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Fundamentals of Modern

Protective Relaying
10/2017
Pat Kerrigan
Ravindranauth (Mike) Ramlachan
2

The Philosophy of Protective


Relaying
What is Protective Relaying?

“The function of protective relaying is to cause the prompt


removal from service of any element of a power system when
it suffers a short circuit, or when it starts to operate in any
abnormal manner that might cause damage or otherwise
interfere with the effective operation of the rest of the
system.”

The Art & Science of Protective RelayingSeptember 12,Abridged)


(Updated & 2018 3
Why the power system needs to be protected

• Reduce Equipment Damage


• Reduce Power Interruptions
• Improve Power Quality
• Improve Safety for all
“There must be additional provisions to minimize damage to
equipment and interruptions to the service when failures
occur. Two recourses are open: (1) to incorporate features of
design aimed at preventing failures, and (2) to include
provisions for mitigating the effects of failure when it occurs.
4
Causes for Power System Faults

5
Protection is an Art, not just a science

• There is no one standard way to protect all power system


equipment.
• There exits recommendations/guides (eg IEEE) based on
standard practices and lessons learned but it is up to the
engineer’s best knowledge based on available data.

• Do your best to engineer reliability into the system, but


know that it will fail. When it fails, have a plan.

6
Protection is an Art, not just a science

Consider these factors when developing a protection scheme:

• Repair Damage
• Cost of lost production
• Adverse effects of the rest of the system
• Collateral damage of other equipment
• Time that damaged equipment will be our of service

7
8

The Philosophy of Protective:


One Line Diagrams
One Line Diagram

• Non-dimensioned diagram showing how pieces of


electrical equipment are connected
• Simplification of actual system
• Equipment is shown as boxes, circles and other simple
graphic symbols
• Symbols should follow ANSI or IEC conventions

9
1-Line Symbols [1]

10
GE Consumer & Industrial
1-Line Symbols [2]

11
GE Consumer & Industrial
1-Line Symbols [3]

12
GE Consumer & Industrial
1-Line Symbols [4]

13
GE Consumer & Industrial
14
GE Consumer & Industrial
15
GE Consumer & Industrial
3-Line

16
GE Consumer & Industrial
17

Fundamentals:
Fault Current Sources
Contribution to Faults
Short Circuit Parameters
20

Fundamentals:
Power System Analysis:
Per Unit Basics
Why Per Unit System

• Simplify power system analysis by avoiding the constant


conversion of values – voltage on different sides of a
transformer.
• Per unit system is a method
used in power system analysis to express the voltage,
current, kVA and impedance in per unit of base (or
reference) values of these quantity. The per unit value of
any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value of the
quantity in any unit to the base value in the same unit.

21
Per Unit System

22
Short Circuit Calculations
Per Unit System – Base Conversion

23
Per Unit Calculation Example

24
Per Unit Calculation Example

Base 13.8 KV Base 115 kV

Base 20 MVA
Voltage
1.043 PU 0.02 PU

0.242 PU
I = 1.043 / (0.242 +0.1 + 0.020)
10% = 2.76 PU (on 20 MVA base)
13.8: 115 kV
20 MVA
25
26

Fundamentals:
Power System Analysis:
Symmetrical Components
Symmetrical vs Non-Symmetrical

Normal vs Abnormal

27
Non-Systematical or Unbalanced Analysis

• Most Protection systems are called upon during


Unbalanced conditions.
• Unbalanced system analysis is difficult
• Method to simplify analysis of an unbalanced system:
• Symmetrical Components:
– Converts a 3-phase unbalanced system into a three (3) sets of balanced
phasors, or symmetrical components.
– Simplifies visualization and analysis
– Introduces by Charles Legeyt Fortescue in 1913 in “Method of Symmetrical
Co-ordinates Applied to the Solution of Polyphase Networks”.

28
Symmetrical Components

29
Symmetrical Components

Perfectly Balanced System, ABC rotation

30
Symmetrical Components

Unbalanced System, B phase rolled

31
Summary – Symmetrical Components

32
Symmetrical Components – Example
A-G Fault

A phase to Ground fault; B and C phase Open (IB =


IC = 0 in to fault)

IA1 = 1 /3 * (IA +a * IB + a2 *IC) = 1 /3 * IA


IA2 = 1 /3 * (IA +a2 * IB + a *IC) = 1 /3 * IA
IA0 = 1 /3 * (IA + IB + IC) = 1 /3 * IA

Balanced Source Voltages :VA1 = VA; VA2 = 0 ; VA0 = 0

33
Symmetrical Components – Example
A-G Fault

IA1 IA1 = Va (Z1 + Z2 + Z0 + 3ZF)


Z1
VA
IA1 = IA2 = IA0

Z2 IA2
3 * ZF IA = IA0 + IA1 + IA2 = 3 * IA0
IB = IA0 + a2 * IA1 + a * IA2 = 0
IC = IA0 + a * IA1 + a2 * IA2 =0
Z0 IA0

34
35

Fundamentals:
Zones of Protection
Zones of Protection

36
Zones of Protection

37
Zones of Protection

Isolation of faulted equipment only

38
39

Fundamentals:
A Word on Trip Contacts
Tripping Contacts & How to Use Them

+DC

Trip Relay tripping contacts are typically not


rated to interrupt trip coil current.
52a The breaker status contact should be
used to interrupt coil current.
Trip
coil
Seal-in
coil Seal-in & targeting are programmable
Target functions in modern digital relays.
coil
-DC

September
The Art & Science of Protective Relaying (Updated12,
& 2018
Abridged) 40
Tripping Contacts & How to Use Them

In order to protect the contacts against damage resulting from


a possible inadvertent attempt to interrupt the flow of the
circuit trip coil current, some relays are provided with a
holding mechanism comprising a small coil in series with the
contacts. This coil is called a "seal-in" or "holding" coil.

