History of Planning Theory

10/02/2018
History & Theory of

Planning
Ar EnP Maria Theresa Quimpo
Senior Urban Planner, Cardno
Track Head for Planning, Dela Salle College of Saint Benilde
President, Philippine Institute of Environmental Planners
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Outline
 Introduction
 Beginnings
 Emergence of Planning & Utopianism
 Codification of Professional Planning Practice
 Synoptic (Comprehensive) Rational Planning
 Challenges & Responses to Rational Planning
 Communicative Planning, Political Action & Pragmatism
 Planning 1970s-onwards
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Format
 Theory (if any)
 History
 Personalities
Introduction to Theory of
planning
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EXPLORATORY
NORMATIVE
PREDICTIVE
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Understanding Theory through
History
Planning
❖ Planning primarily
means making a goal
chart that follows a Knowledge
Problem
line of action based of the
on knowledge. Problem
Line of Action
Time Frame/
❖ In a given time frame

there are problems Goal 1
and issues to be
addressed. In order
for those to be
answered a line of Goal 2
action needs to be
laid out in form of
small goals to that Solution Goal 3
culminates to a
bigger goal. Primary
Goal/Primary
2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History
Solution
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Primary Functions of Planning
Optimize everything. Increase Efficiency
of Systems. Provide new ideas that will
improve existing systems.
Optimize Balance Options. Provide answers and

solutions that caters to all the
stakeholders if possible. Keep justice to
Balance all parties with options from solutions.
Create visions that has a specific line of
action that carries efficiency with
Create balanced options. Its required to reach
and achieve the end goal, the bigger
picture.
Enrich Enrich new options, widen the reach of
the stakeholders. Provision of options
can become solutions themselves to
uphold justice and optimize efficiency
2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History with a great vision.
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Planning & History Planning
Applied
Discipline
Deeply
Rooted
❖ As mentioned earlier, Less
knowledge is required to
succeed in planning. That Pragmatic
knowledge is taken from the (Small distinction
long history presented between goals,
previously. knowledge and
planning process)
Early Planning
❖ History poses multiple
problems in their time line, More utopian
thus the amount of theories
present now. Understanding Efforts to
the circumstance of each time develop the
line and the responsive theory planning
of their time is a crucial form of
understanding to have a 1950’s-1960’s system
successful and efficient plan. Patterned
after Social
2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History Sciences
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Types of Theories What should be the end focus
of Planning?
Theories of the public good,
social justice, utilitarianism,
rights…
How do we get to the end focus

NORMATIVE of Planning? How do we
Primary achieve it?
THEORY
Goal/Prima Economics (econometrics),
ry Solution geography (GIS),
environmental science (EIAs)
Knowledge DISCIPLINARY
of the THEORY How do Planners act? How are
Problem they going to do it? To Achieve
it?
PROCEDURAL/ Decision theory, political
PROCESS science, negotiation theory,
Planning THEORY public participation
Beginnings
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Early Settlement Patterns –
Rectilinear – farmer’s plow
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Early Settlement Patterns
Circular – herdsman
A circular village
in Northern
Rhodesia. Huts
form the outer
circle. The Village
leader’s compound
is in the center.
Cattle pens line the
outer circle of huts.
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Early Settlement Patterns
Grid Layout – Refinement of
Rectilinear
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Early Settlement Patterns:
Radiocentric – from Circular Form
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Mesopotamia  10,000 BC – 7TH
Century AD
❖ Urbanization in the
fertile lands from Nile
Valley to Euphrates River
❖ Babylon as one of the
first cities
❖ Rectilinear plotting with
the use of plow
❖ Suited the needs of

agriculture societies of
the Nile, Tigris and
Euphrates River for easy
land division by crop
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Ancient Egypt  3,000 – 300 BC
❖ Power is still working

hand in hand with
Religion
❖ Kings and Emperors are
worshiped as Godly
❖ Importance of the
afterlife.
❖ Pyramids as important
structures in cities.
❖ Presence of the
Necropolis, Cities of the
dead.
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Ancient Greece 498-408 BC
• Democratic society
• Planned based on reflection and onsite experience
rather than strict geometric al drawings
• Revered their gods
• Sense of scale
• 3 examples of Greek Design were the Acropolis,
the Agora and the Greek Colonial Towns
• Finite size for settlements
• City or polis ideal size between 10,000 to 20,00
• Created Neopolis when reached maximum
capacity
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Ancient Greece  498-408 BC
 Hippodamus of Miletus
(Father of Town Planning)
 Greek architect, emphasized
geometric designs, grid
pattern of streets to ensure
accessibility
 Provided the first theoretical
framework in planning
 “Father of town planning”
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 Hippodamus
 Significant developments include:
 Acropolis – visible relationship between
buildings and nature
 Agora – buildings served as facades to form
an enclosed urban space; grouped around
central open space; place of assembly
 Gridiron Pattern – credited to Hippodamus
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Plato  428 - 347 BC
❖ Established the Polluter Pays Principle; which says

in summary that the Polluter of a certain body of
water should not only be liable for damages but
also the purification the body of water itself.
❖ Polluter Pays is in our Environmental Code
(PD1152); which says in summary that the Polluter
should commit everything to sanitize and purify
the body of water. Should the Polluter not be able
to do that, the government is entitled to commit to
it with the provisions of the Polluter.
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Aristotle  384 - 322 BC
❖ Providedthe foundation for the concept of

intergenerational equity
❖ “For our children’s children”

