Part 6.

Flow Measurement, P6108, P6227, P6228,

P6229 & P6230.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. DESCRIPTION

2.1 P6108 Rotameter

2.2 P6227 Venturi Meter

2.3 Orifice Plate Meter

2.4 P6229 Turbine Meter

2.5 Pitot-Static Tube

3. THEORY

3.1 List of Symbols

3.2 Rotameter P6108

3.3 The Venturi Meter

3.4 Orifice Plate

 3.5 Turbine Meter

3.6 The Pitot Static Tube

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

4.1 List of Experiments

Experiment 1 Flow measurement using a Rotameter

Experiment 2 Flow measurement using a Venturi Meter

Experiment 3 Flow measurement using an Orifice Plate

Experiment 4 Flow measurement using a Turbine Meter

Experiment 5 Flow measurement using a Pitot-Static Tube

4.2 Setting up the Experiments

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1.INTRODUCTION
The measurement of flow rate is a fundamental topic to which a considerable degree of attention has
been paid with the result that there are flow meters available using a wide variety of principles. Cussons
have chosen five types of flow meter, which are all in common industrial use, to provide experiments in
comparative flow measurement. The five meters and their principle of operation are tabulated below.

Meter Principle

Rotameters Variable area

Venturi Head Loss

Orifice Head Loss

Turbine Impulse

Pitot Static Velocity

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2. DESCRIPTION
2.1 P6108 Rotameter

The rotameter is basically a variable area constant pressure device which consists essentially of a float
which is free to move up or down in a vertical tapered tube with the small end of the tube at the bottom.
With no flow the float rests at the bottom of the tapered tube. Upward fluid flow causes the float to be
lifted upwards until the pressure drop occurring across the annular space surrounding the float and acting
on the cross sectional area of the float exactly matches the weight of the float. In operation it is essential
that the float should not touch the sides of the tapered tube, otherwise erroneous readings will occur. To
ensure good repeatability the float should be concentric with the tube. this can be arranged by either
guiding the float or, as is more usual, by causing the float to spin by incorporating angled grooves or
vanes on the float. The float is stabilised in the centre of the tube by the gyroscopic effect due to the spin.

The P6180 Rotameter utilises a transparent tube and a polypropylene float providing a visual indication 9f
the flow rate by measuring the position of the float relative to the position of the tube by using the integral
scale, which is calibrated from 0.4 to 4.0 M3H. The main dimensions of the Rotameter float and tapered
tube are shown in figure 1.

The P6108 Rotameter is intended to be permanently mounted on the Hydraulics Bench strapped to the
front left hand leg of the bench frame. The rotameter can then be used as a means of providing an
instantaneous flow reading with any of the other experiments which do not utilise an overflow.

Specification

Accuracy +/- 1% of Full Scale + 3% of Reading

2.2 P6227 Venturi Meter

Cussons P6227 Venturi Meter is designed to be used on the Hydraulics Bench mounted between the
P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank and the P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. The P6106 Manometer
Board is required for pressure measurement. The Feedback P6105 may be used instead of the inlet head
tank to increase the flow range.
The Venturi, which is manufactured from transparent acrylic material, follows the classic 21º - 10º
convergent-divergent design which forms the basis of most engineering standards for venturi flow meters.
The P6227 complies with the British Standard BS1042 for flow measurement. The dimensions of the
Venturi Meter are shown in Figure 2. The upstream and throat pressure tappings are used for flow
measurement whilst the downstream tappings allows an assessment of the pressure recovery to be
made. The throat diameter is 10mm and the upstream and downstream pipe diameters are both 21mm.

Figure 2 P6227 Venturi Meter

2.3 Orifice Plate Meter

The P6228 Orifice Flowmeter consists of a 22mm bore acrylic tube with two interchangeable sharp edged
orifice plates of 8mm and 12mm bore. The downstream bore of each orifice is chamfered at 40º to
provide an effective orifice plate thickness of 0.35mm. The flanges of the orifice meter have been
specially designed to incorporate corner tappings immediately adjacent to the orifice plate by the use of
pizeometer rings machined directly into the face of the flanges. The flanges also incorporate D and D/2
tappings. The design of the orifice plates conform with the British Standard for flow measurement
BS1042.

