Olympiad Companion PDF

An Olympiad Companion
K.E.Srivatsav
PSBB Numgambakkam
Anshul Ravichandar
Sri Sankara Senior Secondary
May 2012
ii
Copyright ©2012 by K.E.Srivatsav and Anshul

Ravichandran
All rights reserved.
ISBN . . .
. . . Publications
Dedicated to the one who introduced us to real
math, our beloved teacher Mr.Sadagopan Rajesh,
and presented to him on his birthday (the 21st of
June 2012)
iv
Contents
Preface 1
Foreword 1 3
1 A toolbox for the olympiads 5
2 Problems in Algebra 11
3 Problems in NT 15
4 Solutions to Algebra problems 21
5 Solutions to NT problems 41
Appendix -1 62
References 78
vi CONTENTS
Preface
This book basically is a problem companion for the students

who are preparing for the olympiads of national and interna-
tional level. Most of the problems here are ones which we
ourselves have solved in our own unique and characteristic
ways. The problem composition of this book is highly varied.
All the problems are of olympiad level, and in fact most of
the problems, have been taken from the olympiads of various
countries, while some are ones which we created. The problems
are of assorted difficulty and do not follow any specific order.
We intend to do this because, we do not want the readers to
culminate fear for the difficult set of problems. We have not
mentioned the sources to few of the problems because, we do
not want the readers to possess a preconceived notion about a
problem.
We have also included a ’toolbox’ containing very famous and
useful theorems in both algebra and number theory. We have
not given the proofs for them because most of them are stan-
dard and the readers are encouraged to try to prove them
themselves. For most of the problems, we have included re-
marks which talk about the mental approach towards the prob-
lem and other important aspects one must focus on. For some
problems, the solution is short while some contain long solu-
tions. We have elaborately done this for the readers to ex-
perience each type of proof, and also think more about the
solutions if they are short (not all problems end with a solu-
2 CONTENTS
tion!!).
With regard to the appendix, we sincerely thank Ms. Uma
Girish and Ms. Shruthi.S (IMOTC Attendees of 2012) for
their invaluable assistance. In the appendix, we have included
some very useful geometric tools supplemented by some re-
ally tough problems (mostly from TSTs of countries) solved
trivially using the ideas.
Being our first book, we understand that some of our proofs
may be primitive and may contain some typos or errors. We
sincerely encourage the readers to contact us regarding editing
work or feedback. We hope you enjoy reading this book.
K.E.Srivatsav
(srivatsavke@gmail.com)
Anshul Ravichandar
(r.anshul@gmail.com)
Foreword by Dr.Balaji
Sampath
4 CONTENTS
Chapter 1
A toolbox for the

olympiads
Strong Induction
Strong induction is a stronger version of induction as the in-

duction hypothesis is assumed to be true for a set of consecu-
tive values.
Basic Modular properties
• If any a and b leave the same remainder on division by

n, it is written as a ⌘ b (mod n). The domain for the
operations is the set of integers (Z).
• a⌘n a (mod n)
• If a ⌘ b (mod n) and c ⌘ d (mod n) then a + c ⌘ b + d
(mod n) and ac ⌘ bd (mod n).
• Hence, modulo arithmetic is closed over addition, sub-
traction and multiplication but not division.
• If ac ⌘ bc (mod n) then a ⌘ b (mod n) , (c, n) = 1.
6 A toolbox for the olympiads
Wilson’s Theorem
(p 1)! ⌘ 1(mod p) i↵ p is a prime
Corollary 1.0.1 For any n > 1, if gcd(a, n) = 1, then the

equation ax ⌘ 1 (mod n) has a unique solution modulo p.
Number Of Divisors
k
Y k
Y
⌧( p↵i i ) = (↵i + 1)
i=1 i=1
Note that another important comes to play in this theorem.
It is that every natural number has a unique canonical factor-
ization of prime powers.
Bernoulli’s Inequality
(1 + x)n 1 + nx for x 1 and natural n.
Bezout’s Identity
For two integers a, b, there exist integers x, y such that ax +

by = gcd(a, b).
Uniqueness Theorem I
If for two polynomials P, Q of degree at most n, P (xi ) = Q(xi )

for x = 1, 2, ..., m; m > n, then the two polynomials are iden-
tical.
Uniqueness Theorem II
Given m distinct complex numbers z1 , z2 , ..., zm and another

set of m arbitrary complex numbers w1 , w2 , ..., wm , for all m >
7
n, there can exist only one unique unique polynomial P of

degree n satisfying P (zi ) = wi
Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality
(x21 +x22 +...+x2n )(y12 +y22 +...+yn2 ) (x1 y1 +x2 y2 +...+xn yn )2

where xi , yi 2 R, n 2 N
Titu Andreescu’s Lemma

x21 x22 x23 x2 (x1 + x2 + x3 + ... + xn )2
+ + + ... n
y1 y2 y3 yn y1 + y2 + y3 ... + yn
where xi , yi 2 R, n 2 N
Zsigmondy Theorem of exponents
If a > b > 0 are two coprime integers, then for any natural
number n > 1, there exists a prime number p such that p|(an
bn ) and does not divide ak bk for all positive integers k < n,
with the following exceptions-
• a = 2, b = 1 and n = 6; or
• a + b is a power of 2 and n = 2.
Fermat’s Little Theorem
ap 1
⌘ 1(mod p) for all primes p and gcd(a, p) = 1
Euler’s Totient function theorem
For any positive integer n and a whose greatest common divi-

sor is 1, we have
a (n) ⌘ 1 (mod n)
Fundamental Theorem Of Algebra
Given a polynomial of degree n, there exist exactly n complex

roots (root multiplicity included).
Legendre formula
For any given n!, we have, the maximum power of a prime p

dividing n! to be
X n
vp (n!) =
k 1
pk
Roots Of Unity
The n roots of unity are the n complex solutions of the equa-

tion xn = 1. They are cos 2k⇡ n
+ i sin 2k⇡
n
, k = 0, 1, ..., n 1.
Sum of all the roots of unity is 0.
Dirichlet’s Theorem
Dirichlet’s Theorem states that for any two co-prime integers

a, b we have infinitely many prime numbers of the form an + b
where n is a natural number. The proof of this theorem is
highly sophisticated.
Bertrand’s Postulate or Chebyshev’s Theorem
Between n and 2n, there exists a prime p for all n > 3
Lagrange’s Theorem
If p is a prime number and f (x) is an integer polynomial over

Z/p of degree n and not identically equal to zero (with at least
9
one coefficient not divisible by p) then, f (x) ⌘ 0 (mod p) has

at most n solutions in Z/p.
Quadratic Reciprocity
Definition 1 An integer satisfying gcd(a, m) = 1 is called a

quadratic residue modulo m if x2 ⌘ a(mod m) for some integer
x.
For an odd prime p, we define the Legendre Symbol as follows

:
✓ ◆ (
a 1 , if a is a quadriatic residue modulo p
=
p 1 , if a is not a quadriatic residue modulo p
(1.1)
p 1
Theorem
✓ ◆ 1.0.2 (Euler’s Criterion) For an odd prime p, a 2 ⌘
a
(mod p).
p
Consider the congruence xp 1 ⌘ 1(mod p). x can take all the

values from 1 to p 1 (by Fermat’s Little Theorem). This
p 1 p 1
congruence can be re-written as (x 2 1)(x 2 + 1) ⌘ 1(mod
p). If a is a quadratic residue modulo p, then x2 ⌘ a(mod
p 1
p) ) xp 1 ⌘ a 2 ⌘ 1(mod p). We also know that there are
only p 2 1 quadratic residues modulo p. Hence, those quadratic
p 1
residues are the solutions to x 2 1 and the rest are the
solutions to the other factor. This is true
✓ ◆because of Lagrange’s
p 1 a
theorem (why?). This gives a 2 ⌘ (mod p)
p
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆
ab a b
Corollary 1.0.3 =
p p p
✓ ◆
a2
Corollary 1.0.4 = 1, gcd(a, p) = 1
p
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
a b
Corollary 1.0.5 a ⌘ b(mod p) ) =
p p
Theorem 1 (Law of Quadratic Reciprocity) If p and q are

⇣a⌘ ✓ b ◆ p 1 q 1
distinct odd primes, then = ( 1) 2 . 2
b a
Chapter 2
Problems in Algebra
Problem 2.1 Factorize (a + b + c)3 a3 b3 c3
mm+1 + nn+1
Problem 2.2 (USAMO) Let a = m + nn
where m and
m
n are positive integers. Prove that am + an mm + nn
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
1 1 25
Problem 2.3 Prove that a + + b+ if a, b >
a b 2
0, a + b = 1
Problem 2.4 ( Eisenstein’s Criterion) Let f (x) = an xn +...+

a0 , an 6= 0. If there exists a prime number p such that p -
an , p|a0 , ..., an , p2 - a0 , then f cannot be factored into polynomi-
als with integer co-efficients.
Problem 2.5 Find all whole number solutions of x + y =

x2 xy + y 2 .
21n + 4
Problem 2.6 (IMO) Prove that the fraction is irre-
14n + 3
ducible (already in lowest form) for every natural number n.
12 Problems in Algebra
Problem 2.7 Given n positive real numbers a1 , a2 , · · · , an such

that a1 a2 · · · an = 1, prove that (1+a1 )(1+a2 ) · · · (1+an ) 2n .
Problem 2.8 Let x1 = x2 = 1, x3 = 4, xn+3 = 2xn+2 +

2xn+1 xn for all n 2 Z + . Prove that xn is a square for
all natural numbers n.
Problem 2.9 (Vietnam) Let x, y, z 2 R such that x2 + z 2 = 1

and y 2 + 2y(x + z) = 6. Prove that y(z x)  4 and determine
when equality holds good.
Problem 2.10 Find all the integer solutions to the equation

m2 = n4 + n2 + 1.
Problem 2.11 Let a, b, c be natural numbers. Prove that it

is impossible to have all three of a2 + b + c, b2 + c + a, c2 + a + b
to be perfect squares
Problem 2.12 Find all functions f : R ! R satisfying f (x +

y) + xy = f (x)f (y) for all x, y 2 R
Problem 2.13 Let P (x) = ax2 + bx + c be a polynomial with

real roots. Given that a and 24a + 7b + 2c have the same sign,
prove that it is impossible for both roots of P (x) to lie between
3 and 4.
Problem 2.14 (RMO India 2011) Let (a1 , a2 , a3 ..., a2 011) be

a permutation of the numbers 1,2,3,...,2011. Show that there
exists two numbers j,k such that 1  k < k  2011 and |aj
j| = |ak k|.
Problem 2.15 (RMO India 2011) Solve for reals x,y such
2 2
that, 16x +y + 16y +x = 1.
13
Problem 2.16 Let a, b, c be real numbers such that abc = 1.

1 1 1
Show that at most two of 2a , 2b , 2c are greater
b c a
than 1.
Problem 2.17 Let a, b, c be non zero reals such that a + b +

c = 0, a3 + b3 + c3 = a5 + b5 + c5 . Find a2 + b2 + c2
Problem 2.18 Show that the polynomial (x a1 )2 (x a2 )2 ...(x

an )2 + 1 is irreducible over integers if a1 , a2 , ..., an are integers.
Problem 2.19 Given that the polynomial x4 2x2 + ax + b

has four distinctpreal roots, show that the magnitude of each
root is less than 3
Problem 2.20 (Vietnam) Given 3 reals a.b,c such that x

4, y 5, z 6 and, x2 +y 2 +z 2 90, prove that x+y+z 16.
Problem 2.21 Prove that P (x) = x(n 1)t + x(n 2)t ... + 1 is
divisible by Q(x) = xn 1 + ... + 1 whenever gcd(n, t) = 1
5125 1
Problem 2.22 (IMO Shortlist)Prove that is a com-
525 1
posite number.
1 1
Problem 2.23 (IMO Shortlist) Prove that 1 + 3 + ... + 3 <
2 n
5
.
4
Problem 2.24 (Finland) f is a function mapping positive re-

als between 0 and 1 to reals. Let f be given by, f ( x+y
2
) =
(1 a)f (x) + af (y) where y > x and a being a constant. Also,
f (0) = 0 and f (1) = 1. Find f ( 17 ).
14 Problems in Algebra
Problem 2.25 (IMO Shortlist) Find all positive integers x

such that the product of all digits of x is given by x2 10x 22.
Problem 2.26 If n is a perfect cube, then find all n such that

n2 + 3n + 3 is a perfect cube.
Problem 2.27 (India 2004) Given that x,y,z are positive re-
als, and that x + y + z = 1, let
= min(x3 + x2 yz, y 3 + y 2 xz, z 3 + z 2 xz)
Prove that the equation x2 + x + 4 = 0 has real roots.
Problem 2.28 (Kazakhstan 1998) Show that there exists in-

finitely many positive integers n such that n2 + 1|n!.
Problem 2.29 Show that every positive rational number can

a3 + b 3
be expressed in the form 3 where a, b, c, d are positive
c + d3
integers.
Problem 2.30 (Italy 1996) Prove that there exists infinitely

many integers a,b,c such that a2 + b2 = c2 + 3.
Problem 2.31 Prove there do not exist polynomials P and Q

