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Some Mathematical Formulas Used
in Deforming Metals
One Dimensional (1D) Deformation Formulas
Engineering stress (σeng) 1) σ> σeng at e ≈ ξ on a stress‐strain curve
= Force (P) / Original‐cross‐sectional‐area (Ao) 2) The maximum stress point (at ultimate
tensile stress) and the characteristic of
Engineering strain (e) subsequently reducing stress with increasing
= Elongation (Δl=l‐lo) / Original‐gage‐length (lo) of strain on engineering stress‐strain curve
does not occur on true stress‐strain curve, as
seen in the individual curves below:
True (flow) stress (σ)
= Force (P)/Instantaneous cross‐sectional‐area (A)
True (flow) strain (ξ) = ㏑(l/lo)
= Natural log of instantaneous length over original
gage length = ㏑(1+e)
At and below elastic deformation: One Dimensional
(1D) Deformation Formulae
σeng ≈ σ; e ≈ ξ; and
Young modulus (Modulus of elasticity)
= σeng / e = σ / ξ, which is the slope of stress‐strain
curve within the elastic section
Fig. 1
Volume constancy principle indicates that the
volume of a solid material is constant at any Stress‐strain relationship for elasticity:
instant of deformation, which leads to: σ = E ξ
V (volume) = Vo (original volume) = Vi (instantaneous Power law constitutive equation is widely used to
volume) express the stress‐strain relationship
σ = k ξn in which k is the strength
Al = Aolo = Aili → l/lo = Ao/A or li/lo = Ao/Ai
coefficient and n is the strain hardening exponent
One Dimensional (1D) Deformation Formulas
Ductility
The strain at fracture is a measure of
ductility (A measure of how large a
strain a material can withstand
before fracture)
Let the original length lo of a solid
bar be pulled by a tensile machine to
lf at which it fractures. Its ductility is
thus:
Ductility = (lf – lo) / lo
Toughness Fig. 1a
Toughness of a material is defined as Instability in simple tension
the energy per unit volume (specific
energy) that has been dissipated up Instability occurs at the onset of
to its point of fracture necking. For a material having true
stress‐strain relationship of σ = kεn
Ref to the true stress‐strain curves in where k is the strength coefficient
Fig. 1a, let εf be the true strain at and n is material hardening
fracture, also σ and ε are the stress exponent, the onset of necking takes
and strain respectively, the place when:
toughness is thus expressed as:
ε = n
Biaxial and Triaxial Stresses
and Relevant Yield Criteria
• The state of stress in various
metalworking processes
(a) Expansion of a thin‐walled
spherical shell under internal
pressure – An element in the shell is
subjected to equal biaxial tensile
stresses (Fig. 2(a))
(b) Drawing of round rod or wire
through a conical die to reduce its
diameter – An element in the
deformation zone is subjected to a
tensile in its length direction and to
compression on its conical surface
(Fig. 2(b))
(c) Deep drawing of sheet metal with
a punch and die to make a metal cup
– An element in the flange is
subjected to a tensile radial stress
and compressive stresses on its
surface and in the circumferential
direction (Fig. 2(c))
Fig. 2
3D elastic deformation and yield
criteria
Under 3D elastic deformation, the For simple tension, .
strains (ε1, ε2 and ε3 in the Hence, Eq.(1) gives
directions 1, 2 and 3) are
respectively presented by the
generalized Hooke’s law (1d)
equations: and
(1a)
(1e)
(1b)
The negative sign indicates of the
(1c)
element in the 2 and 3 directions.
The material will deform plastically
when the applied stress reaches the
where ν is a Poisson’s ratio, and uniaxial stress Y (Ref to slide 2).
E is Young modulus.
For a more complex stressing
system, the relationships between
the stresses to predict yielding are
known as yield criteria
5
Two widely used yield criteria
• The two widely used yield criteria to
predict yielding of material under a
complex stressing system are:
6
1) Maximum-shear-stress (Tresca) criterion
The maximum-shear-stress criterion, also known as the
Tresca criterion, states that yielding occurs when the
maximum shear stress within an element is equal to or
exceeds to a critical value (which is a material property and
is called shear yield stress ).
