 .01452 .000024038 .14785
c 47.0396
42.0328
37. 0259
32. 024
27.0271
.0162989
.0145829
.0128454
.0110348
.00934124
.0162496
.01452
.0127904
.0110625
.00933636
.0000493247
.0000628987
.000055003
.0000322843
4.87547E—6
.302626
.385908
.337464
.198077
.0299129
22.0402 .00760078 .00761367 -.00001288718 .0790678
17. 0532 .00586271 .00589094 -. 0008282251 .173172
12. 0663 .0041008 .00416824 -.000067438 .413758
7.08434 .00236034 .00244725 -.0000B69068 .533207
2.10239 .000614524 .000726253 -.0001117352 .685538
0 -.000131726 0 -.000131726 .80819

COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION ’R’ = 993216 .
STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE = 00065203 .
TTCF = 2894 .6 N-m/Volt
579
c Table B.4, continued.
CALIBRAT.RDR - VERSION OF 9/16/83

b)
Data for calibration of torque tranducer
07/03/84 Second calibration(June)
BI-POLARITY DATA
LEAST SQUARES FIT
EQUATION OF LINE: Y =.000348457 (X) -.0001175415
torque output CAL.output DIFFERENCE ERROR FSD

newt on—met er volts volts volts
0 -.000171065 -.0001175415 -.0000535235 .327465

-2.10239 -. 0008744 -.000850135 -.0000242653 .148459
-7. 08434 -. 0025773 -.00258613 8.83196E—6 .0540353
-12.0663 -.00427723 -.00432213 .0000449028 .274722
-17.0532 -.00599504 -.00605985 .0000648145 .396545
-22.0402 -.00770986 -.00779761 .0000877506 •536872
-27.0271 -.00944555 -.00953533 .0000897832 .549308
-32.024 -.011186 -.01127654 .0000905385 .553929
-37.0259 -.01291573 -.01301949 .00010376 .534817
-42.0328 -.01465082 -.01476418 .000113359 .693546
-47.0396 -. 0163448 -.0165086 .000164036 1.0035
-42.0328 -.01480877 -.01476418 -. 0000445917 .272e19
.386243
c
-37.0259 —•01308262 -.01301949 -.0000631306
-32.024. -.0113538 -.01127654 -.0000772616 .472698
-27.0271 -.00961006 -.00953533 -.0000747265 .457188
-22.0402 -.00789881 -.00779761 -.0001011998 .619156
-17.0532 -.00617385 -.00605985 -.0001139957 .697443
-12. 0663 -.00442446 -.00432213 -.0001023277 .626056
-7.08434 -.00269353 -.00258613 -.000107398 .657078
-2.10239 -.000956059 -.000850135 -.0001059243 .648061
0 -.000191927 -.0001175415 -. 0000743855 •455102
0 -.000151992 -.0001175415 -.0000344505 .210773
2.10239 .000568032 .800615052 -.0000470197 .287674
7.08434 .00231326 .00235105 -.0000377889 .231198
12.0663 .00406325 .80408705 -.0000237995 .145609
17.0532 .00580609 .00582477 -.0000186814 .114296
22.0402 .00755191 .00756253 -.00001061801 .0549626
27.0271 .00929773 .00930025 -2.51923E—6‘ .015413
32. 024 .0110507 .0110415 9. 2443IE—6 .0565581
37. 0259 .0127912 .0127844 6.794E-6 .0415667
42. 0328 .0145441 .0145291 .0000150036 .0917944
47.0396 .0162989 .0162738 .0000251476 .153857
42.0328 .0145829 .0145291 .000053B044 .329183
37.0259 .0128454 .0127844 .0000609942 .373172
32. 024 .0110948 .0110415 .0000533443 .326369
27.0271 .00934124 .00930025 .0000409903 .250785
22. 0402 .00760078 .00756253 .0000382522 .234033
17. 0532 .00586271 .00582477 .0000379388 .232116
12.0663 .0041008 .00408705 .0000137505 .0841277
7. 08434 .00236034 .00235105 9.29111E-6 .0568444
2. 10239 .000614524 .000615052 -5.2771IE—7 .00322861
0 -.000131726 -.0001175415 -.00001418449 .0867829

STANDARD ERROR OF ESTIMATE = .0000681967
c TTCF = 2 6 6 9 .8 N -m /V o lt
580
/ 32 [0D3 - I D 3 ] (TTCF)(TTO)
( T
1000 (B.39)
3u
av [OD2 - D02 ][0D4 - ID4 ]
where tz a is obtained in kPa.