P (x)
such that ⇡(x) = for all x 2 N
Q(x)
Problem 2.32 (Putnam) Show that the curve x3 +3xy +y 3 =

1 contains only one set of three distinct points A, B and C
which are the vertices of an equilateral triangle. Find its area.
Chapter 3
Problems in NT
Problem 3.1 Find all pairs of natural numbers (n, k) for which
(n + 1)k = n! + 1
Problem 3.2 (Russian MO) Solve for positive integers x,y

such that, (x2 y 2 )2 = 16y + 1.
Problem 3.3 Let t be a given positive integer. Prove that

there exists infinitely many such that t + p + 1 is a perfect
square and tp + 1 is a perfect cube.
Problem 3.4 229 is a 9 digit number which is said to contain

9 out of the first 10 whole numbers in its decimal representa-
tion. Find out the whole number that is missing in 229 .
Problem 3.5 Prove that x2 17y 2 = 12 has no solutions in

integers.
Problem 3.6 Show that if p = 2n + 1, n 2 is prime, then

p 1
p|3 2 + 1
Problem 3.7 Find the smallest natural number n such that

there exist integers x1 , ..., xn satisfying the equation x31 + ... +
x3n = 20022002
16 Problems in NT
Problem 3.8 (India TST) Let n be a positive integer greater

than 1 and let p be a prime such that n divides p 1 and p
divides n3 1. Prove that 4p 3 is a square.
Problem 3.9 (Iranian MO 1994) Prove that for any prime p

greater than 3, (7p 6p 1) is divisible by 43.
Problem 3.10 (Anonymous) Prove that for every integer, there

exists a multiple of it consisting only of 7s and 0s.
Problem 3.11 Prove that any odd prime divisor of a2 + b2

(a and b are coprime) is of the form 4k + 1. If a and b are
not coprime, prove that any prime divisor of the form 4k + 3
dividing a2 + b2 must divide a and b separately.
Problem 3.12 Find all the positive integers m such that the
number obtained by erasing the last digit is a divisor of m.
Problem 3.13 Solve 3x+1 + 100 = 7x 1
Problem 3.14 (AIME) Solve for integers: x2 + x4 = 7z y 2 .
Problem 3.15 Show that 2n Cn is never a perfect power (greater

than 1) when n is a natural number.
Problem 3.16 (Putnam) Alice and Bob play a game in which

they take turns removing stones from a heap that initially has
n stones. The number of stones removed at each turn must
be one less than a prime number. The winner is the player
who takes the last stone. Alice plays first. Prove that there are
infinitely many n such that Bob has a winning strategy.
Problem 3.17 (Romania 2008) Let p be a prime number p 6=

3 and integers a,b such that p|a + b and p2 |a3 + b3 . Prove that
p2 |a + b or p3 |a3 + b3 .
17
Problem 3.18 Solve x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 2xyz in whole numbers.
Problem 3.19 IMO Shortlist Solve 4xy x y = z 2 in pos-

itive integers.
Problem 3.20 (India 2012) For primes p1 < p2 < p3 < p4

and q1 < q2 < q3 < q4 such that p4 p1 = 8 and q4 q1 = 8,
p1 , q1 > 5 show that 30|p1 q1 .
Problem 3.21 (Slovenia 1995) Let a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 be integers.

Show that the product (a1 a2 )(a1 a3 )(a1 a4 )(a2 a3 )(a2
a4 )(a3 a4 ) is divisible by 12.
Problem 3.22 A positive integer is written on a board. We

repeatedly erase its unit digit and add (to the remaining num-
ber) 5 times the removed digit. Can we end up at 19987 starting
from 71998 ?
Problem 3.23 Show that for any natural composite n > 4,

n|(n 1)!.
Problem 3.24 (Tournament of the Towns 2002) The last digit

of a number n2 + nm + m2 is 0. Prove that the last two digits
is 0.
Problem 3.25 (Poland 2002) Determine all pairs of positive

integers (x, y) such that (x + y)2 2(xy)2 = 1.
Problem 3.26 If p is a prime congruent to 1 (mod 4) show

that the negative modulo of every quadratic residue is again a
quadratic residue.
Problem 3.27 Show that the product of all quadratic residues

of a prime, is the negative modulo of the product of the non
quadratic residues.
18 Problems in NT
Problem 3.28 Show that if, p2 p + 1 = n3 for prime p and

natural n, then p is never the successor of a sum of two perfect
squares.
Problem 3.29 Prove that for all positive integers n the fol-
lowing is not an integer.
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
2 3 4 n
Problem 3.30 (IMOTC-India) Prove that for any positive

integer n, n7 + 7 is never a perfect square.
Problem 3.31 (IMO 2009) Let n be a positive integer and let

a1 , a2 , ..., ak (k 2) be distinct integers in the set {1,2,3,...,n}
such that n divides ai (ai+1 1) for i = 1, 2, ..., k 1. Prove
that n does not divide ak (a1 1).
Problem 3.32 Find all primes p such that p2 p + 1 = n3

where n is a natural number.
Problem 3.33 (Baltic Way) Find all natural numbers n such

that 3n + 1 is divisible by n2
Problem 3.34 Find all positive a and b such that (a+b2 )(b+
a2 ) = 2m for some integer m.
Problem 3.35 Let p,q be positive prime numbers and sup-

pose q > 5. Prove that if q|2p + 3p , then q > p
Problem 3.36 (Russia) Let a1 , a2 , a3 , ... represent the natural

numbers in some order such that (ai , aj ) = (i, j). Prove that
ai = i.
19
gcd(m, n) n
Problem 3.37 (Putnam) Prove that the expression m
n
is an integer for all integers n m 1.
Problem 3.38 (China TST) Let a > b > 1, b be an odd

number, a be a natural number and n be a natural number. If
3n
bn |an 1, prove that ab > .
n
2p 1
1
Problem 3.39 Find all primes p for which is a per-
p
fect square.
Problem 3.40 (Pan African) Find all positive integers n such

n3 + 3
that 2 is a positive integer.
n +7
Problem 3.41 Assume that 1 is a prime number. Then prove

that every natural number can be represented as a sum of dis-
tinct primes.
Problem 3.42 (USAMO) Prove that for every positive in-

teger n, there exists an n-digit number divisible by 5n all of
whose digits are odd.
Problem 3.43 (ITAMO) Solve pn +144 = m2 where m, n, p 2

N and p is a prime number.
20 Problems in NT
Chapter 4
Solutions to Algebra
problems
Problem 4.1 Factorize (a + b + c)3 a3 b3 c3
Solution : Let us denote the expression by P (a, b, c). No-

tice that P (a, a, c) = c3 c3 = 0. This implies that a +
b is a factor. Similarly, b + c and c + a are factors. Let
P (a, b, c) = T (a + b)(b + c)(c + a). Putting x = y = z = 1 gives
33 3 = 8T ) T = 3. To complete the proof, we check for
two other set of values for x,y,z, and we will still get T = 3.
Thus, by Uniqueness Theorem II (it is obvious that the cube
terms cancel out and we are left with a quadratic expression),
P (a, b, c) = 3(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
Remark 1 This is actually a simple problem. But the tech-

nique used here to solve is important and can turn out to be
helpful for solving problems dealing with polynomials and alge-
braic equations.
mm+1 + nn+1
Problem 4.2 (USAMO) Let a = where m and
mm +n nn m
m
n are positive integers. Prove that a + a m + nn
22 Solutions to Algebra problems
✓ ◆m
a m
Solution : If we apply Bernoulli’s inequality to 1 +
✓ ◆n ✓ ◆m ✓ m ◆n
a n m a m n a n
and 1 + , we get m 1+ +n 1 +
n m n
mm + nn + a(mn + nn ) (mm+1 + nn+1 ) = mm + nn
Remark 2 This problem illustrates the need to recognize the

form of the expression and the need for the ability to match it
with a known result without mindblocks. This comes only with
practice and experience. The usual psychology is to look for
the exact same kind of terms given in a result. For example,
Cauchy-Schwarz inequality can be applied in many many sit-
uations where the given expression does not have the slightest
resemblance with the result when you look at it for the first
time.
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
1 1 25
Problem 4.3 Prove that a + + b+ if a, b >
a b 2
0, a + b = 1
Solution : Applying the✓Cauchy-Schwarz

◆2 inequality, we get
1
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2 1+
1 1 ab
a+ + b+ . Since a and b are posi-
a b 2
tive, applying the AM-GM inequality gives ab  14 ) 1 + ab
1
5. Hence, we are done.
Problem 4.4 ( Eisenstein’s Criterion) Let f (x) = an xn +...+

a0 , an 6= 0. If there exists a prime number p such that p -
an , p|a0 , ..., an , p2 - a0 , then f cannot be factored into polynomi-
als with integer co-efficients.
Solution : We can assume that the gcd of the co-efficients is

1. Let us assume that f=gh where g and h are also integral
23
polynomials of nonzero degree. Let g = bm xm + ... + b0 , h =

ck xk + ... + c0 , bm , ck 6= 0. Now, we have an = bm ck . p - an )
p - bm , p - ck . We also have a0 = b0 c0 . Since p|a0 , p2 - a0 ,
we can conclude that exactly one of b0 or c0 us divisible by
p. Without loss of generality, p|b0 and p - c0 . We have ai =
bi c0 + bi 1 c1 + ... + b0 ci . Let i be minimal such that p - bi . This
means that p divides b0 , ..., bi 1 . It follows that p|bi c0 which is
a contradiction.
Remark 3 This a really important and beautiful result in many

levels. This can be used to prove the irreducibility of a polyno-
mial directly or indirectly. There are di↵erent proofs for this
criterion, some of which involve ideas from abstract algebra.
But this proof is given to highlight the importance of know-
ing the fundamentals. From a simple divisibility argument, we
proved a profound result!
Problem 4.5 Find all whole number solutions of x + y =

x2 xy + y 2 .
1 1 1 1 1 y
Solution : x2 xy + y 2 + x2 x + + y 2 = 1. This
2 2 2 2 2 2
gives
(x y)2 + (x 1)2 + (y 1)2 = 2. Hence, |x y|  1, |x 1| 
1, |y 1|  1. Now, we can find all the solutions by inspection
: (0,0), (1,0), (0,1), (2,1), (1,2), (2,2).
Remark 4 The main idea of this problem is setting bounds for

the solutions. Once we get the bounds for the variables using
elementary simple arguments, we can easily solve the problem.
One seemingly simple, but a really powerful inequality, is x2
0 for any real number x. This is applied in various situations
to get a simple and elegant solution.
21n + 4
Problem 4.6 (IMO) Prove that the fraction is irre-
14n + 3
ducible (already in lowest form) for every natural number n.
Solution : Using Euclid’s method of finding the greatest com-

mon divisor of the numerator and denominator gives 21n+4 =
1 ⇥ (14n + 3) + (7n + 1)
14n + 3 = 2 ⇥ (7n + 1) + 1. Hence, the greatest common divisor
for both the numbers is 1. Hence, it is irreducible.
Problem 4.7 Given n positive real numbers a1 , a2 , · · · , an such

that a1 a2 · · · an = 1, prove that (1+a1 )(1+a2 ) · · · (1+an ) 2n .
Solution : Applying AM-GM inequality (these are positive

reals. So, AM-GM can be applied) to all of the numbers yields
1 + ak p
ak ,
2
k = 1, · · · , n. Writing down each inequality separately and
multiplying them gives the required inequality.
Problem 4.8 Let x1 = x2 = 1, x3 = 4, xn+3 = 2xn+2 +

2xn+1 xn for all n 2 Z + . Prove that xn is a square for
all natural numbers n.
Solution : x1 , x2 , x3 are squares. We can guess that xn = Fn2

where Fn is the nth Fibonacci number. Now, we will prove this
using strong induction.
Claim : xn = Fn2 for n 4.

It can be checked that it is true for x4 , x5 , x6 . Let us assume
that our claim is true for k 2, k 1, k; k 6, k 2 Z + . Now,
we get xk + 1 = xk + 2xk 1 xk 2
= 2Fk2 + 2Fk2 1 Fk2 2 = 2(Fk 1 + Fk 2 )2 + 2Fk2 1 Fk2 2 =
4Fk2 1 + 4Fk 1 Fk 2 + Fk2 2 = (2Fk 1 + Fk 1 )2 = Fk+1 2
Hence we are done.

