Orogeny is a word literally meaning the genesis of mountains, and when proposed it meant just

that. Unfortunately in later years the idea of folding and mountain building being the same thing
became entrenched, and with a further swing the term ‘orogeny’ came to mean the folding of
rocks. Orogeny is now used to refer to the folding of rocks in The origin of mountains 4 fold belts.
It does not mean mountain building, despite its etymology. We shall have to use the longer phrase
mountain building to be clear.

If authority is needed for this practice we may note the following: King (1969) wrote in his
influential paper: ‘In this account, and on the legend of the “Tectonic map of North America”,
“orogeny” is therefore used for the processes by which the rock structures within the mountain
chains or fold belts are created.’

In Orogeny Through Time Burg and Ford (1997) claim that: ‘To field geologists the term orogeny
represents a penetrative deformation of the Earth’s crust.’ We are not convinced that all field
geologists really appreciate this not-so-subtle change of meaning. Jackson (1997), in what is
virtually the bible for English-speaking geologists, wrote:

orogeny literally, the process of formation of mountains. The term came into use in the middle of
the 19th Century, when the process was thought to include both the deformation of rocks within
the mountains, and the creation of the mountainous topography. Only much later was it realised
that the two processes were mostly not closely related, either in origin or in time. Today, most
geologists regard the formation of mountainous topography as postorogenic. By present
geological usage, orogeny is the process by which structures within fold-belt mountainous areas
were formed, including thrusting, folding, and faulting in the outer and higher layers, and plastic
folding, metamorphism, and plutonism in the inner and deeper layers. Only in the very youngest,
late Cenozoic mountains is there any evident casual relation between rock structure and surface
landscape. Little such evidence is available for the early Cenozoic, still less for the Mesozoic and
Paleozoic, and virtually none for the Precambrian—yet all the deformation structures are much
alike, whatever their age, and are appropriately considered as products of orogeny.

orogeny or orogenesis—the formation of mountains. It is brought about by the movements of the

rigid plates making up the Earth’s crust (described by plate tectonics). Where two plates collide at
a destructive margin rocks become folded and lifted to form chains of fold mountains (such as the
young fold mountains of the Himalayas).

Orogeny An episode of tectonic activity (folding, faulting, thrusting) and mountain building usually
related to a destructive plate margin.

In contrast with orogeny, early geologists used the term ‘epeirogeny’ to mean the uplift of broad
areas, as opposed to the narrow fold belts of mountain chains. Gilbert (1890, p. 40) coined the
word ‘epeirogeny’ and was also one of the first to use the term ‘orogeny’, so it is useful to get his
views: ‘The process of mountain formation is orogeny, the process of continent formation is
epeirogeny, and the two collectively are diastrophism.’ Probably nobody follows this usage any
more. ‘Epeirogeny’ is still a valid term for the uplift of broad areas, but it does not mean continent
formation. We believe that mountains result from erosion of areas that have been uplifted
epeirogenically

Orogenia es una palabra que literalmente significa la génesis de las montañas, y cuando se lo
propuso significa exactamente eso. Desafortunadamente, en años posteriores, la idea de que el
plegamiento y la construcción de montañas fueran lo mismo, se atrincheraron, y con un nuevo
giro el término "orogenia" llegó a significar el plegado de las rocas. La orogenia ahora se usa para
referirse al plegamiento de rocas en El origen de las montañas. Cinturones de 4 pliegues. No
significa la construcción de montañas, a pesar de su etimología. Tendremos que usar la
construcción de la montaña de frase más larga para que quede claro.

Si se necesita autoridad para esta práctica, podemos observar lo siguiente: King (1969) escribió en
su influyente artículo: "En esta cuenta, y en la leyenda del" Mapa tectónico de América del Norte
"," orogenia "se utiliza por lo tanto para el procesos mediante los cuales se crean las estructuras
rocosas dentro de las cadenas montañosas o los cinturones plegables '.

En Orogenia a través del tiempo, Burg y Ford (1997) afirman que "para los geólogos el término
orogenia representa una deformación penetrante de la corteza terrestre." No estamos
convencidos de que todos los geólogos de campo realmente aprecien este cambio no tan sutil de
significado. Jackson (1997), en lo que es prácticamente la biblia de los geólogos de habla inglesa,
escribió:

Orogenia literalmente, el proceso de formación de montañas. El término comenzó a utilizarse a

mediados del siglo XIX, cuando se pensó que el proceso incluía tanto la deformación de las rocas
dentro de las montañas como la creación de la topografía montañosa. Sólo mucho más tarde se
dio cuenta de que los dos procesos en su mayoría no estaban estrechamente relacionados, ya sea
en el origen o en el tiempo. Hoy en día, la mayoría de los geólogos consideran la formación de la
topografía montañosa como postorogénica. Según el uso geológico actual, la orogenia es el
proceso por el cual se formaron las estructuras dentro de las áreas montañosas de cinturón doble,
incluyendo empuje, plegado y fallamiento en las capas externas y superiores, plegamiento
plástico, metamorfismo y plutonismo en las capas internas y más profundas. Solo en las montañas
Cenozoicas más jóvenes y tardías existe una relación informal evidente entre la estructura de la
roca y el paisaje de la superficie. Hay poca evidencia disponible para el Cenozoico temprano, aún
menos para el Mesozoico y el Paleozoico, y prácticamente ninguna para el Precámbrico; sin
embargo, todas las estructuras de deformación son muy parecidas, cualquiera que sea su edad, y
se consideran apropiadamente como productos de la orogenia.

