Review of the principles of

Sequence Stratigraphy

Post-grad coursework 2001

NCPGG
 OUTLINE
• What is sequence stratigraphy
• What sequence stratigraphy is not about
• Key surfaces & facies stacking patterns
• Sequences & depositional systems tracts
• Succesions resulting from base level rise & fall
• Applications in non-marine coal-bearing basins
 IMPORTANCE OF
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
• Unconformity-bounded succesions offer a
predictive chrono-stratigraphic framework
for basin analysis
• Commonly developed from seismic
stratigraphy, and MUST be integrated with
biostratigraphy and facies analysis where
possible
 Sequence stratigraphy is not...

• Not a fixed model in which all your observations must be

forced into, but a set of principles
• Not only about EUSTACY; global sea level curves are
useful but a red herring, esp in alluvial basins
• The “slug” models designed for passive margins are NOT
uniformly applicable, and RARELY are all elements
preserved
• New models emerging for foreland basins and more
complex strike slip basins
• Little work on cratonic interior basins, especially hybrid
basins like Cooper, Eromanga basins
A. Vail Model

HST
TST

LST

Shore zone facies HST

Depositional sequence boundary

Maximum flooding surface

Transgressive surface

Depositional surface

HST
Highstand systems tract
Depositional sequence
TST Lowstand systems tract

LST Transgressive systems tract

B. Galloway Model

PST

RST

LPC

Shore zone facies PST

Unconformity and its correlative surface

Genetic stratigraphic sequence boundary

Transgressive surface

Depositional surface

PST Progradational systems tract

Genetic stratigraphic sequence
Lowstand progradational complex
LPC

Retrogradational systems tract

RST
What this course is NOT about!
 Lacustrine Deltas
Transverse &
longitudinal
fluvial systems
Floodplains Relays
control
entry
Mouth Bars

Peat Mires Lake

Fans

Basement
faults play
key role
Differential subsidence (inversion
& local uplift common)
Three main factors control accommodation and
eventually sedimentary architecture and basin
stratigraphy:
Shanley & Mc Cabe, 1994
Sequence stratigraphic 2D model
Proposed sequence stratigraphic model for
non-marine sediments - 2D model

Soils or Coals courtesy Paul GRECH

What is sequence stratigraphy?
• An integrated approach to analysing rock
units based on chronostratigraphy (time-rock
units) where the focus is on key surfaces that
separate sedimentary successions with
distinctive, typically cyclical stacking patterns
• Contrasts with lithostratigraphy which
defines rocks based on physical character
 Van Wagoner et al., 1990
A B C D

4
4
3 3

3
2 2 2

2
1 1 1
1

BASINWARD

CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION
15 KM
A

B
C D

2 4
3 4
1
2 3
3
1 2
2

1
1
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION

COASTAL PLAIN SANDSTONES SHALLOW MARINE SHELF

AND MUDSTONES SANDSTONES MUDSTONES
 Note the difference between sequence
stratigraphy vs lithostratigraphy

LST

Unconformity (SB)
Member B1
FORMATION C HST

100 m Member B2

FORMATION B SEQUENCE
TST
TS
MFS
Unconformity (SB)

FORMATION A
LST
 PRINCIPLE FACTORS
INFLUENCING STRATAL
ARCHITECTURE
ACCOMMODATION
SEDIMENT SUPPLY
 ACCOMMODATION
• Tectonic subsidence is essential for sediment to
accumulate permanently in the stratigraphic record
- concept of sedimentary basin versus the
physiographic basin
• “Accommodation” space is created by the net
product of subsidence or changes in the volume
of the oceans/lakes (eustacy)
• Sediment stacking patterns (transgressive and
regressive) determined by the ratio of the rate of
sediment supply relative to the rate of
accommodation (S’/A’)
 During negligible accommodation:

• Total reworking of flood-plain fines

• Lateral amalgamation of channel sands
• Formation of sheet-like sands
• Well-sorted, coarse-grained, well-rounded sands
courtesy Paul GRECH
 During low accommodation:

• Some reworking of flood-plain fines

• Lateral and vertical amalgamation of channel sands
• Limited development of palaeosols
• Sorted, medium to coarse-grained, rounded sands
courtesy Paul GRECH
 During rapid accommodation:

• Minor reworking of flood-plain fines

• Formation of isolated channel sands
• Unsorted, very fine to fine-grained, angular sands
courtesy Paul GRECH
 During highest accommodation:

Surface of
Maximum
Transgression

• Preservation of flood-plain fines

• Formation of isolated channel sands
• Possible formation of lacustrine environment and
associated facies
• Possible formation of peat swamps courtesy Paul GRECH
During decreasing accommodation:

• Resumed reworking of flood-plain fines

• Increasing lateral and vertical channel sand
amalgamation
courtesy Paul GRECH
 Tectonic subsidence -
foreland vs passive margins
Accommodation variation along
a fluvial profile
Local subsidence control on
accommodation

Posamentier & Allen, 1999

 Fluvial equilibrium profile
1.
Sediment bypass
Erosion BASE LEVEL

2.
Accommodation

3.