The orifice plate meters are designed for use between the P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank and the
P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. The P6106 Manometer Board is required for flow measurement and
P6105 Feedblock may be used instead of the inlet tank to increase the flow range.

The orifice plate assembly is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3 P6228 Orifice Plate Meter

2.4 P6229 Turbine Meter

Cussons P6229 Turbine Meter utilises a proprietary pulse producing turbine transducer mounted in a
29mm bore acrylic tube and intended for connecting to either the P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank or the
P6105 Feedblock. the main leg of the body of the turbine transducer unit forms part of the actual liquid
flow line and the section at 90º to it houses the rotor bearings, Variable Inductance Pickett coil and output
electrical connections. A suitably positioned O-ring ensures that only the rotor blades and a small section
of the rotor are in contact with the liquid, whose flow is to be measured. The clearances between rotor
blades and outer casing are sufficiently large to enable particles in suspension in the liquid to pass
through the body of the meter without difficulty. As the rotor turns, the Pickett coil mounted on the flow
meter senses the passage of the rotor blades and emits a sine wave pulse. Hence the total number of
pulses from the Pickett coil is a measure of the total quantity of fluid passing through the main leg, whilst
the pulse rate is a measure of the liquid flow rate. These pulses are fed to a frequency to voltage circuit
and then to a moving coil meter providing an analogue readout of the transducer frequency output in
Hertz. The turbine meter is illustrated in Figure 4.

Note : Nominal output is 620 pulses/litre.

Figure 4 P6229 Turbine Meter

2.5 Pitot-Static Tube

Cussons P6230 Pitot-Static tube comprises a 20mm bore acrylic tube with a 2× 3mm diameter pitot-static
tube with a modified NPL elliptical nose. The pitot-static tube is mounted in a central tee piece and is
arranged so that it can be traversed across a single diameter of the tube to allow the velocity profile
across the tube to be determined. The whole assembly can be rotated to any angle to allow traverses to
be conducted across other diametral planes.

The assembly is designed to be mounted between the P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank and the P6104
Variable Head Outlet Tank. The P6106 Manometer Board is required for pressure measurement and the
P6105 Feedblock may be used to extend the flow range.

Figure 5 shows the arrangement of the Pitot-Static Tube.

Figure 5 P6230 Pitot-Static Tube

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3. THEORY
3.1 List Of Symbols

Ac Cross sectional area at vena contracta m2

Af Cross sectional area of float m2

At Cross sectional area of Rotameter tube m2

Cd Coefficient of discharge

Cr Rotameter flow coefficient

f Frequency Hz

F Fluid drag force on float N

g Acceleration due to gravity 9·806 m/s2

H Differential head m

Kt Turbine meter constant m3/s Hz

Mass flow rate kg/s

P Pressure N/m2

Pt Total pressure N/m2

Volumetric flow rate m3/s

Re Reynolds number

V Velocity m/s

Vc Velocity at vena contracta m/s

Vf Volume of float m3

W Effective weight of float kg

ß Diameter ratio D2/D1

  Error %

 FS Error with respect to full scale %

 Density of water kg/m3

f Density of float kg/m3

3.2 Rotameter P6108

The fluid passing through the Rotameter flows upwards through the tapered tube and lifts the float due to
the pressure drop across the float as the fluid passes through the annular orifice formed between the tube
and the float. Since the tube enclosing the float is tapered, the area of the annular orifice is dependent on
the vertical position of the float within the tapered tube. The position of the float is automatically
determined within the tube when there is a balance between the downward gravitational force on the float
and the upward fluid drag force.

The effective weight of the float immersed in he

The fluid drag force generated by the pressure

drop across the float acting on the cross sectional
area of the float is

The pressure drop across the float is related to the volumetric flow rate by an equation of the form

where Cr is a flow coefficient for the annulus between the tube and the float

Substituting for D R

and replacing F by the equation for W the volume flow rate is given by :
and the mass flow is then

The annulus area At - Af can be related to the height of the float in the tube from a knowledge of the float
and tube geometry.