Mathematically, the criterion can be expressed as:
From Mohr’s circles for stresses or from appropriate
equations, the maximum shear stress to cause yielding can
be related as:
= (σmax - σ min)/2 = k = Y/2 (1f)
where k = Y/2 for simple stressing condition in tension, Y
is the uniaxial yield stress, σmax is the maximum tensile
stress and σ min is the minimum tensile stress.
7
2) Distortion-energy criterion
9
Representation of maximum-shear-stress and
distortion-energy criteria for a plane-stress (σ2=0)
condition
For maximum-shear-stress
criterion
Under plane stressing condition σ2=0,
the maximum-shear-stress criterion
gives an envelope of straight lines
10
Con’t
For distortion energy criterion
For plane stress condition with σ2=0, the equation for the
distortion energy criterion, as formulated in Eq.(1g), can be
reduced to:
(1j)
and the graphical representation of its yielding locus takes
an elliptical shape, as shown in Fig. 4.
Note (ref to Fig. 4) that the yield locus of (i) the maximum-
shear-stress criterion and (ii) the distortion energy criterion
coincides at 6 positions (predicting same magnitudes to
cause yielding). For the remaining positions, locus for (ii)
gives higher value than that for (i).
11
Plastic stress-strain relationship
3D elastic stress-strain (1l)
relationships
As formulated in Eq.(1a) to Eq.(1c), (1m)
by the generalized Hooke’s Law
For the plane-strain condition, ε2= 0.
3D plastic stress-strain σ2 becomes an intermediate stress
relationships and can be determined from Eq(1l) to
When an element is being stressed give:
with sufficiently high stresses, it (1n)
deforms plastically. The plastic
stress-strain relationships are
formulated on the basis of flow rules For the plane-strain compression
(Levy-Mises equations) and are in (Figs 3(c) and 3(d)), the distortion-
strain increment forms as below. energy criterion (see Eq.(1h)) reduces
to:
(1k) (1o)
Note: (i) for the maximum-shear-
stress criterion k=Y/2
Note: The factor 1/√2 is chosen so that, for simple tension, the effective
stress is equal to the uniaxial yield stress Y.
Note: The factors 2/3 and √2/3 are chosen so as to make effective strain
equal to the uniaxial tensile strain for simple tension condition
13
Calculation Examples
Question 1 σ2=0, and σ3= -σ1/2, we have
A material with a yield stress of 70 2(70)2=(σ1)2+(- -σ1/2)2+((-σ1/2) - σ1)2
MPa is subjected to three 9800 = (7(σ1)2)/2
principal (normal) stresses of σ1, σ12=9800 x 2 / 7 = 280
σ2=0, and σ3= -σ1/2. What is the
value of σ1 when the metal thus, σ1 = 52.9 MPa
yields according to the von
Mises criterion? What if σ2= If Y=70 MPa and σ1, σ2= σ1/3 and
σ1/3? σ3= -σ1/2 is the stress state, then
(σ1 – (σ1/3))2+((σ1/3)-(σ1/2))2+((-σ1/2)-
Solution: σ1)2=2(70)2
The distortion-energy criterion, 2.72 σ12 = 9800
given by Eq. (1h) in Slide 8, is Thus, =60.0MPa.
(σ1 – σ2)2+(σ2 - σ3)2+(σ3 - σ1)2=2Y2
Substituting Y=70 MPa and σ1, This indicates that the stress level to
initiate yielding actually increases
when σ2 is increased.
14
Calculation Examples
Question 3 the effective stress σe is given by Eq.
An aluminium alloy yields at a stress (1v) in Slide 13 as:
of 50 MPa in uniaxial tension. If
this material is subject to the
stresses σ1 = 25 MPa, σ2 =15MPa
and σ3 =-26MPa, will it yield?