o
av
Table B.5 summarizes the main characteristics of the
various transducers used for measuring the applied boun
dary stresses. It should be noted that only static load
ing was used for calibrating the various transducers.
Consequently, the calculated calibration factors hold only
for low frequency tests. For high frequency tests,
dynamic effects should be evaluated as explained in Appen-
dix A.
Measurement of Specimen Deformations
In the new resonant column/torsional shear test
apparatus, it is possible to measure the average axial
strain and the rotation (and hence the shear strain) at
the top of the specimen. The apparatus has no capabili
ties for measuring radial displacements of the specimen.
The characteristics of the deformation measurement system
are described below.
Axial Strains
Changes in the length of the specimen during any
stage of the test are measured by a linear variable dif
ferential transformer (LVDT) located on a yoke just above
Table B.5 Characteristics of Transducers for

Measuring Applied Boundary Stresses
Transducer Pressure Load Torque
Manufacturer Sensotec, Inc, Lebow, Inc, Lebow, Inc.
Rated Capacity 344.7 kPa 3.336 kN 56.5 N-m
Overload capacity (%) 100 50 50
Output at rated (mV/V) 1.991 1.965 +1.968 cw

capacity -1.967 ccw
Nonlinearity^ ^ ± 0.04 cw
(% of rated output) ± 0.03 ± 0.02 ccw
(2 )
Hysteresis ± 0.09 cw
(% of rated output) ± 0.03 ± 0.00 ccw
Max. excitation voltage (Volts) 10.0 20 20
Calibration factor 17.3 169.8 2.87

(Excitation - 10 Volts) (MPa/Volt) (kN/Volt) (kN-m/Volt)
Linearity of a transducer refers to the maximum deviation of

any calibration point from a straight line during any one
calibration cycle over the specified linear range.
(2 ) Hysteresis of a transducer refers to the maximum difference
in output at any given input value, within the specified range
when the value is approached first with increasing and then with
decreasing inputs.
582
o the bearing connection between the air cylinder piston and
the rotating shaft. This LVDT was provided by Schaevitz
Engineering (S/N 521). The full scale displacement of the
transducer is 25.4 mm (1 inch). A transducer exciter
demodulator (Daytrenic, model 201C) is used to power the
transducer, which produces an output that is dependent
upon AC induction variations as a function of displacement
position of the core. This device is a signal condition
ing instrument which allows convenient adaptation of dif
ferential transformer transducers to strip chart record
ers, X - Y recorders, digital voltmeters and similar dev
ices requiring DC input signals. The transducer exciter
demodulator supplies regulated (3 Volts at 3 kHz) excita
tion to the transducer, demodulates the transducer output

c signal, acd produces a filter DC output signal precisely
proportional to the displacement input. The axial dis
placement transducer was calibrated by using a caliper
with an accuracy of 0.0005 inches (0.0127 mm). The
results of this calibration is presented in Figure B.7.
Within the linear range, the LVDT calibration factor,
LVDTCF, is 84.615 mm per volt output. Accordingly, the
axial displacement of the top of the specimen is given by
4 = (LVDTCF)(LVDTO) (B.40)
where LVDTO is the LVDT output (Volts) and A is obtained
in mm. The corresponding axial strain, , can be
583
( forthwards displacement
b a c k w a r d s displacement
120 --
E
E
i-
z
o 110 --
Q.
LLI
O
Z"
UJ
cc
UJ
LL
UJ
DC
2
O 90
DC
U_
UJ
O
z 80
<
I—
co
Q
70 — Linear range —
0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.55 0.60 0.65
V O L T A G E O U T P U T (Volts)
m 1 = _ = 8 4 . 6 1 5 mm/volt
0.205Volt
m 2 =
8mm = 106. 6 6 7 mm/volt
0.075 volt
Figure B.7 Results of LVDT Calibration.
obtained as
e » i x 100 (B.41)
z L
where L is the length of the specimen in millimeters and
&z is obtained as a percentage.
Shear Strains
The relative rotation between the bottom and the top
of the specimen is measured by two non-contacting dis
placement transducers located on a cylindrical platform
which is fastened to the lower platen of the specimen.
These transducers were provided by Kaman Sciences Measur
ing Systems (Model KD-2310). This model allows for preci
sion non— contact displacement measurements of metal tar
gets and thickness measurements of non-conductive material
backed by metal. The system includes a sensor, a coaxial
cable and a signal conditioning electronic package, which
has been incorporated within the analog control unit. The
output voltage of the system is proportional to the dis
tance between the face of the sensor and any metallic
(conductive) target. In the new apparatus, the two trans
ducers focus on non-concentric circular cams attached to
the top platen and hence measure the distance between the
cams and the transducer face. As the top platen rotates
relative to the bottom, the distance changes, which causes
c the transducer output to change, and hence allows
585
measurement of the angle of rotation from the at rest

