Mechanical Design for Assembly

understanding and applying the principles of mechanical

product and part design for ease of assembly

A multimedia self-instructional educational

and
knowledge content reference package
covering

• Importance of assembly in product development

• Operational definition of assembly as a process

• An overview of assembly systems

• Principles of product and part design for assembly

• Criteria for determining part redundancy

• Examples of design principle applications

• Quantifying ease of assembly improvements

• Vibratory feeding of small parts

• Small part orientation and feed rate analysis

Carl F. Zorowski
Professor Emeritus
Mechanical Engineering
N.C. State University

Copyright 2004
Copyright © 2004 by Carl F. Zorowski All rights reserved

ISBN: 0-9713126-2-1
Mechanical Design for Assembly

“All learning is in the learner, not in the teacher.”

- Plato –

“You can not teach a man anything,

you can only help him find it within himself.”

- Galileo –

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Mechanical Design for Assembly

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To

Louise
for
her encouragement, support and understanding

and
Greg, Ben, Marshall and Aspen,
the continuation of the gene pool

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Mechanical Design for Assembly

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Mechanical Design for Assembly

Table of Contents Page

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Course Objective and Overview, Content and Format, Proposed Study Guide,
Installation and Operation of CD.

Chapter 1 – Why is DFA Important. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Manufacturing Environment, Traditional Design Approach, Material and
Information Flow, Product Cycle Cost, DFA in Toys, Basic Tenets.

Chapter 2 – Assembly Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Assembly Purpose, Assembly Functions: Handling, Composing, Checking;
Assembly Objects, Reasons for Separate Parts, Parts Sequence Diagram, Four
Part Spindle Assembly, Assembly Process Flow Chart.

Chapter 3 – Assembly Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Methods of Assembly, Assembly Economics, Assembly Line Components,
Assembly Line Categories, Line Factors, Geometric Line Configurations.

Chapter 4 – Principles of DFA – Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Suitable Base, Layered Assembly, Modular Parts, Error Accommodation, Fastener
Simplification, Minimizing Parts, Flexible Items, Part Redundancy Criteria

Chapter 5 – Principles of DFA - Part Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Feeding and Orienting, Tangling and Overlapping, Maximizing Symmetry,
Emphasizing asymmetry.

Chapter 6 – DFA Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Product Redesign Process, Diaphragm Valve Assembly, Pneumatic Piston
Assembly, Light Switch, Copier Latch, Lessons Learned.

Chapter 7 – Quantifying Assembly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Basis of Quantitative Tool, Assembly, Events, Part Merit, Redundancy, Combined
Average Merit, Product Assembly Merit, Assembly Event Choices/Values,
Pneumatic Piston Example, Redesign Guidelines

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Mechanical Design for Assembly

Chapter 8 – Vibratory Bowl Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Vibratory Bowl Feeder, Part Movement, Flat Plate Conveyor Dynamics, Analysis
of Part Motion, Vibratory Bowl Feeding Characteristics, General Feeding
Characteristics, Effect of Bowl Loading on Recirculation

Chapter 9 – Part Delivery Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Feed Rate Factors, Natural Resting Positions, Initial Distribution Matrix, Average
Part Length, Passive Orientation, Device and System Matrices, System Efficiency,
Feed Rate Determination.

Chapter 10 – Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

The Importance of DFA, Assembly Process Defined and Described, Features of
Assembly Systems, DFA Principles for Products and Parts, DFA Product Analysis
and Redesign, Quantifying Ease of Assembly, Vibratory Part Feeding, Part
Orientation and Feed Rate Determination

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Mechanical Design for Assembly

Introduction

Course Objective and Overview

Content and Format
Proposed Study Guide
Installation and Operation

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Mechanical Design for Assembly
Course Objective and
Overview
The total Mechanical Design for Assembly
instructional package was created to meet the
needs of engineering life-long learners who
desire through self-study to continue their
professional development. It was designed with
the instructional objective to provide a learning
environment that overcomes the frustrations and
difficulties often encountered by self-learners in
attempting to decipher and understand standard
text books. This is accomplished through an
integrated visual, oral and text presentation of
the subject knowledge content.
Webster defines design broadly as “a mental
process or scheme in which the means to an
end are laid down”. More specificity is needed
in the practice of engineering. A more accurate
definition might be “an activity under taken by
engineers that results in the creation of the
description and specification of a device, system
or process that meets some recognized or
identified need of society based on existing
technology while making use of available natural
resources within some specified set of
constraints applicable to the circumstance in
question.” Although the engineering definition is
longer there can be no disagreement of its
consistency with the more generic Webster
definition. However, it is precisely the greater
specificity of design as an engineering process
that requires further consideration of the subject
content of this educational module and its
manner of presentation.
In the creation of any new product, from
concept to final prototype, there are a myriad of
factors that must be considered in all aspects of
the development process. Many of these factors
have become identified with specific aspects of
the total design process. They are often
referred to as DFX (Design for “X” ). “X” in this
instance might represent factors like: function,
cost, safety, quality, strength, repair, reliability,
appearance, etc. One of the factors that often
does not receive the attention it deserves is
assembly.
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Introduction -3-
The very nature of the definition of design
implies a process dependent on creativity,
inventiveness and synthesis. Because of this
capabilities the “teaching” of engineering design
is often misunderstood and/or miss represented.
Development of creative design skills is rarely
included in the teaching of so-called mechanical
design courses. Calculating the maximum
stress in a helical spring whose dimensions,
material and external load are all known is not
design. It is analysis. Determining the
dimensions and material for a spring to with-
stand a given load in some confined space is
more like design. However, even then a
question may remain as to whether a helical
spring was the best machine part to satisfy the
operational need. How one can be taught to
choose the correct element in the first place is
the real challenge of design education.
Design for assembly is an even more difficult
subject to deal with. In the case of the helical
spring once its properties are specified there
exist mathematical models that permits its
operational characteristics to be quantitatively
determined. However, if cost considerations
dictate that the spring ends be left open and the
coil spacing is greater than the wire diameter
how does one determine quantitatively how
much greater are the assembly problems due to
tangling during the storing and feeding process.
The approach adopted in this Design for
Assembly educational module begins with first
recognizing the importance of the assembly
process and that it can be generically defined in
operational terms that can be visualized
graphically. Guidelines are then established for
selecting assembly choices that will reduce
orientation, movement, fastening difficulty and
numbers of parts in both product and part
specification. The technique used to illustrate
this approach is based on the DFA analysis of
existing products and their redesign to improve
their ease of assembly.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly

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Mechanical Design for Assembly
Content and Format
The complete Mechanical Design for
Assembly instructional package consists of two
items, a CD disk and a printed Instructional
Supplement. The disk contains a multimedia
audio enhanced graphical presentation of the
subject content. This covers the knowledge
required to both understand and apply the
principles of the mechanical design of products
and parts to improve their ease of assembly.
The complete CD presentation consists of ten
self-contained chapters that can be played
independently using installed software together
with the disk. The ten chapters contain some
300 graphically illustrated and animated screens
accompanied by complete audio explanations of
the presented material. Navigation aids are
provided on each screen. This permits the
viewer to stop the presentation, exit the chapter,
replay the audio or select other screens in the
chapter or any other chapter. Capability to view
the text of the audio in a pop up window is also
available. Some chapters include examples and
interactive exercise problems that illustrate the
application of the material covered. Solutions of
the interactive problems are included to allow
the viewer to verify their own results. At the end
of each chapter Review Exercises with
immediate feedback are provided for viewers to
check their general knowledge of the material
covered. Also included is an off line exercise for
practice in the application of the chapter
concepts beyond the presentation. Instructions
for the use of the software program on the disk
are covered in the section on Installation and
Operation.
This Instructional Supplement is provided as
an additional learning aid and ready hard copy
reference to all materials presented on the CD
disk. Its contents include grayscale copies of all
instructional screens on the CD together with the
printed script used for the audio enhancement of
each screen. The printed supplement can be
used in a variety of ways to enhance the
instructional experience that best suits the
preferred learning style of the student.
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Introduction -5-
Only two screens appear on each page. This
provides space for the viewer to take notes or
make other relevant comments while listening to
the disk presentation. With the full text of the
audio provided important phrases and concepts
in the text as well as important equations on the
graphic can be highlighted as desired by the
student. Quick visual reference from one screen
to another in any given chapter is readily
possible as might be helpful in the solution of the
Off Line Exercise. Also, quick reference to
topics and physical concepts is readily available
with use of the index in the Appendix of the
supplement. Imaginative students of the subject
will undoubtedly employ other complementary
uses of the CD disk together with the
Instructional Supplement.
A short quiz is included for each chapter in
the Appendix that students can use to further
evaluate their comprehension of the chapter
content. These are most effectively taken as
timed ten-minute exercises without reference to
the supplement or disk. Solutions to the quizzes
are also provided in the Appendix.
Example solutions to a number of the Off
Line Exercises are provided in the Appendix
along with a topical Index to provide a ready
reference to specific concepts and subjects
included through out the Instructional
Supplement. Finally, the Appendix includes
instructions for the student to undertake and
carry out an extended formal project
representative of a real practical problem. This
more extensive final exercise provides the
learner with an experience that synthesizes the
application of all knowledge content included in
the educational module.
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Mechanical Design for Assembly

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Mechanical Design for Assembly
Suggested Study Guide
Although individual learning styles may differ
widely the following is provided as a suggested
study guide to achieve both effective coverage
and self-evaluation of adequate understanding
and proper application of the knowledge content
of Mechanical Design for Assembly.
First, it is useful to recognize that the ten
chapters of the module can be subdivided into
the following areas of emphasis:
1. An introduction to why the subject is
important and how assembly can be
defined operationally. (Chap. 1 & 2)
2. An overview of modern assembly
systems. (Chap. 3)
3. Design for assembly principles for
products and parts. (Chap. 4 & 5)
4. Application of design for assembly
principles to example products.
(Chap. 6)
5. Quantitative evaluation of design for
assembly improvements. (Chap. 7)
6. Vibratory feeding and orientation of small
parts. (Chap. 8 & 9)
7. A short summary of all material covered
(Chap. 10
Area 1 provides an appreciation for why
assembly is important and how it is defined
operationally and graphically. Area 2 is an
overview of the composition and characteristics
of modern assembly systems. Area 3 presents
the important guidelines for ease of assembly in
the mechanical design of products and parts.
Area 4 applies the guidelines of Area 3 to the
redesign of several existing mechanical
products. Area 5 presents a formal technique
for quantifying assembly improvements in
product redesign. Area 6 describes the
characteristics of vibratory feeding of small
parts, passive part orientation and how feed
rates can be easily determined quantitatively.
Area 7 is a brief review of all materials in the first
nine chapters. The chapters should be covered
in the order listed for continuity.
It is recommended that the study of each
chapter be started with the audio enhanced
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Introduction -7-
presentation on the CD. As suggested on the
chapter index page proceed through all pages in
sequence. Do not hesitate to interrupt the
presentation (stop button) and start it over
(replay button) if you do not understand the
explanation. The page may be replayed as
many times as necessary. The manual may be
used during this process for reference to the
audio text, highlighting important items or
making relevant notes. The audio text is also
available on the screens of the CD presentation
by clicking on the text button after the audio is
complete or has been stopped.
Complete the interactive exercises as they
are encountered to evaluate your understanding
of the most recent material covered. You may
return to the chapter index page (index button)
to review any page that may be useful.
Use the Review Exercises at the end of the
chapter for an immediately evaluation of your
general knowledge of the important concepts
covered. Make use of the “Hot words” (links to
other screens) as appropriate. At this point
undertake the solution of the Off Line Exercise.
The supplement may again be useful at this
point to quickly review or reference important
equations and concepts. Finally, take the end of
chapter quiz without reference to either the CD
or the supplement and then check your answers
against those provided in the Appendix. If you
are satisfied with your comprehension of the
content of the chapter proceed on.
When you have completed all ten chapters it
is recommended that you undertake the project
presented in the Appendix. This activity is more
extensive than the preceding exercises. It
provides an experience in synthesizing all the
material covered with the added requirement of
requiring assumptions concerning aspects of the
situation presented that are not defined. The
value gained from this activity will be in
proportion to the time and effort committed.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly

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Mechanical Design for Assembly
Installation and Operation
The Mechanical Design for Assembly CD
educational module is a self-contained
PowerAudioTM instructional product created in
Asymetrix Toolbook II AssistantTM. Be sure to
read the following installation and operating
instructions before proceeding.
Hardware/Software Requirements:
PC running Windows 95/98/2000 or NT
CD 2x or higher drive (the faster the
better!)
Sound card with speakers (capable of
playing wave and midi files).
MS Windows media player
To Install CD Software Program
(First, close all running applications before
installing Design for Assembly)
1. Insert the Design for Assembly disc in the
CD ROM drive.
2. From the Start menu choose Run in
Windows 95/98/2000 or NT.
3. In the Run window, type location from which
program is to be installed (for example D:\).
Then type setup.exe. (see note below)
4. Click OK and follow instructions on screen in
Install Wizard.
5. Choose either “typical” or “custom”
installation. “Typical” places only the
program operating system on hard drive with
all remaining files left on CD. “Custom”
permits installation of educational module
files on hard drive. This can require
significantly more storage space. Advantage
of installation on hard drive is more rapid
transfer between chapter and audio files.
6. Restart computer.
(Note: Following step 3 above a window may
appear with icons of files on the CD disc. If this
occurs double click on setup.exe file and
proceed with step 4)
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Introduction -9-
Alternative:
1. Insert the Design for Assembly disc in
the CD drive.
2. Open Windows file Explorer
application.
3. Double click on CD drive to list files.
4. Select and double click on setup.exe
file.
5. Install Wizard will appear.
6. Follow steps 5 and 6 as previously.
If “Typical” installation is chosen (or all files are
not placed on hard drive) CD must remain or be
placed in drive to play complete educational
module presentation.
To Run Design for Assembly :
1. From the Start menu in Windows
95/98/2000 or NT point to Programs
then Design for Assembly shortcut.
2. Click on Begin Module file.
3. Program will begin and detailed
navigation instructions will be provided
on the Main Menu page
Or
1. From the Start menu in Windows
95/98/2000 or NT point to Programs,
then to Design for Assembly
2. Click on any Chap. _ desired.
3. Program will open at Chapter selected.
To Exit Design for Assembly :
1. From any page in any chapter click on the
Stop button until Replay button appears.
2. Click on Exit button.
3. The Exit page will appear and allow two
choices: to exit the module or return to
the Main Menu.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly
Navigation, Audio and Special Features:
Six navigation and operation buttons
always appear in the bottom border of each
page in the module. Their functions are as
described below:
Stops audio and forwards to
next page.
Stops audio and returns to
previous page.
(Note: Above navigation buttons are only active
if pointers are highlighted. If active they will
respond even if audio is playing.)
Stops audio and slide
Stop animation. On repeated
clicks will bring up Replay
button and Click Here
button.
Exit Transfers to exit page to
permit Exiting module or
return to Main Menu page
Shows “popup” window
Text in lower right of page with
text of audio for that page.
Returns to Chapter
Index Index Page for selection
of a specific page
Four additional operational buttons that appear
intermittently when the audio finishes are the
“Replay”, “Click Here”, “Return” and “Main
Menu” buttons.
Replay Replays page from the
beginning with audio and
all slide animation
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Introduction - 10 -
Appears when
Click Here audio is finished
and Next Page
button should be
clicked.
Return Returns reader from
problem solution page to
next page in chapter.
Returns reader to main
Main Menu Chapter Menu to permit
selection of another
chapter or exit module
Some Special Notes
1. Older sound cards may not be equipped
to play midi (synthesizer music) files. If
no music occurs when second page of
Begin Module appears wait 30
seconds and next page with audio will
come up automatically.
2. If audio volume requires adjustment refer
to your operating systems manual
(Windows 95/98/2000 or NT) for
instructions on changing volume of wave
files.
3. Pages of Design for Assembly education
module should fill about 2/3 of monitor
screen. Size of presentation window can
be adjusted. Refer to your operating
systems manual (Windows 95/98/2000
or NT) for instructions on changing
monitor settings.
4. Pop up windows are closed by clicking
on X in top right corner.
5. If content, video and text chapter files
remain on CD rather than loaded on hard
drive transfer time of hyperlinks (special
buttons) may slow down depending on
speed of computer. Click once to
activate hyperlink and apply patience!
Hour Glass icon will appear indicating
transfer is underway,
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 1

Chapter 1
Why is DFA Important

Screen Titles
Importance of Manufacturing
Manufacturing Environment
Traditional Approach
Material and Information Flow
Typical Product Cycle Cost
Design Process Requirements
Manufacturing Opportunity
Examples of DFA in Toys
DFA’s Basic Tenets
Review Exercise
Offline Exercise

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 1

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 1

1. Title Page 2. Page Index

In this introduction, the stage will be set for Shown below is a list of all the pages in
a study of Design for Assembly or DFA for Chapter 1 by title. Each is hyperlinked to
short. The topics covered will include the its specific page. It is recommended that
importance of manufacturing to our the reader first proceed through all the
nation’s well being, the market pages sequentially. Any specific page can
environment in which manufacturing finds then be revisited by clicking on the title.
itself today, the traditional and outmoded
approach to product design, the real
complexity of the of the product life cycle,
typical product cycle cost and its impact on
the design phase and finally the
opportunity and requirements of product
design today.