❖ Stated in such where in there must be enough
resources for the next generations to come so that
the a good way of life be maintained from one
generation to the next.
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End poverty
hunger in
all forms and
ensure
humanity with People
dignity and
equality
Protection of Ensure
the Planet prosperous
and all its and fulfilling
inhabitants SUSTAINABLE lives in
Planet Prosperity
both DEVELOPMENT harmony
animated an with nature
inanimated
for the future
generations.
Implementation Foster
of the Agenda Partnership Peace peaceful, just,
for the accepting and
partnership and inclusive
fellowship of all societies
nations through the
land.
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The Roman Empire  29 BC – 393
AD
❖ Rome was the first city with a

million population (3 AD)
❖ Excelledgreatly in Military
Science and Engineering
Achievments.
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AD
❖ Designs focused on Military

tactics and strategy; and,
Transportation and ease of
access.
❖ Significant Developments:
❖ Definition of Town – a system
of gridiron streets enclosed by
a wall; theatre, arena, and
market were places for
common assembly
❖ Basic street pattern useful for
military government
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AD
❖ Via Appia
❖ Earliest
complex
road system
developed
by the
Romans. It is
strategic for
both the
military and
trade.
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AD
❖ The Roman
Forum
❖ The Market
Place of the
ancient
Romans.
Their Place
of Trade and
Leisure.
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AD
❖ The
Colosseum
❖ Their most
memorable
landmark. It
entombed
history of
gladiatorial
plays both
glorious and
tragic.
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AD
❖ The Romans
developed The
Aqueducts, to deliver
water to the city since
Rome is highly
dependent on water.
❖ Moral Decay and

Unrest led to the
destruction and fall of
Rome.
❖ Further pillaging by
the Vikings attributed
to its fall.
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The Medieval Period 
5TH – 15TH Century AD
❖ Decline of Rome’s power left many outpost

settlements all over Europe which became the
nuclei of new socieites; some because of their
location thrived as influential towns, in the 10th
century these nuclei began to grow into viable
towns & castle towns also began to emerge
❖ Growth of towns around either a monastery or

castle, assumed a radio centric pattern; relied
on protective town walls or fortification for
security
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❖ Generally, towns
evolved with
irregular street
patterns;
❖ Predominance of
abbeys and
cathedrals indicating
church influence
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 13th century AD
 Many towns with less than 10,000
residents
 Few times more than 12 miles
because of water consideration
 14th century AD
 Florence had 10,000 people
 Venice became trading center of
Byzantine empire
 Paris emerged as trading center
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THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD 
5TH – 15TH CENTURY AD
 13th century AD
 Many towns with
less than 10,000
residents
 Few times more
than 12 miles
because of water
consideration
 14th century AD
 Florence had
10,000 people
 Venice became
trading center of
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Renaissance  14TH TO 17TH Century
AD
 15th
/ 16th Century
 Aesthetics as the basic form of planning
 Established concept of urban design
 Beauty, form and function combined
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Renaissance  14TH TO 17TH
Century AD
 Leon Battista Alberti

 “Ideal Cities” – star-shaped plans with
street radiating from a central point, usually for
a church, palace or castle
 Designs usually included curved streets
conforming to topography
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Rome  1500 AD
❖Linked settlements to transport

❖Built
roads to expand empires because of
Napoleonic concept of colonization
❖Built military cities for defense and security
❖Characterized by square pattern of plans
with housing consisting of small apartments
for masses and with atrium for the rich
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London
1600AD
❖ Sir
Christopher Wren (1600s) – English architect,
prepared Plan for London, St. Peter and St. Paul
Cathedral
❖ JohnGwynn (1766) – prepared a remarkable plan

called “London and Westminster Improved”
❖ JamesCraig (1767) - Scottish architect, planned linear

new towns for Edinburg
❖ RobertOwen (1799) – English social reformer,

conceptualized “Village of Unity and Mutual
Cooperation”
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Pierre Charles L‘Enfant (1791)
❖ French-American
engineer who prepared
Plan for Washington
D.C.
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Georges Eugene Haussman 
1809-1891
❖ The replanning
and renovation
of Paris
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World Population since 1600
Source: Science Direct
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Ideal Towns & Workers Towns
 French Architect Claude  Principal urban work was the

Nicolas Ledoux is best design of Chaux, a town for
remembered as one of the salt workers in France
several late 18th & 19th century
theorists who brought intense
analysis & rationale to the
design process
 Also launched a new era of

urban planning that gave as
much attention to workers as
it did to society’s ruling
classes
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Emergence of
Planning &
Utopianism
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Planning Movement
Physical
Determinism
1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940
City Beautiful
Parks Movement Movement
City Efficient
Movement
Settlement and
Housing Movement Garden City
Movement
Sanitary Reform and Public
Health
Social
Determinism
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The Conservationists and the Park
Movement
 Frederick Law Olmsted
 Associated with American park system
 Urban park as an aid to social reform
 In 1859, he designed the Greensward Plan for Central Park in
New York
 In 1870, wrote a comprehensive park planning book named
“Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns”
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Parks Movement
❖ Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux

❖ Design of Central Park
❖ Horace W. S. Cleveland, Minneapolis

❖ Park System Proposal 1883;
❖ Charles Eliot & Sylvester Baxter, Boston

❖ Extensive Regional Park System (1891-1893 and
beyond)
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City Beautiful
Movement
1800s – 1900s
❖A Planning movement that
focuses heavily on beauty and
aesthetics.
❖ Superficial Beauty in a City:

❖ Parks
❖ Landscapes
❖ Vistas
❖ Lakes
❖ Scenic Views
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Daniel Hudson Burnham 1846-1912
❖ Father of American City

Planning
❖ He designed the
Columbian Exposition, the
first American
Comprehensive planning
document together with
Frederick Law Olmstead
and John Wellborn Root.
❖ Wrote the Plan for Chicago

(1909) and Planning the
Region of Chicago
(1956)(origins based on
boulevards and
promenades of European
capitals)
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“Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men’s

blood and probably themselves will not be realized.
Make big plans; aim high in hope and work,
remembering that a noble, logical diagram once
recorded will never die, but long after we are gone will be
a living thing, asserting itself with ever- growing
insistency. Remember that our sons and grandsons are
going to do things that would stagger us. Let your
watchword be order and your beacon beauty.”
-Daniel Hudson Burnham
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 Criticisms of Chicago Plan

 Based on a business core with no conscious provision for
business expansion in the rest of the city
 Planned as an aristocratic city for merchant princess, not
in accord with the realities of downtown real estate
development which demanded overbuilding and
congestion, utopian
 Beauty stand supreme, commercial convenience
significant, no health and sanitation concerns, scant
attention to zoning
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Daniel Hudson Burnham 1846-
1912
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Daniel Hudson Burnham 1846-
1912
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Clarence Stein
1882-1975
❖ Initiated plans
to produce
greenbelt
resettlements all
over the US
❖Wrote the book
Toward New
Towns for
America
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Cul-De-Sacs
Garden
Islands
Homes
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Clarence Perry
1872-1944
❖ Conceptualized
the
neighbourhood
unit
❖ Similar to the
superblock
❖ Bounded by major
streets
❖ Has a church,
school, and shops
❖ 200 sqm to 2 sqkm