41
Tripping Contacts & How to Use Them

Modern Relays seal-in/holding coil

42
Tripping Contacts & How to Use Them

If you Must Make and Break the Trip Coil directly use the correct contacts

• Use High Break Contacts – usually an optional item

• Use High Speed Contacts if needed


• Typical contacts operate less than 5 ms, high speed contacts can
operate less than 0.6ms

43
Tripping Contacts & How to Use Them

If you Must Make and Break the Trip Coil directly use the correct contacts

• Caution when using High Speed/High Break contacts:


– They tend to be polarity sensitive

44
45

Fundamentals:
Requirements
Characteristics of a “Reliable” Protection System

The “5 S’s”

Speed
• When it needs to operate, you want it to operate fast.

Selectivity
• Ideally, you only de-energize the faulted equipment and nothing more.

Sensitivity
• The best protection system can detect any fault, large or small.

Security
• A good protection system trips when you need it to and never trips otherwise.

Simplicity
• Ideally, no engineering effort is required, and it’s very inexpensive.
Presentation Title September 12, 2018 46
Relay Characteristics - Sensitivity

To operate or restrain from operating for minimum conditions

47
Relay Characteristics - Selectivity

To Trip the minimum number of circuit breakers to clear a fault, do not over-trip

48
Relay Characteristics - Selectivity

To Trip the minimum number of circuit breakers to clear a fault, do not over-trip

49
Relay Characteristics - Speed

50
Relay Characteristics - Speed

Not Fast Enough

51
The Art of Protective Relaying

Constant battle between the “5 Ss”

Sensitivity vs Speed
• To get a lower pickup (Sensitivity) I must sacrifice some Trip Time (Spee)

Speed vs Selectivity
• To trip faster, I must live with the fact that my system might trip for out of Zone
faults (Over-Trip)

Simplicity vs ………..
• An expensive and complicated system might be needed to get the right balance of
Speed vs Selectivity vs Security.

Presentation Title September 12, 2018 52


A Reliable Protection System

END GAME

53
A Reliable Protection System

54
Fundamental Operating Principles

There are really only two fundamentally different operating


principles:
(1) Electromagnetic attraction, and (2) electromagnetic induction.
polarizing magnet

actuating
is
contacts N coil N polarizing
coil
S pivot S

55
Fundamental Operating Principles

There are really only two fundamentally different operating


principles:
(1) Electromagnetic attraction, and (2) electromagnetic induction.
polarizing magnet

actuating
is
contacts N coil N polarizing
coil
S pivot S

56
Fundamental:
Current Instrument Transformers

57
Instrument Transformer - Definition

From GE ITI catalog

58
Instrument Transformer - Definition

59
Instrument Transformer – Locations

60
Instrument Transformer – Insulation Ratings

Typical Voltage Classes

61
Instrument Transformer – Types

Bar

62
Instrument Transformer – Types

Bushing

63
Instrument Transformer – Types

Toroidal (Donut)

64
Current Transformer Basics
Transformer Ratio (TR)

Transformer Ratio = Primary Current


_____________________
Secondary Current

Primary Current Secondary Current


(100 amps) (5 amps)

100 = 100:5 or 20:1


___
5
Turns Ratio
Turns Ratio Modification

68
Polarity

Direction of
Secondary Current
Direction of
Primary Current
X1 IEEE Secondary
S1
IEC Polarity
Primary IEEE H1
Marks
Polarity
Marks IEC P1

Remember:
Primary current into “polarity” = Secondary current out of “polarity”
Polarity

Direction of
Secondary Current
Direction of
Primary Current
X1 IEEE Secondary
S1
IEC Polarity
Primary IEEE H1
Marks
Polarity
Marks IEC P1

Remember:
Primary current into “non-polarity” = Secondary current out of “non-polarity”
Polarity
Polarity
Polarity

73
CT Equivalent Circuit
CT Accuracy

Irelay = Iprimary* N1/N2

Irelay = Iprimary* N2/N1 - Iexciting


CT Metering Accuracy
CT Metering Accuracy
IEEE CT Metering Accuracy

0.60 IEEE C57.13 Accuracy


0.6% 0.3 @ BX.X; RF 4.0
Accuracy
Accuracy Class - %

0.30 Region
0.3% Accuracy
Region

10% 100% 200% 300% 400%

0.30
No accuracy
guaranteed at
current levels
0.60
less than 10%

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0


Rating Factor
CT Metering Burden
CT Metering Burden
IEEE CT Relay Accuracy

Standard Relay Accuracy Classes

C or T100
C or T200
What do these mean?
C or T400
C or T800
IEEE CT Relay Accuracy