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Why is DFA Important - 13 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 1
3. Importance of Manufacturing
When our young nation was in its fortieth
year of its independence Thomas
Jefferson wrote in a letter to his friend
Benjamin Austin the following statement:
To be independent for the comforts of life
we must fabricate them for ourselves
Manufacturers are now as necessary to
our independence as to our comfort.
That statement, made over 180 years ago,
is just as valid to day, if not more so. Both
our way of life and our country’s economic
well being are just as dependent today on
our ability to quickly, efficiently and
productively manufacture quality products
that not only provide for our needs but are
also competitive on the world market. We
must therefore continue to advance and
improve our ability to design and
manufacture quality goods
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Why is DFA Important - 14 -
4. Manufacturing Environment
The environment that manufacturing
functions in today is highly demanding.
International competition continues to grow
around the globe. More sophisticated
consumers and customers demand the
latest in technology and innovation. There
is a greater demand for customized
products to suit individual needs. Henry
Ford once succeeded by offering the public
a car in any color as long as it was black.
That won’t do today. Firms like Gateway
build computers to individual personal
order. Increasing domestic labor costs
continue to create productivity
improvement pressures. One cannot
compete successfully without a quality
product. The automotive industry learned
this lesson but at a high cost. Other
industries like basic steel never got the
message and disappeared. Changes
brought about by demographic changes in
the age and taste of consumers must be
met. There is also a shortage of required
technical talent in the work force. All of
these factors demand the most advanced
product development and manufacturing
process possible.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 1
5. Traditional Approach
The traditional and outmoded approach to
product realization consisted of design and
manufacturing functions that worked in too
great of isolation. The design team
created a product description that met
functional requirements and then threw the
plans over the wall to manufacturing to
produce. Manufacturing would take one
look at the plans and declare that the first
thing they would need to do was redesign
the product so that it could be made. In
times before the environment described on
the previous page that could and did work
but it can’t and won’t today. The process
must be integrated and the design must
meet all the need of the total product life
cycle from day one: that is from production
to sales, maintenance, environmental
impact, consumption and finally disposal.
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Why is DFA Important - 15 -
6. Material and Information Flow
To better appreciate the complexity of just
the product creation portion of the total life
cycle consider the diagram depicting
schematically how material and information
flows through the process. As materials
flow horizontally through the production
process each of its major functions,
(buying, processing, assembly and selling)
must interchange information with all the
design, planning and management
functions on a continuous and integrated
basis. There is no way that this required
vertical and horizontal matrix of interaction
can operate successfully with some
function in isolation. The total process
must all take place as concurrently as
possible to meet the productivity, cycle
time, and competition of today’s market
place. Note too that all the external
economic, consumer and other market
factors that impact and drive the decisions
to activate this process are not even
accounted for in this simple representation.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 1

7. Typical Product Cycle Cost 8. Design Process Requirements

This graph represents a typical distribution It thus becomes clear that design must not
of product cycle cost. Those involved in only answer the question of achieving the
design may not generally appreciate that function of the product but also such
theirs is usually the most expensive part of questions as: what will the components be
the total product cost. Since this is where made of? Will the components be made or
the greatest investment is being made and purchase. The classic build versus buy
it takes place very early in the cycle it also option. And how will the product be
represents that portion of the process assembled or put together?
where the greatest impact can be made on
the outcome of the venture. That is, the
better the design then the lower the cost,
the greater the productivity, the higher the
quality, the better the acceptance, sales
and operation of the final product. Hence
the design phase, properly executed, is the
key and critical element to successful and
competitive manufacturing.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 1
9. Manufacturing Opportunity
The options and opportunities that become
available in the product design phase to
improve manufacturing productivity have
been recognized by many. The question
then becomes how best to take advantage
of these opportunities. This in turn raises
the question - what aspect of the design
process would it be of value to learn more
about and perform better. One area that
has not received much attention in the past
is that of assembly. That is, how should a
product be designed so that the process of
putting it together integrates effectively
with all its fabrication, operational, service
and other market needs. This area of
knowledge is referred to as DFA or Design
for Assembly. It be will covered in the
subsequent chapters of this book.
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Why is DFA Important - 17 -
10. Examples of DFA in Toys
DFA is not a new idea. Its concepts of
components that easily fasten together
with minimum skill, effort and tools have
been employed in construction toys for
many years. Take a minute or two to think
of three that you are familiar with and then
click on the buttons to compare your
selections with three of my favorites.
Button 1
Lego is my number one all time choice of a
construction toy demonstrating good
principles of design for assembly. Click on
the photo button below to see some
examples.
Lego photo
The picture on the left shows a number of
classical Lego component blocks. Note in
particular the design of the studs on the
top surface that lightly press fit into the
circular receptacles on the bottom surface
to hold the parts together with friction. No
separate fasteners are required and
assembly skills are simple. The picture on
the right shows an example assembly
constructed with a number of block
components.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 1
11. Examples of DFA in Toys (continued…)
Button 2
My second choice used to be called tinker toy
when I was a youngster but now goes under the
name of Fiddlestix. Its an oldie but a goodie.
Click on the photo button to see some examples
of the modern version.
Fiddlestix
The left pictures shows a variety of the
components. The toy is assembled by inserting
the ends of the split rods into the holes on the
joint elements that have the shape of disks,
square and spheres . The photo on the right is an
example of a simple assembly created with these
components.
Button 3
A third choice is what is called Lincoln Logs but is
also known under the name of Pioneer Building
set. It is another construction toy that has stood
the test of time. It was created in 1916. Click on
the photo button to view examples.
Lincoln Logs
The photo on the left shows samples of the
building set major parts. They are notched
circular rods simulating how real logs were
notched to build the walls of a early log cabin. In
this instance gravity is what holds the structure
together. The photo on the right shows the type
of play structure that can be created with these
components even to putting a roof on the top.
When you complete with this example close the
pop up window and go on to the next page.
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Why is DFA Important - 18 -
12. DFA’s Basic Tenets
Lets try another little exercise. Using either my
favorites, yours or a combination of both think
of four objectives these toys achieve as related
to ease of assembly that accommodates to a
child’s abilities and motor skills. After you have
developed your list click on the buttons below
sequentially to see how well we agree.
My choices eliminate the need for separate
fasteners, how about yours? One of the
reasons that the erector set doesn’t make the
top ten in this list is because of its need for nuts
and bolts to hold the pieces together. That
took too much patience and skill.
Standardized components mean fewer initial
choices and greater final flexibility. I have seen
some very impressive models of the statue of
Liberty, the White House and the Titanic made
from standard Lego components – a lot of
them!
Again Lego takes the prize on components that
easily fit and snap together, simple enough for
even a young child can quickly and skillfully
learn how to assemble them. A characteristic
also possessed incidentally by tinker toy and
Lincoln logs.
A fourth objective is to reduce assembly time
and skills. Two very important factors in
increasing productivity and product quality in
manufacturing.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 1
13. Review Exercise
At the end of each chapter one or more
review exercises are provided to assist the
reader in checking their comprehension of
the material presented. In this exercise the
reader types in an appropriate response in
a blank following the completion of the
audio. Press the tab key after entering a
response to receive an immediate
feedback. If a negative feedback is
obtained enter another response. A together types of toys available. Select
double click on the tab key following a
feedback will move the cursor to another
blank space. If you wish to review the
material being requested simply click on
the hot word in the question to pop up the
relevant page in the chapter. When
finished with all the blanks go on to the
next page.
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Why is DFA Important - 19 -
14. Offline Exercise
Each chapter includes an offline exercise
that will require the reader to undertake an
additional task that involves application of
some aspect of the material covered in the
chapter. This first offline exercise deals
with the idea of the application of DFA in
toys and recognizing its characteristics.
First, make a trip to a local toy store and
review the various construction or put
one for your exercise that you feel makes
good use of common sense DFA
principles. It must be different from any
already discussed. Next, prepare a report
that describes the toy, identifies and lists
it’s ease of assembly characteristics, and
tells how they are incorporated. Use
photos and /or drawings to illustrate these
characteristics. Once you understand the
exercise click on the main menu button to
go on to another chapter or exit the
module.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 1

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Why is DFA Important - 20 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

Chapter 2
Assembly Definition

Screen Titles
Assembly Purpose
Assembly Functions
Handling
Composing
Checking
Assembly Process Tree
Assembly Process Demo
Assembly Objects
Example – Assembly objects
Part Sequence Diagram
Reasons for Assembly
Valve Assembly
Reasons for Separate Parts
Four Part Spindle Components
Locktite Addition
Gasket Insertion
Screw Insertion and Adjustment
Assembly Sequence Diagram
Review Exercise – 1
Review Exercise – 2
Off Line Exercise

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Assembly Definition - 21 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

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Assembly Definition - 22 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

1. Title Page 2. Page Index

Chapter 2 looks in detail at the definition of Shown below is a list of all the pages in
assembly and its role in the creation of a Chapter 2 by title. Each is hyperlinked to
product. Topics covered include the its specific page. It is recommended that
purpose of assembly, the functions of the reader first proceed through all the
assembly, characterization of assembly pages sequentially. Any specific page can
objects, parts sequencing in product then be revisited by clicking on the title.
assembly, the need for separate parts and
a detailed analysis of the assembly of a
four part spindle subassembly. Examples,
exercises and a reader’s project are
included.

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Assembly Definition - 23 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2
3. Assembly Purpose
How products get put together is not
something that consumers thinks about
very much irrespective of the complexity of
the product. They only come face to face
with the task if they purchase a product
that is accompanied with the statement
“some assembly required”. On the other
hand the product designer must have a
thorough and fundamental understanding
of the assembly process, it purpose, what
it consists of, how it takes place, what
impacts its complexity and how it is
interrelated to the functional design of the
product. Lets begin with the purpose of
assembly. It can be simple and accurately
stated that the main function of assembly
is to join or fasten together components,
materials and subassemblies into complex
products. This process of joining or
fastening together is often referred to as
composing. Sounds simple enough but let
proceed further.
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Assembly Definition - 24 -
4. Assembly Functions
The assembly process can be
characterized by three generic functions.
The first is the “Handling” function. This
refers to the activity and tasks required to
bring two or more parts into a particular
spatial relationship with one another. The
second function is the “joining or fastening”
(composing) of these parts to ensure their
continued relationship to one another
achieved by the handling function against
outside effects. The third function is
“checking” which is to determine that the
first two functions have been carried out
properly. When these three functions have
been carried out it can be said that
assembly has taken place.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2
5. Handling
The “handling” function can be further
broken down in to three generic sub-
functions which ensures its completion.
The first of these is storing. This simply
refers to the fact that parts must be made
available in some convenient fashion.
They might simple be provided in a box, or
more sophisticatedly in a dispensing
magazine. Other examples might be in
hoppers or racks or on pallets. The
second generic function in handling is
“transporting”. This refers to the fact that
from the store the part moved to where it
will mate with another part. In being
moved it should be recognized that this
might require separation from other parts
and proper orientation of the part that
might include turning and or rotating to
prepare it for mating. The third function of
“handling” is the “positioning” of the part.
This refers to establishing it proper location
and alignment with its mate in preparation
for the next part of the process which is
“composing”.
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Assembly Definition - 25 -
6. Composing
Composing is that part of the assembly
process in which mated parts are joined or
fastened together. This function is
subdivided into “means” and
“mechanisms”. “Means” refers to the
application of such properties and
characteristics as force, form, and material
whereas “mechanism” refers to how the
“Means” are achieved. If two parts are
held together by a nut and bolt the
mechanism is “joining” and the “means” is
the force required to overcome the friction
between the mated parts. If two parts are
held together by welding the “mechanism”
is a change of phase ( molten metal to
solid) and the means is material (the
welding rod). If gas is placed in a tank the
“mechanism” is “filling” and the means is
“form”, that is, the gas is held in place by
the shape of the tank. Think up some
additional examples on your own where an
adhesive might be used or two parts are
held together by a shrink fit interference.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

7. Checking 8. Assembly Process Tree

Recall that the checking function of The multiple branches and sub branches
assembly refers to determining if the of this tree diagram clearly illustrate that
handling and composing functions have assembly is a complex well defined
been properly carried out. This function process. Assembly is significantly more
consists of examining three criteria. The involved in what it encompasses and
first is called “presence’ and refers to requires to be accomplished than what
determining if the part is in place. The might first meet the eye in simply joining
second is called “position” and asks the two parts together with a simple fastener.
question “is the alignment of the part And there is still more to come to
correct?”. The third criteria is the “quality completely understand the process and to
of the composition”. This asks the incorporate that understanding in the
question “can the imposed external effects design phase of a products life cycle.
be withstood?”. If all criteria are met the
assembly process is completed. To see
how this all fits together take a few minutes
now and draw a simple tree diagram of the
assembly process as it has been defined in
terms of the required functions and sub-
functions, tasks and activities. When you
finish your tree diagram compare it with the
one on the next page.

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Assembly Definition - 26 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

9. Assembly Process Demo 9. Assembly Process Demo (continued…)

A simple physical example of the assembly The next step is to position them together
process is demonstrated by the stapling both face up and orient their edges so they
together of copies of a two-page are properly aligned.
document. In the first step the two pages
are transported and brought into proximity
with one another from where they are
stored.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

9. Assembly Process Demo (continued…) 9. Assembly Process Demo (continued…)

The next step is to position the corner to Fastening of the pages or composing the
be fastened in the opening of the stapler assembly is achieved by applying sufficient
with the proper orientation. force to the stapler to insert and clinch the
staple.

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Assembly Definition - 28 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

9. Assembly Process Demo (continued…) 9. Assembly Process Demo (continued…)

Final the finished product is checked to Observing the quality of the staple clinch
determine if the staple is in the proper completes the checking function. The
location. entire process is then repeated for the
additional number of copies required.

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Assembly Definition - 29 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

10. Assembly Objects 11. Example – Assembly objects

Six distinct categories are used to classify In this exploded and complete diagram of a
the parts that go into a product. They are simple spherical joint the individual parts
referred to as assembly objects. The are labeled as to the type of assembly
simplest is a machine part. Its object they are. The two spacer rings and
characteristics are that it is an individual retaining clips as well as the spherical ball
part composed of single material. A itself are labeled components. They could
subassembly is an assembled collection of have just as well be called machine parts
machine parts which is only some portion since they are made of a single material.
of the finished product. The third category In a similar way the assembled joint could
of object is a building block. This is a also be called a subassembly as well as a
subassembly or product that meets some building block. This illustrates that there
specific product functional requirement or can be an overlap in the use and
specification. An example might be the application of the different assembly object
starter for an automotive engine. A classifications.
component is a generic classification that
can be used interchangeably for a machine
part, subassembly or building block. The
fifth category of object is a base
component. It is generally a larger
component onto which other components
or subassemblies are assembled. The
final category is formless materials. These
are flexible and nonsolid materials such as
glue, paint, liquids, etc.

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Assembly Definition - 30 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2
12. Part Sequence Diagram
A very useful tool in defining the assembly
for a specific product is the part sequence
diagram. It graphically illustrates the order
in which the parts are brought together to
first form subassemblies that when brought
together with other parts, components and
subassemblies eventually forms the final
product. As illustrated in the diagram by
the yellow block one of the early
subassemblies might well become the
base component on which every additional
component is assembled. The value of
this diagram is that it provides a visual
means of identifying each part and
component, when it enters the assembly
process, and what subassemblies are
important in the building of the final
product. The diagram shown is generic.
In its application to a real process all parts
and subassemblies are given specific
names for easy of identification.
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Assembly Definition - 31 -
13. Reasons for Assembly
If a product consists of more than one part
then assembly is required. Hence the
reasons for assembly are that there are
multiple parts in a product, but why do
separate parts have to exist. One of seven
reasons usually will explain the need. The
first is movement. If two parts need to
move relative to one another then they
must be separate. If the parts need to be
made of different material such as two
conductors separated by an insulator then
three separate parts are required to meet
this need. Production considerations that
could reduce cost and simplify operation
may dictate the need for separate parts.
The fact that a part might wear out or a
component might need to be replaced
could justify its separate existence. Two
mating parts may need to be separate
because they perform different functions
relative to one another. The part may be
called upon to perform a special function
than can only be accomplished by it being
separate. Finally, the aesthetics of the
design might be of enough importance to
dictate separate parts.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2
14. Valve Assembly
The cut away valve assembly shown in the
diagram will be used to determine why the
numbered parts need to be separate
based on the reasons listed on the
previous chart. This valve functions by
seating a rubber semi spherical stopper
into a steel seat. The stopper is supported
by a metal ring held in place by a small
drift pin. The valve main stem can be
moved vertically by a clevis and lever
arrangement at its top. The main valve
stem is protected by a cylinder attached to
the valve base. Using this description and
the diagram select reasons for parts to be
separate from the previous page that apply
to the five numbered components and
areas on the diagram. When you have
finished go on the next page to check your
selections.
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Assembly Definition - 32 -
15. Reasons for Separate Parts
Click sequentially on the buttons to check
your selection of the reason for separate
parts against my choices. I hope we both
agree.
1) The parts of the clevis must be
separate to provide for movement of the
lever when the valve moves up and down.
2) The spherical stopper is made of
rubber to provide a leak proof seal against
the seat. A gasket of flexible material is
used to seal the valve assembly from the
tank. Hence material differentiation
requires these parts to be separate.
3) The cylinder and seat base are
made separate and then welded together
to reduce the cost of making them as one
part by machining a large billet.
4) Separate fasteners are used to
attach the valve assembly to the tank for
ease of removal and maintenance.
5) The drift pin needs to support the
ring at only two points whereas the ring
need to support the stopper uniformly
around it circumference not to distort its
shape.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

16. Four Part Spindle Components 17. Locktite Addition

We will now analyze in detail the
automated assembly of a four part product
which is really a subassembly of some final
product. The subassembly product
consists of a cylindrical spindle body, a
drop of locktite adhesive, a gasket and a
screw. The locktite is placed in the
recessed head of the spindle. A gasket is
then placed into the recessed head.
Finally a screw is inserted vertically and
adjusted to a final set height to complete
the subassembly product.
The assembly process will take place on a
rotary indexing machine with employing
four assembly stations. Before the locktite
can to added it will be necessary to
separate, orient feed and allocate the
spindles that are supplied to the process in
bulk form. Part feeding is accomplished
with a vibratory bowl. A passive orienting
device is used to properly align the
spindles. They are then transported to the
indexing table by a vibrating rail where
they are allocated one at a time into a
retaining slot. The spindle then moves on
to the next station where the locktite is
added by a dosing nozzle.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

