Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 3683}3689

Ballast gas for heat transfer control in "xed-bed reactors

Vasilis Papavassiliou*, Matthew L. Wagner
Praxair, Inc., Application Research and Development, 765 Old Saw Mill River Rd., Tarrytown, NY 10591, USA

Abstract

Controlled oxidation reactions of hydrocarbons are practiced today in "xed-bed, #uid bed or transport bed reactors with oxygen or
air as the oxidant. In "xed-bed reactors, due to the exothermicity of the oxidation reactions, heat removal and temperature control are
critical in achieving safe and optimum reaction conditions that maximize conversion and selectivity. Industrial reactors often control
hot spot formation by using an appropriate diluent (ballast) gas. Steam, nitrogen, methane and carbon dioxide are the most
commonly used ballast gases. The scope of this paper is to elucidate the bene"ts of ballast gas use as a tool to optimize heat transfer
and reduce the hot spot e!ect in controlled oxidations with "xed-bed reactors. Ballast gas does not participate in the reaction, but it is
used to control heat removal and #ammability. A homogeneous one-dimensional reactor model was used to study and compare two
oxidation processes: (1) ethylene oxidation to ethylene oxide and (2) o-xylene oxidation to phthalic anhydride. For both processes hot
spot temperature and conversion decreased as methane replaced nitrogen in the process ballast gas. Selectivity increased in the
ethylene oxide case but decreased in the phthalic anhydride case, indicating that ballast gas e!ect on selectivity depends on the
reaction mechanism. Thus, there is an optimum ballast gas composition that will optimize hot spot temperature and reactor yield.
 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Ballast gas; Fixed bed; Vapor-phase oxidation; Ethylene oxide; Phthalic anhydride

1. Introduction undesirable, because it can create safety problems, reduce

The "xed-bed multitubular reactor is today the most
commonly used reactor for practicing vapor-phase cata-
lytic oxidations of hydrocarbons. The reactor consists of
a multitude of tubes arranged similar to a shell and tube
heat exchanger. The tubes are "lled with a catalyst.
A coolant is circulated around the tubes to dissipate heat
that is released from the exothermic controlled oxidation
reaction. The hydrocarbon and oxidant are pre-mixed
and fed to the reactor. Proper handling is required to
ensure that the hydrocarbon-oxidant feed mixture stays
outside the #ammability envelope or, if a #ammable
mixture is used, the reactor is appropriately designed to
prevent and/or relieve a de#agration. The exothermic
oxidation reaction causes a hot spot to form near the
reactor entrance, due to slow heat removal from the
reactor tubes to the coolant #uid. Hot spot formation is
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 001 914 345 6424; fax: 001 914 345
6405; e-mail: vasilis}papavassiliou@praxair.com.
catalyst life, reduce reactor performance, and lead to
reactor runaway if not properly controlled. Harold et al.,
1995, summarize the options available to reduce the
severity of hot spots in multi-tubular "xed-bed reactors by
(1) reduce coolant temperature;
(2) increase carrier (ballast) gas #ow rate;
(3) increase bed thermal conductivity;
(4) reduce tube diameter; and
(5) dilute the catalyst bed (activity pro"ling).
In addition to these options in industrial reactors,
however, an inert diluent (ballast gas) is often used to
facilitate hot spot control.
1.1. Ballast gas use
In air-based oxidations the ballast gas is usually nitro-
gen, but in oxygen-based oxidations the ballast gas selec-
tion is more complex. A signi"cant amount of patent
literature (Kingsley and Cleland, 1964; Severs, 1974;
Ramachaadran et al., 1991; Palmer and Holzhauer, 1982;