Explain.
Solution:
According to the maximum shear-
stress criterion, the effective or = σe = 46.8 MPa. The effective
stress σe is given by Eq. (1t) (Slide stress is higher than the yield stress
14) as: for the maximum shear-stress
σe = σ1 – σ3 = 25 – (-26) = 51 criterion, and lower than the yield
MPa stress for the distortion-energy
criterion. It is impossible to state
whether or not the material will yield
However, according to the distortion- at this stress state. An accurate
energy criterion, statement would be that yielding is
imminent, if it is not already occurring.
15
MBE 3119 Manufacture
Technology
Bulk Deformation
(1) Forging of Metals
Forged Components
• Forging involves with deforming a
piece/bulk of solid metals to
anticipated shape of a mechanical
component. As the strength of solid
material is relatively high, it is hard to
deform and to fill cavity in die pair.
Hence, complex component requires
to be forged by a series of pre‐
forming (normally called preform)
stages. The preforms allow deforming
the bulk step by step to achieve final
shape from its most simplicity
gradually to more complexity, as seen
in Fig. 14.1(a). By such way of
deformation, even a relatively
complex and large size of landing
gear component for CSA and CSN
transport aircraft (Fig. 14.1(b)) is
Figure 14.1 (a) Schematic illustration of the steps likely producible. However, forging
involved in forging a knife. (b) Landing‐gear such large size landing gear from a
components for the C5A and C5B transport aircraft, bulk material to its finishing shape
made by forging. (c) General view of a 445 MN generally requires very high tonnage
(50,000 ton) hydraulic press. Source: (a) Courtesy press, as shown in Fig. 14.1(c).
of the Mundial LLC. (b and c) Courtesy of Wyman‐
Gordon Company.
Microstructure as a Function of Manufacturing Method
Fig. 14.2 compares the microstructure of a
mechanical component produced by casting (Fig.
14.2(a)), machining (Fig. 14.2(b)), and forging
(Fig.14.2(c)). Because of solidification nature, there
are many randomly distributed microporosities (the
black dots). Machining is usually conducted with a
sheet/plate rolled first , followed by drilling and
milling. Hence, it has fibres orientating in its rolling
direction. Forging is conducted by using a pair of
punches squeezing materials originally in the hole
positions away to surround the outer surface of the
punches. Hence, the fibres at somewhere
neighboring are curved to surround the
circumference of punches. Generally, such grain
structure is supposed the strongest among the three
since it requires extra energy to break these curved
Figure 14.2 Schematic illustration of a part made by fibers prior to the occurrence of shearing along the
three different processes showing grain flow. (a) parallel surface. The structure of casting is the
weakest since the existence of microporosities
Casting by the processes described in Chapter 11. (b) substantially diminishes the actual surface to resist
Machining form a blank, described in Part IV of this its parallel shear stress. The horizontally orientated
book, and (c) forging. Each process has its own fibers for the machined part means the shear
advantages and limitations regarding external and resistance only being that over the nominal surface.
internal characteristics, material properties, The microstructure as a function of manufacturing
dimensional accuracy, surface finish, and the method clearly illustrates the technique to produce
economics of production. Source: Courtesy of Forging part affecting microstructures of the part and
recursively influencing the its mechanical
Industry Association. properties.
Characteristics of Forging
Note: Table below tabulates category of forging processes, and
their advantages and limitations
Upsetting with Barreling
2r Upsetting is a simplest forging process,
Forging force, F Yf r2 1 merely for reducing the height and
3h
increasing width and length of a workpiece.
It involves with sandwiching a solid billet
between a pair of flat dies. As shown in Fig.