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Don Arturo Soria y Mata
1844-1920
 – Spanish engineer,
suggested the idea
“Linear City” from
Cadiz, Spain across
Europe, logic of linear
utility lines should be the
basis of all city lay-out,
houses and buildings
could be set alongside
linear utility systems
supplying water,
communications and
electricity
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Tony Garnier
1869-1948
 – French
architect,
industrial
city with a
linear
structure,
designed
hypothetica
l industrial
town called
“Une Cite
Industriell
e”
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Utopianism
❖ Sought to birth the good society through

“intentional communities” that embodied new
social arrangements
❖ Planners proposed sweeping changes to physical,

social and economic systems to enhance human
progress, well-being and equality
❖ Plans = imaginative visions rooted in moral

philosophy
❖ Focused on ends, not pragmatic means
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Utopianism
 “When men came to realize [that the change]…

was not merely an improvement in details of their
condition, but the rise of the race to a new plane of
existence... there ensued an era of mechanical
invention, scientific discovery, art, musical and
literary productiveness to which no previous age of
the world offers anything comparable.”
Looking Backward: 2000‐1887 by Edward Bellamy
in 1887
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The Garden Cities of Tomorrow
❖ SIR RAYMOND UNWIN 

Architect
❖ city planner for
Letchworth 
❖ Wrote Nothing Gained
by Overcrowding
❖ SIR FREDERIC JAMES

OSBORN  Championed
garden cities
❖ LOUIS DE SOISSONS
Architect of Welwyn
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Sir Ebenezer Howard
1850 - 1928
 Ebenezer Howard
 Rails and roads would link the towns with industries and
nearby towns supplying fresh food
 In 1902, a garden city was established in Letchworth, 35
miles from London (planned by Architects Barry Parkes
and Raymond Unwin)
 Advanced concept of “Social City” – a polycentric
settlement, growth without limit, surrounded by greenbelt
 Advocated high residential density (15 houses per acre)
 Town growth – grow by cellular addition into a complex
multi-centered agglomeration of towns set against a green
background of open country
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Sir Ebenezer Howard
1850 - 1928
 Wrote Tomorrow (1898) followed up with Garden Cities

of Tomorrow (1902)
 Invented New Town as an answer to the problems of the
city with an economist justification
 Industry would locate anywhere if labor was available,
community would have to pay the social costs of poor
health and poor housing (Alfred Marshall)
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Sir Ebenezer Howard
1850 - 1928
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Le Corbusier & modernism
(Charles Eduoard Jeanneret) 
1887-1965
❖ Creator of the Radiant City
❖ Modernist
❖ futuristic
❖ Orderly
❖ Disadvatnages:
❖ Social Issues
❖ Unrealistic
❖ His works were criticized

because he tried to solve
congestion with more congestion
❖ He wrote the books Urbanism

and The City of Tomorrow and Its
Planning
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LE CORBUSIER & Modernism
(Charles Eduoard Jeanneret) 
1887-1965
The Radiant City
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Frank Lloyd Wright
1867-1959
❖ Champion and proponent of urban decentralisation
❖ Involved communities
❖ Designed the 1,000-hectare Broadacre City

❖ included social services in the forms of schools,
trains, and museums, as well as employment in the
forms of markets, offices, nearby farms, and
industrial areas
❖ Plan included a helicopter, which was criticized
❖ Created the Superblock
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Broadacre City
Frank Lloyd Wright
❖ A response to Le Corbusier’s Radiant City (1932)
❖ Proposed to replace dense industrial cities with small cities
(pop. < 10,000) covering the entire US, connected by highways
❖ Each city embedded in nature with its own cultural and
educational centres
❖ An economy of self sufficiency, without land rent and landlords,
profit and bureaucracy
❖ “Who is going to say how humanity will eventually be modified

by all these spiritual changes and physical advantages… The
whole psyche of humanity is changing and what that change will
ultimately bring as future community I will not prophecy. It is
already greatly changed.”
Broadacre
+ City
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Quadruple
+ Block Plan
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Utopianism, Interrupted
❖ Planning Movements contained elements of utopianism

❖ Rejected historic precedent as a source of inspiration
❖ Proposed substantially new social, physical, and economic
arrangements
❖ But ultimately failed as a set of visions

❖ Social and economic proposals were largely ignored
❖ It provided intellectual rationale for the following
❖ Suburbanization
❖ urban freeway systems
❖ dense public housing segregated by uses
❖ urban renewal
❖ Its goals are ultimately challenged
❖ It lacked body, hence lacking the process from which it can be
achieved.
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Codification of
Professional
Planning
Practice
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The City Efficient:
Developing Tools for Planning
 1923
 Standard State Zoning Enabling Act issued by US Dept of
Commerce
 Los Angeles County establishes planning board
 1925
 Cincinnati: first comprehensive plan based on welfare of city as a
whole
 1926
 Euclid vs. Ambler Realty Co: Supreme Court upholds
comprehensive zoning
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The City Efficient:
Developing Tools for Planning
 1920s
Robert Moses replaces Burnham as leading American planner “If
the ends don’t justify the means, then what the hell does”
 1928
 Standard City Planning Enabling Act issued by US Dept of
Commerce
 1929
 Radburn NJ completed; innovative neighborhood design based
on Howard’s theory
 Harvard: Creates first school of city planning
 Regional Plan of New York completed
 “Regional Plan of New York and its Environs” published
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EDWARD BASSET
1863-1948
❖Urban planner and lawyer

who was the Father of
American Zoning. He was the
first to use zoning as a means
of implementing land use in
New York. He wrote books
about zoning.
❖Also coined the term freeway
and parkway
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THOMAS ADAMS
1871-1940
❖ Worked primarily on low-