Relay class (C or T___ ) designates minimum


secondary terminal volts…
At 20 times rated current
Without exceeding 10% ratio error
Into a maximum specified burden

Now that everyone is totally confused


let’s look at some simple examples …
IEEE CT Relay Accuracy

C or T100 example Secondary current


X1
100 amps (20 x 5)
X2

Terminal Volts = 100


Burden of
Devices (α)
Primary current Total Ext
24,000 amps Burden
(20 x 1200) CT 1.0 α
Burden of
1200:5 Leads (α)
C or T100
Terminal Volts = (20 times rated) (Total external burden)
100 Volts = (100 amps) (1.0 α )
IEEE CT Relay Accuracy
IEEE CT Relay Accuracy
Fundamental:
Current Instrument Transformers:
Sizing

86
CT Rating Factor (RF) - IEEE

Rated current x (RF) =


Maximum continuous current carrying
capability:
Without exceeding temperature limits
Without loss of published accuracy class

Typical rating factors -- 1.0, 1.33, 1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0


CT Sizing (Rating Factor)
CT Sizing

CTprimary > maximum expected load current * rating factor


CTprimary < maximum expected fault current/20
CT primary should be sized to avoid saturation
CT accuracy class should be sized to avoid saturation
CT insulation should be sized for the application
CT BIL should be sized to coordinate with station BIL

*0.5amp for D60


Fundamental:
Current Instrument Transformers:
Saturation

90
CT Saturation Concepts

• CT saturation depends on a number of factors


– Physical CT characteristics (size, rating, winding resistance,
saturation voltage)
– Connected CT secondary burden (wires + relays)
– Primary current magnitude, DC offset (system X/R)
– Residual flux in CT core
• Actual CT secondary currents may not behave in the same manner
as the ratio (scaled primary) current during faults
• End result is spurious differential current appearing in the
summation of the secondary currents which may cause differential
elements to operate if additional security is not applied
CT Equivalent Circuit & Excitation Curve
CT Performance
C200 1200:5 Burden =1.0 Ohms

Fault Current =40,000A no Offset


V = 167 V
CT Performance
C100 1200:5 Burden =1.0 Ohms

Fault Current =40,000A no Offset


V = 167 V
CT Performance
C100 1200:5 Burden =0.5 Ohms

Fault Current =40,000A no Offset


V = 83.3 V
CT Performance
C100 600:5 Burden = 0.5 Ohm

Fault Current =40,000A no Offset


V = 167 V
CT Saturation for DC
Current IP R X

−t
I ⋅e Ts IS

Flux
AC & DC Current Components
of Fault Current
Generator Response (DC Offset)
R X
Asymmetrical Starting Current
DC Offset
CT Performance
C200 1200:5 Burden =1.0 Ohms

Fault Current =40,000A no Offset


V = 167 V
CT Performance
C200 1200:5 Burden =1.0 Ohms

Fault Current =40,000A no Offset


CTs circuits cannot
be left open !!!
CT Model
Typical
Application:
CT & VT Circuit
FT Switch and Test Plug
Substation Circuit Breaker

• Phase and ground overcurrent protection with multi-shot reclosing


relay is used.
• Both instantaneous and time-delayed overcurrent are used.

52

79
Industrial Circuit Breaker
• Phase instantaneous and time-delayed overcurrent is used.
• Ground instantaneous overcurrent is used.
• Optionally, ground time-delayed overcurrent is used

Phase CTs

50G 51G
Zero Sequence CT
Ground Fault Protection
Zero Sequence Current
Transformer

Best A

B
52

50/51 G

Zero Sequence CT Connection


Ground Fault - Asymmetrical Starting
Current
DC Offset

This diagram shows the Asymmetrical Starting Currents. When a motor first starts using a
residual ground fault connection, the three phases do not sum to zero because of the DC
offset in each of the three phase CTs. This difference appears as a ground fault current and
will cause a ground fault trip if the trip level and time delay are programmed correctly. If
the residual ground fault connection is to be used, the Ground Fault trip delay must be set
to a delay other than instantaneous to avoid a nuisance ground fault trip, in addition to
allowing enough time for the asymmetrical starting current offsets to even out.
Ground Fault

 This slide shows the noise generated during a start and a run when
residual ground scheme is used.
 None of this noise would be seen by the motor relay using a zero
sequence CT scheme.
Residual Connection
Will a IOC pickup for
high fault currents
on a low ratio CT?
High Fault Currents on Low ratio CT
High Fault Currents on Low ratio CT
High Fault Currents on Low ratio CT
High Fault Currents on Low ratio CT
- 750 Relay

Relay will trip for IOC setting up to 15 PU or 75A


CT Saturation & Protective Relaying

• For TOC and IOC means smaller values, probably will operate but will
operate slower

• For Motors….see statement above

• For Differential protection it means….maybe one current is smaller


than the other
Time to Saturation
CT Saturation & Protective Relaying

IOC Operating Time (msec)


850 SR750
Min 10.20 18.00
Max 12.60 22.30
2 ms 18.7 ms
Average 11.39 20.17
850 750

Sub cycle operation even with CT saturation for short circuits


CT Burden Calculation

How do we calculate this?