orogenia u orogénesis: la formación de montañas. Se produce por los movimientos de las placas
rígidas que forman la corteza terrestre (descrita por la tectónica de placas). Donde dos placas
colisionan en un margen destructivo, las rocas se pliegan y levantan para formar cadenas de
montañas plegables (como las montañas de dobleces del Himalaya).
Orogenia Un episodio de actividad tectónica (plegamiento, fallamiento, empuje) y la construcción
de montañas generalmente se relaciona con un margen de placa destructivo.

En contraste con la orogenia, los primeros geólogos usaron el término "epeirogenia" para referirse
al levantamiento de áreas amplias, a diferencia de los cinturones de dobleces estrechos de las
cadenas montañosas. Gilbert (1890, p.40) acuñó la palabra 'epeirogeny' y también fue uno de los
primeros en usar el término 'orogenia', por lo que es útil obtener su punto de vista: 'El proceso de
formación de la montaña es orogenia, el proceso de la formación del continente es epeirogeny, y
los dos colectivamente son diastrophism. 'Probablemente nadie sigue este uso más. 'Epeirogeny'
sigue siendo un término válido para la elevación de áreas amplias, pero no significa la formación
de continentes. Creemos que las montañas son el resultado de la erosión de las áreas que se han
elevado epeirogenically.

The relationships of plains and mountains to areas of folding and nonfolding

Plains occur on horizontal strata (Murray Basin).

Mountains occur on horizontal strata (Drakensberg).

Plains occur on folded rocks (Amazon Basin).

Mountains occur on folded rocks (Alps).

Plains occur on horizontal basalt (Western Victoria Plains).

Mountains occur on horizontal basalt (Snake River).

Plains may be cut across granite (Western Australia).

Mountains may be cut across granites (Sierra Nevada).

Plains may be cut across metamorphic rock (Finland).

Mountains may be cut across metamorphic rock (Scottish Highlands).

a. Continent-continent collision (Himalayan type) The origin of mountains 18

b. Continent-ocean collision with buckling up of the continent and subduction of the ocean floor
(Andes type)

c. Obduction of the sea floor over the continent with later isostatic rise to form mountains (Cyprus
type)

d. Thrusting of sediments on to the continental plate with foreland folding at the front
(Appalachian type)
e. Thrusting of sediment under the continent, where they might melt and form granite.

f. Crustal thickening resulting from plate collision, possibly accompanied by gravity sliding of rocks
near the surface (Pyrenees type).

Colisión continente-continente (tipo Himalaya).

Colisión continente-oceánica con pandeo del continente y subducción del fondo del océano (tipo
Andes).

Obducción del fondo del mar sobre el continente con posterior elevación isostática para formar
montañas (tipo Chipre).

Empuje de sedimentos en la placa continental con pliegue de antepaís en el frente (tipo apalache).

Empuje de sedimentos debajo del continente, donde podrían derretirse y formar granito.

Espesamiento de la corteza resultante de la colisión de placas, posiblemente acompañado de

deslizamiento por gravedad de las rocas cerca de la superficie (tipo Pirineos).
Plate tectonic forces modify the thick, felsic crust of continents as well as the thin, mafic crust
beneath the deep ocean. These forces break continents apart, weld them together, and build
mountain chains along their margins. Continental crust undergoes changes along all three kinds of
plate boundaries: spreading zones, subduction zones, and transform faults.

A continent breaks apart when a spreading zone propagates through continental crust. First
valleys form in the zone of continental rifting.Then, if spreading continues, a new seaway forms
between the separated landmasses.

Collision along a subduction zone may suture two continents together, or it may suture a small
crustal fragment to a large continent. A mountain chain forms along a zone of suturing. A
mountain chain also forms along the margin of a continent beneath which oceanic lithosphere is
being subducted.

Sometimes transform faults—the strike-slip faults that offset spreading zones (p. 188)—intersect
the margins of continents. The San Andreas fault, for example, slices through western California,
where in some places movements along it have shattered rocks and accelerated erosion to create
a narrow, scarlike valley (Figure 9-1). San Francisco sits at the western edge of the North American
plate, whereas Los Angeles occupies a sliver of continental crust that is part of the Pacific plate.
Movements along the San Andreas fault are bringing these two cities closer together at the rate of
5.5 centimeters (about 2 inches) per year. In several tens of millions of years, the sliver that Los
Angeles occupies may move beyond San Francisco to end up as a slender island in the Pacific
Ocean. Just as movement along a transform fault can slide a segment of a continent away from
the continent, it can bring two bodies of continental crust into contact with each other.