18. Gasket Insertion 19. Screw Insertion and Adjustment

The spindle with locktite is then indexed to At the final station the bulk screws are
the next station for the gasket insertion. separated, fed, oriented and transported
First the bulk gaskets must be separated, using the same techniques of the previous
feed, oriented and transported to an stations. Following the insertion of the
combination gripper and inserter. This is screw by a combination gripper and screw
accomplished by again using a vibratory diver device a gauging spacer is
bowl, a passive position orienter and a introduced to ensure that the screw is
vibratory channel. One gasket at a time is positioned at it final desired height.
picked up by the gripper and inserter
device, moved over the head of the spindle
at that station and inserted into the
recessed head. Before moving on to the
next station a reflected light sensor is used
to check that the gasket is there.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2
20. Assembly Sequence Diagram
Even a simple product like the four-part
spindle subassembly described on the
previous three pages can become very
involved and contain a large number of
operations. An assembly sequence flow
diagram can be used to graphically
illustrate this complexity. In the diagram
below the yellow boxes in the three
horizontal parallel tracks depict the storing
and feeding, orienting, transporting and
allocating of the three physical parts. The
three red blocks in the vertical track
indicate where the dosing, and insertion of
the gasket and the screw take place to
create the three subassemblies on their
way to becoming a final product. Note the
two checking steps included, determining
the presence of the gasket and fixing the
final height of the screw. This simple
assembly took seventeen steps to
complete. Is there any doubt now that
assembly as a process must receive
special attention in the design phase of a
product.
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Assembly Definition - 35 -
21. Review Exercise – 1
Several interactive exercises are
presented here to assist the reader review
some of the important concepts covered in
this chapter. Each question requires
responses that are typed in from the
keyboard. When the audio is complete
begin by typing a response in the first
blank space. Clicking on the tab key will
provide immediate visual feedback. If the
feedback is negative clear the response
and try again. A double click on the tab
key will move the cursor to the next blank.
If you need or want help click on the hot
word in the question to pop up the relevant
page in the chapter. When finished click
on the next page button.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

22. Review Exercise – 2 23. Off Line Exercise

In this second review exercise you are to As an off-line exercise to test your
match the items in the left column with one understanding of the contents of this
of the appropriate assembly functions on chapter it is recommended that you
the right. Place the cursor over one of the undertake the following project. First,
items in the left column, hold down the left obtain a household electrical wall
mouse and drag the pencil to the correct receptacle or toggle light switch from your
green dot on the right. Wait until the audio local hardware store.
is completed before trying to do this. If the
match is correct the red arrow will remain
fixed to the dot. If the match is incorrect
the red arrow will disappear and you can
try again. More than one arrow can be
drawn to the same dot. When you have
completed all the matches correctly go on
to the next page by clicking on the page
forward button.

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Assembly Definition - 36 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

23. Off Line Exercise (continued…) 23. Off Line Exercise (continued…)

Disassemble the product into all its major
separate parts. This may require drilling
out a rivet or two.
On a list, name and number all the parts
and indicate what category of assembly
object they belong to. Then create a part
sequence diagram that illustrates how the
parts go together to form intermediate
subassemblies before the final product is
completed. Note if there is a base
component and what role it plays in the
process. If you do this successfully you
have a good understanding the definition
of assembly.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 2

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Assembly Definition - 38 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3

Chapter 3
Assembly Systems

Screen Titles
System Input / Output
Methods of Assembly
Manual Assembly
Automated Assembly
Flexible Assembly
Choice of Assembly
Assembly Economics
Assembly Line Components
Assembly Line Categories
Indexing Line Factors
Free Transfer Line Factors
Continuous Line Factors
Line configurations
Rotary Indexing Table
Free Transfer Carousel
Continuous Moving Line
System Matrix
Review Exercise – 1
Review Exercise – 2
Off Line Exercise
Chapter Summary

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Assembly Systems - 39 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3

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Assembly Systems - 40 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3

1. Title Page 2. Page Index

Chapter 3 is an overview of generic Listed below are all the pages in Chapter 3
assembly systems. It is important to have by title. Each is hyperlinked to its specific
an appreciation of the different type of page. It is recommended that the reader
assembly systems in use to better apply first proceed through all the pages
the principles of design for assembly to be sequentially. Any specific page can then
taken up in chapter 4. Topics covered in be revisited by clicking on the title.
the chapter include assembly methods and
their details, assembly economics,
assembly line components, categories and
configurations and schematic examples of
three typical line layouts and operations.
The development of a matrix of assembly
methods versus line categories is provided
for the reader to complete.

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Assembly Systems - 41 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3
3. System Input / Output
Every assembly system irrespective of its
layout or operation is subject to inputs and
outputs. The inputs consist of the
components that go into creating the
product as well as the energy required to
carry out the assembly process. The
outputs are waste from the process and
the product itself. The remainder of this
chapter will deal with the details of the
assembly system that is shown here as a
generic process.
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Assembly Systems - 42 -
4. Methods of Assembly
There are really only two basic methods of
assembly. These are manual assembly
and assembly by machines. Manual
assembly is carried out by human
operators and is normally done by hand.
Assembly by machines is generally
accepted as being made up of two
separate categories: so called automated
assembly and flexible assembly.
Automated assembly is machine assembly
by special purpose machines designed for
a specific assembly function. It is often
referred to as “hard” automation since it
usually is a one of a kind devise
performing one function. The second
category of machine assembly is designed
flexible automation or “soft” automation.
These machine are programmable and can
perform a variety of functions depending
on their programming and capability.
Assembly robots make up this category.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3
5. Manual Assembly
A number of the important characteristics
of manual assembly are listed on this
page. Tools used for manual assembly
are usually simple and inexpensive. These
might be hand tools like screwdrivers,
wrenches, pliers or soldering irons as well
as hand held power tools such as electric
drills or power torquing devices. Downtime
due to the existence of defective parts is
almost negligible as the human operator
serves to screen these out of the process.
The cost per unit of product remains
essentially constant with production rate. If
more product is required more manual
operators are hired. Their cost to produce
a product effectively stays the same. The
process is very flexible and adaptable due
to the intelligence of the human operator
that can be easily trained to handle
assembly changes in the product.
However, the speed and accuracy of the
process is limited by the physical skills and
ability of the operator as well as the
number of coffee breaks they require in
Monday mornings.
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Assembly Systems - 43 -
6. Automated Assembly
Flexibility is severely limited by the very
nature of the special design hardware that
performs the assembly process. It may not
permit any significant design change in the
product. The cycle time and production
rate of the process is also dictated by the
design of the automated assembly device.
However, high speed and accuracy can be
achieved by appropriate design of the
assembly machine itself. These special
machines and the auxiliary devices that
feed them with parts can be quite
expensive to both design and build.
Hence, there is a very high initial up front
cost that results in the unit cost of
assembly to decrease almost linearly with
production rate. Finally, production on
these special assembly machines can be
seriously hampered by defective parts if no
method is employed to screen bad parts
out initially.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3

7. Flexible Assembly 8. Choice of Assembly

Flexible assembly represents a Whether manual, automated or flexible

compromise between the speed and
accuracy of hard automation and the
simplicity and adaptability of manual
assembly. It possesses a greater degree
of adaptability since it can be programmed
to perform different assembly functions.
This programmable capability permits
multiple assembly functions to be
performed at a given work station as
compared to hard automation. Studies of
the economics of robotic assembly indicate
that its cost is between manual and hard
automation on a unit cost basis. One of
the reasons for this is that the initial design
and development cost are spread out over
the number of robotic machines built for
general-purpose applications. Finally,
robotic arms and work head can in general
be modified to accommodate given needs
with significantly less cost than hard
automation.
assembly is chosen for putting together a
specific product is dependent on a large
number of variables. Four of the more
important factors include the unit cost of
the assembly process, the production rate
required to meet market demands, the
availability of appropriate skilled labor and
the life of the product over which the
assembly system can be amortized. This
will be examined in more detail by
comparing the economics of unit cost as a
function of annual production rate for the
three method of assembly described.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3

9. Assembly Economics 10. Assembly Line Components

From the characteristics described for manual Every assembly system requires three
assembly recall that the unit cost is effectively basic components to function properly.
constant with production rate since the rate is The first is a transfer devise or system that
increased by hiring more operators but the unit moves parts or assemblies from one
cost of assembly stays the same. This is
workstation to the next. Different common
represented on the plot of unit cost versus
annual production rate by the yellow horizontal types of transfers systems will be
line. In contrast the unit cost of hard discussed later. Second, the assembly
automated assembly effectively decreases system requires parts feeders that deliver
linearly with production rate and can be parts, components or sub assemblies to
represented by the sloping green line. Where the workstation for the operator, robot or
these two lines intersect represents the point work head. These can vary from complex
where it is desirable to switch assembly vibratory bowl feeders to simple boxes or
methods to insure the lowest unit cost as a magazines that hold the parts. Finally, the
function of annual production rate. To the left assembly system requires an assembly
of the intersection manual assembly should be
station at which either the manual, robotic
used whereas to the right of the intersection
hard automation provides a lower unit cost. or hard automation assembly operation is
Introducing robotic assembly is represented by performed.
the red curve. Its initial cost is less than hard
automation but studies show that it tails off with
production rate as illustrated. Considering all
three methods there are now two intersection
points where the method should be changed to
provide the lowest unit cost. That is, for low
annual production rates manual assembly is
generally the best choice. As the production
rate increases robotic assembly provides a
lowest unit cost. For high annual production
rates hard automation is the best selection.

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Assembly Systems - 45 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3
11. Assembly Line Categories
Generally one of three generic assembly line
categories is employed in creating an assembly
system. The first is called an indexing line. It
is characterized by having all the products, in
their various states of assembly, move at the
same time to the work head at next fixed
station in the line. That is, the product moves
in a synchronized fashion through out all
stations in the assembly system. It stops at
each station while the assembly function is
performed. The second type of line is called a
free transfer line. It is characterized by having
the product move on independent pallets or
holders as needed by the work station. If a
pallet leaves one work-station and the next
work-station is still occupied the pallet is held in
a buffer until the station becomes available.
This system is obviously not synchronized.
Work-stations accept the next job from the
buffer in front of them when they become
available to carry out their assembly function.
The third type of generic assembly line is a
continuous line. In this arrangement the
product moves along continuously without
stopping. This of course requires the manual
operator or automated work head to move
along with the product as it performs it
assembly function. All three line categories
have advantages and disadvantages that will
be discussed next.
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Assembly Systems - 46 -
12. Indexing Line Factors
In the discussions of line factors that
follows on the next three pages positive
factors are highlighted by a red check
while negative factors will be marked with
a red check that has been crossed out.
Now an indexing line is generally the most
compact of all three line types. It is
particularly good for the automated
assembly of small parts that can be
mechanically fed to the work heads. It can
also be designed to achieve high
production rates with hard automation
hardware. Some of its disadvantages
include its rate of production being dictated
by the slowest operation in the process
since all movement is synchronized. It is
also very susceptible to poor production or
breakdowns due to defective parts if no
screening devices are employed. It also
requires station design and operation that
locks all assembly operations together so
they take place at the same time.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3
13. Free Transfer Line Factors
Free transfer lines can be used with all
three methods of assembly. It is
characterized by individual product
movement on pallets or in some form of
holder. This independent movement tends
to average out variations in the line. The
inclusion of buffers permits the individual
stations to operate at different speeds
independent of each other. This type of
line is inherently safer for the operators
and handles the effect of defective parts
more easily since a single station can be
shut down while the remainder of the line
operates until all buffers are filled. The
independence of the stations permits
greater modularity in the automation and
provides the opportunity for optional
stations to be included. This allows
different models of the same product to be
made on the same line. The overall cost is
generally higher than other lines because
of the transfer hardware requirements,
buffers and total line programming control
needs. The production rates are also
generally lower than an indexing line
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Assembly Systems - 47 -
14. Continuous Line Factors
An assembly line that moves the product
along continuously at a constant rate is
both easier to design and fabricate. There
is no stop and go movement of the
product. This significantly simplifies its
control. Both of these factors provide for
lower initial cost compared to the other
type of lines. The continuous line is better
suited for larger products. The best
example of this is the moving assembly
line used to assemble automobiles. This
was one of Henry Ford’s biggest
contribution to modern manufacturing.
However, the pacing of the product is rigid
as it moves along at the same rate as all
other products on the line. It also requires
the operator or assembly machine to move
along with the product as the assembly
function is performed. An important
disadvantage of a continuous line is that
any breakdown will shut down the entire
line. Individual operator performance
affects the overall production and quality of
every product. An old story told in regard to
this last item is don’t buy a car built early
Monday morning or late Friday afternoon.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3
15. Line configurations
There are three basic line configurations or
geometry which are the most popular
today. These are the rotary, carousel and
in-line. The rotary is as the word implies.
The product moves in a circular path
through a number of fixed work stations
normally coming on to and leaving the line
at or near the same point or work station.
The second type is called a carousel and is
characterized by two parallel flow paths on
which the product moves in opposite
direction and is switched from one path to
the other by crossover transfer devices.
Again the product normally enters and
leaves the line at or near the same point.
This geometric arrangement provides the
greatest flexible for the size and
arrangement of the work stations. The in-
line configuration, which is effectively a
straight path through the required
workstations, usually takes up more space
than the previous two. The product on an
in-line system begins at one end and
proceeds through each of the work-
stations until it is completed at the other
end of the line. An automotive final
assembly line is probably the best example
of this geometric line configuration.
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Assembly Systems - 48 -
16. Rotary Indexing Table
Schematic representations of three
assembly systems displaying examples of
different categories and configurations of
lines are illustrated on the next three pages
using common symbols for the work
stations and the product. The first
example is that of a rotary indexing table.
The model system shown in plan view
below consists of an indexing table, in blue
cross hatch that rotates a quarter of a turn
on each index movement. There are four
fixed work stations, represented by the
solid green circles equally space around
the circumference of the table. The
product is designated by small red circles.
It goes through four stages of assembly as
indicated by the numbers 1-4. Each time
the table rotates the product proceeds on
to the next station where the next
assembly function is produced. All work
stations are synchronized to operate at the
same time when the product arrives.
Following the assembly activity the product
in indexed to the next required operation.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3
17. Free Transfer Carousel
The schematic model in plan view shown
here is a free transfer carousel assembly
system. Again the transfer line is in blue
cross hatch, the fixed work stations are
green circles and the smaller red circles
represent the product. Added elements in
this system are the buffers, represented by
yellow rectangles, located between each
work station. The movement of the
product around this line is not
synchronized. It is dictated by the
availability of a workstation to accept it and
the size of the buffer between stations. It
is easily seen that control of this type of
system is highly complex. In the example
shown all buffers can only accept two
products. Note that in the animation of the
operation of the line some stations remain
temporarily open and some buffers fill up
as the product makes it way through the
system. Unfortunately the animation gives
the impression of synchronized flow of the
product but this is only a graphical
limitation of the model but not of a real
system.
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Assembly Systems - 49 -
18. Continuous Moving Line
This final schematic example is of a
continuous moving line assembly system.
The same symbols are used to depict the
transfer line, the work stations and the
product. This can be the simplest of all
systems. Since the product moves
continuously along the line it is recognized
that the worker or assembly machine at a
specific work station must move along with
the product as the assembly function is
performed. This is represented by the
green dotted extensions to the work station
symbols. Again the limitations of the
graphical animation of the lines operation
depicts a synchronized stop and go motion
which is not true of a real system on which
the product moves continuously.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3
19. System Matrix
To solidify what the reader has learned in this
quick overview of assembly systems an
exercise is now presented for completion by the
viewer. The exercise is to establish a matrix of
possible assembly systems matching assembly
methods with system types. This will consist of
a three by three matrix array as shown below.
The reader is to decide which combinations of
assembly method and system type can be put
together by placing a yes or no in each square
of the matrix as appropriate on the readers work
sheet. After you have completed the entire
matrix click on the button in any of the nine
squares of the matrix to check your answer.
When the button is clicked and held down either
a yes or no will appear. When you release the
button an audio explanation of that choice will
be provided. You can click the buttons in any
sequence you desire, however a button to
move on to the last page of this chapter will only
appear after the ninth button in the matrix is
clicked.
System Matrix – Manual Indexing
Manual assembly on an indexing line simply will
not work well. It requires integrated sequencing
and timing of the assembly function that would
be difficult for a human operator to achieve and
maintain with any real degree of consistency.
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Assembly Systems - 50 -
19. System Matrix (continued…)
System Matrix – Manual Free Transfer
Manual assembly on a free transfer line works
well since buffers can be included that allow the
operators to work at their own speed and
account for delays that may occur due to
defective parts or other irregularities.
System Matrix - Manual Continuous
Manual assembly on a continuously moving
assembly line is a very appropriate combination
and is used particularly for large products like
automobiles or motorized farm equipment. The
operator simply moves with the product on the
line as the assembly function is performed.
System Matrix – Automated Indexing
This is an ideal combination particularly for
small products or assemblies on a rotary
indexing table with parts fed automatically to the
automated assembly heads at each station.
Such a system can achieve high production
rates.
System Matrix – Automated Free Transfer
This combination of assembly method and
product transfer line can be used for a large
range of product sizes. The line must be
equipped with appropriate buffers between
stations to balance the product flow and
production rate.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3

19. System Matrix (continued…) 19. System Matrix (continued…)

System Matrix – Automated Continuous System Matrix – Flexible Continuous

Automated work-stations on a continuous line is Although this combination of assembly device

a combination not normally used. It would
require a moving work-station that would have
to be synchronized to move along with the
product. This is not only physically difficult it
represents an additional cost that is hard to
justify.
and transfer system can be made to work
together it is not used very often. It requires the
flexible robotic device to be programmed to
synchronize the movement of its working head
with the line in addition to the assembly function
that it must perform.