X1 Secondary current
X2
Primary Burden of
Current Devices (α)
Total
Burden Z T
CT Burden of
Leads (α)
CT Burden Calculation
CT Burden Calculation

Z T = RCT + RL + ZB
Z T = Total burden in ohms
RCT = CT secondary resistance in ohms @75 deg C
RL = Resistance of leads in ohms (Total loop distance)
ZB = Device impedance in ohms
IEEE PSRC CT Saturation Tool
Fundamental:
Current Instrument Transformers:
Final Word

126
Never Open Circuit
Take Away

• Metering application do not require “C” class CT


– “C” class are specified for protection purposes and might not meet metering
accuracy requirements. Are usually smaller and less expensive.

• CT secondary leads must be added to the CT burden


– Modern microprocessor relays present very little burden.

• Check and Double Check Polarity especially for the


following applications:
– Power Measurements
– Directional overcurrent
– Differential
Fundamental:
Voltage Instrument Transformers:
Basics

129
Voltage Transformer Class - IEEE
Voltage Transformer Class - IEEE
Voltage Transformer Connections
Voltage Transformers Ferroresonance

- Ferroresonance

R
Typically 60 Ohms
134

Fundamental:
Types of Protection:
Overcurrent
The Protection Problem
138 kV

52
U
Fault is seen by
• Fuse F-1
R
• Feeder relay
• Main Feeder relay
52
M

12.5 kV

R R R • Utility Provider relay


52 52 52
1 2 3

F-1
Types of Protection

Overcurrent
Industrial Feeder Protection

• Overcurrent protection is typical


• Simplest Protective Relay
• Operates on predetermined current level
• Other types but not typically applied
• Directional Overcurrent – multiple sources tied together
• Differential – increase selectivity for short lines
Overcurrent Protection

Types of Overcurrent Devices


• Instantaneous relays – intended to operate for
close in faults with high short circuit current.
• Inverse time relays – used for further coordination of
downstream devices, other relays, fuses etc.
• Fuses
Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection
Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection
• ANSI function 50
• The instantaneous overcurrent protective element operates with no
intentional time delay when the current has exceeded the relay setting
• There is a pickup setting.
• 50P – phase inst. overcurrent.
• 50N – neutral inst. overcurrent
(The mathematical phasor summation of phase currents Ia, Ib, Ic equals
In)
• 50G – ground inst. overcurrent – low pickup setting
(Measured current value from a CT or residual effect of phase CTs)
• A short time delay of 200ms is often used to allow downstream fuses
to blow before instantaneous overcurrent element operates
Time Overcurrent Protection

TIME
OPERATE
OPERATING
TIME

PICKUP FAULT CURRENT


CURRENT

Multiples of pick-up
Time Overcurrent Protection
• ANSI function 51
• The trip time varies inversely with current magnitude to allow coordination.
• Characteristic curves most commonly used are called inverse, very inverse, and
extremely inverse. The user must select the curve type. They are said to be a family
of curves and selected by the time dial.
• Curve type and time dial are separate settings. Curve type is selected so the
characteristic of the relay best matches characteristics of downstream and
upstream overcurrent devices. Time dial adjusts time delay of characteristic to
achieve coordination between downstream and upstream overcurrent devices.
• Minimum pickup setting. Pickup setting chosen so protective device will operate on
most inverse part of its time curve over the range of current for which must operate.
• 51P – phase time overcurrent
• 51N – neutral time overcurrent
(The mathematical phasor summation of phase currents Ia, Ib, Ic equals In)
• 51G – ground time overcurrent - low pickup setting
(Measured current value from a CT)
Ground Fault Protection
Residual Ground Fault Connection
• Less sensitive - Drawbacks due to un-matched CTs
• For large cables that cannot be fit through the zero sequence
CT’s window, the residual ground fault configuration can be
used.
• This configuration is inherently less sensitive than that of the
zero sequence configuration owing to the fact that the CTs
FEEDER RELAY are not perfectly matched.

Zero Sequence CT Connection


• Best method - Most sensitive & inherent noise immunity
• All phase conductors are passed through the window of the
same CT referred to as the zero sequence CT
• Normally Three phase currents will sum to zero resulting in
an output of zero from the Zero Sequence CT’s secondary.
• If one phase were to shorted to ground, the sum of the
phase currents would no longer equal zero causing a
current to flow, this current would be detected by the feeder
relay as a ground fault.
Fault Current Magnitude
138 kV

52
Fault magnitude
U

• F3 > F2 > F1
F3

R Why?
52
M • Impedance
12.5 kV

R R R • I = V/Z
F2
52 52 52
1 2 3

F-1

F1
Fault Currents

TIME

F1 F2 F3 CURRENT
146
Time Coordination Interval (TCI)

TIME
Feeder 3
Relay
Main Feeder
Relay
TIME
COORDINATION
INTERVAL

PICKUP PICKUP F1 F2 F3 CURRENT


148
Time Overcurrent Protection
Extremely Inverse

Very
Inverse

Inverse
Time

Operate area:
at and above the curve

1 10 100
Pickup Multiples of Pickup
Time Overcurrent Protection
• During the selection of the
curve, the protection
engineer will use what is
termed as a “ time
multiplier” or “time dial” to
effectively shift the curve up
or down on the time axis
• Operate region lies above
selected curve, while no-
operate region lies below it
• Pickup used to move curve
left and right
FlexCurve

