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Uniqueness Theorem
• Theorem
○ Suppose is a function of
○ That satisfies Linearity and Alternating
○ Then where
• Proof
○
○
○
• Example
○ Therefore
Properties of Determinant
• (where )
○
○ =
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• Power of Determinants
○
• Determinant of Inverse
○ If has an inverse( ), and , then
○
○
○
11/6
Monday, November 6, 2017
○ Therefore
Question 1
• Recall that the determinant is a polynomial in the entries of the matrix.
• Find the coefficient of in the following polynomial
Question 2
• Suppose is an orthogonal matrix, meaning is invertible and
• What possible value could the determinant of have?
• Answer:
○
Question 3
• Let be the vector space of all (real) polynomials of degree 2 or less.
• Using the basis , find the matrix of the linear map given by
• for all and
• Answer:
○
○
○
Question 4
• Let be real numbers.
• Compute the determinant of the following matrix
• Answer:
○
11/7
Tuesday, November 7, 2017
• Proof by graph
• Proof
○ parallelogram spanned by
○ If is counter-clockwise = area
○ If is
○ Then , because
○ Alternating
(by definition, same area, but different orientation)
○ Linearity(Homogeneous)
(Easy to prove from picture)
(Easy to prove from picture)
○ Linearity(Additive)
If is parallel, then
□
If is independent , then
□
Let , then
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Therefore
○ Uniqueness Theorem
○ has a matrix
where
○ Shorthand
Therefore
○
• Cofactor Matrix
• Example
○
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• Matrix Multiplication
○ Let
○
○
○ Because we have two equal row
Therefore
○ Therefore
11/8
Wednesday, November 8, 2017
• Expansion by Rows
• Calculating
○ Expanding
○ Where
○ Conclusion
• Theorem
○ is not invertible
• Example
○ Let
○ Cofactor Matrix
○ Adjugate Matrix
○ Determinant
○ Inverse Matrix
Cramer's Rule
• Trying to solve the following system of equations
○
○
• In particular
• In general
○ Then is independent
• Example
○ Are dependent?
○ If , then yes
• Proof
○
So
i.e.
Therefore is linearly independent
○ Prove: is linearly dependent
Suppose
Then is not invertible
Since is a square matrix this means is not injective
Therefore
i.e. There exists a vector with
Since
We can find that there are ,
at least one of which is non-zero with
Therefore is linearly dependent
11/13
Monday, November 13, 2017
Question 1
•
○ Where
Question 2
• Let be square matrix such that for some
• Prove or find a counterexample : is invertible
• Answer:
○
○ Therefore is invertible
• Note:
○ is called Nilpotent matrix
11/14
Tuesday, November 14, 2017
○ Compute
• Fibonacci Number
○ For example
○ It could be viewed as a sequence of vectors
○ Consider
○ Try to compute
And
Then
• Eigenvector Equation
○ By definition, if is linear and is a vector space
○ Then is an eignevector of with eigenvalue if
○ Therefore
is an eigenvector with eigenvalue
is not injective
• Theorem
○ If is given by matrix multipication
○ Then is an eigenvalue of if and only if
○
• Proof
○
Fibonacci Example
○ Fibonacci Example
Where
○ By Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
is called the eigentvalue of
○ Given eigenvalues
We can find eigenvectors by
• Theorem
○
○ are eigenvectors
○ with distinct eigenvalues
○ then is linearly indelendent
• Proof
○ By induction on
○ When
Given
Then is independent because
○ When
Assume Theorem true for
Suppose
, and all
Suppose
Since Theorem is true for
is linearly independent
Therefore
Since , we find
is linearly independet
11/15
Wednesday, November 15, 2017
Theorem
• Statement
○ If , then for linear map
○ injective surjective bijective
• Proof
○ By Rank-Nullity Theorem
○ If is injective
is surjective
is bijective
○ If is not injective
is not surjective
is not bijective
○ linear, for
○
Eigenvector:
Eigenvector:
•
○
Eigenvector:
Eigenvector:
Multiplicity of Eigenvalues
•
○ Eigenvalues: or
○
11/21
Tuesday, November 21, 2017
○ Then is an eigenvalue of if
○
• Characteristic Polynomial
○ is the called characteristic polynomial of
○
• How to Find Eigenvalues
○ Solve
○ Get roots (possibly repeated)