Remark 5 In this problem, we got lucky and guessed. A lot
of olympiad problems need some luck and good guesses. So,
it is never wrong to guess the solution(s) and try to build a
general proof for it.
25
Problem 4.9 (Vietnam) Let x, y, z 2 R such that x2 + z 2 = 1

and y 2 + 2y(x + z) = 6. Prove that y(z x)  4 and determine
when equality holds good.
Solution : First let us do some manipulation. From the first

given equality we can say that,
4x2 + 4z 2 = 4 (4.1)
and from the second equality,
2y 2 + 4y(x + z) = 12 (4.2)
adding (1) and (2) we get,
(y + 2x)2 + (y + 2z)2 = 16 (4.3)
Now let us do an interesting substitution. For any two reals

a,b we can say that a = r.cos✓ and b = r.sin✓. This is trivial
because we can assign a coordinate (a,b) in the real cartesian
plane and join the point to the origin. The length of the re-
sulting line segment is r and the angle formed between the line
segment and the x axis can be said to be ✓.
Now, in this case, Let, y + 2x = r.cos✓ and y + 2z = r.sin✓.
Clearly, r = 4 and hence, y + 2x = 4cos✓ and y + 2z = 4sin✓.
) yz + 2xz = 4zcos✓ (4.4)
) yx + 2xz = 4xsin✓ (4.5)

Then subtracting (4) and (5) we get,
y(z x) = 4(zcos✓ xsin✓) (4.6)
lemma : p
acos✓ + bsin✓  a2 + b 2
for some a, b, ✓ reals.

proof : The proof of this yields from direct application of the
cauchy schwartz inequality.
(a2 + b2 )(sin2 ✓ + cos2 ✓) (acos✓ + bsin✓)2
The result follows from this.

Now, continuing with our proof, from (6)
p
y(z x)  4( x2 + z 2 ) = 4
And hence we have established the proof.
Problem 4.10 Find all the integer solutions to the equation

m2 = n4 + n2 + 1.
Solution : (n2 )2 = n4 < m2 < n4 + 2n2 + 1 = (n2 + 1)2 .

Since it is between two perfect squares, there are no integer
solutions.
Problem 4.11 Let a, b, c be natural numbers. Prove that it

is impossible to have all three of a2 + b + c, b2 + c + a, c2 + a + b
to be perfect squares
Solution : Let the three be simultaneously perfect squares.

Since a2 + b + c is a perfect square, b + c 2a + 1. Since
b2 + c + a is a perfect square, c + a 2b + 1. Since c2 + a + b is
a perfect square, a + b 2c + 1. Adding up all the inequality
gives 2(a + b + c) 2(a + b + c) + 3 which is absurd. Hence,
the assumption is wrong.
Problem 4.12 Find all functions f : R ! R satisfying f (x +

y) + xy = f (x)f (y) for all x, y 2 R
27
Solution : Substituting y = 0 gives f (x)(1 f (0)) = 0.

f (x) 6= 0 for all values of x since it doesn’t satisfy the func-
tional equation. Hence, f (0) = 1. Substituting x = 1, y = 1
gives f (1)f ( 1) = 0. If f (1) = 0, substituting y = 1 gives
f (x) = 1 x. If f ( 1) = 0, substituting y = 1 gives
f (x) = x + 1. These are the two solutions.
Problem 4.13 Let P (x) = ax2 + bx + c be a polynomial with

real roots. Given that a and 24a + 7b + 2c have the same sign,
prove that it is impossible for both roots of P (x) to lie between
3 and 4.
Solution : Assuming that both the roots are real and lie
between 3 and 4, let them be 3 + a, 3 + b where 0 < a, b < 1.
b c
From Vieta’s relations, = 6+a+b and = 9+3(a+b)+ab.
a a
1
Using these two relations gives (24a+7b+2c) = 2ab (a+b) 
p a
2ab 2 ab < 0. From this it is evident that a and 24a+7b+2c
are of di↵erent signs. Hence the assumption is wrong and both
roots cannot lie between 3 and 4.
Problem 4.14 (RMO India 2011) Let (a1 , a2 , a3 ..., a2 011) be

a permutation of the numbers 1,2,3,...,2011. Show that there
exists two numbers j,k such that 1  k < k  2011 and |aj
j| = |ak k|.
Solution : This problem is a very interesting olympiad prob-

lem as the solution is devoid of complex algebraic techniques
and just involves invariance principle. Let us see the approach.
The first olympiad type argument that one can make is that
we can try disproving the contra positive statement. Let us do
so. Suppose |aj j| is distinct for all values j from 1 to 2011,
we have the following.
|a1 1| = n1
|a2 2| = n2
|a3 3| = n3
|a4 4| = n4
..
.
|a2011 2011| = n2011

If suppose as our contrapositive statement says, (n1 , n2 , n3 , ..., n2011 )
are distinct, and they must lie in the range of (0, 2010). How
do we express this invariance in our equations? Well, first the
modulus value is disturbing us. To remove it, we can square
each equation above, and the modulus disappears (why?). If
we square the above equations and add them up, we get,
2011
X 2010
X
[a2i +i2
2(iai )] = n2i (4.7)
i=1 i=0
P P2011 2
Note that 2011i=1 a 2
i is always going to be i=1 i in some dif-
ferent order, and similar is the sum of squares of ni . Here is the
place where we are using the invariance principle. Simplifying
the equation (7) we get,
2011
X 2011
X
20112 + i2 = 2(iai ) (4.8)
i=1 i=1
Clearly from (8), the RHS is even and the LHS is odd. Hence
we have arrived at a contradiction starting from a contrapos-
itive statement. Therefore, there will exist two such integers
such that |aj j| = |ak k|.
Problem 4.15 (RMO India 2011) Solve for reals x,y such
2 2
that, 16x +y + 16y +x = 1.
29
Solution : For this problem, it would be kind of difficult to

solve it like a diophantine. It would be much easier to try
seeing the ranges of the LHS using some inequality properties.
2 2
Since, 16x +y and 16y +x are positive, we can use AM-GM
inequality.
Note that,
16x
2 +y
+ 16y
2 +x
p
16x2 +y .16y2 +x
2
1 2 +4x+4y 2 +4y 1
) (24x )2 (4.9)
2
(2x+1)2 +(2y+12 )
1
)1 2.(2 2 ) (4.10)
(2x+1)2 +(2y+12 )
)1 (2 2 ) (4.11)
Now, we have a power of two whose exponent is a positive real
(why?) and the power of two is  1. But this can happen
only at equality because, 2k where is a non negative real is an
increasing function of k whose minimal value is 1 when k = 0.
Which means,
(2x + 1)2 + (2y + 1)2 = 0 (4.12)
) 2x + 1 = 2y + 1 = 0
Hence, x = y = 12 . is the only real solution satisfying the
above diophantine equation.
Problem 4.16 Let a, b, c be real numbers such that abc = 1.

1 1 1
Show that at most two of 2a , 2b , 2c are greater
b c a
than 1.
Solution : Let us assume that all 3 numbers are greater than

1. Then, their product is greater than 1 and sum is greater
✓ ◆✓ ◆✓ ◆
1 1 1
than 3. 2a 2b 2c > 1 and 2a + 2b + 2c
✓ ◆ b c a
1 1 1
+ + > 3. Since abc = 1, the first inequality reduces
a b c ✓ ◆
1 1 1
to 2(a+b+c) + + < 3. But this is a contradiction.
a b c
Hence our assumption is false.
Problem 4.17 Let a, b, c be non zero reals such that a + b +

c = 0, a3 + b3 + c3 = a5 + b5 + c5 . Find a2 + b2 + c2
Solution : Since a+b+c = 0, a3 +b3 +c3 = 3abc, a5 +b5 +c5 =

5abc(a2 + b2 + c2 + ab + bc + ca). This yields a2 + b2 + c2 +
ab + bc + ca = 35 ) (a + b + c)2 + a2 + b2 + c2 = 65 . Hence,
a2 + b2 + c2 = 65
Problem 4.18 Show that the polynomial (x a1 )2 (x a2 )2 ...(x

an )2 + 1 is irreducible over integers if a1 , a2 , ..., an are integers.
Solution : Let us assume that it is reducible and let it be

Q(x)R(x) where both are monic (coefficient highest power of
x is 1) with integer co-efficients. Let deg Q(x) = k Then,
deg R(x) = 2n k. We have Q(ai )R(ai ) = 1, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
Since they are integer valued, Q(ai ) = R(ai ) = ±1.
Lemma
For all ai , we have either Q(ai ) = R(ai ) = 1 or for all ai we

have Q(ai ) = R(ai ) = 1. That is, it is not possible for Q(x)
and R(x) to occupy 1 for some values of ai and 1 for the rest.
Proof
The proof is very simple. Since P (x) has no real roots (why?)
Q(x) and R(x) too have no real roots. Therefore, if Q(ak ) is
31
-1 for some k, no other value when substituted in the function

can give 1 because then the curve has to intersect the x axis
which is not possible.
If k < n, then, Q(x) = ±1 would have n solutions which
contradicts our assumption (Q(x) is forced to be 1). If k = n,
then the polynomial Q(x) R(x) has n solutions whereas the
degree is less than n. So, it is forced to be zero, that is, Q(x) =
R(x). If k > n, then the first argument can be repeated for
R(x). From this equality, we have (x a1 )2 (x a2 )2 ...(x
an )2 + 1 = Q(x)2 . This is of the form a2 + 1 = b2 where a, b
are integers. The only solution to this equation is a = 0, b = 1
which forces Q(x) and R(x) to be constant again contradicting
our assumption. Hence, the polynomial is irreducible.
Problem 4.19 Given that the polynomial x4 2x2 + ax + b

has four distinctpreal roots, show that the magnitude of each
root is less than 3
Solution : Let the roots be ↵, , , . From Viete’s relations,

its trivial to arrive at ↵2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 4. Applying the
Cauchy-Schwarz inequality to 3 roots at a time yields 3(↵2 +
2
+ 2 ) > (↵ + + )2 . The inequality is strict because the
roots are distinct. This inequality implies that ↵2 + 2 + 2 >
( )2 2
3
. Adding 2 to both sides, we get 4 > 43 which directly
gives the required result. This is repeated for the other three
roots.
Problem 4.20 (Vietnam) Given 3 reals a.b,c such that x

4, y 5, z 6 and, x2 +y 2 +z 2 90, prove that x+y+z 16.
Solution : This is a very interesting problem. For the solu-

tion, we need to make some very keen observations. Firstly,
from the first given statement, we can make out that, x + y +
z 15. Let us try to prove this problem by contradiction.
Consider the contrapositive statement x + y + z < 16. Then,

we know the following.
x 4, y 5, z 6
and we also know that,
x + y + z 2 [15, 16) (4.13)
Now let us make some definitions. Let x = (4+t1 ), y = (5+t2 )

and z = 6 + [1 (t1 + t2 )] where t1 ,t2 are some positive reals
such that t1 + t2 less than 1. We are making such a definition
because, we want to find out out the maximum value of the
expression x2 + y 2 + z 2 and check if a contradiction arises with
the given inequality.
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = (4 + t1 )2 + (5 + t2 )2 + (6 + [1 (t1 + t2 )])2 (4.14)
After expanding and doing some manipulations we get,
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 77 + (t1 + t2 )2 + (3 t1 )2 + (2 t2 )2 (4.15)
Now, we are going to analyze the above equation with respect

to bounds.
lemma
The maximal value of the expression x2 + y 2 + z 2 is 90 and

equality occurs when t1 = t2 = 0. (this actually finishes our
contradiction).
Proof
First, we shall take t1 to be a constant and argue that the

expression will attain maximality when t2 = 0. Next we shall
take t2 to be a constant and argue that the expression will
33
attain maximality when t1 = 0. Using these, we can say that

the expression will attain its maximum value when both the
conditions are mutually satisfied. Which means that t1 = t2 =
0, and the maximum value is 90, and hence we should arrive
at a contradiction.
Now let us see how we are going to prove the conditions. It
is enough if we prove one of them because the other is exactly
the same to prove. Let us start by introducing S1 and S2 .
Consider the following,
S1 = (t1 )2 + (3 t1 )2 + (2)2 (4.16)
S2 = (t1 + t2 )2 + (3 t1 )2 + (2 t2 ) 2 (4.17)
Note that S1 is the case where t2 = 0. Using these two equa-
tions, if we prove that, for every possible value of t2 , S1 > S2 ,
we have proved that S is a decreasing function with respect to
t2 and hence attains maximality when t2 = 0.
Consider (17) (18). If we prove that the resulting value is
positive no matter what value t2 takes, we are done.
S1 S2 = (t22 + 2t1 t2 ) + 4t2 t22
S1 S2 > 0 , (t22 + 2t1 t2 ) + 4t2 t22 > 0

, 4t2 > 2t22 + 2t1 t2
Since equality holds when t2 = 0, we can cancel t2 on both
sides. Now the inequality to prove becomes,
4 > 2(t2 + t2 )
which is obviously true because t1 +t2 < 1 from our definitions.