14.3(a), application of external force to close
up the die flats squeezes the cylindrical
billet, with original height of ho and diameter
do, simply changing its geometry. By volume
constancy principles, the compression of ho
to h1 allows the estimation of d1 under
ideally frictionless condition, which gives a
straight outer surface of the billet, as seen in
Fig. 14.3(b). With friction between the
interface of die and billet, the friction on the
die surface resists the billet material flowing
outward, hence being constrained within the
Figure 14.3 (a) Solid cylindrical billet
central region of the die‐billet system. The
pushing down of rigid die squeezes such
upset between two flat dies. (b) gathering material down into the billet and
Uniform deformation of the billet finds easy channel to flow within, thus
without friction. (c) Deformation with forming barreling on free surface of billet
friction. Note the barreling of the billet (Fig. 14.3(c). Surely, the friction condition
caused by friction forces at the billet‐die requires larger forging load to achiveve same
interfaces. height deformation.
Cogging Operation on a Rectangular Bar
Ref to the forging force equation on Slide 6. such
force increases with contact area of die‐billet. In
view that the contact area increases when forging
progresses. To prevent its magnitude is much larger
than the capacity of a press, keeping forging force
within a bound of certain value. This is achievable
by Cogging Operation. Cogging involves keeping die
breadth constant, hence the contact surface
between die‐billet interface in whatever stage of
operations. Although forging force is still increasing
(mainly due to the hardening effect of workpiece),
it limits its sharp increment. The progressing of
deforming of material from left to right is called
cogging (Fig. 14.4(a)). Generally, deforming a
material to certain dimensions reduces largely the
applied load, but the overall power may be higher
than upsetting. Using a pair of narrow dies
squeezes on a cylindrical rod which is being rotated
Figure 14.4 (a) Schematic illustration of a relatively to the squeezing die pair so as to form the
cogging operation on a rectangular bar. end of a cylindrical rod to small diameter with
certain length (Fig. 14.4(b)). Cogging can also be
Blacksmiths use this process to reduce the applied in enlarging ring internal and external
thickness of bars by hammering the part on an diameter by narrowing its annular width and
anvil. Reduction in thickness is accompanied by increasing its depth too, as shown in Fig. 14.4(c). It
involves to having a pair of curved top supporting
barreling, as in Fig. 14.3c. (b) Reducing the strand of same height, a solid cylindrical die to be
diameter of a bar by open‐die forging; note the inserted through the prefabricated ring, and a block
movements of the dies and the workpiece. (c) of narrow die with setup as shown in Fig. 14.4(c).
The synchronizing of lowering down the top die
The thickness of a ring being reduced by open‐ block to synchronize the rotation of ring around the
die forging. cylindrical die allows achieving the final ring.
Impression‐Die Forging Only two halves in a pair of dies with a cavity which has
outer peripheral shape of a product to be forged upon the
closing of the two halves, in which a blank is placed, as
shown in Fig. 14.5(a). The two halves are gradually
closing under the application of external forces to
compress and deform the blank, as shown in Fig. 14.5(b).
On completion of filling of cavity in die pair when the two
halves are almost completely closed up (Fig. 14.6(c)),
which normally depends on whether the size of blank is
too large, almost equal, or too small comparing to the size
of cavity. If it is too large, some extra material tends to
sandwich between the parting plane to form flash in the
die pair and additional secondary processes are needed
to remove the flash. If it is equal to the size of cavity, the
latter is completely filled to become the forged product,
which is normally an optimal case. When it is small, the
cavity is not filled completely.
Fig. 14.5(d) illustrates the standard terminology for
various features of a forging die. The plane that the two
die halves closed and met is termed parting line. The
filled horizontal part in cavity forms web while its vertical
counterpart is named as rib. The intercepting line which
the rib meets with web, which is introduced with some
radius to facilitate material filling is termed fillet. The
inclining angle from root of internal fillet to the tip of rib
is called internal draft angle, while that from the trimming
Figure 14.5 (a) through (c) Stages in line on external wall of rib to its external tip is termed
impression‐die forging of a solid round billet. external draft angle. The excessive material sandwiched in
Note the formation of flash, which is excess between parting line is called flash. The flash separate the
two parting plane is called land. The cavity on the parting
metal that is subsequently trimmed off (see line out of the product cavity allowing the tongue of flash
Fig. 14.7). (d) Standard terminology for going to is called gutter. The gutter releases the flash to
various features of a forging die. be squeezed in land and subsequently relaxes the
squeezing force required of the flash.