Useful for
coordination of
relays with
downstream static
trip devices, fuses,
molded case
breakers,
transformer
damage curves,
etc.
Coordination of
Low Voltage and
Medium Voltage
Overcurrent Protection

Ref. Voltage: 13.2 kV


1A @ 13.2kV=27.5A @ 480V

Current shown @ 13.2kV

Current Scale X 10
Fusing and Coordination
Fuse time verses current characteristic
• The time verses current characteristics of a fuse
has two curves.
• The first curve is called the pre-arcing curve
• The pre-arcing (or melting) curve is the
time between the initiation of a current
large enough to cause the fusible
element(s) to melt and the instant when
arcing occurs. Total clearing
Time Minimum time curve
• The second curve is called the total clearing melt
time.
• The total clearing time is the total time
elapsing from the beginning of an
overcurrent to the final circuit interruption. Current

• The time current characteristic curve of a fuse


follows a I2T characteristic - that is to say as the
current goes up, the time drops by the square
of the current increase.
Protective Element Coordination
• It is very important to coordinate
CB
overcurrent protection. Take the example FUSE F5
system shown. If a fault were to appear at
position indicated, fuse F5 should open. If it
were to fail, feeder circuit breaker should FUSE F3 FUSE F2 FUSE F1

trip a little time later because its protection


has been properly coordinated with down
stream fusing. Relay Overcurrent Curve

Time
• Properly coordinated protective devices
help to: F5 Fuse curve

1. Eliminate service interruptions due to F2 Fuse curve Current


temporary faults
2. Minimize the extent of faults in order to
reduce the number of loads affected
3. Locate the fault, thereby minimizing the
service outages
Coordination – Between Fuses
• The operating time of a fuse is a function of the pre-arcing (melting) and arcing
time
• For proper coordination, total I2T of secondary fuse shouldn’t exceed the pre-
arcing (melting) of primary fuse. This is established if current ratio of primary vs.
secondary fuse current rating is 2 or greater for fuses of the same type.

Primary

Secondary

Secondary
2I

1I 1I
Time

Load

Load
Current
Coordination – Between Fuses & Relays
• The time overcurrent relay should back up the fuse over full current range. The time
overcurrent relay characteristic curve best suited for coordination with fuses is Extremely
Inverse, which is similar to the I2t fuse curves. For Extremely Inverse relay curves, primary
pickup current setting should be 3-times fuse rating. For other relay curves, up to 4-times
fuse rating should be considered. Ensure no cross over of fuse or time overcurrent relay
curves.
• To account for CT saturation and errors, electro-mechanical relay overshoot, timing errors
and fuse errors a minimum TCI of 0.4s should be used.
Fuse curve

Time Over Current Curve

Time

Minimum TCI time of


0.4s

Current
Coordination – Between Fuses & Relays
• The following is recommended TCI to ensure proper coordination

2.5

Time to operate (s)


1.5

0.5
0.3 s between relays/recloser
0.4 s between relay and fuse
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Fault current at 11 kV
Device Coordination

TIME
Feeder 3
Relay
F-1 Main Feeder
Relay

TCI
0.4s typical

mis-coordination

F1 F2 F3 CURRENT
Device Coordination

TIME
Feeder 3
Relay
F-1
Proper-coordination
Main Feeder
Relay

TCI
TCI
0.3s typical
0.4s typical

F1 F2 F3 CURRENT
Device Coordination
Typical Discrimination Times based on Technology
(Standard Normal Inverse Curves):

Relay Technology

Solid Digital /
Electro-
Error Source State Numeric Micro
Mechanical
Electronic Processor

Typical basic Timing Error


7.5 % 5% 3.5 %
[%]

Overshoot Time [s] 0.05 s 0.03 s 0.02 s

Safety Margin [s] 0.1 s 0.05 s 0.03 s

Total typical Coordination


0.4s 0.35s 0.3s
Time [s]
Time Overcurrent Protection
Reset of Time Overcurrent Element
• There are (2) different types of resets within Time Overcurrent
Protection:
• EM or Timed Delay Reset – this mimics the disc travel of an
electromechanical relay moving back to the reset position.
• If the disc has not yet completely traveled back to the reset position
and the time overcurrent element picks up again, the trip time will be
shorter
• If the current picks up and then dropouts many times, the disc will
“ratchet” itself to the operate position
• Be careful when coordinating with upstream or downstream devices

• Instantaneous Reset – once the time overcurrent element


operates, it will reset immediately
162

Fundamental:
Types of Protection:
Auto Reclosing
Automatic Reclosing
• ANSI function number 79
• Automatically reclose a circuit breaker or recloser which has been tripped by protective
relaying or recloser control
• Mainly used by electric utilities
• Multi-shot reclosing for distribution circuits
• Instantaneous shot (~0.25s)
• Delayed reclosures (typically two delayed , for example 3s & 15s, or 15s & 30s)

• Coordinate with branch fuses


• After successful reclose, the reclosing function will reset after some adjustable time delay
(typically 60s).
• If the fault is permanent, the protective device will trip and reclose several times. If
unsuccessful, the protective device will go to LOCKOUT and keep the breaker open. Some
devices have a separate reset time from lockout (for example 10s after the breaker is
manually closed).
• Single and Three phase reclosing is available
Automatic Reclosing and Fuses