3.3 The Venturi Meter

From consideration of continuity between the mouth of the venturi at section 1 and the throat at section 2
:

and on introducing the diameter ratio then

Applying Bernoulli's theorem to the venturi meter between section 1 and section 2, neglecting losses and
assuming the venturi is installed horizontally

Rearranging

and solving for V2

The volumetric flow rate is then given by

The actual discharge will be less than this due to losses causing the velocity through the throat to be less
than that predicted by Bernoulli's theorem, therefore it is necessary to introduce an experimentally
determined coefficient of discharge Cd. The actual discharge will then be given by :

The coefficient of discharge varies with both the Reynolds number and area ratio. Typical values for a
machined venturi meter are between 0·975 and 0·995.

The pressure loss across the venturi meter is less than the pressure difference measured between the
mouth and the throat due to the pressure recovery which occurs in the divergence as the kinetic energy is
reduced.

3.4 Orifice Plates

D & D/2 Tappings Corner Tappings

Due to the sharpness of the contraction in flow area at the orifice plate a vena contracta is formed.
Applying the continuity equation between the upstream conditions at section 1 and the vena contracta :

where suffix c denotes the vena contracta.

Applying Bernoulli's equation, neglecting losses and assuming a horizontal installation :

 Rearranging

and solving for Vc

The volumetric flow rate is then given by

The flow area at the vena contracta is not known and therefore a coefficient of contraction may be
introduced so that

The coefficient of contraction will be included in the coefficient of discharge and the equations rewritten in
terms of the orifice area A2 with any uncertainties and errors eliminated by the experimental determination
of the coefficient of discharge. The volumetric flow rate is then given by :

The position of the manometer tappings has a small effect on the values of the discharge coefficients
which also vary with area ratio, with pipe size and with Reynolds number. The variations of Cd with
Reynolds number is tabulated below for orifice plates with .

Reynolds 1 x 104 2 x 104 3 x 104 5 x 104 7 x 104 1 x 105 3 x 105 1 x 106 1 x 107
Number

D & D/2 Taps 0·6127 0·6102 0·6079 0·6068 0·6060 0·6043 0·6036 0·6032

Corner Taps 0·6187 0·6121 0·6096 0·6073 0·6062 0·6053 0·6037 0·6030 0·6026
The discharge coefficient can be calculated from an empirical equation, due to Stolz, which is quoted
from British Standard BS1042:Section 1.2:1984

For orifice plates with corner tappings :

where the additional suffix D applied to the Reynolds number shows that it is based on pipe diameter not
orifice diameter.

For orifice plates with D and D/2 tappings there are two additional terms to be included so that:

3.5 Turbine Meter

The turbine transducer propeller, which is arranged at 45º to the centre line of the pipe, is turned by the
fluid passing through the pipe, rotating approximately twenty five times for each litre of water passing
through the meter. With two pulses per revolution the output from the meter is approximately 50 pulses
per litre. The transducer has a range of operation from 10 to 150 litres per minute giving a frequency
output from approximately 8·3 Hertz to 125 Hertz. The frequency to voltage converter in the instrument
case is adjusted to display the turbine transducer frequency output in Hertz.

The precise relationship between the output frequency and the flow rate has to be determined by
experiment and all commercial turbine meters are therefore provided with a calibration certificate or graph
by the manufacturer. The characteristic relationship for a turbine meter is expressed as a meter constant
Kt so that the volumetric flow rate is given by :

where f is the frequency and Kt has units of volume per pulse.

Turbine meters have a threshold velocity below which the velocity of the fluid is insufficient to turn the
propeller rotor due to stiction in the bearings, the response of the meter is not necessarily linear, but with
good design of the propeller may be nearly so. It is therefore usual for the meter error to be analysed and
graphs drawn showing meter error as a percentage of either full scale or of reading plotted against the
meter reading.

3.6 The Pitot Static Tube

Consider the pitot-static tube installed in a pipe with the nose of the pitot-static tube facing the oncoming
flow. For the narrow streamtube which meets the nose of the pitot-static tube the flow is brought to rest.