System Matrix – Flexible Indexing

A computer controlled flexible robotic work head

can be easily combined with an indexing
product transfer system. Since the work head is
flexible it can also serve as either part of or the
entire part feeding system in addition to being
the assembly device.

System Matrix – Flexible Free Transfer

This is the combination of assembly device and

transfer system that is used most frequently with
robotic work heads. Advantage can be taken of
the programmable capabilities of both the
robotic device and the free transfer system to
achieve a high degree of flexibility permitting
product variability on the same line.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3
20. Review Exercise – 1
This review exercise covers some of the
important facts covered on assembly
systems. It is completed like the review
exercise in chapter 1. The reader types in
an appropriate response in a blank when
the audio finishes. Clicking the tab key will
give an immediate feedback. If a negative
feedback is provided enter another
response. A double click on the tab key
will move the cursor to another blank. If
you need help with the answers click on
the hot word in the question and the
relevant page will pop up. When finished
with all the blanks go on to the next page.
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Assembly Systems - 52 -
21. Review Exercise – 2
In review exercise two you are to match
the characteristics in the left column with
one of the appropriate assembly methods
on the right. Place the cursor over one of
the items in the left column, hold down the
left mouse and drag the pencil to the
correct green dot on the right. Wait until
the audio is completed before trying to do
this. If the match is correct the red arrow
will remain fixed to the green dot. If the
match is incorrect the red arrow will
disappear and you can try again. More
than one arrow can be drawn to the same
dot. When you have completed all the
matches correctly go on to the next page
by clicking on the page forward button.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3
22. Off Line Exercise
In this off line exercise you will apply what
you have learned about assembly systems
by proposing a system for a product you
choose. Look around at some of the
simpler everyday household or office
products that you use. Select one that
does not have too many individual parts
and is relatively easy to put together or
take apart. With what you have learned in
this chapter and using engineering
common sense propose an assembly
system for putting this product together
assuming some appropriate production
rate. Be sure to take into account all the
parts in your product and how they go
together. In a brief report describe the
system you propose and justify why you
have selected it. Your system can be a
combination of different kinds of systems if
that is what your product requires.
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Assembly Systems - 53 -
23. Chapter Summary
This chapter has provided the reader with
an quick overview of generic assembly
system and their characteristics. The
subject is one that contains a great deal
more detail and information than can be
provided here. However, what the viewer
should carry away from this chapter is an
appreciation of the different methods of
assembly, something about their
economics, their required assembly
components, assembly line categories and
line configurations. With this information in
hand we are ready to proceed to chapter 4
to take up the subject of the principles of
design for assembly. Click on the menu
button to return to the main menu and
select chapter 4 to continue.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 3

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Assembly Systems - 54 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4

Chapter 4
Principles of DFA-Product Design

Screen Titles

DFA Subdivisions Generic Snap Fastener

Guideline / Product Design Some Snap Applications
Principles of Product Design Minimize Parts
Suitable Base Minimize Parts Example 1
Layered Assembly Minimize Parts Example 2
Layered and Stacked Examples Minimize Parts Example 3
Modular and Multifunctional Parts Minimize Parts Example 4
Accommodation for Errors Minimize Parts Example 5
Pin in Hole Problem Minimize Parts Example 6
Alignment Example 1 Flexible Items
Alignment Example 2 Flexible Items Example
Alignment Example 3 Criteria – Part Redundancy
Alignment Example 4 Review Exercise – 1
Simplify and Reduce Fasteners Review Exercise – 2
Fastener Reduction Example Off Line Exercise

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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 55 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4

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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 56 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4

1. Title Page 2. Page Index

Chapter 4 covers the general principles of
design for assembly in detail. It is the
creative application of these principles that
lead to product designs that cost less to
produce and are easier to assemble while
still satisfying the product’s operational
requirements. The principles are
presented in generic form with specific
examples to demonstrate their application.
The presentation of the principles is
subdivided into two categories. The first
category presents general guidelines for
product design for ease of assembly. The
second is the design of parts for feeding
and orienting. This second category is
covered in Chapter 5. It receives special
attention since it is such an important part
of any assembly process.
Listed below are all the text pages in
Chapter 4 by title. Examples that follow
the text pages are not included to simplify
the listing. If examples follow a text page
the listing is identified by an arrow in a
yellow disk. Each text page is hyperlinked
to its specific location in the chapter. It is
recommended that the reader first proceed
through all pages in the chapter
sequentially. Any specific text page can
then be revisited by clicking on the title.

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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 57 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
3. DFA Subdivisions
As indicated in the introduction to Chapter
4 the general principles of design for
assembly are subdivided into two
categories. The first to be considered will
be the general guidelines for product
design for ease of assembly. These are
the generic rules that creatively applied in
the early stages of design will help
optimize the product’s design in terms of
manufacturing, assembly, operation, and
maintenance. The second category deals
with guidelines for the design of parts for
feeding and orienting and will be covered
in Chapter 5. Whether machine or manual
assembly is employed feeding and
orienting of individual parts represents a
very significant part of the total effort.
Recall the activity flow chart for the four-
part spindle subassembly discussed at the
end of Chapter 1.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 58 -
4. Guideline / Product Design
To follow up on the topics of the previous
page it is worthwhile repeating a statement
that Andreason, in his classic text “Design
for Assembly”, makes about the subject.
“Design the product so that it is easy to
assemble manually – consequently it is
highly probable that it will be easily
assembled automatically.” Note however,
there are no guarantees implied. A similar
statement by someone I no longer recall
goes something like this “If a product can
be manually assembled by a blindfolded
operator wearing gloves with one hand tied
behind their back then it can probably be
assembled robotically.” The emphasis is
clear, keep it simple. Now, lets look at the
principles that will achieve the end desired.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
5. Principles of Product Design
There are seven general principles for DFA that
will be stressed in Chapter 4 and the remainder of
this module. The first is to build the assembly on
a suitable base. The idea is to start with a base
onto which you can simply continue to add parts
and subassemblies until the product is completed.
An example is an automobile that begins with the
uni-body to which everything else is attached until
the car rolls off the end of the assembly line under
its own power. The second principle is to layer or
stack the assembly whenever possible. This
adds the components in a sequential fashion that
eliminates the need to adjust or re-handle any
component previously inserted. The third
principle is to use modular or multifunctional
parts. Obviously, parts that can perform several
functions or are sufficiently modular to be used in must be designed to provide this positioning
other models of the product eliminates the need
for extra parts and reduces cost. The fourth
principle deals with accommodating for errors and
uncertainties. This is another way of saying that
one must be aware of problems created by close
tolerances, cumulative tolerance errors and
alignment needs of the assembly process. The
next principle has to do with eliminating
unnecessary fasteners and simplifying those that
are required. Fasteners often represent a
significant percentage of the number of parts in a
product and a very fertile area for improving the
assembleability of a product. The sixth principle
suggested that flexible items be limited. These
are always harder to both handle and feed
whether it is being done manually or by machine.
Finally, it is always desirable to minimize the
number of parts in a product design. This
reduces manufacturing cost as well as assembly
time and improves the quality of the product’s
operation and maintenance.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 59 -
6. Suitable Base
We will now consider a number of these
principles in detail and look at some
appropriate examples. The first principle dealt
with building the product on a suitable base.
This can be further subdivided into three
related guidelines. The first is that the base
should be oriented in a horizontal plane
whenever possible. In the automobile example
used on the previous page the uni-body is
oriented horizontally in the position it will have
when the car is finished. It wouldn’t make any
sense to do it any other way. The second
guideline is that either the base itself should
provide for a stable position and support for the
assembly process to follow or some fixture
and stability for the base. Consider the
assembly of a bicycle as an example. The
central frame of a bicycle obviously has to be
supported and clamped in some type of fixture
to make it accessible and firm for the addition
of the remaining components that create the
finished product. The third guideline deals with
the design of the base to include guide aids
that will assist in the location of the parts to be
added to it. These aids can take on many
forms, locating pins, slots, tabs, recesses and
inserts are only a few examples.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
7. Layered Assembly
With a suitable base designed consider
next how the parts will be added to it. First
the base must be placed or held in a
suitable fixture if it is unable to stand alone.
Next it is best if the parts can be layered or
stacked sequentially to eliminate having to
re-handle anything that has already been
inserted. Third, always assemble from
above when possible. This can sometimes
be achieved by dividing the product into
suitable subassemblies. Assembly from
the side or bottom is always more difficult
and sometimes even impossible. To avoid
these conditions it may sometimes be
necessary to rotate the fixture holding the
base to permit assembly from above.
Design parts and components that can be
both easily inserted and removed or
disassembled from the product. Slip fits
that require no force to accomplish
insertion are the best. If at all possible
design the parts so that they don’t need to
be regripped, reoriented or rotated once
they have been picked up. Fasteners are
always more easily inserted if their
orientation is vertical and the movement is
down. The basis for the majority of these
guidelines is simply the recognition that it
is easier to let gravity help in the assembly
process rather than working against it.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design
8. Layered and Stacked Examples
The example on the left is a schematic
representation of a simple electronic
product consisting of a circuit board, a
control unit, a container bottom and cover.
Several of the principles of DFA discussed
are represented here. First the container
bottom is also the base on which the
product will be built. It is oriented in a
horizontal plane. The control unit has
already been attached to the circuit board
in a separate process so that it can be
layered as a subassembly onto the base
from above. The product is completed by
placing the cover on the unit also from
above. The base has snaps cast into it to
both locate and hold the control unit. This
eliminates separate fasteners. In a similar
fashion the cover snaps onto the bottom,
again eliminating separate fasteners. The
example on the right demonstrates a
stacked assembly with easy insertion and
disassembly. A flexible drive belt has been
eliminated by the use of gears. Actually,
the shafts will be horizontal in the final
product, which is a portion of a printer. For
the sake of assembly from above, so that
gravity can help, the entire unit has been
rotated 90 degrees from it final orientation
to provide for vertical down insertion with
all the parts slipping together.
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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
9. Modular and Multifunctional Parts
The final product cost will be reduced and
the assembly process simplified by the use
of modular and/or multifunctional parts
whenever possible. One way of
accomplishing this goal is to group
components into modules for use in similar
products in the same family. That is, if it is
possible to use the same subassembly in a
number of different models of the same
product the resulting savings and overall
improvement are obvious. This both
reduces assembly time and increases the
quality of the final product. Even greater
potential for savings and quality
improvement is achieved if parts can be
designed that are multifunctional.
Reduction in the number of parts in a
design should always be a major objective.
The fewer the parts the less complex the
process of putting the product together, the
easier the maintenance and the more
trouble free the use and operation.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 61 -
10. Accommodation for Errors
There are always practical limits
associated with both the specification of
dimensional tolerances in parts and
achieving those tolerances in
manufacturing. Hence, the design must
accommodate to uncertainties in
manufacturing precision and dimensional
part tolerances whether the issue is the
class of fit between adjoining parts or the
accumulation of tolerance error when
several parts fit together. A second very
important aspect of this concern is the
problem of alignment. A large number of
assembly operations deal with the
equivalent of what can be classified as the
“pin in hole” insertion problem. In this
instance both fit and alignment are critical
concerns impacting the ease and
quickness with which this function can be
performed. To achieve these ends both
fitting aids and alignment guides are
employed. Fitting aids consist of features
like chamfers, ramps or lead-ins to help
guide the part into its final assembled
position. Orientation guides such as the
examples listed are used to align the part
in the proper position before the
composing takes place.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
11. “Pin in Hole” Problem
This is a graphical representation of the
generic pin in hole insertion problem that
commonly occurs in a variety of ways in
product assembly. If the diameter of the
pin and hole are machined for a close
tolerance fit the location of the pin and its
inclination relative to the centerline of the
hole are critical relative to the ease of
insertion. With no assistance for guiding
the insertion process can require precise
initial part alignment as illustrated on the
far right. By simply chamfering the end of
the pin as shown on the middle pair the
insertion process becomes easier even for
the same tolerance between the pin and
hole. By chamfering both the pin and hole
as on the left the insertion process
becomes even easier and allows for a
greater initial misalignment of the pin with
the hole. In all three examples the
tolerance of the final fit remains the same.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 62 -
12. Alignment Example 1
In this example, which is a variation of the
pin in hole problem, a critical alignment
problem is totally eliminated by a simple
change in the original design. In the
arrangement on the right compressing the
spring with the collar requires that
alignment between the pin, washer and
collar are all maintained at the same time
while the spring starts to be compressed.
Manually this would take at least two
hands if not more. This difficult assembly
process is eliminated by simply making the
pin a little longer. This permits the washer
to rest on the spring before the collar is
applied and the collar begins to guide
down the pin before the spring begins to
compress. Note that the end of the pin is
chamfered to aid in guiding both the
washer and collar onto the pin.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
13. Alignment Example 2
The design on the right requires two critical
alignments of the pin at the same time for
insertion to take place. A process made
even more difficult as the bottom alignment
may be hidden from the view of the
operator. A creative simple solution that
eliminates the need for the two alignments
to take place at the same time is to shorten
the length of the pin with the smaller
diameter. In this fashion the upper
alignment takes place first and actually
becomes a guide for the bottom alignment
to follow even though it may not be visible.
Again note that the end of the pin is
chamfered and the transition at the
shoulder between the smaller and larger
diameter portions of the pin is beveled to
make insertion easier.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 63 -
14. Alignment Example 3
Another variation of the pin in hole problem
is shown here where a disk with a tight fit
is to be slipped over the end of a shaft.
Even with the end of the shaft chamfered
the alignment of the disk will be critical for
the process to proceed with ease. The
design change to the end of the shaft on
the left will result in the assembly taking
place both quicker and easier. By
reducing the diameter of the end of the
shaft slightly below that of the shoulder
where the fit is critical the disk can be
slipped on the shaft end easier and the
reduced diameter section acts as a guide
for the disk to be slipped onto the shoulder.
Again chamfers and bevels on the shaft
are introduced to further enhance the
assembly process.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
15. Alignment Example 4
Alignment Example 4 is representative of a
situation in which the design requires
holding close tolerances over a long
distance. In the design on the right the
tolerance between the centers of the holes
in the bar and the centers of the pins must
be tightly held if the fit between the pins
and the holes are close. This creates both
a manufacturing and assembly problem.
One way to resolve this problem is to slot
one of the holes in the bar as shown on the
right. Then only the width of the slot in the
bar needs to be closely held in
manufacturing to provide the final fit for the
two components while greatly improving
the ease of assembly. The need for
holding close tolerances on the distance
between the two pins is also reduced.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 64 -
16. Simplify and Reduce Fasteners
Fasteners in product design are like “putts” in a
golf game. An extra “put” on each hole will
quickly turns a par golfer into just another
weekend amateur. Similarly an extra
unnecessary fastener for each component in a
product quickly turns it from one that is truly
well designed into one that is more costly,
complex and harder to put together. Fasteners
are obviously required to insure adequate
composition but the truth is most designers
overdue it most of the time. Hence, the first
and most important rule in DFA is reduce and
eliminate fasteners where ever possible.
Replace separate fasteners by integral
components like snaps, tabs, slots, press fits,
etc. If screws are needed use self-tapping
ones where possible. Orient screws and other
threaded fasteners for vertical insertion so that
gravity can help. Do this even if it requires
reorienting the product in assembly. Always
make sure that there is sufficient room for
either manual or automatic tools as required.
Keep in mind what type of field maintenance
tooling may be available. Assembly can be
simplified by using adhesives or welding but
this may complicate repairs. Finally, don’t mix
or use odd standards. A product with both
English and metrics fasteners can be a “bear”
to put together.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
17. Fastener Reduction Example
The graphic depicts a sheet metal
component that is to be attached to some
type of base. The classic solution to this
required composition would be to fasten
down the component with four screws or
bolts, one at each corner of the
component’s base. Yes, this would
certainly keep it from moving but really
complicates the assembly and adds to the
cost. In the design shown the classical
solution is replaced by using a tab and slot
arrangement to both provide orientation
and composition at one end with the use of
a single threaded fastener at the back end
of the component, a much simpler and
obviously elegant solution. The five parts
required in the classical solution is reduced
to two parts. Consider that if the
component and base were both steel the
fastener might even be replaced by a spot
weld. That would reduce the parts
involved to just one.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 65 -
18. Generic Snap Fastener
The graphic shown illustrates the geometry
of a generic snap fastener. This device
can be used to effectively connect and
hold two components together without the
need for a separate fastener. It consists of
two parts that are designed as integral
parts of the two components to be joined.
The snap itself is a cantilever beam with a
hook formed on its end. The other part is a
receiver on the part to be fastened that
holds the snap hook once the snap is
inserted as the parts are joined. The
cantilever beam portion of the snap must
be sufficiently flexible to allow the hook to
deflect and seat itself in the receiver. This
type of snap fastener is most frequently
used to join plastic parts together. The
snap and its receiver can be molded into
the plastic that is generally flexible enough
to permit the deflection required to engage
the hook. It should be kept in mind the
sufficient room and accessibility is required
at the location of the receiver to permit the
snap to be deflected when the parts are to
be disassembled and separated.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4