52

Two methods:
• Fuse Blowing
- Fuse blows for any fault, including temporary fault
• Fuse Saving
- Use automatic reclosing to try and save fuses for temporary
faults
Automatic Reclosing
Coordinate with Branch Fuses
• After initial reclose block instantaneous overcurrent functions to allow fuse to blow
- Instantaneous and inverse-time overcurrent relays are arranged so that, when a fault occurs,
instantaneous relays operate to trip breaker before a branch fuse can blow, and breaker is then
immediately reclosed
- However, after first trip, the instantaneous relays are automatically cut out of service so that if
fault should persist ,inverse-time relays would have to operate to trip breaker
- This gives time for branch-circuit fuse of faulty circuit to blow, if we assume that the fault is
beyond this fuse
- In this way, cost of replacing blown branch-circuit fuses is minimized, and at the same time the
branch-circuit outage is also minimized. If breaker is not tripped within a certain time after
reclosure, instantaneous relays are automatically returned to service
• Some users just decide to delay phase and ground instantaneous overcurrent elements for small
time period (for example 0.2s) to allow downstream fuse to blow first and avoid main breaker
operation
Fuse Blowing
Feeder

TIME
Relay
Fuse

TCI
> 0.4s typical

FAULT CURRENT
Fuse Saving for Temporary Faults
Feeder

TIME
Relay
Fuse

Inverse time only


TCI after first reclose
Inst active on shot
first reclose shot > 0.4s typical
only

INST FAULT CURRENT


PICKUP
Sequence Coordination
• Substation breakers & upstream reclosers should
be coordinated to operate if downstream reclosers
or fuses do not successfully interrupt the fault.
• Sequence coordination eliminates nuisance With Sequence
tripping through trip coordination. This allows Coordination
coordination between substation breaker and
downstream reclosers and between reclosers.
Slow-B

Time
• It allows the recloser control or digital protective Slow-R2
relay to step through selected operations in the
operating sequence without tripping. Slow-R1
Fast-B
• The user can select the required number of Fast-R2
Sequence Coordination advances (1-3) to provide Fast-R1
trip coordination with downstream recloser(s) X
Current

B R2 R1 X
Breaker/Recloser Trip Curve Selections
• Reclosers will often have two fast & slow tripping
characteristics

Time
Slow-B
• If sequence coordination is used on protective Slow-R2
device within circuit breaker, then protective device Slow-R1
of circuit breaker can also use fast and slow Fast-B
tripping characteristics. Optimal trip coordination is Fast-R2
Fast-R1
achieved.
Current
• If sequence coordination is not used on substation
circuit breaker, then a slow tripping curve is only
Without Seq
used. This assumes that sequence coordination is
Coordination on Bkr
used on each recloser downstream. (Longer Bkr Clearing Time
for Faulty Recloser 2)

Time
Slow-B
Slow-R2
B R2 X R1
Fast-R2

X
Current
170

Fundamental:
Types of Protection:
Directional Overcurrent
Directional Protection

• Directional element 67 determines the direction of power flow to


disable or enable the overcurrent element
• Uses the phase relationship of voltage and current to determine
direction to a fault

Example:
Industrial with on-
site Generator
(used on main
breaker)
Phase Directional Protection

• Polarizing voltage
(Vpol) is established
for each current
• If current is in same
direction as Vpol,
then element
operates
Ground Directional Overcurrent
VC VC

V -V0
0 VA
VA
I0 I0
VB
VB

1. Can be set more sensitively than phase as load current is not an issue

2. Needs a reference, generally - V0

3. Need to have grounded Wye VTs


- Calculate from VA + VB + VC
- Feed from Broken Delta connection
174

Fundamental:
Types of Protection:
Breaker Failure
Breaker Failure Protection
• ANSI function 50BF
• Initiated by fault condition
• Separate low-set instantaneous overcurrent element with time
delay that operates if fault current is still present If any of these breakers
do not operate, then
• Operate upstream breaker(s) operate upstream breaker
Breaker Failure Operate Example

A Breaker Failure Here

Trips these breakers


177

Fundamental:
Types of Protection:
Beyond Overcurrent Protection
Arc Flash Mitigation: Staggered Coordination can lead to very slow trip
times, increasing arc flash energy.

Over-Current Protection
& Coordination Bus1 Bus2 Bus 3
Load = 5 MVA 500 kVA
60 MVA
11kV/.44 kV
11 kV FS1
52-1 52-2
3 CT1 F-1 F-2 CT2 75 A
Gen
F-4
F-2 F-3
2.5 Load Load
Load Load

F60-1 F60-2
2

Phase TOC_ Upstream Relay 52-1


Time to operate (s)

1.5

Phase TOC_ Downstream Relay 52-


Downstream 1
2
Fuse FS1 Phase IOC_ Upstream Relay 52-1
0.5

Phase IOC_ Downstream Relay 52-2


0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Fault current at 11 kV
Arc Flash Mitigation:
Maintenance Mode or RELT-Mode