0009-2509/99/$ - see front matter  1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 0 9 - 2 5 0 9 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 4 9 2 - 8
3684 V. Papavassiliou, M.L. Wagner/Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 3683}3689
Etzkorn and Harkreader, 1988; Etzkorn and Harkreader,
1990) describes the use of ballast gas in various hydro-
carbon controlled oxidation processes. We discuss next
a few examples of ballast gas use. Our intent is not to be
exhaustive on the matter, but rather to present the diver-
sity of catalytic oxidation processes that advocate the use
of ballast gases.
Ethylene oxide production in "xed-bed reactors is cur-
rently the largest oxygen-based hydrocarbon oxidation
process. Ethylene oxide production was converted from
air-based to oxygen-based process in the early 1960s.
Methane (Kingsley and Cleland, 1964) was selected as the
most appropriate ballast gas on the base of its inertness
under the reaction conditions, good thermal conductivity
and heat capacity properties, and its positive e!ect on
#ammability. It has been reported (Kingsley and Cleland,
1964) that a maximum ethylene oxide yield achieved as
methane replaced nitrogen in the process ballast gas. The
optimum yield depended on the ballast gas composition
and the ethylene concentration in the reactor feed. The
reason for the yield increase was the improved heat
transfer properties of the methane ballast gas, which
reduced the hot spot e!ect and increase selectivity. Vinyl
acetate manufacture is also oxygen-based and alternative
ballast gases have been proposed (Severs, 1974) for this
process as well. The current technology uses an excess of
ethylene in the reactor feed instead of a non-reacting
alternate ballast gas. The unreacted ethylene is recycled
and the excess ethylene concentration in the reactor feed
does not adversely a!ect the reaction kinetics for this
particular reaction. The same solution is also preferred
(Yen et al., 1982) in the oxygen-based chlorination of
ethylene to vinyl chloride. Oxygen-based vinyl chloride
production is an improvement over the air-based pro-
duction in part, due to better heat transfer properties of
the reaction mixture.
In most air-based oxidation processes, nitrogen is the
ballast gas. Acrylic and methacrylic acid production are
air-based processes that utilize steam as a component of
the ballast gas (Farhad, 1987). It has been reported in
recent patents (Etzkorn and Harkreader, 1988, 1990) that
the use of an anhydrous ballast gas improves production.
The heat capacity of the ballast gas was correlated
(Etzkorn and Harkreader, 1988, 1990) with improved
reactor performance. Hydrocarbons with higher heat ca-
pacity than steam were found to improve performance.
Additional bene"ts included reduction of the maximum
hot spot temperature and increased catalyst life.
In order to increase the hydrocarbon concentration in
the reactor feed for maleic anhydride production without
the adverse hot spot e!ects, Ramachaadran et al. (1991)
proposed to use a mixture of methane, nitrogen and CO

as a ballast gas in the feed together with oxygen and the
hydrocarbon. The particular mixture of methane}nitro-
gen}CO acts as a #ame suppressor allowing higher

butane concentration to be used in the feed and facilitates
heat removal. Oxygen or oxygen-enriched air can be used
as the oxidant. When enriched air was used, nitrogen was
partially replaced by methane and CO . When oxygen

was used, nitrogen was completely replaced by methane
and CO . Both ballast gas and unreacted butane can be

recycled. An oxygen-based process with recycle was also
described (Marshall, 1975; Palmer and Holzhauer, 1982)
for the production of maleic anhydride by butane selec-
tive oxidation. The oxygen-based process was compared
(Palmer and Holzhauer, 1982) to an air-based process
with a recycle and to the conventional air-based process
using the same catalyst. When pure oxygen was used the
ballast gas was comprised of carbon oxides (CO and
CO ), whereas, when air was used, the ballast gas was

comprised of nitrogen and carbon oxides. In order to
prevent build-up of inerts (CO , CO and N ) in the
 
recycle a purge stream was withdrawn from the recycle
stream at a rate equal to the rate of the build-up of inerts.
The air-based process with recycle did not o!er signi"-
cant advantages. However, Palmer and Holzhauer
(1982), report that the per gram production of catalyst
was increased by 50% for an oxygen-based process using
a ballast gas (CO and CO ) compared to the air-based

process.
1.2. Heat and mass transfer modeling
To our knowledge, limited attempts have been re-
ported (Runhong and Yuen, 1993) to elucidate the e!ect
of alternate ballast gases with reactor modeling tech-
niques. This is surprising given the industrial signi"cance
of ballast gas applications. Runhong and Yuen (1993),
report simulations with one- and two-dimensional
homogeneous models of an ethylene oxide reactor when
nitrogen or methane are used as ballast gases. In reactor
simulations, methane performed better than nitrogen by
lowering the hot spot temperature maximum without
a selectivity penalty. Runhong and Yuen (1993), used
either nitrogen or methane as a ballast gas with di!erent
operating conditions in each case. Thus, the e!ect on
reactor performance of gradually substituting nitrogen
with methane under identical process conditions was not
obvious.
In recent years increasingly sophisticated models have
been developed (Finlayson and Rosendal, 1995; Froment
and Papageorgiou, 1995; Bey and Eigenberger, 1997a) for
heat and mass transfer modeling of "xed-bed reactors.
Selection of the appropriate reaction kinetic and heat
transfer parameters, to be used with a theoretical model,
is critical. It still remains di$cult to estimate heat transfer
coe$cients (Froment and De Wachs, 1972; Li and Fin-
layson, 1977; Bauer and Schlunder, 1978a,b; Dixon and
Cresswell, 1979; Cresswell et al., 1982; Wakao and
Kaguei, 1982; Dixon, 1985; Borkink and Westerterp, 1992;
Bey and Eigenberger, 1997b) in a universally accepted
fashion. The problem becomes even more complicated
 V. Papavassiliou, M.L. Wagner/Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 3683}3689 3685