C position of the specimen. The analog control unit sums
the signals from the two transducers and provides an out
put signal for rotation control, the digital voltmeter and
the recorder system.
The rotation measurement system was calibrated by
Soil Dynamics Instruments (166), the builders of the main
portion of the new apparatus. The calibration procedure
was as follows. A machinist's scale graduated to 0.01
inch was fastened to the exterior of the Hardin oscillator
which has an 0D of 0.102 meters. An optical microscope,
attached to the specimen base by means of a magnetic base
and a metal plate held by "C" clamps, was used to read the
^ graduated scale and consequently, to determine the angle
of rotation. The chamber lid was held in position by
placing four brass tubes over the chamber rods. The upper
locking clamp on the shaft was locked to prevent the pis
ton from falling into the chamber but the lower damp part
was loose and thus could allow rotation. The top platen
for solid specimens was attached to the oscillator and
rotation was provided by use of the stepper motor with a
gear ratio of 3200 to 1. The resulting calibration was
provided in the form of equations obtained from least
square fittings. The rotation, 6, can be obtained as
RTO
6 = RTCF (B.42)
c
586
where RTOa is the rotation transducer output after adjust

0 ing it as follows: If RTO < 0, then
RTO ** RTO (B .43)

a
and if RTO > 0, then
2.876
RTO - RTO + 0.01637 (RTO) (B .44)
a
where RTO is the measured transducer output. The rotation
transducer calibration factor, RTCF, is 6.482 Volts/Rad.
for 6 values larger than 0.05 radians and 6.41 Volts/Rad.
when 6 is smaller than 0.05 radians. The corresponding
average shear strain, can be obtained from E q . B.20.
c Determination of Shear Modulus and

Damping Ratio from Torsional Shear Tests
In an elastic material, the relationship between
stresses and strains is linear. Consequently, the shear
modulus, which is the slope of the shear stress versus
shear strain curve, is constant irrespective of the shear
strain level. At very low shear strains the deformations
exhibited by most sands could be considered essentially
"elastic," that is recoverable. However, as shearing
takes place under increasing shear strains, the charac
teristics of sands become non-linear and inelastic.
Accordingly, the stress-strain characteristics cannot be
r
v
587
represented by a single shear modulus value but it changes
with the level of shear-strain. Hence, it is possible to
define different shear moduli such as the initial tangent
shear modulus, the tangent shear modulus, the secant shear
modulus, etc. The response of sands to seismic loading is
usually investigated by means of cyclic loading, unload
ing, and reloading, yielding an approximately closed loop
in the shear stress-shear strain space. The loop reflects
the nonlinear an inelastic stress-strain characteristics
of sands. During cyclic loading there is generally a com
plete stress reversal, i.e. approximately equal excursions
in both the positive and negative directions. Hence, a
simple representation of the behavior is often made in
c terms of an equivalent secant shear modulus,
nal damping ratio, D, as illustrated in Figure B.8*

G, and inter
The
shear modulus is defined as the slope of a straight line
connecting the end points of the shear stress versus shear
strain curve. Hence it is calculated as
G = f*? I (B.45)
max min
T - maximum positive shear stress

max
T . = maximum negative shear stress
min
Ymax = maximum positive shear strain
= maximum negative shear strain

Ymin
will have the same units as the shear stress
r
V
588
t max
Xmin
Ymax
W/2
AW
AW
min
Figure B .8 D e f i n i t i o n of E q u i v a l e n t H y s t e r e t i c S h e ar
M o d u l u s and D amp ing Ratio.
589
The damping ratio, D, is defined as the ratio of the
energy dissipated per loading cycle (area inside shear
stress-shear strain loop) , Aw, to 2x times the maximum
elastic strain energy stored in the soil element, w.
Hence,
1 Area of hysteris loop /T>

D = -r— -------------- v- — (B.46)
Area of triangles OAB & OA B
The area inside the shear stress-shear strain loop may be
obtained by numerical integration or by the use of a plan-
imeter. It should be noted that the maximum elastic
strain energy stored, w, can also be obtained as
w = G (y * + Y* >/2 (B.47)
mi n max
c
—!
_
o
VITA
c
590
VITA
Adolfo AlarcSn— GuzmSn was born on January 4, 1953* In
Dolores, Department of Tolima, Colombia. He attended
school In Bogota, Department of Cundinamarca, Colombia.
In 1976, he graduated from the National University of
Colombia with a diploma in Civil Engineering. At gradua
tion, he received the "Grado de Honor" award for the
highest standing in the School of Engineering. He also
received the "Manuel Ponce de Leon" award granted by the
Colombian Society of Engineers for his high graduation