density residences or
garden suburbs
❖ Founded the British Town
Planning Institute
❖ Wrote the book Rural
Planning and Development
❖ Pushed for planning
legislation by mandate,
local plans, zoning, building
regulations, and recognized
the responsibility of a
licensed or professional
planner
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Depression era Innovations
❖ National urban/ urbanization ❖ Planning

policy ❖ 1934: American Society of
❖ National Resources Planning Planning Officials formed
Board
❖ Planning education
❖ New Deal economic
management
❖ movement from apprentice-
❖ housing and work/welfare
based to university and
programs
social science-based
❖ Regionalism education
❖ Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA)
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Increasing Importance of Cities
❖1937
❖Our Cities: Their Role in the National
Economy.
❖A landmark report by the Urbanism Committee of the
National Resources Committee
❖1941
❖Local Planning Administration, by Ladislas
Segoe, first of "Green Book" series,
appears
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Focus on Physical Planning
1938 The American Institute of Planners states as its

purpose
“... the planning of the unified development of urban
communities and their environs, and of states,
regions and the nation, as expressed through
determination of the comprehensive arrangement of
land uses and land occupancy and the regulation
thereof.”
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Sir Patrick Geddes
1854-1932
❖ Scottish city planner

❖ Wrote Cities in Evolution (1915)
❖ Coined the term “conurbation”
❖ Emphasized the relationships of people and
cities, thus the cityregion term.
❖ Used the rational planning method of Survey
Analysis
❖ Planning must start with a survey of the
resources of a region, of human responses to it,
and of the resulting complexities of the cultural
landscape; emphasis on the survey method
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Sir Patrick Geddes
1854-1932
❖ Introduced the notion of a region
❖ Became the Father of Regional Planning
❖ Biologist, sociologist, and geographer
❖ Dissected the planning environment by

analysing occupational activities
❖ Used observation and rational methods
❖ Instead of gridiron planning, used

conservative surgery
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The Regional City
1900-1940
❖ Started
by Patrick Geddes
(1854-1932); “Survey before
plan”
❖ The answer to urban congestion
is regional planning considering
the principles of ecological
balance and resource renewal
❖ Citiesin the scheme become
subordinate to region; old cities
and new towns alike will grow
just as necessary parts of the
regional scheme
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Sir Leslie Patrick Abercrombie
1954-1932 
❖ Created the
post-war plans
for London, and
combatted
sprawling by
resettlement
❖ Made the
London Country
Plan (1944) and
the Greater
London Plan
(1943)
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LEWIS MUMFORD
1895-1990
❖A historian-sociologist who
studied cities and
architecture
❖ From his 23 books, the most
prominent in city planning
is The City in History, which
pointed out how technology
and nature could be
harmonious
❖ Gave the concept of an
organic city
❖ Rationalised how planning
has various disciplines
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BENTON MCKAYE
1879-1975
❖ Originator of the 3,500

km Appalachian Trail
in the eastern United
States (Georgia to
Maine)
❖ Was a forester and
conservationist, and
co-founded the
Wilderness Society
❖ Championed regional
conservationism
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BENTON MCKAYE
1879-1975
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The Regional Planning of America
 THE FOUNDERS: Clarence Stein, Benton McKaye, Lewis

Mumford, Alexander Bing (a real estate developer), and
Henry Wright
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CATHERINE BAUER WURSTER
1905-1964
❖ An advocate of
social and public
housing. She
authored the
American
Housing Act of
1937 and was an
adviser to five
presidents.
❖ Wrote the book

Modern Housing
❖ She also worked

with Lewis
Mumford
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William Levit
1907-1994
❖ Father of American Suburbia

/ The King of Suburbia / The
Inventor of the Suburb
❖ Mass produced houses that

were affordable
❖ Suburbia
❖ A waste of space due to
improper planning. A
gathering of homes in gated
communities that require its
inhabitants to prioritize car use
and long distance travel which
results to traffic congestions.
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Urban Renewal and General
Planning
❖ 1949 Housing Act(Wagner ❖ 1954 Housing Act
Ellender-Taft Bill) ❖ Stressed slum prevention and
❖ First comprehensive housing urban renewal rather than
legislation slum clearance and urban
❖ Aimed to construct 800,000 redevelopment
housing units ❖ stimulated general planning
❖ Inaugurated urban renewal for cities under 25,000
(Section 701)
❖ 1954 Berman v. Parker ❖ "701 funding" later extended
to foster state wide, interstate,
❖ The US Supreme Court and sub state regional
upholds DC Redevelopment planning.
Land Agency
❖ It condemns non-deteriorated ❖ 1964 T.J. Kent
publishes The
yet unsightly properties for
redevelopment Urban General Plan
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Aesthetics and form
ANTI-HISTORICAL HONEST SIMPLICITY
MODERNIS
M
FUNCTION AS A
DESIGN DRIVER
+
Morphological Characteristics of
Buildings
SIMPLE AND STYLE NON-LOAD

UNIVERSAL SPACE
FREE PLAN BEARING WALLS
CANTELIVERS GLASS CORNERS CONCRETE
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Coffee Break Time!
Synoptic
(Comprehensive)
Rational Planning
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Rational Planning Defined
❖A structured process of decision-making that seeks to

maximize the achievement of desired goals (ends) by
careful consideration of potential consequences of
available alternatives and/or options(means)
❖ Rationality focuses on
❖ Qualityof decision
❖ The subordination of action and of knowledge to values
+
A Structured Decision making
process
Scientific Knowledge
Choose
Alternatives Implemen
Identify Identify Evaluate Evaluate
That tation
Goals Alternatives Consequences outcome
maximizes
goals
Methods and Analytic