if one attempts to alter the ballast gas composition. Table 1

Reaction kinetics are also di$cult to obtain for indus- Parameters for simulations of the ethylene oxide and phthalic anhy-
trially relevant conditions. In our simulations we used dride cases
reaction and heat transfer data for ethylene oxide and Parameter Ethylene oxide Phthalic anhydride
phthalic anhydride reactions available in the open litera-
ture (Runhong and Yuen, 1993; Calderbank et al., 1977; ¸ (m) 7.7 0.85
Li and Finlayson, 1977; Wakao and Kaguei, 1982). It is R (m) 0.0127 0.0127
R
d (m) 0.004 0.003
critical that the reactor model uses identical heat transfer N
e 0.52 0.56
parameters as the model that was used to estimate the G (kg/m s) 18 1.318
kinetic parameters. Reaction kinetics Runhong and Yuen Calderbank et al.
The goal of our simulations was to elucidate the ballast (1993) (1977)
gas e!ect on reactor performance in oxygen or air-based a ,j Li and Finlayson Wakao and Kaguei
U CP
hydrocarbon oxidations and for di!erent reaction mech- (1977) (1982)
P 22 atm 1 atm
anisms. Only the e!ect on heat transfer of a single ballast 
gas was examined although it is obvious that mixtures of
gases are used industrially. In particular, the partial oxi-
dation of ethylene to ethylene oxide was used as an a multiple reaction system take the form
example of a parallel reaction mechanism where the
Gy dX
partial oxidation of o-xylene to phthalic anhydride was !  G"r (X , ¹ ), (1)
used as an example of a more complicated mechanism M dz G G P

with several intermediate species. In our simulation of


d¹ j 8a
ethylene oxidation we assumed the following reaction Gc P"! CP #(!H) r (X , ¹ ), (2)
N dz r A G G P
equations (kinetics by Runhong and Yuen, 1993): R
where ¹ is the reaction-averaged temperature and a is
C H #0.5 O "C H O, (I) P
     calculated from the following equation:
C H #3O "2CO #2H O. (II)
     4a B ln(1!a)
A(¹ !¹ )" !ln(1!a)# . (3)
For the xylene oxidation simulation we used kinetic P U Bi 3A
parameters estimated by Calderbank et al. (1977), who
assumed the following reaction network: The parameters A and B for multiple reaction systems at
¹"¹ are given from:
P
* *
A" ln(H) and B" ln(H), (4)
*¹ *¹
where
L
H" (!DH ) r . (5)
G G
G
(III) The parameters used to solve the above equations for
the ethylene oxide and phthalic anhydride processes are
where CO represents carbon oxides (CO and CO ). given in Table 1. The estimation of the e!ective radial
V 
conductivity (j ) and the wall heat transfer coe$cient
CP
(a ) are further discussed in the next section.
U
2. Model development

Detailed two-dimensional heterogeneous models that 3. Results and discussion

account for radial and axial heat and mass transfer have
been presented (Finlayson and Rosendal, 1995; Froment
and Papageorgiou, 1995; Bey and Eigenberger, 1997).
Since this was an introductory study and only the quali-
tative e!ect of ballast gas use was investigated, we se-
lected to use a one-dimensional model (a model) based on
asymptotic analysis (Herskowitz and Hagan, 1988; Her-
skowitz, et al., 1988) of the radial temperature pro"le.
The details of the model are given elsewhere (Herskowitz,
et al., 1988). The "nal mass and energy balances for
The two physical parameters signi"cantly a!ected by
the reaction mixture composition and closely related to
heat transfer are the gas thermal conductivity and heat
capacity. Heat capacity and thermal conductivity of gas
mixtures were calculated according to methods presented
in Perry's Handbook (1984). In a homogeneous "xed-bed
reactor simulation heat transfer is characterized by two
parameters: (a) the wall heat transfer coe$cient (a )
U
and (b) the bed radial conductivity (j ). The e!ect of
CP
3686 V. Papavassiliou, M.L. Wagner/Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 3683}3689