• How to Find Eigenvectors
○ Solve
○ For
○ is equations with unknowns
○ Typically is the only solution for some
○ Then , and there is a solution
• Coefficients of Characteristic Polynomial
○ By definition
○ By Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
○ Comparing the coefficient of , we get
○ Setting to both polynomials we get
○ By Vieta's Formula
• Trace of Matrix
○ Matrix:
○ Eigenvalues:
○ Characteristic polynomial:
○ The sum of the roots of is called the trace of , denoted as
• Theorem
○ If are eigenvectors of with eigenvalues
○ And if for
○ Then is linearly independent
• Theorem:
• Theorem:
○ If is a matrix and all eigenvalues are different
○ Then is a basis for (or )
• Diagonalization
○ is the linear transformation with eigenvectors
○ Consider
○ Matrix of
Let
○ is invertible
Because if
Then
is linearly independent
○ Let
,
Let
□
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□
□
□
□
□
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□
Therefore
Multiply on the left, we have
□
Multiply on the right, we have
□
□
○ Application
If you knew , then
is easy to calculate:
11/22
Wednesday, November 22, 2017
Theorem
• has a basis and another basis
• Let be a linear transformation
• Define the following matrices
○
○
○
• Then
Question
• Given
○
○
○
• Find
○ For
○
○
11/27
Monday, November 27, 2017
Question 1
• Question
○ Let .
○ Find all eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrix
• Answer
○
○
○ When
○ When
Question 2
• Question
○ Let be a vector space and let be a linear map
○ Suppose is an eigenvector for with eigenvalue .
○ Prove that, for each polynomial,
○ the linear map has eigenvector with eigenvalue
• Answer
○ Let
○
○
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Question 3
Question 3
• Given
○ Let be a vector space and let be a linear map
○ Let be a scalar.
○ Suppose has an eigenvalue
• Prove
○ has either or as an eigenvalue
• Proof
○
○
○
○ When
is a eigenvector for with eigenvalue of
○ When
is a eigenvector for with eigenvalue of
Question 4
• Given
○ Let be a vector space and let be a linear map
○ Suppose are eigenvectors of with eigenvalues and .
• Prove
○ If ( ) is an eigenvector of ,
○ then or or
• (To be continued)
11/28
Tuesday, November 28, 2017
• Closed Interval
• Interior Point
○ is a subset
○ is an interior point if there is an
○ such that
○ where is the open disc of radius centered at
○
• Koch's Snowflake
• Koch's Snowflake
• Open Sets
○ is open if all are interior points in
• Example
• Boundary Point
○ A point is a boundary point for if for every
○ contains with and
Limits and Continuity
• Limits
○
○ If , then
• Properties
○ If , when , then
○
○
○
○ (only when , )
• Graph
○ Graph of
• Continuity
○ is continuous at
○
• Example
○
• Example
○
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• Partial Derivative
• Total Derivative
11/29
Wednesday, November 29, 2017
Question 2
• Given
○ Let be a real matrix such that
• Note
• Proof: is invertibe
○
○
○ is invertibe
• Proof: is even
○ Suppose is odd
○
○
Which makes a contradiction
○ Which makes a contradiction
○ Therefore is even
• Proof: has no real eigenvalues
○ Suppose
○
○ So
○ Which makes a contradiction
○ Therefore has no real eigenvalues
• Proof:
○
• Proof: (general case)
○
○
○
○ Therefore the eigenvalues come in complex conjugate pairs
○
○ Therefore
Question 3
• Given
○ Let be a finite-dimensional real linear transformation
○ has no real eigenvalues
• Proof: is even
○ Suppose is odd
○
○
○
○ By the Intermediate Value Theorem
○ must have a real root
○ Which makes a contradiction
○ Therefore is even
• Proof:
11/30
Thursday, November 30, 2017
Partial Derivative
• Infinitesimal Interpretation of Derivative
• Definition
• Example
○
○
• Second Derivative
• Clairaut's Theorem
• Example of
• Theorem
○ If and are continuous, then there exist functions and
○ Where as
○ Note
• Linear Approximation
○
○
○ Where as
• Linear Approximation (Vector Notation)
○
○
○
○
○ Where
• Example
○
○ Find the linear approximation at
○ Calculate
○
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○ Tangent plane at