The pressure sensed by the forward facing or pitot tapping is known as the total pressure Pc. Applying
Bernoulli's equation to the streamline which meets the nose of the pitot-static tube the quantity

As the pitot tapping leads into the manometer the volume within the pitot passage and manometer tube is
closed by the manometer fluid and therefore there can be no flow in this passage. The flow along the
streamline into the pitot tapping is therefore brought to rest and all of the kinetic energy is converted into
pressure energy. The total pressure sensed by the pitot manometer is thus :

Measurement of the static pressure P is made by tappings at right angles to the flow drilled radially
through the outer wall of the pitot-static tube into the annular space as shown in the diagram. The position
of these static holes is important since downstream of the nose, the flow is accelerated somewhat with a
consequent static pressure reduction and in front of the supporting stem there is a reduction of velocity
and increase of pressure. The static holes are, therefore, positioned where these two opposing effects
are neutralised and the reading corresponds to the undisturbed static pressure. Standard proportions of
pitot-static tubes have been evolved. Mis-alignment of the tube in relationship to the flow leads to errors,
but since total head and static readings are both reduced, their difference is less seriously affected. A
good pitot-static tube gives less than 1% error in velocity measurement for mis-alignments of the head of
up to 15º.
The difference in readings of the two limbs of the manometer gives a measure of :

Thus the velocity is given by :

In practice there will be some losses and a recovery factor may be introduced so that :

where C is a correction factor or recovery factor.

The volumetric flow through a circular pipe can be found if the pipe cross section is divided into rings of
equal area and the pitot-static tube used to measure the velocity in the centre of each ring. As the flow
distribution across the pipe and around the pipe may not be symmetrical it is necessary to measure the
velocity across more than one diameter. The standard method of doing this is to measure at six points
across each of three diameters at 60º spacing, or at ten points across two diameters at 90º. The spacings
should be as follows :

Three Diameters at 60º

0·032D 0·135D 0·321D
0·679D 0·865D 0·968D
Two Diameters at 90º
0·019D 0·077D 0·153D 0·217D 0·361D
0·639D 0·783D 0·847D 0·923D 0·981D

This method of sampling is known as the Log Linear rule. A true mean velocity can be obtained by
calculating the arithmetic average of the square roots of the dynamic heads providing the measurements
have been taken at the spacings shown above.

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4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

4.1 List of Experiments

Each flow measurement product offers an experiment to investigate the performance of the flow meter, to
calibrate the flow meter and conduct an analysis of the meters accuracy and error.

Experiment 1 Flow measurement using a Rotameter

Experiment 2 Flow measurement using a Venturi Meter

Experiment 3 Flow measurement using an Orifice Plate

 Experiment 4 Flow measurement using a Turbine Meter

Experiment 5 Flow measurement using a Pitot-Static Tube

4.2 Setting up the Experiments

The rotameter is connected to the Hydraulics Bench pipework before the bench regulating valve and is attached to th
a)
Rotameter. the Hydraulics Bench as shown in Part 1. If the Rotameter is to be used on its own then the discharge from the benc
valve needs to be directed into the weir channel, this can be best done by using either the stilling basket supplied as
P6225 or to use the P6105 Feedblock.

rbine Meter. The Turbine meter should be used on the top of the Hydraulics Bench and should be connected to either the P6103
Head Inlet Tank or the P6105 Feedblock. Neither the Manometer Board or the Outlet Tank are required.
her Experiments. The other experiments require the use of the P6106 Manometer Board and the P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. E
P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank or the P6105 Feedblock are required to supply the experiments.

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EXPERIMENT 1 FLOW MEASUREMENT USING A ROTAMETER

Aim To investigate the measurement of volumetric flow rate using a rotameter and to obtain a calibration
for the meter.