Techniques
Optimization
A scientific and
Planning and
technical process
Efficiency
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+
Rational Planning
+
Urban Models
1925: Concentric Zone Theory;
Burgess
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+
Urban Models
1939: Sector Theory; Homer Hoyt
+
Urban Models
1945: Multiple Nuclei Model;
Harris and Ullman
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+
Urban Models: 1962 Penn-Jersey
Transportation Study urban growth
simulation model
+
Urban Models: 1962 Penn-Jersey
Transportation Study urban growth
simulation model
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+
Urban Models: 1968 Pittsburgh
Community Redevelopment Model
+
CONSTANTINOS APOSTOLOS
DOXIADIS
1914-1975
❖Studied the science
of human
settlements, called
ekistics
❖Looks into the
culture, economics,
and society in
varying scales
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FRANCIS STUART CHAPIN
1888-1974
❖ Asa sociologist and
educator, he stressed
the importance of
quantifying social
activities in an
evolving city through
statistics.
❖ Hewas the first to

write the textbooks
on urban and regional
planning
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+
IRA LOWRY
❖ Published A Model of Metropolis, a computer

model for spatial organization of
anthropogenic activities in a metropolitan
area
❖ This generates an assessment that can be the

basis for urban policy decisions
❖ Worked with Robert Garin on a model that

looks at the relationship and logic to the
spatial arrangement of human activities
❖ Expands to gravity modeling, or trip

distribution in transport planning, or
distance decay in physics
+
Distance Decay
 The farther the distance, the more interaction declines
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Challenges and
Responses to Rational
Planning
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Challenges to Synoptic
(Comprehensive) Rationality in
Planning
Problems Knowledge Interests are

are is plural
“WICKED” Limited
“public interest” is
Not subject to Not subject to subject to
Optimization Comprehensive oversimplification
consideration and bias
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1960s Challeges to Rationalism &
its Modernist Underpinnings
65
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ROBERT MOSES
1888-1981
❖ The Master Builder of New York
❖ Hisplans had parkways,

expressways, and housing
development
❖ One of the most controversial

figures in the history of urban
planning
+
JANE JACOBS
1916-2006
❖ An urban activist who was
strong and vocal against urban
renewal; she fought for new
urbanism
❖ Wrote the powerful book The

Death and Life of American
Cities Her book and activism
led to the eventual fall of
urban renewal towards city
diversity, mixed-use, dense
neighborhoods, and vibrant
communities.
❖ Also wrote the book The

Economy of Cities
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JACOBS VS. MOSES
+
Urban Design Theorists
1960 Image of the City by Kevin
Lynch
Basic elements of
"imageability"
Paths
Edges
Nodes
Districts
Landmarks
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Paths
Edges
Nodes
Districts
Landmarks
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SAUL DAVID ALINSKY
1909-1972
❖ Founder of modern community

organizing
❖ Wrote the book Rules for Radicals
❖ Worked with the poorer

communities, and influenced
neighbourhood organisations
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+
RACHEL LOUISE CARSON
1907-1964
❖A marine biologist
❖ Wrote the powerful book Silent Spring, a haunting

compilation and narrative of research about the detrimental
and even lethal effects of pesticides and fertilisers on the
living environment
❖ This book launched a global environmental movement
+
IAN MCHARG
1920-2001
❖ Was called an “architect who
valued a site’s natural features”
❖ Transformed efforts of traditional
planning into environmental
planning by using the technique
of sieve mapping or overlay,
which took into account the
varied features of the
environment.
❖ Wrote the book Design with
Nature, which triggered
responsible planning of
landscapes, respecting natural
features
❖ Laid the foundation for
Geographic Information Systems
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Communicative Planning,
Political Action and
Pragmatism
+
Postmodern Critique
Beauregard, Mandelbaum, Sandercock,
Fainstein
Knowledge Emancipation
Knowledge is not objective Modernist Planning’s premise
but rather socially of a unified concept of liberation
constructed
Reality lacks an internal
(that reality can be controlled
logic that can be and perfected) leads to
uncovered and domination
manipulated through Recognizes the rights of
rational and scientific marginalized groups to freedom
principles as each group defines it, rather
Knowledge is open-ended
than their inclusion as
Partial
Particular consenting“interests” in a well-
Historic ordered society
Local Planning in different voices
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Social Learning
Argyris & Schö
Planning seen as integral to a dynamic system of social
change & learning
Planners engage in “reflection-in-action”
Examine espoused theory and theory in practice
Are catalysts and boundary spanners
strive to create a decision structure that is self-correcting (learns
from reflecting on its own choices)
+
Social Learning Integral
Argyris & Schö

Dynamic
System
Planning
Social Change
Defensive
and Learning
Reasoning
Barriers to
Change Double Loop
Learning
Action
Underlying Strategies Outcome
Assumptions
Goals, Values
WHY? And Consequence
Techniques
Single Loop
2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History Learning
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Transactive Planning
John Friedman
❖ Transactive planning is one
alternative to comprehensive
rational planning.
❖ Carried out face-to-face with
people affected by planning
decisions, with involvement
throughout the plan decision-
making process.
❖ The transactive planning model is
based on communicative
rationality.
❖ This type of rationality is based on
human communication and
dialogue between planners and
the people affected
by planning (Kinyashi 2006;
Larsen 2003).
+
Citizen Participation
Sherry Arnstein,
A Ladder of
Citizen Participation
❖ Social and health worker
❖ Published an article on the ladder

of citizen participation, which gave
not only a voice but power to the
citizens. This addressed how
citizens were being victimised,
and led the way to participatory
planning.
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8 RINGS OF
CITIZEN
PARTICIPATION
+
A Theory of Communicative
Reason
Jurgen Habermas
Abstract Social
Rejects
Rationalism Inequality
Alternative Community
Provides
Rationalism Engagement
Identify Justify Select

Priorities Claims Strategies
Public
2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History Interaction
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Reason
Jurgen Habermas
Rejects abstract rationalism as masking social structures
of inequality
Provides for an alternative rationality linked to community
engagement
Identifies priorities, justifies claims, and selects strategies
based on deeply deliberative processes of
public interaction and debate
+
Reason
Action
Jurgen Habermas
Mutual Shared
Comprehension Values
Intention to
reach new
Understanding
Truth Trust
Langua
2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History ge
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The Communicative Turn
John Forester, Patsy Healey and Judith
Innes
 Seeks to mobilize the mobilize the creative and self-
empowering power of a community
 Planning seen as a communicative act centered on social-

learning and culture building
 Planners facilitate deliverative processes that seek to

produce a system of shared meanings between planners &
the public
+
Communicative Rationality
Planning is fundamentally linked to clarification of

interests (desired ends) Communicative Rationality
The selection of means cannot be isolated from the
identification of valued ends
Both are linked to community, and to the
communicative acts that bind communities
together
Emphasis on transparency, inclusiveness, truth-seeking
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Communicative Planning in Action
Lawrence Susskind
The public interest is
revealed through the
interaction of
stakeholders
seeking to negotiate
desired outcomes within
well-structured
processes. A focus on
process design and
facilitative skills
+
New Urbanism
Andres Duany & Elizabeth Plater-
Zybeck
New Urbanism emphasizes urban features
compactness, walkability, mixed use
Promotes a nostalgic architectural style reminiscent
of the traditional urban neighborhood
movement has links to the anti-sprawl, smart growth
movement
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+
Sustainability & Smart Growth
 Popularity of vice president Al