Die Inserts For large quantity production, the relatively
frequently sliding between material and
inner surface of die cavity. Such sliding
results in wear and subsequently
replacement of worn part is necessary. The
production of large die is usually time
consuming and material wasting. To reduce
the time taken, material waste, and to save
cost, die set is usually made of die
block/cup with some inserts which are
normally the parts likely being worn off
easily. Fig. 14.6 shows a pair of dies with
die inserts. It can be seen that the relatively
complex lower die block is made of more
die inserts than its upper counterpart. The
yellow part is the product to be forged,
which is surrounded by dark green 6F2 or
6G insert at the bottom and red H12 insert
in lower die block, and lighter green H12
insert in blue 5F32 or 6G upper die block
which also has certain boundary in contact
Figure 14.6 Die inserts used in forging an with the workpiece. The inserts with harder
automotive axle housing. materials improve their durability and
reduce their replacing rate. Furthermore,
these inserts are also designed for easy
replacement.
Forging a Rod, Fullering, In most situation, the forging of a rod with simple
geometry to a complex shaped connecting rod is
and Edging difficult simply by a stage only. It may be conducted by
a number of preform stages (Fig. 14.7(a)). By
comparing the geometry of the material (Fig. 14.7(a)‐
1) with the finishing product (Fig. 14.7(b)‐5), it can be
seen that preform requires firstly to displace the
middle materials of the original rod to either end and
followed by further gathering more material at the LHS
bulk (Fig. 14.7(a)‐2). After such preforming, it is forged
to a relatively rough shape by blocker forging (Fig.
14.7(a)‐3), which is followed by forging the part to
more detail feature with finishing forging process (Fig.
14.7(a)‐4). The trimming off the remaining flash allows
the obtainment of the final geometry of the
connecting rod.
The process for displacing middle section materials to
either side is termed fullering. It involves with using a
pair of convex dies to squeeze the associated materials
Figure 14.7 (a) Stages in forging a connecting as shown in Fig. 14.7(b).
rod for an internal combustion engine. Note
The process used to further gather materials at the
the amount of flash required to ensure proper
vicinity of the middle end bulk in Fig. 14.7(b)‐2 is called
filling of the die cavities. (b) Fullering and (c)
edging. It involves of using a pair of concave dies to
edging operations to properly distribute the
squeeze materials neighboring the bulk which is
material when preshaping the blank for
mainly with larger end with a hollow hole in, as shown
forging.
in Fig. 14.7(c).
Force in Impression Die In many forgings, it requires to select forging
machine which can cater successfully the
Forging forging power and tonnage. Forging load
calculation with Equation specified in Slide
5, it usually requires the coefficient of
friction between die‐material interface,
additional to the radius of billet, to be
known. It is thus rather complicated. To
simplify such issue, the simpler equation in
the LHS of this Slide is normally used since it
only needs the contact area A to be
assumed and k value to be found in Table
Equation in Slide 6 is rather complicated. For selecting press
14.2 once a curve of its stress‐strain
or rough estimation, following forging force equation is used relationship is known. The uncertainty of
instead. the value of (i) friction coefficient, (ii)
material hardening, and (iii) possible shape
change are considered by introducing the
constant factor k. Generally, the completion
of forging in forging simple shapes without
formation of flash takes k value in range of 3
– 5, k value for forging simple shapes with
formation of flash to be in range of 5 – 8, k
value for forging complex shapes with
F kY f A formation of flash is in range of 8 – 12. The
insurance of selecting forging machine
capable of completing the forging requires
the k value at the upper range for each
category of forging to be chosen.