Las fuerzas tectónicas de las placas modifican la corteza gruesa y félsica de los continentes, así
como la corteza delgada y máfica que se encuentra debajo del océano profundo. Estas fuerzas
separan continentes, los sueldan juntos y construyen cadenas montañosas a lo largo de sus
márgenes. La corteza continental sufre cambios a lo largo de los tres tipos de límites de placa:
zonas de expansión, zonas de subducción y fallas de transformación.

Un continente se rompe cuando una zona de propagación se propaga a través de la corteza

continental. Los primeros valles se forman en la zona de rifting continental. Luego, si continúa la
expansión, se forma una nueva vía marítima entre las masas terrestres separadas.

La colisión a lo largo de una zona de subducción puede suturar dos continentes juntos, o puede
suturar un pequeño fragmento cortical en un continente grande. Una cadena de montañas se
forma a lo largo de una zona de sutura. También se forma una cadena de montañas a lo largo del
margen de un continente debajo del cual se está subduciendo la litosfera oceánica.

A veces, las fallas de transformación (las fallas de desgarre que compensan las zonas de
expansión) vigilan los márgenes de los continentes. La falla de San Andrés, por ejemplo, atraviesa
el oeste de California, donde en algunos lugares los movimientos a lo largo de ella han hecho
añicos rocas y acelerado la erosión para crear un valle angosto y con cicatrices. San Francisco se
encuentra en el extremo occidental de la placa de América del Norte, mientras que Los Ángeles
ocupa una porción de la corteza continental que forma parte de la placa del Pacífico. Los
movimientos a lo largo de la falla de San Andrés están acercando estas dos ciudades a una
velocidad de 5.5 centímetros (alrededor de 2 pulgadas) por año. En varias decenas de millones de
años, la franja que ocupan Los Ángeles se puede mover más allá de San Francisco para terminar
como una isla esbelta en el Océano Pacífico. Así como el movimiento a lo largo de una falla de
transformación puede deslizar un segmento de un continente lejos del continente, puede poner
en contacto dos cuerpos de corteza continental entre sí.

The downwarping of the lithosphere beneath an actively forming mountain chain continues for
some distance beyond the fold-and-thrust belt. This activity produces an elongate foreland basin,
whose long axis lies parallel to the mountain chain. The foreland basin forms rapidly and is usually
so deep initially that the sea floods it either through a gap in the mountain chain or through a
passage around one end of the chain.

The foreland basin typically subsides so quickly that the first sediments to accumulate in it are
deep-water deposits, especially muds. Turbidites also form later if the slope from the foot of the
mountain is steep enough to send turbidity flows out into the basin. Figure 1-21, for example,
displays turbidite deposits that accumulated in front of Cretaceous mountains in northern Alaska.
When both shales and turbidites accumulate in foreland basins, they are collectively known as
flysch.

As a mountain system evolves, folding and thrust faulting move progressively farther inland, and
mountain building proceeds toward the continental interior. In the process, the shale or flysch
deposits become folded and faulted. At the same time, the mountain core rises and sheds
sediments more and more rapidly. Eventually sediment chokes the foreland basin, pushing marine
waters out and leaving nonmarine depositional settings in their place (see Figure 9-14D and E).
These settings include alluvial fans along the mountain chain as well as riverbeds, floodplains, and
other lowland environments. The resulting nonmarine sediments are collectively termed molasse.
Molasse deposits can accumulate to great thicknesses; as deformation continues, they too can
sometimes be folded and faulted. During molasse deposition, the foreland may no longer be a
topographic basin, but may appear instead as a broad depositional surface sloping away from the
mountain front (Figure 9-14E). As the foreland subsides beneath the accumulating sediments,
however, it remains a structural basin, which is a circular or elongate depression of stratified rock.
Molasse deposits pinch out from the margin of a mountain belt toward the interior of the craton.
Because of its prismlike configuration, a thick body of molasse is sometimes referred to as a clastic
wedge.

The depositional transition from deep-water sediments to nonmarine sediments occurs during the
evolution of most foreland basins. Even molasse deposition comes to an end after orogenic
activity stops. Not only does igneous activity eventually cease in the core of the mountain chain,
but so do folding and thrusting along the margin. Erosion soon subdues the mountainous terrain,
and the source of the molasse sediment disappears.

After a mountain system is initially leveled by erosion, some of its root remains. The remnant of a
root creates gravitational instability, so the thick mass of felsic rocks in the mountain belt tends to
rise up, just as a block of wood floating in water will rise if its top is sliced off. Orogenic belts bob
up sporadically long after subduction has ceased, and each time they rise, erosion temporarily
subdues them. This process can continue over hundreds of millions of years, until no root is left.
Even after the root is gone and the land is level, folds and faults remain in the bedrock of the
region, as do igneous and metamorphic rocks and often flysch and molasse of the foreland basin.
These rocks are the marks of an ancient mountain belt.