Gore’s film “An Inconvenient
Truth” suggests how seriously
how the American public takes
environmental issues and
sustainability
 Designers & planners are

being asked to think about the
environmental impact of every
plan and about ways to
advance sustainability by
conserving energy, land and
natural resources in their work
 Propelled “Smart Growth”

movement to prominence
+
Sustainability & Smart Growth
 “not no growth or even slow growth. Rather, the goal is

sensible growth that balances our need for jobs and
economic development with our desire to save our natural
environment” – former Maryland Governor Paris
Glendenning
 Smart growth advocates argue for optimizing existing

infrastructure before building new; concentrating
development instead of spreading it over farmland & forest;
reducing traffic; and emphasizing affordability &
sustainability in housing
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+
Transit Oriented Development
 Also called transit villages reflects a clear understanding of

the strong connection between transportation and land use
 Offers an alternative to auto dependent suburbanization:

higher density, mixed use communities- often high density
nodes within existing suburban areas-specifically planned to
make transit use convenient & walking both easy & inviting
 Typical TOD sets higher density, mixed use core at the heart
of the planned community, usually less than half a mile
(optimal walking range) from a transit station
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+
Urban Villages & TNDs
 Urban villages – compact, walkable, mixed use

neighborhoods or towns- may be developed as higher-
density nodes in suburbs or as neighborhoods in a city
 Incorporate by design highly diverse community that offers a

wide range of housing types clustered around a shared Main
Street, market square or neighborhood park
 Mixing uses and housing types, they encourage walking

which cuts down auto trips
+
Urban Villages & TNDs
 A subset are Traditional

Neighborhood
Developments (TNDS).
Typically new construction
on greenfield sites, are
more compact than the
usual subdivision, favor
walking over driving, mix
uses where possible &
narrower roads, few or no
cul de sacs, & common
greens & squares.
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+
New Urbanism
 Both the TND and TOD are concepts associated with the New Urbanism,
a widely used term that describes the application of traditional planning
& design strategies as an antidote for urban sprawl.
 Congress for the New Urbanism has drawn both praise & resistance
 Grounded in the work of planners like Ebenezer Howard, Raymund

Unwin& Clarence Stein
 Advocated development of existing urban resources before moving out

into open land
 Reflect broadened mission that extends to promoting walkability,

connectivity, mixed uses, mixed income housing, diversity, higher
density, smart transportation & sustainability
 Codified many of Jane Jacobs principles about higher density, mixed

uses, short blocks & older buildings
+
Comparison between
Conventional Zoning & Smart
Code
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+
Transects
http://formbasedcodes.org/content/uplo
ads/2013/11/CMAP-
GuideforCommunities.pdf
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+
Contingency Theory
Hoch, Christensen , Alexander
• Planning is a professional act that occurs within a political
community
• Political and social interaction are central activities in
decision making and in learning
• Planners must respond through different planning
approaches under different circumstances
• Approaches depend on degree of
• Agreement about goals
• Uncertainty
• Imminence of decision
• Need for community buy-in
• Etc.
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Critical Pragmatism
John Dewey & Richard Rorty
Deductive Inductive
Reasoning Reasoning
❖ Calls for planners to use

a blend of inductive and General Principle; Theory
deductive reasoning
❖ Abductive reasoning, or
inferring to the best Predictions;
Generalizations
explanation. Hypothesis
Testing Pattern
Observation of Specific Cases
Philippine Urban Planning
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+
Spanish Colonial Urban Planning
 Based on the provisions of the Leyes de India's (Indies

Legislation) enacted in 1573 by King Philip II of Spain, main
guidelines:
 To find the most appropriate place to develop their main

activities in safe harbors on inlets, bays and riverbanks; as
headlands to control the territories or the farming
settlements in fertile plains; it was also necessary to provide
the easiest terrestrial and maritime connections to other
settlements
Colonial Urban Planning & Land Structures in the Philippines,

1521-1898
+
Spanish Colonial Urban Planning
 To choose the most healthy places

 To apply the regular grid as an easy suitable way of defining
the new urban structures, easily separating the Spanish from
the native quarters
 Cities should have at least 10 residents, preferably farmers
and cattle raisers, to whom a block in the city and four
leagues of land was given, as well as other privileges
 Building and public space design should be admired by the
natives, as urban design and architecture played an essential
role in the political propaganda and image of the Spanish
Empire
 to prevent damage to native settlements and their rights
1521-1898
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Main Spanish
Foundations
+
Spanish Colonial Urban Planning -
Classification
 According to Function
1 Port cities, mainly engaged in long distance foreign trade with other
Asian ports (Canton, Macao, Malaka) and American ports (Acapulco);
examples: Manila, Cavite
2 Military port cities, essential to maintain Spanish sea power; for
example, Jolo, Zamboanga, Iligan and Tandag
3 Secondary ports and anchorages which were important ports of call for
local trade lines and natural harbors in stormy weather; for example,
Sorsogon, Cebu, Samar
4 Forts on headlands, for example, Pollock, Isabela, Basilan
5 Inner plots and cities which consolidate the terrestrial routes and
defenses, as well as some strategic exploitations such as wood for
shipyards and tobacco plantations; examples are Amadeo (Mindanao),
Vigan, Balabac and the settlements of Cagayan Valley
6 Cities at riversides, for example Cotabato (Rio Grande de Mindanao)