Force feeder breaker protection to


intentionally “mis-coordinate” when
personnel are within flash protection
boundary

• Some Switchgear Manufacturers provide


“Reduced Energy Let-Thru (RELT)”, the
relays are also configured to “mis-
coordinate” and trip on Instantaneous
while this feature is ON

For Bus Fault, Breaker Trip Initiated in ~ 1 Cycles


1.33/MOP
Arc Flash Mitigation:
Bus Interlocking / Zone Interlocking Scheme

Digital Communications
50/62

Ethernet
Switch

50 50 50 50 50

Feeder Relay
(Overcurrent Protection-50)

For Bus Faults, Main Breaker Trip initiated in ~5cycle


IEC 61860 GOOSE Messaging Application
Bus Zone Interlocking Protection Scheme
• Arc Flash Energy Expressed in I2t
• Decrease I or Decrease t to Lessen Incident Energy
• Protective Relays can Lower t by Optimizing Sensitivity and Decreasing
Clearing Time
• Low Impedance Bus Protection, High Impedance Bus Protection and Bus Zone
Interlocking are Protective Methods Decrease Clearing Time
• Traditionally Coordinate between Main and Feeder Relays with Time
Overcurrent Relays (ANSI 51)
• Coordination Time Interval of 200ms or 12 cycles
• Bus Zone Interlocking Protection Scheme:
• Main Relay - Definite Time Overcurrent
• Feeder Relay - Time Overcurrent
• Main Relay Tripped or Blocked Depending Fault Location Identified by
Feeders Relays
IEC 61860 GOOSE Messaging Application
Bus Zone Interlocking Protection Scheme

“Out-of-Zone Fault”
Multilin 850
GOOSE Messaging

50/62 Ethernet
Switch

GOOSE Messaging
50 50 50 50
50 50 50 50 50

X
Block GOOSE Message Sent to Main Relay
IEC 61860 GOOSE Messaging Application
Bus Zone Interlocking Protection Scheme
Main Trip Delay:
“In-Zone Fault”
20ms Main 50 Operate
20ms Feeder 51 Pickup GOOSE Messaging
2-4ms Network Delay 50/62
8-16ms Margin

50-60ms Main Trip Delay 50/62 Ethernet


Switch
200/300 ms delay for
traditional Curve X

GOOSE Messaging
Coordination
50 50 50 50 50
50 50 50 50 50

No Block GOOSE Message Sent to Main Relay


Main Breaker Trips after 3-4 Cycles
IEC 61860 GOOSE Messaging Application
Bus Zone Interlocking Protection Scheme

Benefits
• Arc Flash Hazard Reduction
• Eliminates Need for Discrete Bus Differential Relay
• Easily Implemented in Retrofit Applications vs.
Traditional Low or High Impedance Methods
• Transmitting and Receiving IEC61850 GOOSE Messages
between Protective Relays at High-Speed via Ethernet
• Ease of Relay Coordination
• No Hard Wiring between Devices
• Easy Setup and Configuration
• Scheme Alarms when Protective IEDs are “Off-line” or
not Communicating
Goose - Main-Tie-Main Transfer

UR Relay UR Relay

UR Relay
Summary
• Overcurrent is typically used for medium voltage
applications on industrial/distribution systems.
• Instantaneous (50) and Time Overcurrent (51) elements
used in overcurrent applications.
• Time Coordination between overcurrent devices used
for selectivity and backup.
• Goose messaging can be used to simplify and reduce
wiring of Bus Zone interlocking and Main-Tie-Main
Transfer applications
187

Fundamental:
Types of Protection:
Transformer Differential
ANSI / IEEEC37.91
“Guide for Protective Relay Applications
for Power Transformers”

87
T

High Side Low Side

50

51
51
G
Transformer Bushing Nomenclature
H1, H2, H3 X1, X2, X3
• Primary Bushings • Secondary Bushings

H1 X1
H2 Transformer X2
H3 X3

Wye-Wye H1 and X1 at zero degrees


Delta-Delta H1 and X1 at zero degrees
Delta-Wye H1 lead X1 by 30 degrees
Wye-Delta H1 lead X1 by 30 degrees

ANSI Standard
Angular Displacement

ANSI Y-Y, ∆-∆ @ 0°; Y-∆ , ∆-Y @ X1 lag H1 by 30°


Euro-designations use 30° increments of LAG from the X1
bushing to the H1 bushings:
– Dy11 = X1 lags H1 by 11*30° = 330°
• or, H1 leads X1 by 30°
Differential Characteristic
Transformer Differential Challenges:
- Primary Currents have Different Magnitude
- Different Phase Angles
- Ground Currents can Flow on One Side Only
- Energization Currents on One Side Only

Ioperate
Protected
Element Ioperate = Iop = | I1 + I2 |
I1 I2
K2
Iop = | I1 + I2 |
K1

Irestraint
Angular Displacement - Development

• H1 (A) leads X1 (a) by 30


IA Ia • Currents on “H” bushings are
H1 X1
line-to-line quantities
IB H2 X2 Ib

IC Ic C c A
H3 X3

HV LV a

B
Zero Sequence Removal

Grounded Wye / Grounded Wye Three phase


Transformers – Current may not match in both
windings for external ground fault because of
hidden delta or virtual delta of tank

Zero sequence currents have to be removed.