Trimming Flash After Flash surrounding a forging is commonly
not part of the intended design, and thus
Forging required to be removed. Machining may
be used if it is not large quantity
production. For large production,
effective technique to shear off such
flash should be derived. Fig. 14.8
illustrates a method to trimming flash
from a forged component. It involves
with a green tapped down die having top
edge taking the peripheral profile of the
yellow forged part, and a brown punch
with bottom profile taking shape of the
top profile of forged piece, and a blue
stationary punch – all are setup as shown
on the LHS of central line. Once the
system is as placed as the LHS setup, the
pushing down of the brown top punch
tends to shear off the flash around the
trimming edge of yellow workpiece,
contacting with edge of the green
trimming die. The trimmed workpiece is
then lowered down and subsequently
Figure 14.8 Trimming flash from a forged supported by the blue stationary punch
part. Note that the thin material at the at the bottom hollow part of workpiece,
center is removed by punching. as shown in the illustration on RHS setup
of the vertical central line.
Closed‐Die Forging Although both forging setups in Fig. 14.9 are
roughly named closed‐die forging processes, the
Versus Flashless Forging one shown in Fig. 14.9(a) is strictly called semi‐
closed die forging and the one in Fig. 14.9(b) is
truly closed die forging. The sub‐figure 1 in both
(a) and (b) are illustrating the start stroke whilst
their counterpart in sub‐figure (2) the end stroke.
From Fig. 14.9(a)‐2, it can be seen that flash
formed between parting line in its end of stroke,
and some flash is appeared at the verge of going
to the gutter.
Comparing Fig. 14.9(a) with Fig. 14.9(b), it can be
seen that cutting of material vertically along the
corresponding outer edge of the two slots in the
top punch gives the top punch as shown in Fig.
14.9(b). Furthermore, the extension of the two
outer walls of the lower die upwardly to certain
height and the top face is machined flat. With
such setup features, material in the round billet is
compressed to flow up and down filling the
cavity, and the rigid wall of lower die plays the
role stopping its outwardly flowing .
Figure 14.9 Comparison of closed‐die forging Hence, it forges the material in the close manner
with flash (left side of each illustration) and within the cavity, as the part of the top punch
precision or flashless forging (right side) of a forming cavity with the extended top side walls,
with is completely surrounded. As a result, no
round billet. Source After H. Takemasu, V. flash can be formed in such a die pair system.
Vazquez, B. Painter, and T. Altan.
Swaging Fig. 14.14(d) illustrates some typical parts to be made by
swaging. The parts are either solid or hollow cylindrical rods
with some sections to be squeezed adequately for forming of
the anticipated shapes. Fig. 14.14(a) shows the possible
arrangement of rotary‐swaging process, it basically consists of
a retainer ring which can drive those planetary rollers to rotate
relatively over the top surface of hammers under the rollers:
the top surface of greenish blue hammers is with uniform
curvature and no any die attached to their tip surface, whilst
that on blue hammer with die attached to their tip is shaped
with increasing height from edge to middle section so that a
hump is found on the middle top. The uniform curvature of the
greenish blue hammers forms even slot with inner surface of
retainer ring and allows the rollers passing through without
resulting in any swaging. When a workpiece is inserted through
the hole formed by the dies in the middle, and the planetary
rollers passing though the tapping to the middle hump, the die
is thus squeezed to swag the workpiece locally. It starts to
release as the rollers sliding down from hump down to its
lower edge on the diverging slot.
Fig. 14.14(b) illustrates the four dies attaching to the swaging
cams, likely to swag on the outer surface of a cylindrical tube
with an mandrel in it. The peripheral profile is for forming the
internal profile of the interior wall of the tube (LHS of Fig.
14.14(b)). The rotation of cams system relatively to the
stationary mandrel and tube system may allow the production
of neck on the workpiece (RHS Fig. 14.14(b)).