1521-1898
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Classification
 According to Urban Type
1 Regular grid cities, usually composed of rectangular
blocks, facing two sets of orthogonal streets; that
constitute the main typology of Spanish colonial
foundations both in the American and Philippine
territories; main buildings facing the Plaza Mayor (main
square), extending over an area at least one block, &
where outstanding urban events took place; secondary
squares strategically placed for other urban uses such as
port or trading activities, and they also occupied a block
or a part of it; the most relevant example is the City of
Vigan
1521-1898
Philippine
Cities
designed
as Grids
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+
Classification
2 Cities with a distorted grid, mainly due to geographical
conditions, such as rivers and hills that determined the
urban borders and still control the urban sprawl; floods
and earthquakes are common phenomena in this area,
and they historically conditioned the urban
development as well as the height of the housing and
the main buildings, and even of the bell towers; but
these were also due to later urban developments: they
frequently absorbed the neighboring native settlements
and suburbs into the new urban structure; Manila is an
example

1521-1898
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Classification
3 Cities placed along an itinerary (linear cities); this is an
old European urban typology that appeared along
commercial or pilgrimage routes in the Middle Ages; its
blocks were arranged along the main road-also main
street-, and facing it, two secondary streets ran parallel
and were symmetrically arranged at both sides of the
main street; about 250m in length and each square 45 m
long and 20 in depth, having back lots and a regular
shaped plot of land outside town. Examples are Caloocan,
Marilao, Sinait and Bamban.

1521-1898
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+
Classification
3 Irregularly shaped cities, that is the usual plan for native
settlements, as well as for spontaneous suburban
developments. Main examples are old suburbs of Manila
previous to urban reforms in the 18th century, where native
(sangleys) or foreign traders (mainly Chinese and
Malaysian) settled before the arrival of the Spanish
conquerors; old town of Jolo whose wooden huts
extended over a flat seashore

1521-1898
+
Classification
3 Ideal plan towns: in the Philippines there are no examples
of a purely ideal urban structure (such as radial or star-
shaped), but it is quite frequent to find square grids inside
more or less regular polygonal walls, according to the
influences of the ideal town planning of Renaissance and
French fortification treatises. Examples are the inner city
of Manila (Intramuros ) and Batangas.

1521-1898
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American Colonial Urban Planning
 1898 – Spanish colonialism collapsed and was replaced by

American Sovereignty. The US changed from being a
republic to for the first time being a ruler of a distant
territory
 It also viewed itself as being a nation fulfilling its destiny to

redeem and enlighten “barbarous races” with the gift of
civilization
 Social problems at that time included poor quality housing,

polluted waterways, widespread poverty and the lack of a
national education system
City Designing And Nationhood During The Early-

1900s: Civic Design In The Philippines
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 President McKinley formed the Philippine Commission in

1899 to implement American rule across the Philippine
archipelago
 They noted how important towns and cities would be to

America's process of importing civilization: the significance
of urban places to the process of governance
 They concluded that American authority was wholly reliant

upon developing settlements because in US history, urban
communities had been the seats of government and the sites
where the nation’s political & social aspirations had been
brought into being
+
 US culture at that time, urban places were considered to be

the foundation and hope of civilization, the locales were civic
virtues were to be generated
 Guided by “Benevolent Assimilation” President McKinley

defined the purpose of US colonization as a means to
educate, civilize and uplift Filipinos
 This was to be realized in 1904-05 when Daniel Burnham, the

Chicago-based urban planning visionary visited SE Asia

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 Despite being in the Philippines for just a handful of weeks

the legacy of Burnham's Philippines visit remains to this day
in the form of two city plans, for the settlements of Manila and
Baguio
 Both designed along the same lines of his work for the
Columbian World’s Fair, a scheme that contained “many
features of what an ideal city might be”
 It offered a model as to what modern urban design could

achieve in aesthetic, cultural and civil terms;

+
 Refashioned local urban space so as to aid colonial

expansion
 Played a fundamental role in the developing the Philippines

in a manner that on one hand contrasted greatly with the
country’s perceived uncivilized past and acted as guiding
hands for Filipino society to attain progress
 Civic center was the core element
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+
Manila
 In Manila, a city of about 225,000 people by circa 1900,

Burnham’s plan was to fuse colonialism with contemporary
American urban design practices via establishing a new hub
in the settlement in the form of a collection of public
buildings, the Government Group (figure 8), which were to
be laid out in strict geometric manner so as to form a single,
coherent architectural unit so that both beauty and
convenience could be bequeathed
 In immediate proximity to the Government Group Burnham

suggested laying down a circular plaza. From it boulevards
would radiate out across the city thus allowing the civil
servants the opportunity to look out to the people over whom
they serve.
+
Manila
 Also in proximity to the Government Group Burnham

suggested creating a Mall, an open area reminiscent of the
monumental space in Washington DC which would present a
grand vista towards Manila Bay, the scene of America’s
military triumph over the Spanish Navy and a locale said by
Burnham to be as picturesque as the Bay of Naples in Italy.
 The central alignment of the Mall was to be
 With the boulevards branching out from the civic center

towards the suburbs Burnham believed the roadways would
provide practical as well as visual advantages in that they
would aid the circulation of traffic and give accessibility to
the civic core from all districts of the settlement, in so doing
granting ‘sentimental’ benefits in that all parts of the city
could look with reverence towards the dome, the primary
symbol of American authority.
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Baguio
 Located in the mountains of North Luzon, at a height of about

5,000 feet above sea level, Baguio’s city plan offered another
opportunity for the US to consolidate their colony authority in
orderly built environmental form.
 Developed as a miniature of Washington DC’s plan,
Burnham’s plan for Baguio, like that for Manila, sought to
utilize the natural environment to proclaim the virtues of US
imperialism.
 For example, the civic core comprised of two clusters of
buildings, one belonging to the local government, the other
to the national government: Baguio was formed to act as the
summer capital city when the climate of Manila became too
uncomfortable for the Americans.