Not Perfect
Depending on Transformer Construction:
- Zero Sequence Currents cause Flux to leave core
- Tank may act as Hidden Tertiary Winding
- Currents in primary winding and secondary winding no longer follow n1I1 = n2 I2
Classical Differential Compensation

2081 A
251 A

4.18 A
9.01 A
Internal vs. External CT Compensation

251 A ∠ 00 D/Y30 2081 A ∠ -300


* *
* *
Internally by WYE connection WYE connection

Digital Relay
T60

4.18 A ∠ 00 5.2 A ∠ -300


D/Y30

* *
Externally *
WYE connection
*
DELTA
by CT connection

connections
T60
Benefits of Wye CTs

• Phase segregated line currents


– Individual line current oscillography
– Currents may be easily used for overcurrent protection and metering
– Easier to commission and troubleshoot
– Zero sequence elimination performed by calculation of required
15 MVA; 34.5 kV/ 4.16 kV
HV CT 300:5; LV CT 2000:5

IA C -a c A
X1 Ia
H1 c
-b
IB H2 X2 Ib a
a
b
IC Ic
H3 X3
b

HV LV -c

Relay calculates:

- Ia – Ib and compares with IA


- Ib – Ic and compares with IB
- Ic – Ia and compares with IC
PHASE COMPENSATIONS
T60/ T35 and 845
Phase & Zero Sequence Compensation
MAGNITUDE COMPENSATION

15 MVA; 34.5 kV/ 4.16 kV


HV CT 300:5; LV CT 2000:5

LV Winding chosen as reference

DIFF = Winding LV –
Winding HV * (kV HV Winding / kV LV Winding) *
(CT ratio HV Winding / CT ratio LV Winding)
= 5.2– 4.18 * (34.5 / 4.16) * (300 / 2000)
= 5.2 – 4.18 * 1.244 = 0
Inrush on Energization
Exciting current
A Voltage
to provide flux
Initial flux wave

Normal flux wave

Energized
Inrush current
B
Voltage
Trip on Inrush
Harmonic Restraint
Energizing Large Motor through Transformer
Energizing Large Motor through Transformer
208

Fundamental:
Types of Protection:
Bus Differential
Bus Protection
Interlocking Schemes
High Impedance Differential
Low Impedance Differential
High-impedance differential

VR
Hi-Z
A
RL RL
IF I1 + I2
=
N N
Junction Point 52 52 52

I1 I2
CT 1 CT 2 RS CT 3
N N

Maximum lead
length, and maximum Fault
RL from junction point
to CT lead
High-Impedance
87B: MIB
High-Z
High Impedance Module - HID
High Impedance Module - HID
Low-Z 87B
Individual Inputs

Y
M

R
87
T
B
R R R R

F1 F2 F3 F4
Restraint Characteristic

Ioperate
Protected
Element Ioperate = Iop = | I1 + I2 |
I1 I2
K2
Iop = | I1 + I2 |
K1

Irestraint
CT Saturation Problem
t0 – fault inception
t2 – fault conditions

differential

External
fault: ideal
CTs

t2
t0 restraining
CT Saturation Problem
t0 – fault inception
t2 – fault conditions

differential

External fault:
CT ratio
t2 mismatch

t0 restraining
CT Saturation Problem
t0 – fault inception
t1 – CT saturation time
t2 – CT saturated

t2
differential

External
fault: CT
saturation
t1

t0 restraining
Case : Actual CT Performance

Poor performance during saturation


Causes differential problems

Red should lag purple by 150 degrees


t2

differential

t1

t0 restraining
Directional Principle

Voltage signal is not required


Internal faults:
• all fault (“large”) currents approximately in phase

External faults:
• one current approximately out of phase

Primary current of
the faulted circuit

Secondary current of
the faulted circuit
(deep CT saturation)
B30 & B90

EXTERNAL FAULT
Protection logic
DIF1

AND
DIR
CB 1 CB 2 CB 3 CB 4 CB n

NO

OR
OR

TRIP
SAT
AND

I1 I2 I3 In
DIF2
I4

i1 i4 in

Directional flag
DIR = 0 I1
I2 I3
In Saturation flag SAT = 1
200

Examples – External Fault


150

100 ~1 ms
50

-50

-100

-150

-200
0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11 0.12

The bus differential The CT saturation flag


protection element is set safely before the
picks up due to heavy pickup flag
CT saturation

Despite heavy CT
saturation the
external fault current
is seen in the
opposite direction

The element
The
does not
directional flag
maloperate
is not set
B30/ B90

B30 (6) Circuits


B90 (8) Circuits (one box)
B90 (24) circuits (three boxes)
Summing Currents Externally –
NOT RECOMMENDED

CT-1 The relay becomes a combination of


restrained and unrestrained
differential
CT-2
Requirements allowing to sum-up
currents externally:
• Ground current infeed small
I1 = Error

CT-3
• PICKUP setting must
accommodate any error
signals
I2 = 0

CT-4
• Circuits must share the same
connection status
I3 = 0

IDIFF = Error
• CTs must feed loads
Maloperation if
IREST = Error Error > PICKUP • Use multiple setting groups to
optimize the application
High Impedance
Low Impedance
Questions?

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