Fig. 14.14(c) shows how a step neck can be swaged on a solid
Figure 14.14 (a) Schematic illustration of the rod. A fixed bracket ring and a die system with rod to be
rotary‐swaging process. (b) Forming internal inserted to position to be swaged (Fig. 14.14(c)‐1) when a
wedge ring is pushed in through the gap in between bracket
profiles on a tubular workpiece by swaging. (c) ring and the die system (Fig. 14.14(c)‐2). The completion of
A die‐closing swaging machine showing forming swaging is achievable with the wedge ring being pulled back to
a suitable position with loosening part in the middle hole of
of a stepped shaft. (d) Typical parts made by the bracket and die system. Subsequently pushing through the
swaging. Source: Courtesy of J. Richard part the die middle hole by an ejector from rear facilitates the
finishing swaged part (Fig. 14.14(c)‐3)
Industries.
Swaging with and Fig. 14.15 shows the bisection view of
swaging without (Fig. 14.15(a)) and with
without a Mandrel a mandrel (Fig. 14.15(b). The tube is
pushed through the mid‐hole in swaging
die system without any mandrel in tube
(Fig. 14.15(a)). The discontinuously
pushing through and swaging reduces
the tubular diameter both externally and
internally. It thus thickening the tube
wall. However, it may be hard to swag
the diameters uniformly throughout the
complete length of the tube. With a
mandrel through the inner tube hole, it
improves the uniformity of both outside
and inside diameters of the tube,
together gives evenly straight and
uniformly outside and inside diameter, as
Figure 14.15 (a) Swaging of tubes without a shown in Fig. 14.15(b), when the tube
mandrel; note the increase in wall thickness in and mandrel system is pushed and
the die gap. (b) Swaging with a mandrel; note swaged in a synchronized manner (Fig.
that the final wall thickness of the tube 14.15(b)). With the profile of a mandrel
taking any reverse shape of those inner
depends on the mandrel diameter. (c) hole profiles shown in Fig. 14.15(c), it is
Examples of cross‐sections of tubes produced possible to produce tubes with inner
by swaging on shaped mandrels. Rifling hole being shaped to those various
(internal spiral grooves) in small gun barrels can profiles.
be made by this process.
• Fig. 14.16(a) shows a blocker forging with bulk of
Defects in Forged Parts materials accumulated at either ends which are
connected with a thin web (Fig. 14.16(a‐1)). When
such blocker is placed in a die pair for further
forging as shown in Fig. 14.16(a‐2). The
compression on the two bulk ends pushing down
materials to flow into both sides of each bulk. The
inwardly flowing of material towards the central
portion of dies and such action results in
compression to buckle the thin web (Fig. 14.16(a‐
3)). Such buckled centre is folded and the material
is not hot enough to defuse, thus forming laps as
shown in Fig. 14.16(a‐4). Eliminating such defect is
possible by increase in web thicknesses.
• With the same design of die pair as that used in
(a), a blank has size much larger than the die cavity
is sandwiched in between and squeezed as shown
in Fig 14,16(b‐1). When the dies are closing up, the
blank is likely to fill the die cavity pre‐mutually
(Fig. 14.16(b‐2)). In further compressing, the
material in mid section is squeezed to flow
outwardly to either side, while the material in
deep cavity at either end is squeezed to flow
Figure 14.16 Examples of defects in forged downwardly with smaller compression magnitude.
parts. (a) Laps formed by web buckling during Hence, its material tends to be pushed outwardly
by those materials from the mid section to
forging; web thickness should be increased to develop cracks at ribs, as seen in Fig. 14.16(b‐3).
avoid this problem. (b) Internal defects caused The further squeezing tends to propagate these
by an oversized billet. Die cavities are filled cracks more severely through the ribs as illustrated
in Fig. 14.16(b‐4). Elimination of such defect is
prematurely, and the material at the center possible by estimating the size of blank so that it
flows past the filled regions as the die closes. would not be too larger than its closed cavity.