Equipment Preparation Prepare the equipment to the following specification

Inlet Permanently connected to bench, no inlet apparatus required

Test Section P6108 Rotameter

Outlet Direct into weir channel via stilling basket or P6105 Feedblock

Experimental Procedure

1. Start the pump and open the bench regulating valve to achieve a flow rate as measured by the
Rotameter of 0.4 M3/hr. Measure the flow rate using the volumetric measuring tank and a stop
watch.
2. Open the bench regulating valve to obtain an increase in flow in steps of 0.4M 3/hr until the
regulating valve is fully open. At each condition measure the volumetric flow rate and use a rule
to measure the position (height) of the float relative to the 0.4M3/hr.
3. Measure the water temperature.

Results and Analysis

 1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.
2. Calculate the volumetric flow rate from the time to collect a quantity of water. Determine the
density of the water in Appendix 1 of Part 1.
3. Plot a graph of the volumetric flow rate measured with the Rotameter against that obtained using
the volumetric measuring tank. Draw a straight line from the origin to be a best fit of the results.
Measure the slope of this line.
4. Calculate the error for the Rotameter as the difference between the two flow rates. Express the
error as both a percentage of reading and as a percentage of full scale. Plot both of these errors
against flow rate.
5. Use the data from figure 1 on page 6-5 to calculate the area of the flow annulus between the top
of the float and the tapered tube. Plot a graph of this area against flow rate. Measure the slope of
the graph and hence determine the meter coefficient.

RESULTS SHEET EXPERIMENT 1 FLOW MEASUREMENT USING A ROTAMETER

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EXPERIMENT 2 FLOW MEASUREMENT USING A VENTURI METER

Aim To investigate the measurement of volumetric flow rate using a venturi meter.

Equipment Preparation Prepare the equipment to the following specification

Inlet Initially P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank replaced by P6105

Feedblock.

Test Section P6227 Venturi Meter Assembly

Outlet P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank.

Manometer Initially use two of the single manometer tubes. When using the
feedblock change to the water on mercury manometer.

Assembly Ensure that the Venturi Meter is installed the correct way round with
the 21º convergent section at the left and the 10º divergence at the
right.

Experimental Procedure

1. Start the pump and establish a water flow through the test section. Raise the swivel tube of the
outlet tank so that it is close to the vertical. Adjust the bench regulating valve (or pump speed) to
provide a small overflow from the inlet tank and overflow pipe. Ensure that any air bubbles are
bled from the manometer.
2. Set up a series of flow conditions with differential heads starting at 25mm in steps of 25mm up to
150mm and thereafter in steps of 50mm up to a maximum of 500mm. At each condition carefully
measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank and a stop watch.
 3. Stop the water flow, allow the test unit to drain and replace the inlet tank with the feedblock.
Connect the test section pressure tappings to the water-mercury manometer. Establish a water
flow and bleed the manometer.
4. Set up a series of flow conditions with differential heads in steps of 25mm of mercury. At each
condition measure the volumetric flow rate.
5. Measure the water temperature.

Results and Analysis

1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.

2. For each result calculate the volumetric flow rate.
3. Plot a graph of the flow rate against the square root of the head and draw the best straight line
from the origin through the results. Measure the slope of the line and hence determine the
coefficient of discharge for the meter.
4. Superimpose on the graph the head loss across the meter.

RESULTS SHEET EXPERIMENT 2 FLOW MEASUREMENT USING A VENTURI

METER

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EXPERIMENT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT USING ORIFICE PLATES

Aim To investigate the measurement of volumetric flow rate using orifice plates.

Equipment Preparation Prepare the equipment to the following specification

Inlet Initially P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank replaced by P6105

Feedblock.

Test Section P6228 Orifice Plate Assembly with 8mm and 12mm orifice plates

Outlet P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank.

Manometer Initially use four of the single manometer tubes. When using the
feedblock change to the water on mercury manometer.

Assembly Ensure that the orifice plates are installed the correct way round with
the chamfer facing downstream.