Accommodation
space to accumulate sediment
BYPASS

EROSION

SLOW FAST

EUSTACY or SUBSIDENCE RATE

LIMNOSTACY
The variation of
accommodation
with time can be
divided into
major tracts and
surfaces:
 Accommodation vs Sediment Supply and
control on stacking patterns/key surfaces
TST
Increasing rate of accommodation

Retrogradational
Sediment supply<
accommodation TST/HST Sediment supply>
accommodation
Aggradational

Sediment supply = accommodation Progradational HST

Sediment bypass
Increasing rate of
0 Sediment supply
LATE HST/LST
Sequence boundary
Regional incision
Negative
 Normal vs forced regressions
“Normal Regression”

“Normal Regression” “Forced Regression”

Posamentier & Allen, 1999

Forced regressions

Posamentier & Allen, 1999

Attached forced regressions

Posamentier & Allen, 1999

Sequence development
Relative
Base
Level
Curves
 Lateral variability within a basin
Posamentier & Allen, 1999
Area of normal regressions

C= Coastline
Area of unconformity (proximal)
Area of correlative conformity
Area of forced regressions Area of correlative conformity in
both proximal and distal
 Lateral variability in
accommodation & sediment supply
 Sediment supply
• Sediment is supplied by erosion from various
sources (eg. water flows downhill, shoreline or
shelf erosion)
• Type of rocks or sediment in the source area is
important for type & rate of sediment that can be
supplied
• Tectonic uplift results in release of sediments as
river catchments grow
• Climate & eustacy/limnostacy (sea- or lake level)
change
 Key surfaces and stacking patterns
Unconformity

Offlap Toplap
Retrogradation

Unconformity
Downlap
Progradation
 KEY SURFACES
• Flooding surfaces: transgressive surface and
maximum flooding surface these define
parasequences (or p..sets)
• Erosion surfaces: local erosional scour at the base
of fluvial channels or at the fairweather wave base
(all minor)
• Unconformities & correlative conformable
surfaces that separate older sediment from
younger sediment (sequence boundaries)
 PARASEQUENCES
• Basic building blocks of the stratigraphic
record produced by one cycle of infilling
accommodation
• Represent conformable successions of
genetically related strata bounded by marine
or lacustrine flooding surfaces
• May either coarsen upward (in deltas,
crevasse splays etc.) or fine-upward
(fluvial/tidal channels)
 STRATAL STACKING
PATTERNS
• If the rate of sediment supply is greater
than the rate of accommodation (S’>A’)
then sediments will PROGRADE
(progradational stacking pattern,
forestepping, or regression)
• Eg. deltas!
PROGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCES
Progradational sequences
 Passive Margin

Progrades in the Barrow Delta, Exmouth Sub-basin

 STRATAL STACKING
PATTERNS
• If the rate of sediment supply is less than
the rate of accommodation (S’<A’) then
sediments will RETROGRADE
(retrogradational stacking pattern,
backstepping, or transgression)
• Eg. marine transgressions
RETROGRADATIONAL PARASEQUENCES
 STRATAL STACKING
PATTERNS
• If the rate of sediment supply is equal to the
rate of accommodation (S’=A’), then
sediments will AGGRADE (aggradational
stacking pattern)
• eg. alluvial basins)
 REGRESSIONS
• Sediment supply >> Accommodation
• Deep overlain by shallower facies
• Low overlain by high energy facies
• Marine overlain by non-marine facies
• Offshore overlain by nearshore fossils
• Coarsening-upwards sequence
• Forward-stepping parasequences
• Relative fall in base level
Forced regressions

Posamentier & Allen, 1999

Forced regression

Posamentier & Allen, 1999

Wheeler diagram showing forced
regressions

Posamentier & Allen, 1999

“FISH TANK” courtesy Hamish YOUNG
“FISH TANK” courtesy Hamish YOUNG
“FISH TANK” courtesy Hamish YOUNG
“FISH TANK” courtesy Hamish YOUNG
Development of Lowstand Wedges
Lowstand deltas

Bensen, 2000
Lowstand deltas
Lowstand deltas

Lowstand reservoir target!