increased heat capacity and thermal conductivity on
a and j was investigated using empirical or semiem-
U CP
pirical correlations (Froment and De Wachs, 1972; Bey
and Eigenberger, 1997; Westerterp, 1997; Wakao and
Kaguei, 1982; Bauer and Schlunder, 1978a, b; Cresswell
et al., 1982; Li and Finlason, 1977). It was found that
di!erent correlations predict di!erent values for j and
CP
a , when ballast gas composition changes. Correlations
U CP
based on the Re number (Froment and De Wachs, 1972;
Froment and Bischo!, 1990), though more accurate for
the gas mixture they were derived for, are not suitable to
predict j and a when the gas mixture composition
CP U
changes. Table 2 summarizes results of several correla-
tions (Bey and Eigenberger, 1997; Westerterp, 1997;
Wakao and Kaguei, 1982; Bauer and Schlunder, 1978a, b;
Cresswell et al., 1982; Li and Finlason, 1977), incorporat-
ing the Pr number. Heat transfer parameters j and
CP
a were predicted for a mixture containing initially 18%
U
molar oxygen, 1% xylene and balance nitrogen. The
ballast gas molar composition was varied by replacing
nitrogen with methane in 10% increments and monitor-
ing the change in the j and a values. The parameters
CP U
for the phthalic anhydride reactor reported in Table 1
were used in the calculation of j and a . The last line in
CP U
Table 2 represents the average % increase of j and
CP
a for a 1% increase of the methane concentration.
U
Although there is disagreement among di!erent correla-
tions (Table 2) they all predict a signi"cant improvement
in j and a equal to about 0.14}1.28 and 0.9}1.27%,
CP U
respectively, for every 1% methane concentration in-
crease. Heat capacity and thermal conductivity of the
gas mixture increase linearly as nitrogen concentration
decreases and as a result j and a increase. The Bey and
CP U
Eigenberger (1997) correlation, which has a week (Pr)
dependence to the Pr number, predicted the smallest
a increase. More work is needed to incorporate the
U
ballast gas e!ect in j and a correlations. For the
CP U
ethylene oxide simulations reported in this work we used
correlations for j and a reported by Li and Finlayson
CP U
(1977), because that correlation was also used in the
derivation of kinetic parameters (Runhong and Yuen,
1993). For the phthalic anhydride simulation we used
correlations by Wakao and Kaguei (1982), because it was
found that when they were used in simulations the results
agree with results reported by Calderbank et al. (1977).
The correlations by Wakao and Kaguei can also predict
j and a when the composition of the ballast gas
U
changes.
3.1. Ethylene oxide reactor simulations
With the aid of the model we tested how ethylene oxide
yield can be a!ected by the ballast gas composition.
Fig. 1 illustrates the model results for ethylene oxide
selectivity, ethylene conversion and hot spot temperature
as a function of increasing methane concentration. The
reactor feed consisted of 15% ethylene, 7% oxygen,
10.55% carbon dioxide with nitrogen or nitrogen}meth-
ane mixtures make up the rest. The reactor feed temper-
ature was at 5133K and the coolant temperature was
5263K. It becomes evident (Fig. 1 left) that the selectivity
(per pass) increases as methane substitutes for nitrogen
until it exponentially reaches a limiting value. The simu-
lations predict that ethylene conversion per pass de-
creases (Fig. 1 left). In the industrial process most of the
unreacted ethylene is recycled, thus, a selectivity increase
will lead to an overall yield increase for the process.
Fig. 1 (right) also depicts the hot spot temperature evolu-
tion as methane replaces nitrogen. We observe that the
maximum temperature decreases as methane concentra-
tion in the reaction mixture increases. Reduction of the
hot spot temperature results in a selectivity increase
because higher temperatures favor the undesirable reac-
tion to carbon dioxide. These results agree qualitatively
with experimental results presented elsewhere (Kingsley
and Cleland, 1964) for the ethylene oxide process yield as
methane replaces nitrogen in the ballast gas. The experi-
mentally observed yield maximum (Kingsley and Cleland,