C point average.
In 1977, he joined the faculty at the School of
Engineering of the National University of Colombia, as an
instructor in Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.
At the same time, he enrolled in the graduate program in
the Department of Geotechnical Engineering. Concurrent
with his work and studies at the National University of
Colombia, Mr. AlarcGn worked for G6mez Cajiao Asociados,
Ltd., from 1980 to 1982. During this time, he directed
laboratory investigations of soil properties for a variety
of projects, including two major dams and a 150 km. long
railroad.
591
S In the fall of 1982, he commenced graduate studies at
Purdue University and received a Master of Science in
Civil Engineering degree in 1983. Since then, he has been
working on his doctoral thesis.
Mr. AlarcSn is a member of the Colombian Society of
Engineers and the Colombian Geotechnical Society. He is
also a student member of the American Society of Civil
Engineers and a member of the American Society for Testing
and Materials.
fv

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Alarcón - Guzman (1986) PDF

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INFORMATION TO USERS

While the m ost advanced technology has been used to

A larcon-G uzm an, A dolfo

CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN AND LIQUEFACTION CHARACTERISTICS OF

Purdue University Ph.D. 1986

CYCLIC STRESS-STRAIN AND LIQUEFACTION

Submitted to the Faculty

In Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree

This is to certify that the thesis prepared

g y _______________ Adolfo Alarcon-Guzman___________________________________

For the degree o f ___________ Doctor of Philosophy___________________________

Signed by the final examining committee:

Approved by the head of school or department:

The author wishes to express his deepest gratitude to

Professor G. A. Leonards, the author's advisor, for his

guidance, encouragement and for the time he generously

shared with the author.

The author also wants to give his deepest thanks to

Professor J, L. Chameau, the author's co-advisor, for his

guidance, support and friendship during the past four

^ The author is thankful to the other members of his

committee, Professors M. E. Harr and C. D. Sutton.

The financial support of the National Science Founda­

tion is gratefully acknowledged. The author would like to

thank Professor P. Drnevich for his contributions to the

design and fabrication of the new resonant

column/torsional shear apparatus. The author also wants

to express his gratitude to the National University of

Colombia for the leave of absence which permitted the

author to complete his doctoral program.

The author is deeply grateful to Kathie Roth, who

assisted with the typing, and to Margarita Marin de Gomez,

would like to thank all his friends and colleagues at Pur­

due for their friendship and the stimulating environment

Finally, the author wishes to thank his sisters and

brothers for their continuous support and affection.

LIST OF T A B L E S ......................................... vii

LIST OF F I G U R E S ......................................... viii

LIST OF S Y M B O L S ......................................... xvii

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION ............................ 1

C HAPTER 2 - APPARATUS AND TECHNIQUES FOR

2.1 The Resonant Column Test . . . . . . . . . . 26

CHAPTER 3 - CYCLIC UNDRAINED BEHAVIOR OF

3.1 Pore Pressure Buildup and Strain

3.3 Monotonic and Cyclic Strength

CHAPTER 4 - LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND

4.1 New Resonant Column/Torsional Shear

CHAPTER 5 - TEST RESULTS AND A N A L Y S E S ............. 264

5.1 Drained Cyclic Shear Tests . ................ 264

CHAPTER 6 - SUMMARY AND C O N C L U S I O N S ................ 437

6.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . 437

CHAPTER 7 - RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . . 462

7.1 Improvement of Laboratory Equipment . . . . 462

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................... 471

Appendix A Data Reduction Procedures

4.1 Switch Settings for Peak R o t a t i o n .............. 245

4.2 Stress and Deformation Limits of New Apparatus 248

4.3 Properties of Ottawa 20-30 Sand .......... 248

5.1 Summary of Tests Performed . . . . . . . . . . 265

A .1 Calibration Factors for Hardin Oscillator . . . 518

B.l Relationship between Average Shear Stress

B.2 Results of Pressure Transducer Calibration • . 567

g y _ Adolfo Alarcon-Guzman_____________________

For the degree o f _ Doctor of Philosophy_________________

The financial support of the National Science Founda

would like to thank all his friends and colleagues at Pur