19. Some Snap Applications 19. Some Snap Applications

(continued…)
Some example snap fastener applications
will now be reviewed. The first photograph This second photograph shows the lens
shows three parts of a five-part digital cover completely assembled with the arrow
camera lens cover that is assembled indicating the snap on the detent resting
without any separate fasteners. The outer against the stop on the back cover. In this
cover on the left is molded with four snaps photograph it can be seen that there are
one of which is indicated by the red arrow. two such snaps on each detent resisting
These snaps fit into four open slots visible the effect of the unseen compressed coil
on the back cover to the right. One of the spring.
sliding detents that hold the cover
assembly to the lens collar is shown above
the back cover. The other sliding detent is
shown in the assembled position. A
compressed spring pushes the two detents
apart. They are held in place by the snap
indicated by the arrow that comes to rest
against a stop on the back cover.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
19. Some Snap Applications (continued…)
This photograph shows a typical connector
on a category five eight wire
communication cable. The snap holding
action on this device is accomplished when
the step cutouts on the tab come in contact
with stops on the receiver into which the
connector is inserted. To release the
connector the tab is bent down which
lowers the cutouts below the stops in the
receiver.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 67 -
19. Some Snap Applications
(continued…)
This is a somewhat non-typical application
of the snap concept but it still achieves the
composition desired. Another variation of
the snap concept is illustrated in this
photograph of fasteners used to attach
upholstery panels to car doors and inside
trunk cavities. In this instance the design
must permit removal of the fastener
without access to the back side of the hole
in the sheet metal into which the fasteners
was inserted. This is accomplished by the
short bevel at the rear of the front snap
ramp. When the button is pulled back the
bevel compresses the snap allowing it to
be removed from the hole.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
20. Minimize Parts
All products consist of parts that are
separate from one another in order to
perform different functions as described in
Chapter 2. However, one of the primary
goals of a product designer must be to
minimize the number of parts in his product
design. Creative efforts to achieve this
goal through multifunctional parts or in
other ways that reduce part count pays off
in huge benefits. To begin with it simplifies
the assembly process. This in turn
reduces manufacturing cost and can
significantly reduce assembly time. It
usually will also improve the quality of the
final product and will increase reliability
and performance. Remember that each
additional part in a product is another
source of potential problems whether they
be in manufacturing, assembly or
operation. Although difficult to achieve
“the ideal product to assemble is one that
consists of only one part”.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 68 -
21. Minimize Parts Example 1
The graphic shows a molded plastic single
component that is used to both hold and
actuate a limit switch. The long slender
cantilever beam is the actuating device. Its
deflection by some other part of the final
product triggers the switch. The switch
itself is fastened to the component by two
integral molded snaps that lock over the
outer surface of the switch body. Two pins
molded into the component are used to
locate the switch using two holes already
available in the switch body. This single
molded component replaces eight parts in
the original design that included two sheet
metal stamping, several fasteners and
separate pins, a nut plate and a helical
spring. This is an outstanding example of
how creativity can be used to simplify a
design, reduce its cost and improve its
quality.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
22. Minimize Parts Example 2
The photographs show an outstanding
example of creative geometric redesign
and use of materials to reduce the number
of parts in a simple staple remover. The
plastic finger grips, spring and pivot pin in
the left design have been replaced on the
right by a creative use of a plastic molding
that combines the function of the pivot,
spring and grips into a single component.
The staple remover jaws have also been
reduced in size. Although it isn’t apparent
these redesigned jaws simply snap into the
plastic gripper component whereas they
required staking in the original design.
Also note that the required peening of the
pivot pin in the original design is also
eliminated as an assembly function in the
redesign. Both cost of manufacturing and
assembly have obviously been significantly
reduced in the improvement of this
product.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 69 -
23. Minimize Parts Example 3
The upper graphic shows the cross section
of a stepped gear subassembly. It
consists of six separate parts. The two
gears blanks are machined from steel
plates and the gear teeth are then
machined on to the blanks. The two gears
are then drilled and tapped so that they
can be joined together by four separate
threaded fasteners. This is certainly an
appropriate classical design. However, by
applying some creativity and taking
advantage of other manufacturing
techniques this six-part subassembly can
be reduced to one part. The lower graphic
shows a design that has the same
geometry and achieves the same function.
The difference is that the part is made of
sintered metal that eliminates all the
machining and the fasteners. This is a
good example of why designers need to be
familiar with manufacturing processes and
their application.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
24. Minimize Parts Example 4
In this example a hole in a casting need s
to be covered. The classical solution is to
machine a cover plate and attach it to the
casting with threaded fasteners. The cover
and fasteners could be as many as five
separate parts. A much simpler solution is
the one shown in the lower graphic. In this
alternative a recess is machined into the
casting at the edge of the opening. The
recess is machined rather than cast to hold
a close tolerance on the diameter of the
hole. The machined cover is now replaced
by a stamped metal cap that is simply
tapped to the bottom of the recess and
held there by means of a light press fit.
Again a much simpler solution not unlike
the freeze plug inserts used on engine
block castings. Check one out on your car
if you are not familiar with this application.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 70 -
25. Minimize Parts Example 5
This example depicts another example
where a change in the manufacturing
process simplifies the design and the
assembly. On the right the functional
requirements of the design is achieved by
machining an end cap which is then either
press fitted or welded to the end of the
pipe. In the design on the left the same
functionality is achieved in one component
by employing deformation shaping. Note
that this also eliminates the need for
attachment method employed in the first
design. Improved designs are often
obtained by creative applications of
manufacturing techniques together with the
geometry required to achieve the desired
functionality.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
26. Minimize Parts Example 6
In many instances identification
information, instructions for use and
warnings are attached to products by
means of adhesive labels. These extra
items can sometimes be eliminated by
including the information in the
manufacture of some part. The
photograph illustrates how instructions and
other useful information have been molded
into the base of a light switch. In addition
to specifying wire size for push wiring and
terminal connections a gage for wire
stripping is included as well as instruction
for releasing push wiring. Also note the
graphics at the lower right provided as a
warning that aluminum wire should not be
used.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 71 -
27. Flexible Items
Flexible components require special
attention in assembly. Items like wires,
cables and belts are very difficult to handle
and assemble automatically. They require
great care and skill even if the assembly is
performed manually. Wires and cables
can be more easily dealt with by providing
them with the means to be plugged
together or into some receptacle. This can
also be used to establish their location for
machine assembly. The easiest way to
handle multiple electronic components is to
mount them on circuit boards. Virtually all
electronic appliances use this technique
today irrespective of how many or how few
the components are. Another technique
for eliminating the handling of flexible drive
belts is to provide for the transmission of
power by gears or friction drives.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4

28. Flexible Items Example 28. Flexible Items Example

(continued…)
The two electronic components on the left
are provided with plugs to permit their The ubiquitous integrated circuit board that
attachment to the base component. This populates every computer is an excellent
aids in their attachment but clearly the example of this technology carried to the
assembly will not be easy. In addition, no highest state of refinement.
means are presented for fastening down
the components themselves. It is clearly
obvious that the arrangement on the right
will be easier to deal with in assembly.
The components themselves plug in
directly to a circuit board that itself very
simply plugs into the base component. Of
course this design requires the design and
production of the circuit board as a
separate component. However, the more
components there are to be inserted into
the circuit board the more cost effective
this process becomes both in terms of
manufacturing cost and assembly ease
and time.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
29. Criteria – Part Redundancy
In any product it is always worthwhile to
evaluate the potential redundancy of parts
as the design progresses. Criteria to
determine redundancy are directly related
to the reasons for separate parts
discussed in Chapter 2. However, for the
present purpose only three criteria stated
in terms of questions will be considered.
The first is “Does the part move relative to
parts already assembled in the normal
function of the final assembly?”. The
second is “Does the part need to be of a
different material from parts already
assembled for functional, but not aesthetic,
reasons?” The third is “Does the part need
to be separate from parts already
assembled to permit necessary assembly
or disassembly?” “NO” answers to all
three of these criteria identifies a part as a
potential candidate for elimination. It is
then up to the creative ability of the
designer to determine how that may be
brought about. An additional good rule of
thumb to always apply is that fasteners
areal rarely considered essential separate
parts. They should always be considered
candidates for elimination.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 73 -
30. Review Exercise – 1
The exercise on this page will serve as a
review of the more important topics
covered in this chapter. On the left is a list
of items that have been discussed. On the
right is a list of phrases that the items
match up with one to one. To establish a
match place the cursor over an item and
left click the mouse. A pencil will appear
that will produce an arrow as it is dragged
to any one of the green dots in front of a
phrase. If the choice and match is correct
the arrow will remain attached to the dot. If
the selection is incorrect the arrow will
disappear when the mouse button is
released. The selections can be made in
any order. Use the selection process to
rethink the material presented concern the
item and phrase. When all selection have
been made correctly click on the forward
navigation button to go to the next page.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 4
31. Review Exercise – 2
This exercise deals with the criteria for
identifying potential redundant parts that
may be eliminated from the design. You
will recall that three questions were asked
about the part and its behavior relative to
adjacent parts. If the answers to all three
questions were NO then the part was
potentially redundant. This exercise asks
you to identify the important part
characteristic or behavior that was
included in these three criteria. Answer by
clicking on the “true” box if the
characteristic was important and on the
“false” box if it wasn’t. Immediate
feedback will be provided following your
choice. Once the feedback appears a
mouse click will cause it to disappear and
you can go on to the next choice. After
you have correctly identified the important
characteristics correctly click on the
forward navigation button to go to the next
page.
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Principles of DFA Design – Product Design - 74 -
32. Off Line Exercise
As an off line exercise the reader is now
asked to extend the electric device product
study undertaken in Chapter 2. Using the
wall socket or toggle switch that was taken
apart earlier to develop a parts list and
assembly flow diagram apply the criteria
for potential part redundancy to each part
of the device. Indicate on the parts list
those that might be eliminated based on
the three question criteria suggested to
identify potential redundant parts. This will
be used later in a redesign exercise to
improve the product from a DFA point of
view. You may observe that the principles
of DFA have already been applied quite
well to your product. If that is the case you
might want to try to find an older model
that would benefit from some redesign.
Don’t forget in this effort what was said
about fasteners in terms of their not
necessarily being essential. Once you
under stand what the exercise requires
click on the return button to go back to the
chapter menu or revisit any of the pages in
this chapter before leaving it.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5

Chapter 5
Principles of DFA-Part Design

Screen Titles
Feeding and Orienting
Principles of Part Design
Tangling and Overlapping
Protrusion Example
Tangle Example 1
Real Springs
Shingle example
Tangle Example 2
Retaining Rings
Tangle example 3
Overlapping
Gravity example
Nesting Example
Some Overlooked Examples
Symmetry
Symmetry Example 1
Symmetry Example 2
Symmetry Example 3
Asymmetry
Asymmetry example 1
Asymmetry Example 2
Plastic Motor Fan
Review Exercise – 1
Review Exercise – 2
Off Line Exercise

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5

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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 76 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5

1. Title Page 2. Page Index

Chapter 5 covers the second part of the
principles of design for assembly dealing
with the design of parts for orienting and
feeding. This subject is covered
separately from the principles in Chapter 4
because it plays such an important role in
the assembly process whether it takes
place manually or by machine. As before
the principles are presented in generic
form with specific examples to
demonstrate their application. Particular
emphasis is placed on the symmetry and
asymmetry of part geometry. At the end of
chapter are several exercises to assist the
reader in reviewing the material covered.
Listed below are all the text pages in
Chapter 5 by title. Examples that follow
the text pages are not included to simplify
the listing. If examples follow a text page,
the listing is identified by an arrow in a
yellow disk. Each text page is hyperlinked
to its specific location in the chapter. It is
recommended that the reader first proceed
through all pages in the chapter
sequentially. Any specific text page can
then be revisited by returning to the page
index and clicking on the page title.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
3. Feeding and Orienting
The importance of the role of the feeding
and orienting of individual parts in the
assembly process can be easily
underestimated. To demonstrate this
point, consider again the assembly
process flow diagram developed in chapter
2 for the four-part spindle subassembly.
The total number of individual steps in this
assembly numbered 17. Of this total 12
steps involve the feeding and orienting of
the four parts. These are represented by
the yellow rectangles in the three parallel
horizontal paths leading to a specific
assembly activity. These 12 steps
represent 70 % of the total assembly
process. It is not uncommon for feeding
and orienting to take up this much of the
process. Hence, it is a subject worthy of
further detail consideration.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 78 -
4. Principles of Part Design
The four principles to be discussed deal
primarily with characteristics of the
geometry of each individual part. The first
principle is to design the geometry to
facilitate feeding and orientation. The
simpler these function can be performed
the easier and quicker the assembly will
take place. The second principle is to
design the part geometry to avoid the parts
becoming tangled with one another,
overlapping on top of one another or
nesting and getting stuck inside of one
another. A classical example of nesting is
how Styrofoam coffee cups stick together
when they are stacked together. The third
principle is to maximize symmetry in the
part as much as possible. This can greatly
decrease the amount of orienting required
to get the part into its final position.
Finally, and almost paradoxical, it may be
best to emphasize asymmetric features of
the part if symmetry is not possible or
helpful.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
5. Tangling and Overlapping
First consider the subject of tangling and
overlapping as related to feeding and
orienting. If a hole, slot or open
penetration is available on a part that some
protrusion on that same part can enter and
get stuck in then it will happen if the parts
are stored together. Hence, this condition
must be eliminated by either redesigning
the part or keeping them separate in
storage. Helical coil springs with open
ends, which are the cheapest way to
produce them, will tangle unbelievably if
stored together. This makes it almost
impossible to separate them to feed
individually. Hence, the spring ends need
to be closed. Thin flat surfaces on which
the part is being fed will easily shingle or
over lap. The solution is to turn up the
edges to provide thicker contact surfaces.
Reducing the opening size in retaining
rings, split washers and other similar
devices will avoid tangling when fed.
Increase the angle of contact surfaces on
elements that can overlap. Be alert to how
gravity might be used help. Finally, ribs in
nested parts to reduce nesting.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 79 -
6. Protrusion Example
On the right is shown a flat part that both
can and will become tangled with others of
the same kind by interlocking. The lower
portion of the part is both narrow and thin
enough to slip into the slot in the upper
portion. This can create a real problem for
automatic feeding. The solution to the
problem in this instance is quite simple.
On the left, a dimple has been formed in
the lower portion of the part that will restrict
the protrusion from entering in to the slot.
In this instance, the solution could also be
made part of the stamping process that
produces the part. Only a small change is
required in the stamping die to produce the
part on the left.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
7. Tangle Example 1
Depicted here is the classical tangling
problem encountered with open-ended
wire helical springs. This is of course the
cheapest way to produce the spring but it
is obvious that the free ends will become
entangled with other ends and even more
so with the full coils of the spring. Place a
number of these open-end springs in a
box, shake them around and then try to
pick one out. What results is that they all
want to stick together and come out as a
necklace or a clump. There are two ways
to solve this problem. One is to close the
ends of the spring as shown on the left.
The closed end can be flat or looped for
attachment just so it doesn’t have an open
free end. A second way to solve the
problem is to manufacture the spring at the
site where it will be used one at a time as
required. This might be a possibility in a
automated machine assembly process.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 80 -
8. Real Springs
A number of pairs of actual springs are
shown in the photograph. The four pairs
on the left are compression springs as
indicated by the gaps in their coils to
permit compression deflection. Even
though these four pairs all have closed
ends it is clear that they easily tangle as
illustrated. This is a consequence of the
required space between the individual
coils. The springs at the top and on the
right are extension springs. This is clear
because they have hooks or loops at their
ends and there is no spacing between the
coils. Note that on the largest tension
spring tangling can still occur because the
end hooks are open. These examples
illustrate that tangling generalizations on
parts like springs are always of interest but
specific design must be analyzed for
conditions that generalizations might not
cover.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
9. Shingle example
If the generic parts on the right are being
transported or moved by some type of
vibratory track in a machine assembly it is
easy to see how their thin bases can
overlap and shingle. This in turn can
create problems when the parts are to
allocated one at a time in the assembly
process. One way to solve this type of
problem is to place a lip or edge on the thin
base as shown on the left so that it
becomes more difficult for the edges to
overlap. In all these examples it is some
characteristic geometry of the part that
could lead to tangling and/or overlapping
that the designer must both watch for and
be creative in eliminating relative to the
process to be employed in the assembly
process.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 81 -
10. Tangle Example 2
Another classical example of tangling is
encountered when the opening in retainer
rings, slotted washer and other similar
components is large enough for the free
end to enter the loop of the ring or washer.
Such a condition is illustrated on the right.
Here again the solution is quite clear. The
opening needs to be made smaller or the
geometry of the opening can be altered as
shown in the two examples on the left.
Again, it is important to take into account
how the part will be made and how it will
be used in the final product design. A
solution could also be to eliminate the ring
completely and incorporate its function in
some other part in the assembly.
Remember one of the important principles
of DFA is to reduce the total number of
required parts in the product.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
11. Retaining Rings
The photo shows two sets of spring type
retaining rings. The set to the left is for
internal use while the pair on the right is for
external application. On the left the gap is
so large as to permit easy tangling. This is
a consequence of the space needed for
tooling and the fact that the ends must be
brought together prior to internal insertion.
In contrast the pair on the right has only a
small gap required for flexibility because its
end must be separated for external
application. In addition, space for tooling is
generally more available external to a shaft
on which the ring would be applied. These
two examples illustrate that the design and
use of specific parts may dictate geometry
that will create feeding problems even
though the function of the parts are similar.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 82 -
12. Tangle example 3
This example is somewhat similar to the
one on the previous page. The part on the
right is formed from a thin strip of metal
that is rolled into a cylindrical shape with
an open slot parallel to its axis. These
parts would tend to tangle and form a
chain with one another if stored together.
One solution to keep this from happening
is shown on the left. The interruption in the
slot will virtually eliminate all tangling and
interlocking. It can easily be included in
the stamping process that produces the
strip prior to its being rolled into its
cylindrical shape. Although it appears
complex it can be accomplished for
virtually no increase in cost.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
13. Overlapping
One way of delivering fasteners to the
assembly site is by means of an inclined
slotted track as shown in the center of the
diagram where gravity provides the feeding
force. The example depicts a rounded top
fastener that can overlap its neighbor as
they slide down the chute. This can easily
cause jamming that will stop the flow of the
parts. The problem is the shape of the
edge of the top of the fastener. The two
changes in geometry for the fastener top in
the upper right and lower left will greatly
reduce this problem. Another way of
eliminating the problem would be to use a
different type of delivery system in which
jamming of the rounded top fasteners
would not occur. However, keep in mind
that the condition of overlapping is the
issue at hand.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 83 -
14. Gravity Example
The designer must always be alert to the
role that gravity will play in both the feeding
and orienting of parts as well as their
insertion in to the assembly. In this
example the high center of gravity and
short base dimension of the parts on the
right give rise to a high probability that part
will tip over causing problems if the up right
position is that needed for the final
orientation. Recognizing that a reduction
in the ratio of the height to base dimension
will improve stability the parts on the left
will behave better in the delivery process.
Again, it is important to remember that this
is just one example of how gravity could
effect orientation and that it is important to
keep the principle of using gravity to help
in the application you may have at hand.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
15. Nesting Example
This example was mentioned on the page
where tangling was first discussed and is
brought up again as a reminder of the
basic principle of eliminating the potential
for part nesting. On the right is a series of
stacked generic cup shaped parts.
Depending on the material and surface
condition these can easily stick together
like Styrofoam coffee cups. One way to
eliminate this problem is to form the cup
with ridges or ribs as shown on the left.
This keeps the surfaces from coming in
intimate contact with each other and allows
for easy separation.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 84 -
16. Some Overlooked Examples
Everyday we come in contact with
examples of unique and effective part
feeding and orienting that we tend to
overlook but could learn from by just being
a little more observant. The packaging of
ordinary staples is a good example. By
gluing the individual staples together into a
strip and designing the stapler to accept
and use this package a very difficult
orienting and feeding problem is uniquely
solved. A second example is the
packaging of self adhesive postage stamps
onto a paper back roll for individual manual
separation and use. Together with a
simple plastic dispensing container another
feeding and allocation problem is
effectively solved. In this case orientation
is of secondary importance since the
postal service doesn’t really care if the
stamp is put on upside down.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
17. Symmetry
Now consider the role that geometric
symmetry can play simplifying the feeding
and orienting of parts. It has been found
that the greatest benefits come from
symmetry with respect to the axis of
insertion of the part. Symmetry can also
makes part feeding substantially easier.
The greater the symmetry the less
handling is involved in orienting the part.
The more convenient the orienting process
the simpler the process of picking and
holding the part becomes. In many
instances symmetry will also reduce
manufacturing costs. Consider a sphere
as an ideal part with perfect symmetry. No
matter how it is picked up, handled or
delivered its orientation will always be the
same. All parts can’t be spheres but the
concept of using symmetry is illustrated.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 85 -
18. Symmetry Example 1
The pin on the right has the same basic
cylindrical dimensions of length and
diameter as the pin on the left. However,
on the right the two ends have different
geometries from one another. This will
increase the cost of manufacture and will
require special handling and orientation if
one of the ends is always to be inserted
first. The pin on the left with both ends
finished the same will have the same
orientation no matter how it is picked up.
There will be no need to rotate end for end
as might be required of the pin on the right.
Note that as a pin with symmetry about its
central axis there is also no need to rotate
the part about its central axis to achieve a
special orientation.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
19. Symmetry Example 2
The part on the right is a stamping with a
large and small hole in the upper and lower
tabs and an off center horizontal slot that
extends into the right and left tabs. Its
orientation could require a rotation about
both the vertical and horizontal axes and
possibly even turning the part over. These
possible rotations for final orientation are
completely eliminated by the design of the
part on the left. By repeating the large and
small holes in both the upper and lower
tabs and providing symmetry for the slot
and piece about the vertical axis no
rotation or turning over is required. The
manufacturing cost once the stamping dies
are produced would be the same for both
parts.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 86 -
20. Symmetry Example 3
In this example the same principle of
providing symmetry for the internal
features about the vertical and horizontal
axis is applied as on the previous page to
the part design on the right resulting in the
design on the left. In addition symmetry is
provided in the left part design to both the
front and back of the part making it
unnecessary to turn the part over for final
orientation. Since it appears that these
features will need to be machined into a
rectangular plate the manufacturing cost of
the part on the left may be a little higher
than the part on the right. However, the
time saved in feeding and orienting the
part for assembly could very well reduce
the total cost of manufacturing and
assembly.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
21. Asymmetry
As mentioned earlier if it is difficult to
achieve or use symmetry beneficially then
paradoxically it might well be best to
introduce asymmetry into the part
geometry. When this is the case it is best
to exaggerate small features of asymmetric
geometry. This makes them easier to
detect relative to establishing the final
orientation of the part. Sometimes it is
even of value to deliberately introduce
asymmetric features. This can sometimes
be accomplished by removing material to
produce a significant asymmetric feature.
The basic principle that is being employed
here is that an easily identified or
recognized exterior feature whether done
manually or by machine can establish the
proper orientation of the part prior to its
assembly into the product.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design
22. Asymmetry example 1
This first example illustrates how both
symmetry and asymmetry might be used to
assist in the final orientation of a part. The
cylinder on the right obviously has only one
final orientation due to the single recess on
the right end. Whether this recess is on
the left or right is not easy to determine by
observing the uniform cylindrical exterior
shape. When picked up it may be
necessary to rotate the cylinder end for
end in order to get the recess pointed to
the right. By machining a recess on both
ends, which makes the part symmetrical
about a vertical axis, it won’t matter how
the part in the upper left is picked up as
one of the recess ends will always be to
the right. Thus symmetry is used to
resolve the orientation problem. In the
lower left the exterior of the cylinder has
been machined to provide a significant
asymmetric external geometric shape. In
this case it can be easily recognized either
manually or by machine which end has the
recess and it can be picked up so that that
- 87 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
23. Asymmetry Example 2
In this example the exterior shape of the
part on the right is symmetric with respect
to both the vertical and horizontal axis.
However, the interior small hole on the
vertical axis makes the exterior symmetry
useless in establishing the final orientation
of the part. Even providing total symmetry
about the vertical and horizontal axes by
introducing three additional hole won’t help
since the part can be picked up in a rotated
position with respect to its center.
However, by removing a portion of the
bottom of the circular disk as shown on the
left an asymmetric feature is introduced
such that when the flat surface is
horizontal the small interior hole will always
be in the right position. This final
positioning can be easily established either
manually or by machine. Thus asymmetry
accomplishes what is not possible by
symmetry.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 88 -
24. Plastic Motor Fan
The photo shows the front (lower right) and
back (upper left) sides of a plastic fan that
is press fit onto the shaft of an electric
motor used in a power hand tool. This
design takes advantage of both symmetry
and asymmetry. The design of the fan is
symmetric with respect to the shaft axis to
make insertion on the shaft easy.
However, the front and back of the fan are
different. This asymmetry provides the
means of orienting which side of the fan is
presented to the assembly work head. A
narrow track is used to send fans that
come front side up from a vibratory feeder
back to be recirculated. Click on the video
button to see this taking place. Only the
last fan shown has the proper orientation.
Then close the window and go on to the
next page.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5
25. Review Exercise – 1
The exercise on this page will serve as a
review of the more important topics
covered the design of part for feeding and
orienting. On the left is a list of items that
have been discussed in this chapter. On
the right is a list of phrases that the items
match up with one to one. To establish a
match place the cursor over an item and
left click the mouse. A pencil will appear
that will produce an arrow as it is dragged
to any one of the green dots in front of a
phrase. If the choice and match is correct
the arrow will remain attached to the dot. If
the selection is incorrect the arrow will
disappear when the mouse button is
released. The selections can be made in
any order. Use the selection process to
rethink the material presented concern the
item and phrase. When all selection have
been made correctly click on the forward
navigation button to go to the next page.
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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 89 -
26. Review Exercise – 2
In this exercise the reader is to type in the
missing words to create statements made
earlier in the chapter. Start by moving the
cursor to the beginning of the first blank
and left click the mouse. Type in an
appropriate response. Click on the tab key
to receive an immediate feedback. If your
answer is not correct clear the blank and
type in another response. Following each
feedback double click on the tab key to
move the cursor to the next blank space. If
you need assistance click on the hot word
to pop up the relevant page. After
completing the exercise click on the next
page button to go on.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 5