+
Baguio
 Each arranged a geometric manner close to hilltops – not on

the tops of the hills as this would have broken the natural
silhouette of landscape, and Burnham saw this as a great
quality of the local environment
 the municipal and national government buildings faced

towards each other from opposite sides of a valley that
formed the center of the settlement. This, like the
Government Group in Manila, bestowed a sense of visibility
and in utilizing the hills Burnham in
 Baguio was able of exploiting the site characteristics so as to

express the political and cultural message of the US inserting
civilization into the Philippines.

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Baguio
 Although smaller in spatial extent than Manila, owing to the fact that
Baguio was planned for a population of 25,000 people and the
Manila project was to cope with the city’s growth to an anticipated
level of 800,000 people, the plan for the new settlement of Baguio
repeated many of the features found in the colonial capital city.
 One component was the repeated use of parks. In Manila Burnham

sought to create nine green areas which would not only beautify the
city, and provide shade from the tropical sun, but would provide
environments to permit social interaction.
 This, in the cultural context of the late-1800s and early-1900s, would

inspire citizens to equate civic spaces with beauty, pride, cultural
cohesion, and social equality, and consequently new civic values
could become manifest.

+
Baguio
 In Baguio a Mall-like park, Burnham Park, was formed at the center of the
city, laid down on the central axis between the municipal and national
government buildings. Radiating off Burnham Park a geometric road pattern
was laid down in order to supply approaches to the central district and its
edifices. Such a ploy would bestow dignity upon the settlement’s core.
 Due to the mountain terrain of Baguio Burnham was not able to lay out an
entire urban form strictly governed by long, straight, and wide
thoroughfares. Instead, owing to the undulating topography, Burnham
created in Baguio a road system unique to the nature of the city’s site which
ventured where possible to provide sight lines towards the municipal
government buildings, and the national government edifices.
 These sight lines would also connect to the city’s grand entrance, a tram
terminus at the urban fringe, said by Burnham to be an imposing and fitting
entrance to the city; fitting too because roads in the milieu of civilization-
building in Luzon were important to building the island’s, and so nation’s,
economy.
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American Legacy
 Evidence for their influence can be seen in

 William Parsons’ geometrically-formed urban
plans for Cebu (Cebu Island) and Zamboanga (on Mindanao
Island) prior to 1914,
 Classically inspired architecture of George Fenhagen, Ralph
Doane,
 and Juan Arellano, the latter being a Filipino architect who in
the 1930s designed the Metropolitan Theater of Manila and
planned the campus of the University of the Philippines in
Quezon City, an environment defined by a monumental axis
marked at one end by the university’s administrative
building, and at the other end of the alignment by the
university library.
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Commonwealth Urban Design
 During the time of the Commonwealth, Manila still served as

the nation's capital. During these times too that
Commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon dreamed of a
city that could become the future capital of the country,
replacing Manila. The 1941 Harry Frost-Juan Arellano master
plan for the new capital Quezon City provided a new site
(Wikipedia)
 Quezon City’s earliest developments were guided by at least

two master plans, one was the Frost Plan in 1940 and the 1949
Master Plan of the City Planning Commission which
produced the documents in accordance with the vision of
President Quezon. President Quirino approved the
implementation of the 1949 plan.
 The “Frost plan,” which aimed to develop Quezon City as the
Washington DC of the country, reflects a big quadrangle in
+
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+
+
Bagong Lipunan
 Marcos had a vision of a Bagong Lipunan (New Society) . He

used the years of Martial Law to implement this vision “a
movement urging the poor and the privileged to work as one
for the common goals of society and to achieve the liberation
of the Filipino people through self-realization”
 Book “Edifice Complex” by Ar Gerard Lico explores the

architecture of the dictatorship
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+
Bagong Lipunan
+
Urban Planning Today
 Local Government Code:

 Provincial/City/Municipal Planning & Development Coordinator
(MPDC)
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+
Urban Planning Today – Private
Sector Initiatives
Urban Design Today
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http://www.mb.com.ph/top-global-master-planner-wins-design-contest-for-
clark-green-city/
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End
Godspeed with the exam!
106

History of Planning Theory

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History of Planning Theory

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10/02/2018

History & Theory of

 Emergence of Planning & Utopianism

 Codification of Professional Planning Practice

 Synoptic (Comprehensive) Rational Planning

 Challenges & Responses to Rational Planning

 Communicative Planning, Political Action & Pragmatism

 Theory (if any)

❖ In a given time frame

Optimize Balance Options. Provide answers and

How do we get to the end focus

❖ Suited the needs of

❖ Power is still working

❖ Established the Polluter Pays Principle; which says

❖ Providedthe foundation for the concept of

❖ “For our children’s children”

❖ Rome was the first city with a

❖ Designs focused on Military

❖ Moral Decay and

❖ Decline of Rome’s power left many outpost

❖ Growth of towns around either a monastery or

 Leon Battista Alberti

❖Linked settlements to transport

❖ JohnGwynn (1766) – prepared a remarkable plan

❖ JamesCraig (1767) - Scottish architect, planned linear

❖ RobertOwen (1799) – English social reformer,

Source: Science Direct

 French Architect Claude  Principal urban work was the

 Also launched a new era of

2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History

❖ Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux

❖ Horace W. S. Cleveland, Minneapolis

❖ Charles Eliot & Sylvester Baxter, Boston

2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History

❖ Superficial Beauty in a City:

2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History

❖ Father of American City

❖ Wrote the Plan for Chicago

“Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men’s

 Criticisms of Chicago Plan

2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History

+ Superblock Thorough Fair

❖ 200 sqm to 2 sqkm

❖ Sought to birth the good society through

❖ Planners proposed sweeping changes to physical,

❖ Plans = imaginative visions rooted in moral

❖ Focused on ends, not pragmatic means

2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History

 “When men came to realize [that the change]…

2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History

❖ SIR RAYMOND UNWIN

❖ SIR FREDERIC JAMES

2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History

 Wrote Tomorrow (1898) followed up with Garden Cities

❖ His works were criticized

❖ He wrote the books Urbanism

2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History

❖ Designed the 1,000-hectare Broadacre City

2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History

❖ “Who is going to say how humanity will eventually be modified

2014 AICP Exam Preparation Theory History

❖ Planning Movements contained elements of utopianism

❖ But ultimately failed as a set of visions

❖ SIR RAYMOND UNWIN 