Similarly we can prove the other part with the same argu-
ments. Now that we have proved what we wanted to, we must
reassure that we have got the maximum value of x2 + y 2 + z 2
to be 90 only when we took the case of x + y + z = 16. But
in our contrapositive statement x + y + z is strictly less than

16. Hence, the maximum value of x2 + y 2 + z 2 will always be
less than 90. Hence we fully established our contradiction and
thereby solved the problem.
Problem 4.21 Prove that P (x) = x(n 1)t + x(n 2)t ... + 1 is
divisible by Q(x) = xn 1 + ... + 1 whenever gcd(n, t) = 1
Solution : Let ⇠ be a complex primitive n-th root of unity.

⇠ nt 1
Since gcd(n, t) = 1, P (⇠) = n = 0. Since all the
⇠ 1
primitive n-th roots of unity satisfy the equation, P (x) =
(x ⇠)(x ⇠ 2 )...(x ⇠ n 1 )F (x) = Q(x)F (x) where F(x) is
some polynomial.
Remark 6 Complex roots of unity are of immense help when

dealing with polynomials like these (called cyclotomic polyno-
mials). It is possible to avoid them. But they save a lot of
time in factorizing expressions in various situations.
5125 1
Problem 4.22 (IMO Shortlist)Prove that is a com-
525 1
posite number.
Solution : Let x = 525 . 5125 1 = x5 1 = (x 1)(x4 + x3 +

x2 + x + 1)
= (x4 + 9x2 + 1 + 6x3 + 6x + 2x2 5x3 10x2 5x)(x 1)
= ((x2 + 3x + 1)2 5x(x + 1)2 )(x 1)
= ((x2 + 3x + 1)2 (513 (x + 1)2 )(x 1)
= (x2 + 3x + 1 + 513 (x + 1))(x2 + 3x + 1 513 (x + 1))(x 1).
Hence, it is a composite number.
1 1
Problem 4.23 (IMO Shortlist) Prove that 1 + 3 + ... + 3 <
2 n
5
.
4
35
1
Solution : Observe that n3 > (n 1)n(n+1) and =
✓ ◆ (n 1)(n)(n + 1)
1 1 2 1
+
2 n 1 n n+1
1 1 1
These two yield 1 + 3 + · · · + 3 < 1 + + ··· +
2 n 1⇥2⇥3
1
(n 1)(n)(n + 1)
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
2 1 1 2 1 1
= 1 + + + + ··· +
2 3 2 3 4 (n 1)(n)(n + 1)
✓ ◆
1 1 1 1 1 5
=1+ + <1+ =
2 2 n n+1 4 4
Problem 4.24 (Finland) f is a function mapping positive re-

als between 0 and 1 to reals. Let f be given by, f ( x+y
2
) =
(1 a)f (x) + af (y) where y > x and a being a constant. Also,
f (0) = 0 and f (1) = 1. Find f ( 17 ).
Solution : Note that we must use the fact that y > x. Hence
the only values we can substitute for x and y individually will
be 0 and 1 respectively. In each case we get,
⇣y ⌘
f = af (y) (4.18)
2
✓ ◆
x+1
f = (1 a)f (x) + a (4.19)
2
Note that from 21, we can say that for some positive m less
than 12 , we can say that, f (m) = af (2m). Taking m = 17 in
the above equation, we get, f ( 17 ) = af ( 27 ) and further more,
f ( 27 ) = af ( 47 ), and hence we can say,
✓ ◆
4 f ( 17 )
f = 2 (4.20)
7 a
Now, if we substitute x = 17 in (22) we get, f ( 47 ) = (1

a)f ( 17 ) + a. Substituting the value of f ( 47 ) in terms of f ( 17 )
from (23) we get the equation in terms of f ( 17 ) . Solving the
equation, we can find the value of f ( 17 ) as,
✓ ◆
1 a3
f = 3
7 a a2 + 1
Problem 4.25 (IMO Shortlist) Find all positive integers x
such that the product of all digits of x is given by x2 10x 22.
Solution : Since the product of the digits is non-negative,
x2 10x 22 0. Solving for the inequality keeping in mind
that x is a positive integer, x = 1 or x 12. x = 1 does not
satisfy the condition and hence is ruled out. For x 12, the
quadratic expression is increasing. If x 100, the minimum
2
is 100 10 ⇥ 100 22 = 8978. But the product of the digits
of the highest 3-digit number is 729. Hence, x  99. This
implies that the maximum product of digits is 81. This gives
x2 10x 22  81. Solving this inequality gives x  16. This
implies that the maximum product is 9. This in turn implies
that x2 10x 22  9. Solving this yields x  12. But it
is known that x 12. Hence, the only possible solution is
x = 12. Putting x = 12 satisfies the given condition. Hence
the only positive integer satisfying the given condition is 12.
Problem 4.26 If n is a perfect cube, then find all n such that

n2 + 3n + 3 is a perfect cube.
Solution : Suppose that n2 + 3n + 3 is a cube. Then, n(n2 +

3n + 3) is also a cube. n(n2 + 3n + 3) = n3 + 3n2 + 3n =
(n + 1)3 1. Hence, there exist no solutions.
Remark 7 This solution is really simple and the idea is not

tough either. But getting this particular elegant idea is what
matters. This again, is tactful use of information given and
observing the form.
37
Problem 4.27 (India 2004) Given that x,y,z are positive re-
als, and that x + y + z = 1, let
= min(x3 + x2 yz, y 3 + y 2 xz, z 3 + z 2 xz)
Prove that the equation x2 + x + 4 = 0 has real roots.
Solution : A very nice problem in algebra this is. First with-

out loss of generality let us assume that x  y  z. Then
clearly x  13 as x + y + z = 1. Then it flows from a few
logical arguments that = x3 + x2 yz. Now if the equation
must have real roots, the discriminant must be non negative.
Hence, 1 16 . Hence, we get real roots i↵,
1
x3 + x2 yz  (4.21)
16
From AM-GM inequality (x,y,z are positive reals) we get,
✓ ◆
3 2 3 2 (y + z)2 4x3 + x2 (1 x)2
x + x yz  x + x =
4 4
1
, 4x3 + x2 (1 x)2  (4.22)
4
A simple calculus argument would tell us that the LHS func-
tion is decreasing in the range [0, 13 ]. Hence the functions at-
tains local maximum (within the range) at x = 13 . A simple
substitution in (26) yields that the LHSis less than the RHS
always. Hence using a combination of calculus and AM-GM
we are done.
Problem 4.28 (Kazakhstan 1998) Show that there exists in-

finitely many positive integers n such that n2 + 1|n!.
Solution : This again involves some number theory and alge-

bra. It involves a very important factorization technique called
the Sophie-Germain identity. It is very simple and very useful.

Let us see that now. Notice that we can write
a4 + 4b4 = (a2 )2 + (2b2 )2 + 4a2 b2 (2ab)2
) a4 +4b4 = (a2 +2b2 )2 (2ab)2 = (a2 +2b2 2ab)(a2 +2b2 +2ab)
(4.23)
(28) is the famous Sophie-Germain factorization. Notice that
we can make an attempt to factorize n2 + 1, by writing n as
2a2 . Hence, it becomes,
14 + 4a4 = (1 + 2a2 2a)(1 + 2a2 + 2a)
Note that for all positive integers a, 2a2 2a + 1 < 2a2 . Hence
it will lie in the factorial expansion of 2a2 . Now, we are left to
proving that we can find infinite values of a such that 2a2 +
2a + 1 divides 2a2 !.
Now, note the following number theory argument. We can say
that for all a ⌘ 1, 3(mod5), 2a2 + 2a + 1 is divisible by 5. Now,
we make a claim that for all a 2, 5|2a2 ! which is trivially
true. Also note that
2a2 + 2a + 1
 2a2
5
This can be proved very trivially. Since we are extending the
argument to infinity, we can always find infinitely many a sat-
isfying the above relations such that,
✓ ✓ 2 ◆◆
2 2a + 2a + 1
0 < (2a 2a + 1) 6= (5) 6= < 2a2
5
(4.24)
Clearly from (29), we can say that there exists infinitely many
integers n such that n2 + 1|n!. Hence we are done.
Problem 4.29 Show that every positive rational number can

a3 + b 3
be expressed in the form 3 where a, b, c, d are positive
c + d3
integers.
39
Solution : Let us assume that a = c. Now, we can find

a2 ab + b2 = a2 ad + d2 . If we make the assumption b 6= d,
we get d = a b. If we choose a = m + n and b = 2m n,
we get d = 2n m and the fraction simplifies to m n
. This is
m
true for all fractions 1 < n < 2. Now, We can scale down any
3 p
fraction, say, pq with appropriate m, n such that 1 < m n3 q
< 2.
Since we can express this in the required form, we can multiply
n3 p (an)3 + (bn)3
by m3 to get =
q (am)3 + (dm)3
Problem 4.30 (Italy 1996) Prove that there exists infinitely

many integers a,b,c such that a2 + b2 = c2 + 3.
Solution : At first sight this looks kind of easy and one might
start o↵ by saying why not start o↵ with algebraic manipula-
tion. Even I started like that but I found that it was taking me
nowhere. But it is actually an easy problem. If we reframe the
equation as c2 b2 = a2 3, we can make an observation. If a is
even, we know that the RHS is odd, and it can be represented
as di↵erence of two perfect squares. (n + 1)2 n2 = 2n + 1.
Here, from a2 3 = 2n + 1, we can find the value of n for
each a. Then we can substitute this in b and c. Hence we
get infinitely many solutions in this process. Very subtle and
simple.
Problem 4.31 Prove there do not exist polynomials P and Q

P (x)
such that ⇡(x) = for all x 2 N
Q(x)
Solution : Let us assume that there exist polynomials P,

P (x)
Q with complex co-efficients satisfying ⇡(x) = for all
Q(x)
x 2 N. We know that
lim ⇡(x) = 1 due to the infinitude of primes (existence of
x!1
infinitely many primes). This implies that deg P > deg Q.
Note that the number primes less than every number in the
set {(t + 2)! + 2, ..., (t + 2)! + t + 2} is the same because they
are t + 1 consecutive composite numbers. If we rewrite the
given condition as P (x) Q(x)⇡(x) = 0, then, obviously we
must have t + 1 distinct roots. Note that the degree of this
new polynomial P (x) Q(x)⇡(x) is deg P . If we set deg P = t,
then we get a violation of Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
- we must have at most t roots, but here we get t + 1 roots.
Hence there do not exist two such polynomials.
Problem 4.32 (Putnam) Show that the curve x3 +3xy +y 3 =

1 contains only one set of three distinct points A, B and C
which are the vertices of an equilateral triangle. Find its area.
Solution : We can rewrite the curve as (x + y 1)(x2 xy +

y 2 + x + y + 1) = 0. Note that (x2 xy + y 2 + x + y + 1) =
1
((x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 + (x y)2 ). Solving the equation gives
2
us x + y = 1 and x = y = 1. To form a triangle with three
points on the curve, one of its vertices must be ( 1, 1). The
other two vertices must lie on the line x + y = 1. It is trivial
to find out that
p the perpendicular distance p from ( 1, 1) to
3 2 3 3
the line is . And hence, the area is .
2 2
Chapter 5
Solutions to NT problems
Problem 5.1 Find all pairs of natural numbers (n, k) for which
(n + 1)k = n! + 1
Solution : Applying mod (n+1) both sides, we get

n! + 1 ⌘ 0(mod n + 1). Applying converse of Wilson’s Theo-
rem, we know that n+1 is prime. Let n + 1 = p. This gives
the equation pk 1 = (p 1)!. Dividing by p 1 on both sides,
we get 1 + p + ...pk 1 = (p 2)! )
(pk 1 1) + (pk 2 1) + ... + (p 1) + (1 1) + k = (p 2)!
Claim : If n is a composite number greater than 3, n|(n 1)!.