27. Off Line Exercise

This exercise applies what you have

learned about part design to the light
switch or wall socket you are using for the
off line exercises. From your product
select three parts excluding fasteners.
Examine and study these parts relative to
their characteristics and features that
either contribute to or detract from their
ability o be fed and oriented in the
assembly process. Prepare a short report
that describes and discusses what these
characteristic and features are and how
they may effect their feeding and orienting.
Include suggestions as to how these parts
might be redesigned to improve these
characteristics. You will probably find it
useful to include drawings to help illustrate
your presentation. Click on the main menu
button to return to select another chapter
or exit.

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Principles of DFA Design – Part Design - 90 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6

Chapter 6
DFA Examples

Screen Titles
Product Redesign Process
Original Diaphragm Valve
DFA System Analysis
Design Change Candidates
Redesign Diaphragm Valve
Original Pneumatic Piston
DFA System Analysis
Design Change Candidates
Redesigned Piston
Original Light Switch
Copier Latch
Copier Latch Statistics
Lessons Learned
Review Exercise
Offline Exercise

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DFA Examples - 91 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6

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DFA Examples - 92 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6

1. Title Page 2. Page Index

Chapter 6 covers the applications of the Listed below are all the text pages in
principles of design for assembly to the Chapter 6 by title. Each text page is
analysis of several sample designs and hyperlinked to its specific location in the
their redesign to improve both chapter. It is recommended, however, that
assemblability and quality. The examples the reader first proceed through all pages
include a diaphragm valve subassembly in the chapter sequentially. Any specific
and a pneumatic sensing piston device. text page can then be revisited by
The reader is then given the opportunity to returning to the page index and clicking on
perform a similar analysis and redesign of the page title.
the product they chose earlier for the off
line exercises and is presented with the
results of one such analysis and redesign.
Finally, an example of an actual
commercial subassembly redesign is
presented and discussed. The chapter
concludes with an important lesson to be
learned from the commercial example.

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DFA Examples - 93 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6
3. Product Redesign Process
The process of analyzing an existing
product relative to the guidelines of DFA
and redesigning the product to improve
both its assemblability and quality can be
broken down into four major steps. The
first step is to disassembly the product into
all of its separate parts. All parts should be
named and their function and assembly
order listed. Creating an assembly
process flow diagram is usually very
helpful at this point. The second step is to
perform a DFA systems analysis. This
consists of applying the criteria for
redundancy to each part and the seven
generic principles of DFA from Chapter 4.
The third step is to develop design change
candidates that will resolve problems and
inconsistencies identified in the DFA
systems analysis. The last step is to
evaluate the redesign based on the
proposed changes to determine the level
of improvement achieved.
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DFA Examples - 94 -
4. Original Diaphragm Valve.
A diaphragm valve subassembly consists
of two major components that are fastened
together. The valve portion is a thin
circular plate with two interior holes on a
diameter. The second major part is an
axle housing which is basically a bracket
that fastens to the plate and can accept a
circular rod through two upturned tabs.
This allows the entire subassembly to
rotate about an axis parallel to a diameter
of the circular plate. The axle housing is
attached to the diaphragm plate by means
of two screws, two washers and two nuts
as illustrated on the diagram. The entire
subassembly consists of a total of eight
parts. Assembly would most likely take
place with the orientation in the diagram so
that the screws are inserted vertically down
with the housing and plate properly
aligned. This of course would require the
washers and nuts to be attached from the
bottom. This is not ideal but acceptable for
manual assembly.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6
5. DFA System Analysis
One of the first features that stand out in a
DFA system analysis of this subassembly
is that six of the total eight parts are
fastener components. This represents
75% of all parts, which is extremely high.
The fasteners are excellent candidates for
elimination or at least reduction in number.
Since the housing and the diaphragm plate
perform functions that are distinct and
separate, it is difficult to see how either
could be eliminated. However, the two
holes in the diaphragm plate represent
asymmetric interior features that will
require special handling to insure proper
orientation of this piece in matching it up to
the housing. A follow up to this
consideration is that no advantage has
been taken of the external symmetry of the
circular diaphragm plate.
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DFA Examples - 95 -
6. Design Change Candidates
The screws, washers and nuts can be
eliminated altogether by placing studs on
the axle housing and staking the
subassembly together. This immediately
eliminates six separate parts. To take
advantage of the circular geometry of the
diaphragm plate only one stud need be
used and its location can be at the center
of the circular component. Incorporate the
stud on the bracket as a separate
operation and bring it to the assembly with
the diaphragm plate as a subassembly.
Finally, invert the assembly order so that
the housing becomes the base on which
the circular plate is located prior to
performing the staking operation.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6
7. Redesigned Diaphragm Valve
The redesigned valve subassembly
employing the changes from the previous
slide now appears as in the diagram. The
number of components has been reduced
by 75% to only the two required for
functionality; a significant improvement.
Locating the stud at the center of the
bracket and requiring only one hole in the
plate at its center dramatically simplifies
orientation prior to composition. Inverting
the order of assembly of the remaining two
pieces greatly improves the accessibility of
the joined parts for the final staking
process. This redesign could now be very
easily be performed by machine where as
it would have been virtually impossible to
automate the assembly of the original
design.
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DFA Examples - 96 -
8. Original Pneumatic Piston
The device in the diagram is a pneumatic
actuated piston that provides pressure to
an output vent when the pressure applied
at an input vent is high enough to raise the
piston against a compressed helical spring.
The device consists of seven parts. The
first is a machined base, which contains
the input, and output vents and houses the
piston and the spring. Note that the piston
has a small guide stud on its underside
that slides in a receiver unseen in the
base. Piston upward travel is limited by a
circular piston stop. The helical spring fits
inside of the piston stop and sits on the top
of the piston. A flat square cover
compresses the spring and is attached to
the top of the base by two screw.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6
9. DFA System Analysis
The two fasteners represent 28% of the
total number of parts. This is still high and
should be reduced if possible. The square
cover has asymmetric feature and will
require special handling in assembly. The
piston stop doesn’t move, does not have to
be of a different material from the top and
doesn’t need to be separate for assembly
or disassembly. Hence, it is a strong
candidate for elimination if its function can
be included with that of another part. The
spring as shown appears to have open
ends, which will cause tangling problems in
feeding. It will be difficult to properly orient
the piston prior to assembly since the
guide for the stud Is hidden and the piston
will have to be held by its edges. All of
these conditions represent good redesign
opportunities for improving the
assemblability of the device.
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DFA Examples - 97 -
10. Design Change Candidates
Consider first a redesign of the cover that
eliminates the two screws and makes
orientation of the part easier. This can be
accomplished by replacing the cover with a
plastic circular cap that snaps into the top
of the base. Additional machining of the
base to produce a grove for the cap to
snap into is required but it will no longer be
necessary to drill and tap the base for the
two screws. Next, the piston stop can be
eliminated by incorporating its function into
the lower part of the cap. These changes
eliminate three parts from the original
design. To provide for easier alignment of
the piston a stud can be added to the
center of its topside so that it can be
gripped and held during the insertion
process. Finally, to facilitate feeding of the
helical spring the ends can be closed.
These changes should significantly
improve the assembly process without
affecting the function of the device.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6
11. Redesigned Pneumatic Piston
The diagram illustrates the redesigned
piston device with the candidate change
incorporated. The order of the assembly is
the same as on the original design. By
eliminating the screws and the piston stop
the number of parts in the device now
number only 4, a 57% reduction in the
number from the original design. It should
be noted in both this example and the
diaphragm valve the first items considered
for elimination in the redesign were the
fasteners. Recall that in chapter 4 in the
discussion about identifying potentially
redundant parts it was stated that
fasteners are rarely considered essential
required parts. Hence, they should always
come under immediate suspicion in a DFA
analysis.
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DFA Examples - 98 -
12. Original Light Switch
Now we will review an analysis and
redesign of a toggle light switch that might
be similar to one you may have chosen.
Lets begin with the original design. This
particular device has a total of 19 parts. Of
these, eight are fasteners and washers,
parts 2, 3, 4 and 13. This number needs to
be reduced. Part 5 appears to be
redundant and should be considered for
elimination. Parts 10, 11, 12 and 13 which
make up the electrical contact portion of
the switch look like candidates for
simplification and prior assembly to be
brought to the final design as a completed
subassembly. It would also be nice if parts
7 and 8 could be combined. These
changes would greatly reduce the total
number of parts and simplify the final
assembly process. Let go on and see
what a possible redesign might look like.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6
13. Redesigned Light Switch
The first thing noticed in the redesign is
how much simpler and uncluttered the
diagram appears compared to the original
design. The electrical switch unit appears
to have been simplified and is coming to
the final design as a subassembly. The
number of separate fasteners has been
reduced to two screws necessary to attach
the final switch unit to the utility box in the
wall. Instead of eliminating the faceplate,
part 5, the mounting plate part 1 and base
housing, part 9, have been combined.
Look at the previous page to identify these
parts in the original design. The faceplate,
part 1, in the redesign has been provided
with snaps to attach to the redesigned
base housing, part 4. The two bumpers
and helical spring that provided the snap
motion of the toggle in the original design
have been replaced by part 3 made of
plastic in redesign. Thus, the final
redesign consists of only seven parts one
of which is a subassembly and two screws
for fastening the switch to some generic
utility wall box. I hope your redesign was
as successful as this example.
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DFA Examples - 99 -
14. Printer Latch Subassembly
Next lets look at a real commercial
redesign example of a more complex lock
and latching device for a photocopying
machine. The diagram on the left shows
an exploded view of the original design. It
obviously contains a large number of parts
and looks like a good candidate for
redesign. The principles of DFA were
applied to this subassembly resulting in the
redesign depicted on the right. This is an
obviously simpler design in which it is
immediately noticed that many of the
fasteners are gone. A detailed analysis of
this redesign will not be presented but
some of the more important statistics of the
resulting improvement are listed on the
next page.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6
15. Printer Latch Statistics
The redesign resulted in a 73% percent
reduction in the total number of parts from
62 to 17. The estimated reduction in the
time of assembly was 79% from about 7
minutes to a minute and a half. Finally, the
estimated total lock and latch cost
reduction was 36% from twelve and a half
to eight dollars. All of these improvements
are very impressive and demonstrate the
utility of the design for assembly
philosophy. It commercial value and return
in reduced cost and improved quality was
certainly worth the effort of its application
in this example.
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DFA Examples - 100 -
16. Important Lesson Learned
Unfortunately, this redesigned lock and latch
never made it into production. The reason is a
lesson about when DFA is applied that can’t be
over emphasized. The redesign was rejected
because the copier was already in production
and the cost of retooling, lost inventory and
changes in the assembly process would have
been more than could be saved by using the
redesign in the remaining projected model run.
Hence, the important lesson to be learned is do
the DFA work up front in the early part of the
design process. Don’t wait until the product
goes into production to see if redesign can
improve it. Design assemblability into the
product from the first day of its development.
Now go on to chapter seven for a brief review
of what you have learned in this entire module.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6
17. Review Exercise
This review exercise deals with the steps
and process used in a DFA systems
analysis and redesign of an existing
product. The task is to match the number
of the steps in the process listed on the left
with the summary of the process activity on
the right. This is done by clicking on any
step and dragging a pointer to the proper
summary green dot. When you have
completed the exercise correctly, proceed
on to the next page.
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DFA Examples - 101 -
18. Off Line Exercise
Being told how to play the piano and
watching someone else do it is no way to
learn how yourself. The same is true in
performing a DFA analysis and redesign to
improve the assemblability of an existing
product. Hence, the reader is now asked
to perform such an analysis and redesign
on the wall receptacle or toggle light switch
already used in several previous off line
exercises. At this point you should already
have taken the device apart, created an
assembly process diagram and applied the
criteria for identifying potential redundant
parts. The next step is to apply the
principles of DFA for product design and
consider the feeding and orienting features
of the parts. With this information in hand
generate a set of design change
candidates, evaluate the improvement in
the redesign and document your results in
a report. Click on the main menu button to
go on to next chapter or exit the module.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 6