MBE 3119 – Manufacturing
Technology
Some Mathematical Analyses on
Simple Upsetting (Open‐die) Forging
References
1) Kalpakjian, S. and Schmid, S.R., “Manufacturing Engineering and Technology”,
Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
2) Kalpakjian, S. and Schmid, S.R, “Manufacturing Processes for Engineering
Materials”, 4th ed., Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2003.
3) Bralla, James G., “Handbook of products design for
Deformation force and work under ideal
Open-die forging conditions
When interfacial friction is zero and
material is perfect plastic with yield stress
For a specimen that has been reduced in Y, the normal compression stress on a
height from ho to h1, cylindrical specimen is uniformly at Y. The
force at any height h1 is thus
(1a) (1f)
Its respective engineering and true strain where A1 is the cross-sectional area and
can be expressed as can be calculated by volume constancy
consideration as:
(1b)
and
(1g)
The ideal specific work u of deformation is
(1c) thus expressed as
When the platens are closing with a
relative velocity v, the respective
engineering and true strain rate is (1i)
(1d)
where ε1 is obtained from Eq.(1c). If the
material is strain hardening, with a true stress-
and strain curve given by
(1e) (1j)
(1m)
Fig. F1
and its general solution can be
Open-die forging expressed as
(1o)
or The consideration of the boundary
(1n) conditions of: (i) σx =0 at x=a; and (ii) σy
in which σx is the lateral stress uniformly =Y’ at the edges of the specimen for
distributed along the height h, and σy is Eq.(1o) gives:
the normal stress on the contacting
interface. We have two unknowns in The substitution of the expression for C
one equation. Another equation needs into Eq.(1o) and subsequently from
to be establish in order to solve σx and Eq.(1m) give:
σy. (1p)
Assuming σx and σy (with low values and
of coefficient of friction μ) are the
principal stresses (strictly speak, σy can (1q)
not be a principal stress since frictional respectively.
stress is acting on the plane) in this
method of analysis, the use of the For a strain-hardening material, Y’ in
distortion-energy criterion equation for Eqs(1p) and (1q) is replaced by Yf’
plane strain (note: the manner of in (which is the yield stress calculated with
Fig. 1c is similar to that of Eq.(1n) in the stress-strain relationship of σ =k εn
Slide 12 for the plane strain with strain magnitude of εfo for initiating
problem)) further plastic deformation).
σy - σx = (2/√3)Y = Y’ (1m)
gives dσy =dσx. Hence, Eq.(1n) can be
rewritten as:
Open die forging
The qualitative plot of Eq.(1p) in
dimensionless form is shown in Fig. 2. It
shows that the distribution of die
pressure (which is equal to the yield
stress Y’ in plane strain at the left and
right boundaries) increases
exponentially toward the center of the
part. The die pressure also increases
with the a/h ratio and increasing friction.
The area under the pressure curve in Fig. 2 Distribution of die pressure, in terms
Fig. 2 is the upsetting force per unit of p/Y’, in plane-strain compression with
width of the specimen. The integration sliding friction
of this area allows an approximate
expression for the average pressure pav
is obtained as: Note:
(1r) (i) the expression for the pressure p
(Eq. (1r)) is in terms of an
The forging force, F, is the product of instantaneous height h
the average pressure and the contact
area; that is, (ii) the significant influence of a/h and
(1s) friction on the pressure in Eq. (1r)
Forging of a solid cylindrical
Open die forging workpiece
Using the slab method, the expression
A rectangular specimen can be upset for the pressure, p, at any radius x can
without being constrained on its sides be written as:
(plane stress). According to the (1t)
distortion-energy criterion, the normal The average pressure, pav, can be
stress distribution can be given given approximately as:
qualitatively by the plot in Fig. 3 (1u)
The absolute value of the strain when The calculated h is then substituted into
(e3a), (e3b), and (e3c) for the calculation of
the corresponding true strain ε, radius r, and
forging force F.
Note that if we use the average pressure formula given by the equation
(1s) in slide 17, the answer will be
The discrepancy is due to the fact that in the deriving the average
pressure, a low value of a/h have been assumed for mathematical
simplicity.