Since n is not prime, n=ab where a and b are co-prime and
are between 1 and n. This means a|(n 1)!, b|(n 1)! )
ab|(n 1)! ) n|(n 1)!
Since k < p 1, for a prime p greater than 5, RHS is a multiple
of p 1 but LHS is not. So, the solutions can only belong to
{2, 3, 5}. Checking yields (n, k) = (2, 1), (3, 1), (5, 2)
Remark 8 Usually, a normal olympiad exponential diophan-

tine equation needs tricky manipulations. Sometimes, after
some manipulation we may not know how to proceed. Recog-
nizing well known results comes in handy here. For example,
42 Solutions to NT problems
whenever we see a factorial, there is a high chance that a well

known result like Wilson’s Theorem might come in handy. And
it did help!
Problem 5.2 (Russian MO) Solve for positive integers x,y

such that, (x2 y 2 )2 = 16y + 1.
Solution : This problem can be solved by pure number theory

or by a combination of both. Let us see the latter first. Let us
bring the diophantine to a factored form in order to use the
fact the x,y are integers.Consider the following.
(x2 y 2 )2 1 = 16y
) (x2 y 2 + 1)(x2 y2 1) = 16y
(x2 y 2 + 1)(x2 y2 1)
) = 16 (5.1)
y
Now, we see that the numerator is a product of two consecutive
integers. Now we use the basic number theory property that if
a|bc and GCD(b, c) = 1 then, a|b or a|c. Here, we know the y
divides the numerator because the quotient is an integer. But
we are making an assumption that y 3. Now we get two
2 2 2 2
cases, y|(x y + 1) or y|(x y 1).
Note that, 16 = 4 ⇤ 4(or)8 ⇤ 2(or)16 ⇤ 1 and also the negatives
of each pairing. So we have six cases to check for. Also, y can
divide bothe the multiples in the numerator. Hence there are
totally 12 cases to check for.
After trials we arrive at the solutions (1,0) and (4,5). But
we need positive integers. Hence, x = 4, y = 5 are the only
solution to this diophantine.
Problem 5.3 Let t be a given positive integer. Prove that

there exists infinitely many such that t + p + 1 is a perfect
square and tp + 1 is a perfect cube.
43
Solution : We can choose p = t2 + 3t + 3 giving p + t + 1 =

(t + 2)2 and pt + 1 = (t + 1)3 .
Problem 5.4 229 is a 9 digit number which is said to contain

9 out of the first 10 whole numbers in its decimal representa-
tion. Find out the whole number that is missing in 229 .
Solution : This is a very good number theory problem. An

abacus student will arrive at the answer is let us say 5 minutes,
that 229 = 536, 870, 912 and the missing digit is 4. But what
if the student does not know abacus or any form of fast arith-
metic, and is lazy to calculate. We must in any case provide
a more elegant solution.
It is well known that sum of the digits of any number is used
to check divisibility by 9. Here is a small well known proof of
what we use. It is always good to know why the theorems we
use work.
Lemma
If a number leaves remainder r when divided by 9, its sum of

the digits also leave the same remainder.
Proof
Any number A can be written as follows.
A = 10n A1 + 10n 1 A2 + 10n 2 A3 + ... + 10An + An+1 (5.2)
Where A2 , A3 , ..., An+1 2 (0, 1, 2, ..., 9) and A1 6= 0. Since 10 ⌘

1(mod9), we can say that for any non negative K, 10K ⌘
1(mod9) Hence, (19) would become as follows.
n+1
X
A⌘ Ai (mod9) (5.3)
i=1
Using this let us see what remainder 229 leaves with respect
to division by 9. 23 ⌘ 1(mod9), (23 )9 ⌘ 1(mod9) and hence,
229 ⌘ 4(mod9).
Since it is given that 229 has nine distinct digits, the digit that
is absent will be the remainder when divided by 9. (why?)
Hence, 4 is the left out digit.
Problem 5.5 Prove that x2 17y 2 = 12 has no solutions in

integers.
Solution : We have x2 ⌘ 12(mod 17).

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
12 3 4 17 3 1 17 1
. 2
= = ( 1) 2 2 = = 1
17 17 17 3 3
Hence, there are no solutions.
Problem 5.6 Show that if p = 2n + 1, n 2 is prime, then

p 1
p|3 2 + 1
Solution : Obviously,✓ n◆has to be even (if not, it will be divis-

3 p 1
ible by 3). We have ⌘ 3 2 (mod p). p ⌘ 4k + 1 ⌘ 2(mod
p ✓ ◆⇣ ⌘
3 p
3), it is a not a quadratic residue modulo 3. =
p 3
p 1 p 1
( 1) 2 = 1 ) 3 2 + 1 ⌘ 0(mod p).
Problem 5.7 Find the smallest natural number n such that

there exist integers x1 , ..., xn satisfying the equation x31 + ... +
x3n = 20022002
Solution : We know that a cube modulo 9 has to be one of

1, 0, 1. Note that 20022002 ⌘ 42002 ⌘ 4(mod 9). To obtain
4 using the given residue class (set of remainders), we need
45
at least 4 cubes. If we can find four integers such that the

equation is satisfied, then the proof is complete. Note that
103 + 103 + 13 + 13 = 2002. Multiply this by 20022001 =
3
(2002667 ) to get the required 4-tuple.
Problem 5.8 (India TST) Let n be a positive integer greater

than 1 and let p be a prime such that n divides p 1 and p
divides n3 1. Prove that 4p 3 is a square.
Solution : Let p = nk + 1 where k 2 N. p|(n3 1) )

p|(n2 + n + 1) since n < p 1 or p > n + 1 > n 1. This
gives n2 + n + 1 = t(nk + 1) where t 2 N. This gives n2
(kt 1)n (t 1) = 0. For the equation to have integral
roots, the necessary condition is that the discriminant must
be a perfect square. (kt 1)2 + 4(t 1) = w2 . For this
to be satisfied, 4(v 1) 2(kt + 1) (else, the LHS it will
lie between two squares). This implies that 2t(2 k) 3
which yields k = 1, p = n + 1. This leads to a contradiction -
(n+1)|(n2 +n+1). The other condition that can work is setting
t = 1 which gives p = n2 + n + 1 and hence 4p 3 = (2n + 1)2 .
Thus proved.
Problem 5.9 (Iranian MO 1994) Prove that for any prime p

greater than 3, (7p 6p 1) is divisible by 43.
Solution : The solution for this problem can be thought of

directly using modular arithmetic. Let us see the following
analysis about the remainder powers of 7 leave when divided
by 43.
71 ⌘ 7(mod43)
72 ⌘ 6(mod43)
73 ⌘ 1(mod43)
74 ⌘ 7(mod43)
75 ⌘ 6(mod43)
76 ⌘ 1(mod43)
Note that the residue class becomes cyclic with a period of 6.
Hence we can generalize the residue left by 7n .
71,2,3,4,5,0(mod43) ⌘ 7, 6, 1, 7, 6, 1(mod43) (5.4)
We have given a symbolic representation of the general mod-

ular case of 7n . But in the question we have 7p where p is a
prime. Now let us see for powers of 6.
61 ⌘ 6(mod43)
62 ⌘ 7(mod43)
63 ⌘ 1(mod43)
64 ⌘ 6(mod43)
65 ⌘ 7(mod43)
66 ⌘ 1(mod43)
Note that we get only a period of 3 in powers of 6. Since p is
a prime, 7p ⌘ 7, 1, 6(mod43) and 6p ⌘ 6, 1, 7(mod43).
Note that 7p 6p ⌘ 1(mod43) only when p ⌘ 1, 5(mod6).
But since p > 3, the middle possibility of p being 3mod(6) is
eliminated. Hence we are done.
Problem 5.10 (Anonymous) Prove that for every integer, there

exists a multiple of it consisting only of 7s and 0s.
Solution : The problem looks simple to comprehend but re-

quires certain logical arguments for the completion of its proof.
Let the number A = 7.10n1 + 7.10n2 + .... Consider a natural
number n. We need to prove that any n will have a multiple
of the above given form. Let us consider the basic modulo
residues left by the powers of 10. Let
7.101 ⌘ m1 (modn)
47
7.102 ⌘ m2 (modn)
7.103 ⌘ m3 (modn)
7.104 ⌘ m4 (modn)
..
.
Note that if we extend the above statements infinitely large
powers of 10, we will get a particular mk that is repetitive for
infinitely many LHSs’. This is true because there exists only
a finite possible distinct residues left with n.
Hence, we take that remainder mk and write A as the sum
of n such LHS forms that leave remainder mk . Hence we get
the collective remainder to be 0. The number A will look like
...770700700077.... Hence, we are done.
Problem 5.11 Prove that any odd prime divisor of a2 + b2

(a and b are coprime) is of the form 4k + 1. If a and b are
not coprime, prove that any prime divisor of the form 4k + 3
dividing a2 + b2 must divide a and b separately.
Solution : Let p = 4k + 3. Since p|a2 + b2 , a2 ⌘ b2 (mod p).

We have ap 1 = a4k+2 = (a2 )2k+1 ⌘ ( b2 )2k+1 ⌘ bp 1 (mod
p). But since a and b are coprime, p cannot divide them both.
If we use Fermat’s Little Theorem, we get a contradiction.
Hence, our assunption is wrong. If p is of the form 4k+3, using
similar arguments and assuming that gcd(a, p) = gcd(b, p) = 1,
we can arrive at a contradiction.
Problem 5.12 Find all the positive integers m such that the
number obtained by erasing the last digit is a divisor of m.
Solution : Let y be the last digit of the number m and let x

be the number obtained after erasing. All numbers with y = 0
are solutions. If y 6= 0, then x is a single digit number. So, the
solutions are 11,...,19,22,24,26,28,33,36,39,44,48,55,77,88,99.
Problem 5.13 Solve 3x+1 + 100 = 7x 1
Solution : Notice that 4 is a solution. Now, if x < 4, 3x+1 +

100 > 7x 1 and if x > 4, 3x+1 +100 < 7x 1 . Hence the solution
is unique.
Remark 9 This is yet another important technique in solving

exponential diophantine equations. The crux of the idea is
comparing two functions. Generally, calculus is helpful. But in
this case and for many olympiad problems, simple inequalities
will be enough. Here, we had two increasing functions and we
compared their growth in certain ranges. Yet another place we
can use this idea is when we have an increasing and decreasing
function. These are generally easier to deal with.
Problem 5.14 Solve for integers: x2 + x4 = 7z y 2 .
Solution : This is quite a simple problem. LHS becomes
x2 (x2 + 1) = 7z y 2
Note that GCD(x2 , x2 + 1) = 1. Hence, either x or x2 + 1 must

be divisible by 7. But note that x2 + 1 can never be divisible
by 7 as no perfect square is congruent to -1 (mod7). Hence
7|x. Now, note that the maximum power of 7 that divides
the LHS is even. Hence, z must be even also. In that case,
the RHS becomes a perfect square. But the LHS is composed
of the product of two co-prime integers. Hence both must be
perfect squares. But that is only possible when x=0.
Hence the only solution to the above equation is (x,y,z)=(0,0,z)
where z can be any integer.
Problem 5.15 Show that 2n Cn is never a perfect power (greater

than 1) when n is a natural number.
49
(2n)!
Solution : 2n Cn = . From Chebyshev’s theorem, we
n!n!
know that there exists a prime p between 2n and n. Its next
multiple is obviously greater than 2n. Since the highest power
of p in the numerator is 1 and it does not occur in the de-
nominator, 2n Cn can never be a perfect power greater than
1.
Problem 5.16 (Putnam) Alice and Bob play a game in which

they take turns removing stones from a heap that initially has
n stones. The number of stones removed at each turn must
be one less than a prime number. The winner is the player
who takes the last stone. Alice plays first. Prove that there are
infinitely many n such that Bob has a winning strategy.
Solution : Let us assume that there are a finite number of

n for which Bob has a winning strategy. This implies that for
every other number, there is a winning strategy for Alice. This
is equivalent to saying we can write a number which is one of
Alice’s winning strategies as b + p 1 (b is a number that is
one of Bob’s winning strategies). We can write t consecutive
composite integers - A = {(t + 1)! + 2, ..., (t + 1)! + t + 1}. Since
Bob’s winning strategies are finite, there must be a highest
number for which he can win. So, if we take t to be higher
than the highest number of Bob’s strategies, not all A can be
of the form b + p 1. Hence, the assumption that his winning
strategies are finite is a contradiction.
Problem 5.17 (Romania 2008) Let p be a prime number p 6=