Table 2
Prediction of the wall heat transfer coe$cient (a ) and the e!ective radial conductivity (j ) from various correlations as methane substitutes nitrogen
U CP
in a mixture containing initially 18% oxygen, 1% o-xylene and balance nitrogen

Westertep Bey and Wakao and Bauer and Cresswell Li and

(1997) Eigenberger Kaguei Schlunder et al. Finlayson
(1997) (1982) (1978a, b) (1982) (1977)

a j a j a j a j a j a j
U CP U CP U CP U CP U CP U CP
0% CH 275 0.74 248 205 0.53 0.97 408 1.10 120 1.70

10% CH 300 0.83 251 229 0.58 1.10 439 1.20 134 1.90

20% CH 324 0.92 254 254 0.64 1.20 471 1.30 148 2.10

30% CH 349 1.00 258 280 0.70 1.30 504 1.40 163 2.30

40% CH 374 1.12 262 309 0.77 1.42 539 1.54 179 2.53

% increase 0.90 1.28 0.14 1.27 1.13 1.16 0.8 1.00 1.23 1.22
per 1% CH

 V. Papavassiliou, M.L. Wagner/Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 3683}3689
Fig. 1. Model results for ethylene oxide selectivity, ethylene conversion (left) and hot spot temperature (right) as a function of increasing methane
concentration.
1964) is a function of several process parameters (per pass
yield, separation system, recycle, purge rate, reactants
purity), therefore, a direct quantitative comparison with
experimental results is not possible without knowing of
all the process details. Also kinetic parameters used in
this work (Runhong and Yuen, 1993) are not representa-
tive of the catalyst used in the experimental studies
(Kingsley and Cleland, 1964). The results (Fig. 1), how-
ever, demonstrate a positive e!ect on selectivity and hot
spot temperature for the methane ballast gas.
3.2. Phthalic anhydride reactor simulations
Production of phthalic anhydride (PA) via controlled
oxidation of o-xylene with air is a well studied oxidation
process. In phthalic anhydride production process
proper care must be taken to ensure that the hydrocar-
bon-air feed mixture is outside the #ammability envelope
or an elaborate safety system must be employed to pre-
vent and/or relieve a de#agration. Operating within the
#ammability envelope is possible (Lurgi, 1994) by care-
fully designing the reactor feed system, by using proper
rupture disks to relieve pressure and by using redundant
interlocks. The lower #ammability limit of o-xylene in air
is 1 mol%.
The model was used to predict behavior of "xed-bed
reactors in the air-based controlled oxidation of o-xylene
to phthalic anhydride, in which the properties of the feed
gas mixture were altered by introduction of a methane
ballast gas. We employed this example for the purpose of
illustrating the ballast gas e!ect on heat transfer, how-
ever, several other factors (e.g. #ammability, catalyst
performance, process economics) need to be evaluated
before one can actually utilize a ballast gas for heat
3687
transfer control in an industrial controlled oxidation
process.
Fig. 2 presents calculations for o-xylene partial oxida-
tion to PA as a function of the methane concentration in
the ballast gas. A feed molar concentration 1.5% in
o-xylene, 18% in O , and balance N and CH mixtures
  
was assumed. A total gas feed rate of 1.318 kg/m s was
assumed. The reactor wall temperature and the feed
temperature were 6933K. We observe from Fig. 2 (left)
that xylene conversion and phthalic anhydride selectivity
decrease as methane concentration in the ballast gas
increases. The hot spot temperature (Fig. 2 right) also
decreases as methane concentration in the ballast gas
increases. The conversion and the hot spot temperature
trends are similar to those observed in the ethylene case.
The product selectivity trend (Fig. 2 left), however, is
opposite to the one observed in the ethylene oxidation
case. This di!erence is explained if one considers the
more complicated reaction mechanism that we used for
the xylene oxidation (reaction (III)). In this case not only
the undesirable reaction rates, that form carbon oxides,
are depressed by the lower temperatures encountered
along the reactor but the reaction rates of the intermedi-
ate species, are depressed as well.
The di!erence in the temperature pro"les along the
reactor is depicted in Fig. 3 for nitrogen ballast gas (left)
and for nitrogen with 10% methane ballast gas (right).
We observe that the temperature maximum is lower
when the ballast gas contains methane. The temperature
maximum that is observed (9003K) when nitrogen only is
used, would result in fast catalyst deactivation during
actual reactor operation (Calderbank et al., 1977).
Catalyst dilution was proposed as a solution for hot
spot temperature control, and was proved e!ective in
3688 V. Papavassiliou, M.L. Wagner/Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 3683}3689

Fig. 2. Model results for phthalic anhydride selectivity, o-xylene conversion (left) and hot spot temperature (right) as a function of increasing methane
concentration.