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DFA Examples - 102 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7

Chapter 7
Quantifying Assembly

Screen Titles

Design Issues Addressed

Desired Application Results
Basis of Quantitative Tool
Part Merit Rating
Geometric Part Rating
Part Merit Calculation
Product Assembly Merit
Feeding Choices (Manual)
Feeding Choices (Automated)
Insertion Direction
Fastening Methods
Redundancy Check
Product Merit Spreadsheet
Original Pneumatic Piston Merit – 1
Original Pneumatic Piston Merit – 2
Redesigned Pneumatic Piston Merit – 1
Redesigned Pneumatic Piston Merit – 2
Comparison of Merit Results
Review Exercise – 1
Review Exercise – 2
Dealing with Subassemblies
Off Line Exercise

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Quantifying Assembly - 103 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7

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Quantifying Assembly - 104 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7

1. Title Page 2. Page Index

In Chapter 7, the reader is provided with a
numerical tool that permits the ease of
assembly of a product design to be
expressed as a quantitative figure of merit.
This allows for a direct numerical
comparison between the ease of assembly
of an original design with potential
redesign revisions to improve the
assembly process. Application of the tool
to the pneumatic piston-sensing device
analyzed and redesigned in chapter six is
included. The results of this application
are discussed in terms of the utility of the
tool in both directing and evaluating
redesign efforts.
Listed below are all the text pages in
Chapter 7 by title. Each text page is
hyperlinked to its specific location in the
chapter. It is recommended, however, that
the reader first proceed through all pages
in the chapter sequentially. Any specific
text page can then be revisited by
returning to the page index and clicking on
the page title.

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Quantifying Assembly - 105 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7
3. Design Issues Addressed
Two design issues are addressed by
creating a tool that permits the ease of
assembly to be numerically quantified.
Both deal with the normal desire of
engineers to express behavior or
properties in terms of numbers. The first is
to increase the designer’s sensitivity to the
assembly and the impact of design
decisions in product development on ease
of assembly. The second issue is to
establish a quantitative measure for ease
of assembly based on a rational and
accepted procedure for the comparison of
alternative design options. This provides
for a level of comfort for engineers not
readily available from qualitative
assessments such as those used in
chapter 6.
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Quantifying Assembly - 106 -
4. Desired Application Results
To adequately address the issues
presented on the previous page an
analytically simple numerical tool is
needed for calculating a quantitative figure
of merit for ease of assembly of a product
design based on relevant principles of
design for assembly. It is not necessary
that this tool be based on real physical
principles. In fact, this is not impossible.
However, it is necessary that the model for
this numerical tool be based on
propositions that appeal to the engineering
mentality for structure, order and
relevance. This is the approach employed
in devising a method for comparing
products that are similar in functional
design but vary in their assembly
characteristics.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7
5. Basis of Quantitative Tool
There are three basic components that
make up the model for calculating a
numerical figure of merit for the ease of
assembly of a product design. The first is
that each part in the product is assigned a
numerical figure of merit from 0 to 10
depending on how hard or easy it
undergoes the three fundamental
assembly events of feeding and orienting,
insertion into the product and the fastening
or composing of the part. The second
component of the model combines the
three assembly event values for each part
into an integrated single numerical merit
figure for the part. The third component is
an assessment of the possible potential
redundancy of the part. This is based on
the redundancy criteria described in
chapter 4. The individual part merits and
the number of potentially redundant parts
are then used to determine two specific
overall product merit values. These will be
described following a discussion of how
the individual part merit figures are
established.
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Quantifying Assembly - 107 -
6. Part Merit Rating
The figure of merit for a part is modeled as
a vector in three-dimensional space
defined by coordinate axes that represent
the ease with which the part is fed,
inserted and fastened into the product. A
numerical value from zero to ten is
assigned to each part for each of the three
assembly events. Zero corresponds to the
event being very difficult to accomplish and
ten represents that it is very easy to
complete. These events values become
the components of the merit vector that
represents a numerical measure of the
ease of the assembly of the part. The
greater the event component values the
greater the numerical magnitude of the
part merit vector and hence the easier the
assembly of that part. The manner in
which selections are made to assign
numerical values to the individual
assembly events will be discussed in detail
later in this chapter. First, a description will
be provided of the geometric
representation of the part merit vector in
the three-dimensional space defined by the
feeding, insertion and fastening axes.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7
7. Geometric Part Rating
The modeling of the construction and
magnitude of the merit vector for a specific
part begins with a three dimensional axis
system whose separate axes measure the
ease with which the events of feeding,
insertion and fastening take place. This is
illustrated by the yellow orthogonal axes
system. The origin of each axis
corresponds to the most difficult
implementation of the specific assembly
event, which would be assigned a value of
zero. As the event for a specific part is
recognized as being easier its value is
increased along the three axes with a
maximum possible value of 10. Consider
now that a particular part is assigned a
feeding value of 8, an insertion value of 7
and a fastening value of 9. These are
represented in the figure by the three
green component values. These
components are now used to create a
vector in the three dimensional space.
This is represented by the red vector
whose magnitude will be greater than any
of its individual green components. It is
the magnitude of this red vector that is
used to model the assembly merit rating
for the part. This process is applied to
each part in the product to determine its
specific assembly merit rating.
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Quantifying Assembly - 108 -
8. Part Merit Calculation
The magnitude of the merit value for each
part is calculated as the square root of the
sum of the squares of the feeding merit,
the insertion merit and the fastening merit
for each part. However, if each of these
events were assigned a value of ten then
the magnitude of the part merit would be
10 times the square root of three. To keep
the calculated part merit values easier to
deal with the magnitude is normalized by
dividing the square root value by the
square root of three as shown in the
formula. Thus a part that has event values
of ten for each event has a part merit value
of ten also. When event values for a part
are assigned to be less than ten, as in the
example on the previous page, its
magnitude is also divided by the square
root of three to make it proportionally
smaller than the normalized maximum
possible value. It is simply a means to
make the interpretation and comparison of
different part merit values a little easier to
deal with.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7
9. Product Assembly Merit
After all the individual part merits are
determined as defined on the previous page
these values are used to define two distinct
product merit ratings. The first is called the
combined average merit and is designated by
the acronym CAM. It is simply the average of
all the individual part merits as indicated by the
formula for its determination. It represents an
overall measure of how easy it is to put the
product together from considerations of
feeding, inserting and fastening all the
individual parts. A second measure of the
ease of assembly of the product and its design
for assembly is called the product assembly
merit and is designated by the acronym PAM.
It takes into account that the design may
contain redundant parts, which if designed out
of the product would improve its ease of
assembly. In other words, it penalizes the
combined average merit for the inclusion of
redundant parts in the design. The product
assembly merit can never exceed the
combined average merit and is only equal to it
when there are no redundant parts in the
design or redesign of the product. As a
specific product design is improved by applying
the principles of design for assembly, its
combined average merit and product assembly
merit will increase in value. The best design
from the standpoint of assembly is one that has
a combined average merit that approaches 10
and a product assembly merit that is equal to
the combined average merit.
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Quantifying Assembly - 109 -
10. Feeding Choices (Manual)
The task of assigning appropriate values to the
assembly events must now be addressed. The
manual feeding of parts will be considered first.
Listed on this page are a number of manual
feeding methods grouped together beginning
with those that are the easiest to the hardest.
For example, parts that are arranged with the
same orientation in a precision pallet tray, or
stacked in a slide tray or feeding magazine are
easily grasped manually to be inserted. This
type of feeding arrangement would be
assigned a very high value, possibly nine or
ten. As the list of choices progresses down the
page to the handling of flexible items the value
to be assigned to the event is decreased to
zero. The actual value assigned to the feeding
event of a specific part must be the choice of
the analyst based on what is known or can be
reasonably assumed for the instance at hand.
The groupings listed on this page are only
suggestions of the general order of difficulty
that will be encountered for manual feeding.
Normally the numerical value is limited to
integers for simplicity. The application of
specific values in a given example will be made
clearer in a complete analysis that will occur
later in this chapter applied to the pneumatic
piston sensing device from chapter six.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7
11. Feeding Choices (Automated)
Automated part feeding is accomplished
principally with vibratory bowl feeders or
sometimes with programmable feeding
devices. Normally only small parts are fed
in this fashion on automated assembly
lines. The feeding and orienting functions
are generally grouped together to be
considered as a single coupled assembly
event. Hence, in determining an event
value for quantifying feeding the orientation
function is included if automated feeding
takes place. On this page, four categories
are specified as proceeding from the
easiest to the hardest. These include the
four combinations of easy feeding and
easy orientation to hard feeding and hard
orientation. The choice of the numerical
value between ten and zero to be chosen
in a specific instance must again be
selected by the analyst. This is a judgment
call based on how much is known or can
be reasonably assumed about the specific
instance in question. This is a good
example of why the development of a
product design must be integrated across
design and manufacturing as pointed out in
chapter one. Selecting a specific feeding
event value will again be addressed in the
example analysis conducted later in the
chapter
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Quantifying Assembly
12. Insertion Direction
Selecting a merit value for the insertion
event is a little easier to deal with than
feeding. Insertion has to do primarily with
how the part has to be moved into the
assembly irrespective of whether the act
takes place manually or is automated. The
important consideration is the direction and
character of the movement of the part.
Listed on this page is a suggested variety
of insertion directions again proceeding
from the easiest at the top of the list to the
hardest at the bottom. Again, the analyst
must decide from either known information
or assumption which insertion action is
appropriate and a reasonable value to
assign to it. Keep in mind that the
analyses to be performed are primarily to
compare changes in design due to hopeful
improvements. Hence, it is relative
numerical values that will be of the
greatest importance not absolute
measures.
- 110 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7
13. Fastening Methods
The final assembly event to be assigned a
numerical value is the fastening of the part.
A similar process to that already described
for feeding and insertion is employed.
Listed on this page are a variety of
suggested simple fastening methods that
proceed from the easiest at the top to the
more difficult at the bottom. All of these
can be accomplished either manually or by
some mechanical means so that no
distinction between these two kinds of
processes is made. Again, the analyst
either must decide from known information
or based on assumption how the part will
be fastened to assign a value to the part
for this event. One additional
consideration is that if the part has to be
held in place while it is being fastened it is
generally a good idea to reduce the
numerical value by at least one unit.
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Quantifying Assembly - 111 -
14. Redundancy Check
With all three assembly events assigned
numerical values the magnitude of the part
merit vector can then be calculated using the
formula on page eight. The next step in the
analysis is to determine if the part is potentially
redundant. To do this the criteria established
in chapter four will be applied. This is
accomplished by answering three questions
about the behavior of the part. These are:
(1) Does the part move relative to adjacent
parts in the use of the assembled product?
(2) Must the part be made of a different
material from that of adjacent parts for its
function in the assembled product? And
(3) Must the part be separate from
adjacent part to permit its assembly in or
removal from the product?
If the answers to all three of these questions
are NO then there is a good possibility that the
part can be eliminated and hence considered
to be redundant.
Finally, for the purpose of quantifying assembly
a good general rule of thumb is to consider all
fasteners to be redundant even if some may
need to be included in the improved design.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7

15. Product Merit Spreadsheet 16. Original Pneumatic Piston Merit – 1

Attention is now directed to the analysis of an A complete quantitative analysis of the
entire product. This is most easily assembly of the original and improved
accomplished with the use of a spreadsheet as
pneumatic sensing device discussed in
shown on this page. Any spreadsheet program
like excel works well for this purpose. On the chapter six will now be carried out. First,
very left of the sheet the individual parts of the review the construction and assembly of
product are listed in the order in which they are this product by clicking on the hot-word.
assembled into the product. The next column When you have completed your review
simply lists how many of these parts there are click on the next page button to obtain the
so that their number can be easily determined audio description of the spreadsheet.
as the sum at the bottom of the column. In the
next column are placed the numerical values of
the feeding event for each part as described on
pages 10 and 11. In the next column are
placed the event values for the insertion
direction of each part as described on page 12.
In a similar fashion the next column contains
the fastening event value for each part. With
these three numbers the magnitude of the part
merit vector is calculated using the formula on
page 8 and placed in the next column. These
part merit values are then summed and placed
at the bottom of the column. Finally the
redundant part check is applied to each part. If
a part is potentially redundant place a one in
the appropriate space. If it is not redundant
place a zero in the space instead. Finally, sum
the integers in the redundant part column.
Now the formulas for the Combined Average
Merit, the CAM, and the Product Assembly
Merit, the PAM, as presented on page nine can
be used to calculate these final values for the
product.

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Quantifying Assembly - 112 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7

17. Original Pneumatic Piston Merit – 2 18. Redesigned Pneumatic Piston Merit
–1
The seven parts of the product are listed in the
first column of the spreadsheet. Note that even The quantitative analysis will now be
though the two screws are the same they are
repeated for the redesigned pneumatic
listed separately for clarity. It is assumed that
the assembly will be manual. The base, piston piston-sensing device. Begin by clicking
and piston stop will be fed in some form of on the hot word to review the redesigned
stacked or positioned containers; hence, they piston device in chapter six.
receive a value of ten for this event. The
springs, which have open ends, and the covers
and screws are simply provided in separate
boxes which makes their feeding and orienting
much more difficult. Hence, they are all
assigned values of three. The insertion of all
parts is vertical so they all get tens except for
the piston whose stem has to be guided into a
blind hole. All parts except for the cover and
screws slip into place for their fastening event
and are assigned tens. The cover must be
held down while the screws are being inserted
and thus it is given a nine. The screws
themselves are assigned threes since that
function appears well down the fastening
method list. The redundancy check identifies
the piston stop and the screws as potential
redundant parts. With this information, the
Combined Average merit is calculated to be
8.28 while the Product Assembly merit is 4.73.
Neither of these results is very good
considering the maximum value for both could
be ten.

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Quantifying Assembly - 113 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7
19. Redesigned Pneumatic Piston Merit – 2
The three redundant parts have been
eliminated with the redesigned cover and
piston stop. That reduces the total number
of parts to four in the left column. The
block event values all remain the same.
The piston insertion is increased to nine
with the addition of the handling stub that
significantly improves this function. was worthwhile attempting to improve the
Closing the ends of the spring will
dramatically improve its ability to be fed,
which increases its value to eight. Finally
the redesigned cover will be both easy to
feed and insert represented by the tens
and it will easily snap into place for
fastening represented by a nine. These
changes increase the Combined Average
Merit to 9.68. The Product Assembly Merit
is the same value since there are no
redundant parts. With both the CAM and
the PAM at values of 9.68 out of a
maximum possible value of ten it is clear
that the redesign has significantly
improved the assembly of the product and
it appears that little more can to done to
improve it further.
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Quantifying Assembly - 114 -
20. Comparison of Merit Results
The sensor example just analyzed
provides some indication of how this
quantitative tool can be used to provide
guidance in improving the design of a
given proposed product. Since the
Combined Average Merit value was some
18% below the maximum possible of ten it
assembly events of feeding, insertion and
fastening where possible. In addition,
since the Product Assembly Merit was only
about half of the Combined Average Merit
it was also important to eliminate the three
potentially redundant parts. Hence, some
general guidelines for areas of redesign to
be considered for improvement are
presented in the table. If both the CAM
and PAM are quite high it might be just as
well to leave the design as it is. If the CAM
is high but the PAM is low it will be of
greater importance to work on eliminating
the redundant parts. If the CAM is low and
the PAM, which can never exceed the
CAM, is close to its value then emphasis
should be place on improving the three
assembly events. Finally if both the CAM
and the PAM are low, as in the example
analyzed then both the assembly events
and the redundant parts both need to be
worked on
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7

21. Review Exercise – 1 22. Review Exercise – 2

The review exercises for chapter seven
includes both filling in the missing words and
answering several true-false questions. If you
have any difficulty with them click on the hot-
words in the question statement. When you
have completed the exercises go on to the next
page.
Question 2
True – Your answer is correct
False – Your answer is incorrect. Click on the
hot word to review the definition of the CAM.
As an extended review exercise consider
the circumstance in which a final product is
made up of a combination of separately
created subassemblies and individual
parts. How would you apply the process of
computing a combined average merit and
product assembly merit in this instance?
Outline a process for treating this situation
that is both appropriate and consistent with
the method presented and then go on to
the next page to see what I recommend.