3 and integers a,b such that p|a + b and p2 |a3 + b3 . Prove that
p2 |a + b or p3 |a3 + b3 .
Solution : This is a very simple and nice basic number theory

problem. Let us make use of the conditions appropriately. The
first part is quite easy to prove. If p2 |a3 +b3 then p2 |(a+b)(a2
ab + b2 ). Since p|a + b, either p2 |a + b or p|a2 ab + b2 . Clearly

as a first case, the first part of the problem is proved. Now let
us see the other part.
p|a2 ab + b2
, p|(a + b)2 3ab
p|a + b ) p|3ab ) p|ab
The last part is true because it is given that p is not equal
to 3. Now, p|a or p|b or p|a, b. But clearly p|a, b is only true
because p|a + b. Hence, p3 |a3 + b3 . Thus we are done.
Problem 5.18 Solve x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 2xyz in whole numbers.
Solution : If all of x, y and z are odd, then, the left hand

side will be odd but the right hand side will be even. Hence,
if one of them is even, say x (without loss of generality), then
the right hand side will be divisible by 4, x2 will be divisible
by 4. Hence, we should have y 2 + z 2 ⌘ 0(mod 4). Since the
only remainders left on dividing a square by 4 are 0 and 1, y 2
and z 2 are forced to be even. Let x = 2x1 , y = 2y1 , z = 2z1 .
This yields x21 + y12 + z12 = 4x1 y1 z1 . Again, we can repeat the
previous argument to say that x1 , y1 , z1 should be even and
this will go on ad infinitum (to infinity). So, the values for x,
y and z will not be finite. Hence, we are forced to conclude
that the trivial solution (x = y = z = 0) is the only solution.
Remark 10 The idea used in the end is a very important idea

which is often helpful. It was the brainchild of the mathemati-
cian Fermat. This principle, called the Infinite Descent princi-
ple, can be used in a variety of problems. The interested reader
can read about it in any olympiad book on algebra or number
theory or diophantine equations.
Problem 5.19 IMO Shortlist Solve 4xy x y = z 2 in pos-

itive integers.
51
Solution : The equation can be written as (4x 1)(4y

1) = 4z 2 + 1. Let a prime p divide (4x 1). Then, we have
(2z)2 ⌘ 1(mod p). From Fermat’s Little Theorem, we get
(2z)p 1 ⌘ 1(mod p). Since p is an odd prime, we can rewrite it
p 1 p 1
as 1 ⌘ (2z)p 1 ⌘ ((2z)2 ) 2 ⌘ ( 1) 2 (mod p).Hence, we can
conclude that p ⌘ 1(mod 4)(if you can’t figure out the reason,
assume p to be 1 mod 4 and put it back in the congruence).
That means any prime divisor of 4x 1 must be 1 mod 4 which
is a contradiction. Hence, there are no solutions.
Problem 5.20 (India 2012) For primes p1 < p2 < p3 < p4

and q1 < q2 < q3 < q4 such that p4 p1 = 8 and q4 q1 = 8,
p1 , q1 > 5 show that 30|p1 q1 .
Solution : Let us process the given data. p1 and p4 are odd

primes with a di↵erence of 8. Hence there must be seven num-
bers between them. Consider divisibility by 6. Any prime can
only be 1, 1(mod6). Hence, it is clear that p1 ⌘ 1(mod6).
This is because if p1 ⌘ 1(mod6), then p4 ⌘ 3(mod6) which is
not true. A similar argument says that q1 ⌘ 1(mod6). Hence
p1 q1 ⌘ 0(mod6).
Now we need to look out for divisibility by 5. A case analysis
tells us that p1 ⌘ q1 ⌘ 1(mod5). The other possibilities will
contradict the primeness of p4 , or show that there exists three
consecutive primes which is false. Hence p1 q1 ⌘ 0(mod5).
Hence we are done.
Problem 5.21 (Slovenia 1995) Let a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 be integers.

Show that the product (a1 a2 )(a1 a3 )(a1 a4 )(a2 a3 )(a2
a4 )(a3 a4 ) is divisible by 12.
Solution : Note that since there are 4 integers, it is invariant

that at least two of them will leave the same remainder when
divided by 3. Let those numbers be ai , aj . Then, clearly ai
aj ⌘ 0(mod3). Now if we consider divisibility by 4, we must
notice that the maximum possible residues that a1 , a2 , a3 , a4

can have is 4. And hence consider they are all distinct (0,1,2,3
(mod4)). We take this situation because if there is a repetition
we are directly done. Note that a1 a3 , a2 a4 are both
even, Hence the product is divisible by 4. From the above two
arguments the product is divisible by 3 and 4 and hence 12.
Hence we are done.
Problem 5.22 A positive integer is written on a board. We

repeatedly erase its unit digit and add (to the remaining num-
ber) 5 times the removed digit. Can we end up at 19987 starting
from 71998 ?
Solution : Let the n-th number written on the board be

an = 10xn + yn . an + 1 ⌘ 5(10xn + yn ) ⌘ 5an (mod 7). Since a1
is divisible by 7 and 1998 is not, we can never obtain 19987 .
Remark 11 This problem is an example of identifying the in-

variant, that is, something that does not change after all the
changes made. Invariants are a part of every olympiad prob-
lem. Identifying them is often the key to solving the problem,
or at least a part of it.
Problem 5.23 Show that for any natural composite n > 4,

n|(n 1)!.
Solution : This is a again a simple but interesting problem.

Let the canonical factorization of n be as follows.
n = pa11 .pa22 .pa33 ... (5.5)
where, p1 , p2 , p3 ,... are primes. Note that, n 1 p1 a1 , n 1

p2 a2 etc. This is a simple logical argument and can be trivially
identified since n > 4. Hence, (n 1)! will definitely contain p1
a1 times, p2 a2 times and so on as factors (a trivial argument
53
from legendre’s factorial equation). Hence, clearly n|(n 1)!.

This is a nice idea involving the properties of the factorial
function. It is a very be beautiful function and is used in
many areas of mathematics.
Problem 5.24 (Tournament of the Towns 2002) The last digit

of a number n2 + nm + m2 is 0. Prove that the last two digits
is 0.
Solution : This is quite a simple number theory problem.

Consider modulo 10. if, n2 + nm + m2 ⌘ 0(mod10), then
multiplying the equation both sides by (n-m), we get, n3 ⌘
m3 (mod10). Consider the cubular residues left with 10. We
notice that they all are distinct (we leave it to the readers to
find out why). Hence, n ⌘ m(mod10). It follows easily that
the required expression is divisible by 100.
Problem 5.25 (Poland 2002) Determine all pairs of positive

integers (x,y) such that (x + y)2 2(xy)2 = 1
Solution : This is quite an easy problem. But we need to

prove a lemma that is quite obvious. Lemma . For all positive
integers x,y, x + y < xy. Proof WLOG, let x y, then
x+y < x | +x+ {z... + x} = xy. This is true because y > 2.
ytimes
Hence, the only possibilities for x,y is (1,1),(1,2),(2,1). Clearly
the latter two are the solutions we need.
Problem 5.26 If p is a prime congruent to 1 (mod 4) show

that the negative modulo of every quadratic residue is again a
quadratic residue.
Solution : This is a very useful property. Let us consider

the contrapositive statement and prove that it is not possi-
ble. Suppose that p ⌘ 1 (mod 4), and the negative of any
quadratic residue is not a quadratic residue, we have from

Wilson’s theorem,
(p 1)! ⌘ 1 (mod p)
And from our statement, we have,
q1 q2 q3 ...q p 1 q1 q2 q3 ... qp 1 ⌘ 1 (mod p)

2 2
p 1
) 1 2 (q1 q2 q3 ...q p 1 )2 ⌘ 1 (mod p)
2
Since p ⌘ 1 (mod 4), we have a perfect square is congruent to

-1. Which means -1 is a quadratic residue. But we have the
negative of a quadratic residue to also be a quadratic residue
(1 and -1). Hence, we have established a contradiction and
established the proof.
Let us see if the converse of this statement is true. Converse
:
It is interesting to analyze the converse of the problem. We
confirm if when the negative of a quadratic residue is a quadratic
residue, then the prime must be 1 (mod 4). This is true in-
deed. Here is the proof. Suppose that the negative of every
quadratic residue is also a quadratic
⇣ residue,
⌘ then we have for
2 2 b2
some a,b a ⌘ b (mod p), ) 2
= 1. Then, by basic
properties, we can say that such an argument can be true only
when -1 is a quadratic residue. From Euler criterion, it follows
that p must be 1 (mod 4).
Problem 5.27 Show that the product of all quadratic residues

of a prime, is the negative modulo of the product of the non
quadratic residues.
Solution : This is a very good statement. Before we start

o↵ with the proof, let us see some basic arguments. For any
two non quadratic residues ri , rj , we have that the product of
55
them is always a quadratic residue. So, it is valid to say that,

for any prime p and any non quadratic residue a of p,
q1 q2 q3 ...q p 1 ⌘ ar1 ar2 ar3 ...ar p 1 (mod p) (5.6)

2 2
The above equation requires some justification. Note that

ari arj (mod p) for any i. This and the above stated point
justifies the above equation.
p 1
q1 q2 q3 ...q p 1 ⌘a 2 r1 r2 r3 ...r p 1 (mod p) (5.7)
2 2
From Euler criterion, we have,
q1 q2 q3 ...q p 1 ⌘ r1 r2 r3 ...r p 1 (mod p) (5.8)

2 2
We have hence proved our claim. Now let us see some exten-
sions to this statement. Note that it is interesting to see that,
it is possible to determine the exact remainder that the prod-
uct of the quadratic residues leave depending on the nature of
the prime. Let us see that.
Extensions : It is possible to make use of the Wilson’s theo-
rem to find the remainder left by the product. For any prime
p, we have,
(p 1)! ⌘ 1 (mod p)
Q Q
Now, ((p 1)!)2 = ( qi )2 ⌘ 1 (mod p), Hence, qi ⌘ ±1
(mod p). Infact, it is more interesting
Q Q to identify that, since
(p 1)! ⌘ 1 (mod p), Q we have qi nqi ⌘ 1 (mod p).
It simply follows that nqi ⌘ ⌥1 (mod p). Hence we have
proved the theorem. Another interesting investigation is to
find out the nature of the prime when the product of the
quadratic residues is 1 or -1. We leave it as a small challenge
to the readers.
Problem 5.28 Show that if, p2 p + 1 = n3 for prime p and

natural n, then p is never the successor of a sum of two perfect
squares.
Solution : Let us start subtracting p3 both sides. We get,

(p 1)(p2 + 1) = (p n)(p2 + np + n2 )
Now, note that p ⌘ n ⌘ ±1 (mod 4) only satisfies the above
equation. Hence, there exists a prime q ⌘ 1 (mod 4) that
divides the LHS and RHS (why?). Note that q cannot divide
p2 + 1. This is because if suppose it divides, then p2 ⌘ 1
(mod q) which forces q to be congruent to 1 (mod 4). Hence,
q must divide p 1. If p happens to be a successor of the sum
of two perfect squares, then q|p 1 = a2 + b2 . Hence, a2 ⌘ b2
(mod q). But note that
✓ 2◆ ✓ 2◆✓ ◆
b b 1
= = 1
q q q
which is a contradiction. Hence proved.
Problem 5.29 Prove that for all positive integers n the fol-
lowing is not an integer.
1 1 1 1
+ + + ... +
2 3 4 n
Solution : Let us start with the canonical factorization of
n. Let n = pa11 pa22 pa33 .... Having this in mind, let us see the
expression at hand.
n!
1 1 1 1 + n!3 + n!4 + ... + n!
+ + + ... + = 2 n
(5.9)
2 3 4 n n!
Now, if the above expression is an integer, then the denomi-
nator must divide the numerator or rather, all divisors of the
denominator must divide the numerator. Let the largest power
of two less than n be 2k , and let the largest power of two di-
viding n! be 2m . Knowing that 2k < n, consider divisibility by
2m k+1 in the numerator.
Note that all the terms in the numerator except 2n!k are divisible
by 2m k+1 . Hence, all factors of the denominator do not divide
the numerator. Hence, we are done.
57
Problem 5.30 (TST-India) Prove that for any positive inte-

ger n, n7 + 7 is never a perfect square.
Solution : This is a very nice problem involving quadratic

residues. Note, that we must prove for all natural n, n7 +7 = k 2
has no solution in n and k. Let us modify this equation a
bit.From the equation, it is trivial to identify that n ⌘ 1(mod
4).
n7 + 128 = k 2 + 121
) (n + 2)(n6 2n5 + 4n4 + ... + 64) = k 2 + 112
Note that there exists a prime p congruent to -1(mod 4) di-
viding the LHS. Hence, it must divide the RHS also.
) k2 ⌘ 112 (modp)
Hence, ✓ ◆
112
=1
p
But using the product lemma, we can say that,
✓ 2◆✓ ◆
11 1
=1
p p
⇣ 2⌘
But by definition, 11p = 1. Hence,
✓ ◆
1
=1 (5.10)
p
From the Euler criterion, and (1.31), we jointly say that,

p 1
1 2 =1
Which hence follows that p ⌘ 1 (mod 4). But this is a contra-

diction. Hence, we are done.
Problem 5.31 (IMO 2009) Let n be a positive integer and let

a1 , ..., ak (k 2) be distinct integers in the set {1,...,n} such
that n divides ai (ai+1 1) for i + 1, ..., k 1. Prove that n does
not divide ak (a1 1).
Solution : This problems calls for the basic operative prop-

erties of modular arithmetic. Let us write the given data in a
convenient form.
a1 ⌘ a1 a2 (mod n) (5.11)
..
.
ak 1 ⌘ ak 1 ak (mod n) (5.12)
Note that from the above set of equations, we can conclude
that,
a1 ⌘ a1 a2 a3 ...ak (mod n) (5.13)
Let us assume that n divides ak (a1 1). Then, we have,
a1 ak ⌘ k (mod n)
) a1 a2 ...ak 1 ak ak ⌘ ak (mod n)
From 5.10 and 5.9, we can say that,
) a1 a2 ...ak 1 ak ⌘ ak (mod n)
) a1 ⌘ ak (mod n)
But from the given conditions, since, all ai are less than n
and are distinct, such a claim is not possible and is clearly a
contradiction to our assumption. Hence proved.
Problem 5.32 Find all primes p such that p2 p + 1 = n3

where n is a natural number.
59
Solution : p2 p + 1 = n3 ) p(p 1) = (n 1)(n2 + n + 1).