Fig. 3. Temperature pro"les along the reactor length for phthalic anhydride when nitrogen is used as a ballast gas (left) and when a nitrogen with 10%
methane mixture is used as ballast gas (right).

theoretical simulations (Calderbank et al., 1977). The
hot spot temperature maximum is reduced from 9003K
(Fig. 3 left) to 8503K (Fig. 3 right) when a ballast gas
containing 10% methane is used. Although conversion
and selectivity are somewhat lower the catalyst life will be
preserved. Further increase of the methane concentration
in the ballast gas will further reduce the hot spot temper-
ature but also reduce product yield. Thus, for a given set
of process conditions, there is a methane/nitrogen ballast
gas composition, that will optimize both hot spot tem-
perature and phthalic anhydride production.
4. Conclusions
Theoretical results from ethylene oxide and phthalic
anhydride reactor simulations indicate that ballast gas
use is an e!ective tool for improving heat removal and
hot spot temperature control in "xed-bed reactor pro-
cesses. Di!erent reaction mechanisms may be a!ected
di!erently by changes in the ballast gas composition as it
is evident from the comparison of the ethylene oxidation
and the o-xylene oxidation cases. In this work the e!ect
of a single ballast gas was examined, although, the ballast
gas composition is a critical parameter that requires
optimization. In an industrial reactor the ballast gas
selection will be guided by reactor performance evalu-
ation, process parameters (recycle, purge, #ammability)
and economic optimization. Therefore, it may not always
be economical to use the best ballast gas available.
Future work should focus on the development of reli-
able heat transfer correlations that account for composi-
tion changes, and also on the study of the ballast gas
e!ect with heterogeneous models, in order to provide
accurate design guidelines for reaction and process
engineers.
 V. Papavassiliou, M.L. Wagner/Chemical Engineering Science 54 (1999) 3683}3689 3689

Notation Borkink, J.G., & Westerterp, K.R. (1992). Chem. Engng Sci., 47,
2337}2342.
a wall heat transfer coe$cient Calderbank, P.H., Chandrasekharan, K., & Fumagalli, C. (1977). Chem.
U Engng Sci., 32, 1435}1443.
Bi Biot number Cresswell, D.L., Newson, E.J., & Wellauer, T. (1982). Chemical reaction
c heat capacity
N engineering, ACS Symp. Ser. No. 196, (pp. 527}542).
d catalyst particle diameter Dixon, A.G., & Cresswell, D.L. (1979). A.I.Ch.E. Jr., 25, 663}676.
N Dixon, A.G. (1985). A.I.Ch.E. Jr., 31, 826}834.
G mass velocity
H heat of reaction Etzkorn, W.G., & Harkreader, G.G. (1988). European Patent,
293224A1.
¸ reactor length Etzkorn, W.G., & Harkreader, G.G. (1990). European Patent,
M average molecular weight
 361372A1.
P total pressure Farhad, N. (1987). Acrylic acids and acrylic esters. SRI report 6C.
 Finlayson, B.A., & Rosendal, B. (1995). Comput. Chem. Engng, 19,
r reaction rate
r reactor tube radius 1207}1218.
R Froment, G.F., & De Wachs, (1972). Chem. Engng Sci., 27, 567}576.
Re Reynolds number Froment, G.F., & Bischo!, K.B. (1990). Chemical reactor analysis and
¹ temperature design. New York: Wiley.
X conversion Froment, G.F., & Papageorgiou, J.N. (1995). Chem. Engng Sci., 50,
y feed mole fraction of hydrocarbon 3043}3056.
 Harold, M.P., & Lerou, J.J., & Mills, P.L. (1995). Catalytic oxidations,
e catalytic bed porosity
(pp. 291}369).
j e!ective radial conductivity
CP Herskowitz, M., & Hagan, P.S. (1988). A.I.Ch.E. Jr., 34(8).
Herskowitz, M., Hagan, P.S., & Pirkle, C. (1988). SIAM Jr. Appl. Math.,
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Kingsley, H.A., & Cleland, F.A. (1964). ;.S. Patent 3119837.
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