Experimental Procedure

1. Start the pump and establish a water flow through the test section. Raise the swivel tube of the
outlet tank so that it is close to the vertical. Adjust the bench regulating valve (or pump speed) to
provide a small overflow from the inlet tank and overflow pipe. Ensure that any air bubbles are
bled from the manometer.
2. Set up a series of flow conditions with differential heads starting at 25mm in steps of 25mm up to
150mm and thereafter in steps of 50mm up to a maximum of 500mm. At each condition carefully
 measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank and a stop watch. Record the differential head
across the orifice plate twice, i.e. for both the D & D/2 tappings and for the corner tappings.
3. Stop the water flow, allow the test unit to drain and replace the inlet tank with the feedblock.
Connect the test section pressure tappings to the water-mercury manometer. Establish a water
flow and bleed the manometer.
4. Set up a series of flow conditions with differential heads in steps of 25mm of mercury. At each
condition measure the volumetric flow rate.
5. Repeat the experiment using the other orifice plate.

Results and Analysis

1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.

2. For each result calculate the volumetric flow rate.
3. Plot a graph of the flow rate against the square root of the head for each orifice showing by
separate symbols the results for the two different types of tappings. Draw the best straight line
from the origin through each set the results. Measure the slopes of the lines and hence determine
the coefficient of discharge for each orifice plate.
4. Use the Stolz equation to calculate the coefficients of discharge and compare with the
experimental results.

RESULTS SHEET EXPERIMENT 3 FLOW MEASUREMENT USING ORIFICE

PLATES

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EXPERIMENT 4 FLOW MEASUREMENT USING A TURBINE METER

Aim To investigate the measurement of volumetric flow rate using a Turbine meter.

Equipment Preparation Prepare the equipment to the following specification

Inlet Either P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank or P6105 Feedback

Test Section P6229 Turbine Meter Assembly

Outlet None required

Experimental Procedure

1. Start the pump and establish a water flow through the test section. Adjust the bench regulating
valve (or pump speed) to obtain a turbine meter reading of 50 Hz. Measure the flow rate using the
volumetric tank and a stop watch.
2. Open the bench regulating valve to obtain a series of results in steps of 50 Hz until the regulating
valve is fully open. At each condition carefully measure the volumetric flow rate.
Results and Analysis.

1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.

2. For each result calculate the volumetric flow rate.
3. Plot a graph of the frequency against volumetric flow rate and draw the best straight line from the
origin through the results. Measure the slope of the line and hence determine the meter
coefficient.
4. Use the meter constant to calculate the indicated flow rate and hence determine the error for
each reading. Express the errors as percentage of reading and as percentage of full scale. Plot
graphs of these two measurements of error against flow rate.

RESULTS SHEET EXPERIMENT 4 FLOW MEASUREMENT USING A TURBINE

METER

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EXPERIMENT 5 FLOW MEASUREMENT USING A PITOT-STATIC TUBE

Aim To investigate the measurement of volumetric flow rate using a pitot-static tube.

Equipment Preparation Prepare the equipment to the following specification

Inlet Initially P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank replaced by P6105 Feedblock.
Test Section P6230 Pitot-Static Tube Assembly
Outlet P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank.
Manometer Initially use two of the single manometer tubes. When using the
feedblock if necessary change to the water on mercury manometer.
Assembly Ensure that the Pitot-Static tube assembly is installed the correct way
round with the pitot tube facing into the flow.

Experimental Procedure

1. Start the pump and establish a water flow through the test section. Raise the swivel tube of the
outlet tank so that it is close to the vertical. Adjust the bench regulating valve (or pump speed) to
provide a small overflow from the inlet tank and overflow pipe. Ensure that any air bubbles are
bled from the manometer.
2. Set up a flow condition with a differential head of 50mm. Measure the flow rate using the
volumetric tank and a stop watch. Traverse the pitot-static tube across the pipe using the
distances calculated from the table on page 6 - 13 and record readings of the total and static
heads.
3. Repeat the test at the highest obtainable flow rate.

Results and Analysis

1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.

 2. For each result calculate the volumetric flow rate, the static, total and dynamic heads. Calculate
the velocity of the flow.
3. Plot a profile of the total, static and dynamic heads, and the velocity against the diameter of the
pipe.
4. Calculate the mean velocity by graphical integration or other appropriate method and hence
determine the flow rate. Compare with the measured flow rate.

RESULTS SHEET EXPERIMENT 5 FLOW MEASUREMENT USING A PITOT-STATIC

TUBE

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