Since p is prime, it divides n 1 or n2 +n+1. If it divides n 1,
then p|n 1 ) p  n 1 ) p3 < n3 . Multiplying the original
equation by p + 1 on both sides yields p3 + 1 = n3 (p + 1) )
n3  p3 + 1. The conclusion n3 = p3 + 1 follows from the
two inequalities. Substituting this in the given equation gives
p2 p + 1 = p3 + 1. From the Rational Root Theorem, it
follows that p|1 which is absurd. Hence, p|n2 + n + 1. It also
follows that n 1|p 1. Let p 1 = t(n 1). Substituting
this gives n2 + (1 t2 )n + (t2 t + 1) = 0. Since n is natural,
the discriminant of this quadratic equation has to be a perfect
square. = t4 6t2 + 4t 3 = (t2 3)2 + 4t 12 < (k 2 1)2 .
To make a perfect square, t = 3. This gives (p, n) = (19, 7).
Problem 5.33 (Baltic Way) Find all natural numbers n such

that 3n + 1 is divisible by n2
Solution : n = 1 is always true. Let n be greater than 1.Let

p be the smallest prime dividing n. Using Fermat’s Little
Theorem gives p|3p 1 1 and the fact that n divides 3n + 1
gives p|32n 1(multiply by 3n 1). Combining these two gives
p|3gcd(p 1,2n) 1 = 32 1 ) p = 2. Since n2 divides 3n + 1,
4|32k + 1. But 9k ⌘ 1(mod 4). Hence, 4 can never divide
32k + 1. Hence, there exists no natural number n satisfying
the given condition.
Problem 5.34 Find all positive a and b such that (a+b2 )(b+
a2 ) = 2m for some integer m.
Solution : If both a and b are odd, then (a, b) = (1, 1) since

if there are other odd numbers, then the prime factorization of
the LHS will contain primes other than 2. If both a and b are
even, setting a = 2a1 , b = 2b1 , a1 , b1 2 N gives 4(a1 + 2b21 )(b1 +
2a21 ) = 2m . Hence, a1 = 2a2 , b1 = 2b2 , a2 , b2 2 N. Substituting
this gives a similar condition. Hence, by Fermat’s Infinite
Descent, there are no solutions when a and b are even.
Problem 5.35 Let p,q be positive prime numbers and sup-

pose q > 5. Prove that if q|2p + 3p , then q > p
Solution : q|2p + 3p ) q|9p 4p . Fermat’s Little Theorem

gives q|9q 1 4q 1 . These two facts imply that 5 < q|gcd(9p
4p , 9q 1 4q 1 ) ) 5 < q|9gcd(p,q 1) 4gcd(p,q 1) If gcd(p, q 1) =
1, then there is a contradiction. Hence gcd(p, q 1) > 1 or
p|q 1. Hence, q > p
Problem 5.36 (Russia) Let a1 , a2 , a3 , ... represent the natural

numbers in some order such that, (ai , aj ) = (i, j). Prove that
ai = i
Solution : This is very nice logical problem. for some i con-

sider ai , a2i . Their GCD is i. Therefore, we can say in general
that for all i, i|ai and hence, ai i.
Now, a1 = 1 because, if a1 6= 1 it can occupy no other place
because all the others are greater than 2. Similar arguments
confirm that a2 = 2, a3 = 3 and so on. By an inductive
argument, we are done.
gcd(m, n) n
Problem 5.37 (Putnam) Prove that the expression m
n
is an integer for all integers n m 1.
Solution : Bezout’s identity guarantees the existence of in-

tegers a and b satisfying gcd(m, n) = an + bm. Substituting
gcd(m, n) n n bm n n n 1
this gives m
= a m
+ m
= a m +b m 1
.
n n
n n 1
Both m and m 1
are integers. Hence proved.
Problem 5.38 (China TST) Let a > b > 1, b be an odd

number, a be a natural number and n be a natural number. If
n n b 3n
b |a 1, prove that a > .
n
61
b
Solution : Let an 1 = kbn , k 2 N ) ab = (1 + kbn ) n .
kbn+1
Applying Bernoulli’s inequality gives ab 1+ . Since
n
kbn+1 3n
b 3, 1 + .
n n
2p 1
1
Problem 5.39 Find all primes p for which is a per-
p
fect square.
Solution : Let the given expression be t2 Let p = 2k + 1, k 2

N. This gives (2k + 1)(2k 1) = pt2 . If 2k + 1 = x2 , then
(x + 1)(x 1) = 2k )
x = 3, p = 7. If x2 + 1 = 2k , 2k + 1 = p, then x2 1 = 2k 2 )
(x + 1)(x 1) = 2(2k 1 1). Either x + 1 = 2 or x 1 = 2.
Only x = 1 works. Hence, the two solutions for p are p = 3, 7.
Problem 5.40 (Pan African) Find all positive integers n such

n3 + 3
that 2 is a positive integer.
n +7
n3 + 3 3 7n
Solution : 2
= n+ 2 . Since it is an integer,
n +7 n +7
| 3 7n | n2 + 7. Solving the inequality yields 2  n  5.
Checking gives the solutions n = 2, 5.
Problem 5.41 Assume that 1 is a prime number. Then,

prove that every positive integer can be represented as a sum
of distinct primes.
Solution : This is a beautiful problem. We suggest the read-

ers to have a look at the Goldbach’s conjecture- it is kind of
related to this problem. Let us look at the solution.
The statement is obviously true for 1 and 2, and so on. So as
an induction hypothesis assume that all naturals unto K can
be represented in the given form.
Case 1: If k is a prime itself, then since 1 is a prime, we have

(k + 1) = k + 1 which is a satisfying representation.
Case 2: If k is not a prime. Let p be the largest prime less
k+1
than k. From Chebyshev’s theorem we have that p 2
.
Therefore, consider k + 1 = p + (k + 1 p). But k + 1 p < p.
Hence, from our strong induction hypothesis, k + 1 can be
represented a sum of distinct primes. Hence proved.
Problem 5.42 (USAMO) Prove that for every positive in-

teger n, there exists an n-digit number divisible by 5n all of
whose digits are odd.
Solution : n = 1 satisfies the given conditions. Let the given

statement be true for a natural number k, that is, there exists
a natural number K satisfying the given conditions . Observe
that 1⇥10k +K, 3⇥10k +K, 5⇥10k +K, 7⇥10k +K, 9⇥10k +K
leave di↵erent remainders when divided by 5k+1 (dividing by
5k+1 and writing as a fraction will help). Hence, one of the
remainders has to be 0. Hence, such a number exists for any
natural n by principle of mathematical induction.
Problem 5.43 (ITAMO) Solve pn +144 = m2 where m, n, p 2

N and p is a prime number.
Solution : The given equation can be rewritten as pn =

(m + 12)(m 12). Since m is natural, m + 12 = pa , m 12 =
pb , a > b, a, b 2 N. This implies that m 12|m + 12 ) m
12|24 ) m = 13, 15, 20. Hence, the solutions are (m, n, p) =
(13, 2, 5), (15, 4, 3), (20, 8, 2).
Titibits from Geometry
Geometric intuition
Geometric intuition is often the key to solving many Olympiad
problems. It involves making good guesses. Using appropriate
properties, these intuitive insights can be supplemented. Let
us see an Indian Longlist (2000) problem involving geometric
intuition. *
Problem 5.44 (India TST 2000) Let ABC be a triangle

with O as circumcentre and H as orthocentre. Prove that
there exists points L, M, N on sides BC, CA and AB respec-
tively, such that OL + LH = OM + M H = ON + N H and
AL, BM, CN are concurrent.
Solution : One may try to guess the configuration that satis-

fies the given conditions. Since the sum OP + P H is invariant,
say ”x”, a good guess would be to relate it to the radius of the
circumcircle of 4ABC. This guess is further supplemented by
the following useful property, proof of which is in left to the
reader. (Purely angle chasing) :
Property1: ”In a triangle, reflections of the orthocentre about

the sides lie on the circumcircle.”
Let us see how this property can be used.
Observe figure 1.1.
Figure 5.1:
Let reflections of H about the sides be X, Y, Z, the feet of the

altitudes of 4ABC from A, B, C be D, E, F. Let OX, OY, OZ
intersect the sides at P, Q, R.
At this point, I claim that P,Q,R are the required points.

Though it is not possible to arrive at this guess immediately,
reflecting on the problem will lead to di↵erent configurations.
Keeping Property1 in mind and after trying out a few config-
urations, I arrived at the claim. Let us try to prove this.
As X is the reflection of H, P lies on the perpendicular bisec-

tor of HX. So, P X = P H.
So, OP + OH = OP + P X = OX OX is the radius of the
circumcircle, say ”r”. Similarly,
OQ + QH = OQ + QY = OY and OY = r
OR + RH = OR + RZ = OZ and OZ = r
OP + P H = OQ + QH = OR + RH = r
65
So, we have covered the condition of equal sums using the in-
variant property of the circle, the radius. Now, let us see if we
can prove that AP, BQ, CR are concurrent. This part is quite
trivial using the converse of Ceva’s Theorem.
ar(4OP B)
BP
PC
= ar(4OP C)
= ar(4XP B)
ar(4XP C
= ar(4OBX)
ar(4OCX
[Componendo-Dividendo]
1 2
R .sin\XOB
= 21 R2 .sin\XOC = sin\XOB
sin\XOC
Similarly, CQ
QA
= sin\Y OC
sin\Y OA
AR
and RB =
2
sin\AOZ
sin\ZOB
BP CQ AR sin\XOB sin\Y OC sin\AOZ

Combining this, . .
P C QA RB
= . .
sin\XOC sin\Y OA sin\ZOB
\CAX \Y BC
But by simple angle chasing, \XOC = 2
= 2
=
\Y OC So, \XOC = \Y OC
Thus equating angles, we see that BP . CQ . AR = 1 . By con-

P C QA RB
verse of Ceva’s Theorem, AP, BQ, CR are concurrent. Hence
we have proved the existence of the required points.
Thus we have seen how a powerful and intuitive insight into

geometry problems helps reduce seemingly complex and un-
solvable problems to trivial ones.
Interesting observation:
See Figure1.2. P, Q, R also happen to be the points for which
the sums OP + P H, OQ + QH, OR + RH are minimum ! This
comes from a well known idea of reflection.
So in fact, if an ellipse is drawn with foci at O, H, that ellipse
is tangential to the sides.
Is this ellipse unique? Is it possible to inscribe other conics in

triangles? Does it matter whether the triangle is acute or ob-
tuse? Is there a condition for the conics to not be degenerate?
Figure 5.2:
Further investigation is left to readers.
Power of point
Consider a circle at centre O radius 0 r0 and a point P and a
line through P cutting the circle at A and B. Let P D be a
tangent. Power of P with respect to this circle is given by
P A.P B. Using similar triangles it is possible to prove that
this quantity P A.P B is constant for a given point and circle
and does not depend on how the line is drawn.
P A.P B = P C.P D = P E 2
Problem 5.45 In 4ABC, \ABC = 2.\ACB.

Prove that AC 2 = BA.(BA + BC).
67
Solution : Extend CB to a point D, such that BD = BA.

By exterior angle property, \ABC = \BDA + \BAD =
2.\BAD. Using this and the given condition that \ACB =
\ABC
2
, we find that \ACB = \BAD = \BDA. Note that
DA is tangent to the circumcircle of 4ABC because of the
angle made with the chord AB.
Consider power of D with respect to the circumcircle of 4ABC.