Bensen, 2000
Lowstand delta

Bensen, 2000
 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHIC
CONTEXT OF AN INCISED VALLEY
T0 T1 T2 T3
RELITIVE HEIGHT:
BASE LEVEL AND
ACTUAL LEVEL

PHASE 3
TIME
LATE TST
PHASE 2
EARLY TST
15-70m
PHASE 1
LATE LST
0.5-2km
BEDROCK

TRANSGRESSIVE TRANSGRESSIVE MAXIMUM

SEQUENCE
SURFACE - 1 SURFACE - 3 FLOODING
BOUNDARY (TIDAL RAVINEMENT) (WAVE RAVINEMENT) SURFACE (SEA/LAKE FLOOR)
Incised valleys & lacustrine
deltas
 Flume tank experiments on
stacking patterns

Retrogradational
transgressive
systems tract

H.Young, in prep.
• Lacustrine Delta Succession
• Stacked Progradational
Parasequences (11 Delta
Cycles)
• Amalgamated Mouth Bar
Reservoirs
• Extensive Coals In Lower
Epsilon

Forced Regression??
 Structural control on channel axes
Peat mire
Axial channel belt
Floodplain

20 km Subtle structural control

Structural
control on
fluvial channel
belt alignment Maximum sand in max. thick
 The future research
• Different styles of sequences in different
tectonic settings
 DEVELOPMENT OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY
Schumm 1993; Miall 1989, 1990, 1993; Blum 1990, 1992, 1993
Posamentier and Allen 1999 ALLUVIAL SYSTEMS
Aitken and Flint 1995
1990 - 99

- Application of sequence Shanley and McCabe 1994

strat. to up-dip strata
Posamentier and Allen 1993 - “Local Basin Factors” Legaretta et. al. 1993 Allen et. al. 1996
- Significant departures from
- Flume experiments Koss et. al. 1990
Van Wagoner et. al.Seq.
early 1990Strat. -models
Cores, wirelines and outcrops
- High resolution Seq. Strat.
Galloway 1989 Sequence
- Block Wigus
- “Geneticstratigraphy,
et.
diagrams al. 1988
stratigaphic sequences
sequences”
Posamentier
- Marine and
and components
to Vail 1988
continental strata
Sediment flux there-of
- Model were
- Eustacy
for up-dip
+ never
Subsidence
response defined
+ Sed.by their
Flux relationship to
SEPM Spec. Pub. 42
1980 - 90

Tectonics
- “Accomodation
to space”
eustatic conception
change. Jervey et. al. 1988
eustatic sea level (systems tracts are a notable
Autocyclic phenomenon
Climate
exception).

Payton 1977 - “Seismic stratigraphy”

1970 - 80

AAPG Memior 27 - Regional, chronostratigraphic

surfaces
- Detailed lithologic prediction
EXXON RESEACH PRODUCTION
from seismic data Co.
- Utility of time synchronous
- Eustatic control surfaces
- Genetic units- 1stofglobal
strataeustatic
deliniated by unconformities
curves
1950
- 70 Frazier et. al. 1967 Campbell 1967, Wheeler 1958, Weller 1960 and Sloss 1926 Mackin 1948
 CURRENT SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY

- STRATAL ARCHITECTURE IS MOST FUNDEMENTALLY A

RESULT OF THE RATIO BETWEEN RATE OF ACCOMODATION
SPACE CREATION AND SEDIMENT SUPPLY.

- A VARIETY OF FACTORS CONTROL THIS RATIO. THE

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THESE FACTORS IS A
FUNCTION OF GEOLOGIC SETTING, TIME AND SCALE.

- IF THE CONTROLLING FACTORS AND THEIR RELATIVE

IMPORTANCE CAN BE RESLOVED FOR A CERTAIN TIME AND
SPACE, STRATAL ARCHITECTURE CAN BE PREDICTED.
 CONTROLS ON STRATAL ARCHITECTURE

Rate of Accommodation space creation

Subsidence / uplift Eustacy Climate Fluvial Discharge

Sediment Flux

Basin Physiography

(X) Accommodation × (Y) Sed. Flux × (Z) Basin Phys.= ?

Great than 4th order sequences = Rate of accommodation space creation

Less than 4th order cycles = Sediment supply and basin physiography
Seismic line from the Roebuck Basin WA
from thesis of Stuart Smith
 Wheeler (1958) diagram
stratigraphy plotted against
time to show the breaks
TIME
 Cyclic stratal patterns

• Cyclical changes in the ratio of sediment

supply to accommodation are responsible
for cyclic stratal patterns
• Cyclic processes include short and long
term fluctuations in subsidence and uplift,
or climatic effects from orbital forcing
mechanisms (planetary scale) that impact
changes in the rate of change in volume of
water (eustacy or lake volume change) and
rates of sediment supply