DA2 = DB.DC. Since 4DAC and 4BAD are isosceles,
DA = CA and BD = BA. Using this in the previous equa-

tion, we find that AC 2 = BA.(BA + BC) .
Considering power of points is indeed a powerful idea! Follow-
ing are two exercise problems that involves power of point:
Problem 5.46 (China MO 2007) Let AB be a chord of circle

O , M the midpoint of arc AB and C a point outside of the
circle O. From C draw two tangents to the circle at points
S, T . Let M S intersect AB at E and M T intersect AB at F .
From E, F draw a line perpendicular to AB, and intersecting
OS, OT at X, Y respectively. Now draw a Line from C which
intersects the circle O at P and Q. Let Z be the circumcenter
of 4P QR . Prove that X, Y, Z are collinear.
Problem 5.47 IMO 2000 Let ABC be a triangle with cir-

cumcentre O. The points P and Q are interior points on the
sides CA and AB respectively. Let K, L, M be midpoints of
BP, CQ, P Q respectively and let T be circle passing through
K, L, M . Suppose line P Q is tangent to circle T prove that
OP = OQ.
Constructions
Many complicated problems involve a simple construction. This
construction may not be immediately arrived at. However,
once the construction is made, the problem is half solved. Let
us take the example of an IMO (1995) problem.
Problem 5.48 (IMO 1995) ABCDEF is a hexagon such

that AB = BC = CD and DE = EF = F A. \BCD = 60
and \EF A = 60 . Let G and H be points inside ABCDEF
69
Figure 5.3:
such that \AGB = 120 and \EHD = 120 . Prove that

GA + GB + GH + HD + HE CF
Solution :
How do we use the 120 condition? We need to make use of
the following property.
Property 2: ” In an equilateral triangle 4ABC, if a point P

lies on arc BC of circumcircle of 4ABC, then \BP C = 120
and P A = P B + P C”
Here comes the crux of the problem ! Equilateral triangles

ABM and DEN have been constructed outwards.
In Figure 1.4, equal sides and the given angles have been
marked. Note that BD, EF have been joined and 4CBD
and 4EF A are equilateral as they are isosceles and one of
their angles is 60 .
Figure 5.4:
But by basic property of distances, M G + GH + GN M N

and equality occurs when M, G, H, N are collinear. If we can
prove that M N CF , we are done.
This requires some observation (and good diagrams). Con-

sider quadrilateral ABDE. It is a kite, with AB = BD and
DE = EA. This has been proved earlier using elementary
properties. Let us try to draw a new diagram for clarity, Fig-
ure1.4 by starting from the kite, by constructing equilateral
triangles outward.
Now by arguments of symmetry or congruence it is very easy to

prove that CF = M N . Hence, GB + GA + GH + HD + HE =
M G + GH + HN M N = CF
So, GA + GB + GH + HD + HE CF with equality when
M, G, H, N are collinear.
Problem 5.49 (India PT 2012) In isosceles 4ABC with

71
Figure 5.5:
\B and \C being equal, a point D is taken on BC such that

BD = 2DC. A point E is takn on AD such that \BED =
\BAC. Prove that \CED = 2\BAC.
Solution : Extend P D to E such that P E = P B. \P EB =

\P BE = \ACB Therefore, A, C, B, E are concyclic. So,
\AEC = \ABC.
In 4EBC, ED is angle bisector.
EC CD
Therefore, EB = DB = 12 ....(1)
Let F be the foot of the perpendicular from P to BE. From

(1), EC = EF = F B (Since 4P EB is isosceles. )
Consider 4P CE and 4P F B
P E = P B ; CE = F B ; \P EC = \P BF Therefore, 4P CE
and 4P F B are congruent. So, \CP E = \F P B = \EP
2
B
=
\CAB
2
The above problems demonstrate the necessity to recognize

a latent property. A problem solver not only needs to be
equipped with the right tools, but also the discretion to use
them tactfully.
Angle Chasing
However insignificant and trivial this may sound, the following
problem will leave you stunned. It is indeed, one of its kind! It
requires a brilliant construction and careful investigation of the
angles involved. The elegance of this solution is unsurpassed!
Problem 5.50 In 4ABC, BD, CE are internal angle bisec-

tors. \CED = 18 and \BDE = 24 . Find the angles of
4ABC.
Solution : The crux of the problem is to reflect E about

BD and reflect D about CE! Let these reflections be F, G
respectively. Since we are reflecting about the angle bisector,
F, G will be on BC. [Note that the angles marked in green are
90 each, because of the reflection.]
Clearly, \ABC + \ACB = 2.(\IED + \IDE) = 84 , where
I is the incentre. Therefore, \BAC = 96 .
Since ED gets reflected onto EG, \DEC = \GEC = 18 .
So extreior angle \EP B = 18 + 18 + 24 = 60 . Because
we are ”reflecting” P E to P F , \EP B = \F P B = 60 . Since
EP G is a straight line, \F P G = 60 .
Because DE is reflected to DF , \EDP = \P DF = 24 . Us-
ing the right angle and points E, D, a right triangle is formed.
By angle sum property, \F DG = 90 18 48 = 24 .
Another stupendous observation follows! F is the excentre of

73
Figure 5.6:
4DP G !! (As it is the intersection point of the internal an-

gle bisector and one of the external angle bisectors) Hence,
\DGC = \P GF = 36 +72 2
= 54 . Since CD is reflected to
CG, \GDC = \GDC = 54 . So, \DCG = 72 . Hence, by
angle sum property in 4ABC, \ABC = 12 .
Thus we are done (!!)
It is very difficult to explain what may have motivated the
solver to attempt such a construction. A rare stroke of luck
perhaps? There is another interesting problem that resembles
the above. In an isosceles 4ABC, with \ABC = \BCA =
80 , point D is taken on AC such that \DBC = 60 . Point
E is taken on AB such that \ECB = 50 . Find \DEC.
Transformations
Homothety
Homothety or Central Dilation is a geometric transformation

that magnifies a segment AB into A0 B 0 whose length is given
by A0 B 0 = kAB. The ratio 0 k 0 can be positive or negative
signifying the direction of magnification. |k| > 1 indicates
magnification and |k| < 1 indicates shrinking.
Note that this transformation preserves ratios of distances and

angles. It converts each figure into a similar figure.
Problem 5.51 ( India TST ) Let ABCD be a trapezoid with

parallel sides AB > CD. Points K and L lie on segments AB
AK
and CD, respectively, so that KB = DL
LC
. Suppose there exists
points P and Q on segment KL satisfying \AGB = \BCD
and \CHD = \ABC . Prove that H, G, B, C are concyclic.
Solution : Let CD and BC meet at E. I claim that E, K, L

are collinear. Let EL meet AB at K 0 .
75
AK DL AK 0
= =
BK LC BK 0
AK AK0
) BK = BK 0
Since K, K 0 lie on AB, they both must be the same point. So,
E, K, L are collinear. Now, we need to prove that CHGB
is cyclic. ) \GBC = \LHC , \DHL = \GBA Let
\GBA = ↵. Note that the sum of the green and red angles is
180
Shrink 4AGB about E so that AB is on DC. This tranfor-

mation basically sends A ! D, B ! C, K ! L. Let G ! G0 .
As the green and red angles are supplementary, DG0 CH is a
cyclic quadrilateral. ) ↵ = \GBA = \G0 CD = \G0 HD )
\LHD = \GBA.
Hence, we have used a powerful, yet simple idea of homothety,

along with a few elementary properties.
Reflection
A tranformation that preserves distances is reflection about a
line, which behaves like a mirror. The reflected image of a
point A about the mirror is the point A0 on a line through the
perpendicular from A to the mirror such that AA0 is bisected
by the mirror.
Note that this transformation preserves distances and angles.
This idea has also been used in the first section.
Problem 5.52 AA0 and BB 0 are altitudes of 4ABC. D is

a point on minor arc AC of circumcircle of 4ABC. AA0 and
BD intersect at P . BB 0 and AD intersect at Q. Prove that
A0 B 0 bisects P Q.
77
Let A0 B 0 intersect P Q at E. We need to prove P E = QE.

The crux of the problem lies in reflecting P about BC ! Let
it’s image be P 0 . Note that by Thale’s theorem, what we need
to prove reduces to EA0 ||QP 0 .
In figure 1.10, to prove the equality of green angles,

\ACB = \ADB [Both subtended by chord AB].
\ACB = \AHB 0 [ 4ACA0 , 4AHB 0 are similar by AA simi-
larity ]
Therefore the green angles marked equal are: \ACB = \AHB 0 =
\ADP
In quadrilateral DPHQ, since exterior angle equals interior op-

posite angle, it is cyclic. Hence, \AQH = \A0 P B.
By property of reflection, \A0 P B = \A0 P 0 B.
Therefore the red angles marked equal are: \AQH = \A0 P B =
\AP 0 B.
Since \AQB = \AP 0 B, quadrilateral ABP 0 Q is cyclic. So

\QP 0 A = \QBA.
Consider quadrilateral ABA0 B 0 . It is cyclic as \AB 0 B =
\AA0 B = 90 . Hence, \ABB 0 = \AA0 B.
Therefore, the blue angles marked equal are: \ABB 0 = \AA0 B 0 =
\AP 0 Q.
Because of the above equality, we have EA0 ||QP 0 ! Thus we

are done !
Bibliography
[1] Titu Andreescu, Bogdan Enescu - 2005. Mathematical

Olympiad Treasures, Springer-Birkhauser International.
[2] Titu Andreescu, Dorin Andrica, Zuming Feng 2010. 104

Number Theory Problems, Birkhauser International.
[3] Titu Andreescu, Dorin Andrica, Ion Cucurezeanu. An in-

troduction to Diophantine equations, Birkhauser Interna-
tional.
[4] Valentin Boju, Louis Funar 2010. The Math Problems

Notebook, Birkhauser International.
[5] Peter Vandendreische, Hojoo Lee. Problems in Elementary

Number Theory,Online book.
[6] Arthur Engel. Problem Solving Strategies,, Springer Publi-

cations.
[7] C.R.Pranesachar, B.J.Venkatachala, C.S.Yogananda.

Problem Primer for the Olympiad Prism Books Ltd..
[8] R.Todev’s Compilation. 1000 Problems from the Mathe-

matical Olympiads, ISBN 978-1448664092.
[9] The Art Of Problem Solving. High School and Olympiad

Forums

Olympiad Companion PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Olympiad Companion PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

An Olympiad Companion

Copyright ©2012 by K.E.Srivatsav and Anshul

All rights reserved.

1 A toolbox for the olympiads 5

4 Solutions to Algebra problems 21

This book basically is a problem companion for the students

A toolbox for the

Strong induction is a stronger version of induction as the in-

Basic Modular properties

• If any a and b leave the same remainder on division by

(p 1)! ⌘ 1(mod p) i↵ p is a prime

Corollary 1.0.1 For any n > 1, if gcd(a, n) = 1, then the

(1 + x)n 1 + nx for x 1 and natural n.

For two integers a, b, there exist integers x, y such that ax +

If for two polynomials P, Q of degree at most n, P (xi ) = Q(xi )

Given m distinct complex numbers z1 , z2 , ..., zm and another

n, there can exist only one unique unique polynomial P of

(x21 +x22 +...+x2n )(y12 +y22 +...+yn2 ) (x1 y1 +x2 y2 +...+xn yn )2

Titu Andreescu’s Lemma

Zsigmondy Theorem of exponents

Fermat’s Little Theorem

Euler’s Totient function theorem

For any positive integer n and a whose greatest common divi-

Fundamental Theorem Of Algebra

Given a polynomial of degree n, there exist exactly n complex

For any given n!, we have, the maximum power of a prime p

The n roots of unity are the n complex solutions of the equa-

Dirichlet’s Theorem states that for any two co-prime integers

Bertrand’s Postulate or Chebyshev’s Theorem

Between n and 2n, there exists a prime p for all n > 3

If p is a prime number and f (x) is an integer polynomial over

one coefficient not divisible by p) then, f (x) ⌘ 0 (mod p) has

Definition 1 An integer satisfying gcd(a, m) = 1 is called a

For an odd prime p, we define the Legendre Symbol as follows

Consider the congruence xp 1 ⌘ 1(mod p). x can take all the

Theorem 1 (Law of Quadratic Reciprocity) If p and q are

Problem 2.1 Factorize (a + b + c)3 a3 b3 c3

Problem 2.4 ( Eisenstein’s Criterion) Let f (x) = an xn +...+

Problem 2.5 Find all whole number solutions of x + y =

Problem 2.7 Given n positive real numbers a1 , a2 , · · · , an such

Problem 2.8 Let x1 = x2 = 1, x3 = 4, xn+3 = 2xn+2 +

Problem 2.9 (Vietnam) Let x, y, z 2 R such that x2 + z 2 = 1

Problem 2.10 Find all the integer solutions to the equation

Problem 2.11 Let a, b, c be natural numbers. Prove that it

Problem 2.12 Find all functions f : R ! R satisfying f (x +

Problem 2.13 Let P (x) = ax2 + bx + c be a polynomial with

Problem 2.14 (RMO India 2011) Let (a1 , a2 , a3 ..., a2 011) be

Problem 2.16 Let a, b, c be real numbers such that abc = 1.

Problem 2.17 Let a, b, c be non zero reals such that a + b +

Problem 2.18 Show that the polynomial (x a1 )2 (x a2 )2 ...(x

Problem 2.19 Given that the polynomial x4 2x2 + ax + b

Problem 2.20 (Vietnam) Given 3 reals a.b,c such that x

Problem 2.24 (Finland) f is a function mapping positive re-

Problem 2.25 (IMO Shortlist) Find all positive integers x

Problem 2.26 If n is a perfect cube, then find all n such that

= min(x3 + x2 yz, y 3 + y 2 xz, z 3 + z 2 xz)

Prove that the equation x2 + x + 4 = 0 has real roots.

Problem 2.28 (Kazakhstan 1998) Show that there exists in-

Problem 2.29 Show that every positive rational number can

Problem 2.30 (Italy 1996) Prove that there exists infinitely

Problem 2.31 Prove there do not exist polynomials P and Q

Problem 2.32 (Putnam) Show that the curve x3 +3xy +y 3 =

Problem 3.2 (Russian MO) Solve for positive integers x,y