Question 3

True – Your answer is incorrect. Click on the

hot word to review the definition of the PAM.
False – Your answer is correct. The
normalizing factor is the square root of three.

Question – 4

True – Your answer is incorrect. Click on the

hot word to review the role of redundant parts
in the PAM.
False – Your answer is correct. Redundant
parts play a role in the PAM.

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Quantifying Assembly - 115 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 7
23. Dealing with Subassemblies
A procedure that seem appropriate and
consistent to me is the following. First,
analyze each subassembly separately and
determine a specific combined average
merit and product assembly merit for each
one. Second, treat each subassembly as
a separate individual part and determine
the combined average merit and product
assembly merit for the final product. In this
process each subassembly should be
assigned appropriate part merit figures
associated with its assembly into the final
product. Finally, redesign both the
subassemblies and the final product as
dictated by their individual combined
average merit and product assembly merit
values in accordance with the guidelines
on page.
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Quantifying Assembly - 116 -
24. Off Line Exercise
As an off line exercise apply the method
for quantifying assembly as presented in
this chapter to the wall socket or light
switch you have analyzed and redesigned
in the previous chapter. Set up a
spreadsheet similar to the one used in this
chapter and determine both the Combined
Average Merit and the Product Assembly
Merit both for the original design and your
redesign. Prepare a short report that
includes the spreadsheet results for both
designs and discuss their implications
relative to the ease of assembly of the
product. Also justify and discuss your
assumptions and assigned values for the
individual part assembly events.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8

Chapter 8
Vibratory Part Feeding

Screen Titles
Vibratory Bowl Feeder
Bowl displacement
Part Mechanics Model
Oscillating Flat Plate Conveyor
Conveyor Velocity
Part Mechanics
Part Motion (one cycle)
Part Movement (one cycle)
Average Part Velocity
Forward Part Movement
Different Starting Points
Vibratory Bowl Part Movement
Drive Parameters
Movement Limits
Mean Conveying Velocity
Effective Hop
Important Characteristics
Load Sensitivity
Typical Load Behavior
Analysis Model
Average Recirculation
Sample Problem
Decrease Load Sensitivity
Review exercise
Off Line Exercise
Velocity Curve

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8

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Vibratory Part Feeding - 118 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8

1. Title Page 2. Page Index

Chapter 8 covers the basics of vibratory Listed here are all the text pages in
feeding of small parts. It begins with a Chapter 8 by title. Each text page is
description of bowl feeders and how they hyperlinked to its specific location in the
operate. A detailed analysis is then chapter. It is recommended that the
undertaken of the mechanics of small part reader first proceed through all pages in
feeding on a flat plate conveyor. With this the chapter sequentially. Any specific text
understanding any specified flat plate page can then be revisited by clicking on
conveyor motion can be analyzed to the title after returning to the index page.
determine average part velocity. Some of
the generic characteristics of the more
complex feeding of small parts with bowl
feeders are then discussed and some
general guidelines are presented useful in
the application of bowl feeders.

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Vibratory Part Feeding - 119 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
3. Vibratory Bowl Feeder
The workhorse of small part feeders in
automated assembly operations is the
vibratory bowl feeder. It consists of a
circular bowl with a flat bottom surface
supported by a series of inclined springs
that attach to a stationary support base.
Around the bowl’s circumference is a spiral
flat track that proceeds from the bowl
bottom to some elevated outlet. The bowl
is driven by an electromagnet that is fed
with an alternating current. This exerts an
alternating force on the bowl. The
resulting motion of the bowl is described in
detail on he next page.
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 120 -
4. Bowl displacement
The alternating force imparted by the
electromagnet on the bowl causes the
upper ends of the springs to be displaced
perpendicular to their axes as shown in the
graphic. This can be represented
mathematically as some normal
displacement a0 multiplied by a sinusoidal
function in time. Physically this creates a
combined alternating vertical and torsional
motion of the bowl. At the edge of the
bowl where the track is located this
movement can be approximated by a
horizontal oscillation and a vertical
oscillation whose components are
dependent on the angle of the spring
inclination. Any small part on the track will
be subjected to these displacement inputs
and undergo some resulting dynamic
motion.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
5. Part Mechanics Model
To analyze the dynamic response of a part
subjected to the bowl motion the model
employed is a rectangular block resting on an
inclined plane. The angle theta corresponds to
the angle of the track relative to the bottom of
the bowl. Coordinate axes F and N for the
motion of the block are directed parallel and
normal to the incline for convenience. There
are two forces that will influence the movement
of the block. The first is its weight W that
always acts vertically down. The second is a
positive or negative frictional force parallel to
the incline provided the block is in contact with
the surface. In addition the block is subjected
to the sinusoidal motion of the inclined track
represented by the expression s equals a0 sin
omega t. Depending on the magnitude of the
track oscillation and the forces on the block
four possible motions can take place. The
block can remain stationary, it can slide
forward, it can slide backward or it can hop off
the track or combinations of these can take
place. Describing the responsive motion of the
block analytically is a very complex process
and will not be attempted here. However the
mechanics of a part on an oscillating flat plate
conveyor will be studied in some detail to
provide insight into the vibratory feeding
process.
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 121 -
6. Oscillating Flat Plate Conveyor
The advantage of considering the
movement of a block on a flat oscillating
conveyor is that the block remains in
contact with the surface as it moves
relative to the plate. Hence the model now
consists of a flat plate that oscillates
horizontally in some fashion with a block
resting on its surface. The motion that may
take place is that the block may slide
forward or it may slide backward or it may
remain stationary. The objective however
is to understand the response of the
system such that a plate oscillation can be
specified such that the block will move in
the plus x direction. This is demonstrated
by the following animation. Note that there
is actually some negative motion of the
block but the effect of the total response is
that the block moves to the plus x end of
the plate.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
7. Conveyor Velocity
The motion of the conveyor will be analyzed
first. This will be done studying its velocity
versus time curve. Assume the plate starts
with zero velocity and increases linearly for
some period of time. Since the slope of the
curve is positive it means the plate has
undergone a constant positive acceleration a0.
At the end of this period the plate is subjected
to an equal but opposite negative acceleration.
Its velocity begins to decrease until it passes
through zero and then begins to increase
negatively. Note that the constant slope of this
second portion of the velocity curve is minus
a0. Finally the plate is again accelerated with
positive acceleration a0 until the velocity
comes back to zero completing one cycle of
oscillation. From basic mechanics the area
under the first half of the curve A1 represents
the forward movement of the plate. The
negative area under the second half of the
curve A2 represents the backward movement
of the plate. If the plate is to return to its
original position at the end of the cycle these
two areas must be equal. This further indicates
that the maximum and minimum velocity values
of the oscillation must be equal. Analytically
this is represented by recognizing that distance
traveled s is the integral of v dt. Integration
over the cycle gives A1 – A2. For s to be zero,
that is, no net displacement of the plate then
A1 must be equal to A2.
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 122 -
8. Part Mechanics
Now the mechanics of the block representing a
part will be analyzed. Assume positive
conveyor and part velocities with the velocity of
the conveyor greater than the part. The friction
force between the part and conveyor will be to
the right creating a positive acceleration for the
part that will result in its sliding forward in the
positive x direction. Newton’ second law, that
is force equals mass times acceleration, is now
applied to the part in the x direction. This gives
the frictional force, mu, the coefficient of
friction, times the part weight W equal to the
mass represented by the weight W divided by
the gravitational constant g times the
acceleration a. Solving for the acceleration
gives a equal to mu times g. Note that this is a
constant as long as the velocity of the conveyor
is greater than the velocity of the part. Now
consider the case where the part velocity is
greater than that of the conveyor. In this
instance the frictional force due to slippage is
directed in the negative x direction. Applying
Newton’s second law as in the pervious case
results in the acceleration of the part being a
negative mu g. Again this is a constant as long
as the part velocity is greater than the conveyor
velocity. This will now be applied to a part
subjected to the conveyor velocity diagram of
the previous page.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
9. Part Motion (one cycle)
Assume that the part is placed on the
conveyor at time zero with a zero velocity
as the conveyor velocity begins to
increase. Since the conveyor velocity is
greater than that of the part the part will
accelerate at mu g which is less than the
conveyor acceleration. The velocity of the
part increases linearly as shown on the
graphic. The instant after the two
velocities are the same the conveyor
velocity will drop below that of the part so
that it will decelerate at the rate of mu g
causing its velocity to decrease linearly.
This behavior will continue until the two
velocities are again equal. At this point the
conveyor velocity becomes greater than
that of the part so the part will begin
accelerating at mu g causing its velocity to
increase linearly a second time. At the end
of the conveyor cycle the part velocity is
still increasing. For this single cycle of the
conveyor the area a1 represents the
positive displacement of the part while
area a2 represents its negative
displacement. Since a1 is obviously
greater than a2 the part has moved
forward on the plate.
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 123 -
10. Part Movement (one cycle)
The displacements and effective
movement of the conveyor and the part
can be represented and interpreted by a
comparative graphic of their displacement
vectors for one cycle. The conveyor
moves forward and back the same amount
returning to its initial starting position since
area cap A1 is equal to area cap A2. The
part however moves forward farther than it
moves back since area small a1 is greater
than area small a2. The consequence is
that effective forward motion of the part
has taken place. Thus the motion
simulated by the earlier animation has
been achieved. The only question that
remains to be answered is whether this will
continue for subsequent cycles of the
conveyor.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
11. Average Part Velocity
Unfortunately, since the acceleration and
deceleration of the conveyor are equal in
magnitude the part movement will behave the
same with respective to the plus V and minus V
directions irrespective of when the part is
placed on the conveyor after a number of
cycles have transpired. It is intuitively obvious
that the part will oscillate back and forth some
but will effectively remain in the same location
on the conveyor. Hence, the average velocity
of the part will be zero even though
displacement for a single cycle may be
positive. The question now is what must be
done to the conveyor velocity curve to obtain a
positive average velocity for the part? Try to
answer this question for yourself before going
on to the next page.
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 124 -
12. Forward Part Movement
To begin with the conveyor velocity curve must
be non symmetrical since the previous choice
didn’t give the result desired. Intuitively it
would seem that a conveyor motion that
combined a slow forward motion with a rapid
return should help. The conveyor velocity
curve in the graphic achieves this condition and
will return faster to its original starting position
provided area A1 is equal to area A2. In this
instance the positive acceleration of the
conveyor is chosen to be just equal to mu g.
Now when the part is placed on the conveyor
at the beginning of the first cycle its velocity will
increase linearly the same as the conveyor.
However when the conveyor starts slowing
down more rapidly than before it velocity will be
less than that of the part so the block will
decelerate with acceleration minus mu g and it
velocity will decrease linearly. If the cycle
period for the conveyor is chosen properly both
its velocity and that of the part will become zero
at the same time. Then the next cycle for the
conveyor and part will repeat what took place
in the first cycle. This will continue for all
subsequent cycles. In this instance it is seen
that that the part will experience a positive
displacement in each cycle and hence will
attain an average velocity in the positive
direction. There is only further question to be
answered and that is what happens if the part
is placed on the conveyor at times other than
the beginning of a cycle.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
13. Different Starting Points
The same conveyor velocity curve as on the
previous page will be used to answer the
different starting point question. If a part is
placed on the conveyor at the beginning of the
cycle its behavior will be as on the previous
page shown for three cycles on the graphic.
Now place a second part on the conveyor at
some point in the middle of its forward motion.
Using the analysis technique developed it is
seen that after three cycles it approaches the
steady state curve of the first part. Now place
a third part on the conveyor somewhere in the
return portion of the first conveyor cycle. Again
it is observed that this part also approaches the
behavior of the steady state motion of the first
part. What is taking place is that the second
and third parts are undergoing transient motion
until they reach the steady motion represented
by the first part. Hence, it can be concluded
that all three parts will achieve the same final
average velocity following some transient
motion. One final comment before leaving this
topic is that all types of conveyor velocity
behaviors can be proposed to achieve different
final steady motion of the part. Try devising a
conveyor behavior that will achieve a final part
velocity that is almost equal to the maximum
positive velocity of the conveyor.
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 125 -
14. Vibratory Bowl Part Movement
Now that the flat conveyor feeding problem is
understood the vibratory bowl conveyor
problem will be revisited. As mentioned earlier
the part motion behavior in this circumstance is
much more complex because the part can hop
on the inclined track as will as slide. The
graphic illustrates one such possible motion.
At the beginning of the cycle the part slides
forward. This is followed by a greater amount
of backward sliding at the end of which the part
leaves the track. In this instance the part hops
forward a significant distance at which time the
cycle begins again. Hence there is effective
forward motion imparted to the part but it
movement is complex. This type of complex
dynamic response has been mathematically
analyzed but is more specialized than needed
here. Hence only some of the general results of
this form of study will be covered.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
15. Drive Parameters
The definition of several parameters will be
of value before proceeding with a
discussion of some of the generic behavior
of vibratory bowls. Two of the most
important variables used to present
response behavior are the drive angle and
the normal displacement or acceleration.
As illustrated on the graphic the drive
angle is the angle of inclination of the drive
motion direction measured relative t the
track on which the parts move. The
normal amplitude ao is the positive
component of the bowl motion measured
perpendicular to the track. In a similar
fashion the normal acceleration is the
normal amplitude multiplied by omega, the
angular frequency of the drive motion,
squared assuming the drive motion can be
represented as being sinusoidal in form.
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 126 -
16. Movement Limits
The complex nature of a part’s response
as a function of normal acceleration and
drive angle is illustrated in the graphic.
This chart provides boundary limits for the
generic type of response that will take
place. It is interpreted as follows. For a
moderate drive angle and moderate
acceleration, point A, the part will undergo
both forward and backward sliding. For
the same drive angle but higher
acceleration, point B, the part will slide
forward and backward as well as leave the
track. That is, it will experience a hop. For
moderate acceleration and a high drive
angle, Point C, the part will only
experience forward sliding. Note that there
are regions in which no motion will take
place. Also it must be kept in mind that
this graphic only indicates what type of
motion will take place. It does not indicate
what the magnitude of the displacements
will be. However, it does dramatically
illustrate how complex the dynamic
response of the part can be. Intuitively,
can you guess what acceleration defines
the boundary for leaving the track?
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
17. Mean Conveying Velocity
Now consider how the mean conveying
velocity of the part is affected by normal
amplitude and drive angle. Although
generic in form the chart shown was
derived from the mathematical analysis of
the part motion for a specified small track
angle. It indicates that for a given value of
normal amplitude a decrease in the drive
angle results in an increase in the average
conveying velocity. Does this seem
intuitively correct? Why? To keep the
mean velocity constant an increase in the
drive angle would require an increase in
the normal amplitude. Does this seem
physically correct? Can you explain it?
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 127 -
18. Effective Hop
Next consider the effective hop a part
might experience. Again the chart is
represented as being generic but it too was
derived by mathematical analysis of the
complex response of the part to the bowl
motion. Effective hop can be interpreted
as the distance traveled forward by the
part from the time it leaves the track until it
again is in contact with it. Here again it is
seen that for constant normal amplitude
the effective hop increases as the drive
angle decreases. Note that for very low
values of normal amplitude this effect is
reversed. There are also values of normal
amplitude below which no hop will occur
for a given track angle.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
19. Important Characteristics
There are other generic response
characteristics similar to the two just
described that can also be developed. In
reality, however, it is extremely difficult to
predicate numerically what the final
average velocity of a part will be. In
practice the exact operating conditions of
the feeding bowl are generally developed
experimentally based on previous
experience with similar size and weight of
parts. However, following are some
generalized important characteristics that
are well worthwhile keeping in mind. A
zero track angle will produce the highest
part velocity. Forward conveying is really
restricted to small track angles. In practice
track angles seldom exceed a few
degrees. Because of the first
characteristic parts in the bottom of the
bowl travel faster than parts on the track.
Thus parts on the track are pushed along
by the parts from the bottom of the bowl.
This can in turn lead to the pushed parts
jamming the orienting device or falling off
the track back to the bowl bottom to be
recirculated. In reality the feed rate will
effectively be governed by the zero angle
track velocity. Hence the value of
understanding flat plate conveyor behavior
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 128 -
20. Load Sensitivity
Load sensitivity relates to the phenomena
that the feed rate of parts from a vibratory
bowl changes as the part load in the bowl
decreases. This is not surprising as the
bowl together with the parts is a mass
spring system subjected to a forcing
function. Thus the bowl performance
changes as it empties and the mass of the
system decreases. Initially a decrease in
the bowl load will result in an increase in
part velocity. As the bowl empties the part
velocity is governed by the bowl bottom.
That normally results in a subsequent
decrease in the part velocity. Generally it
is desirable to overfeed the assembly
machine but excessive overfeeding results
in increased part recirculation that could
lead to part damage.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
21. Typical Load Behavior
The graphic illustrates the effect of load
change on part feed rate from a bowl
feeder. It is observed that in the bowl as
delivered part feed rate increases as the
part load decreases. At a little less than
half load it is seen that the part feed rate
begins to decrease returning to about what
it was at full load. From full to half load the
feed rate doubles. If the system was
designed to just overfeed the machine at
full load there would be significant part
recirculation taking place at half load. This
is not very desirable. One way to correct
this situation is to stiffen the bowl. This
shifts the bowl operation on its resonance
response curve and can result in behavior
as depicted by the lower curve. Another
technique used to solve this problem is to
reload the bowl after a portion of its initial
load has been fed. To gain an insight into
how serious this problem can be a model
will now be developed to estimate the
magnitude of potential part recirculation.
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 129 -
22. Analysis Model
The initial behavior of the bowl operation
as load is decreased is modeled as a
straight line increase in feed rate as
depicted in the graphic. Using the
parameters as defined to the right of the
figure the slope of the behavior curve can
be written as the quantity F sub R minus F
sub M divided by L sub P which is the
portion of the load fed before the bowl is
reloaded to its starting operation point.
The feed rate F sub P can then be written
as F sub M plus L sub P times P, the
portion of the load fed at the feed rate F
sub P. The average part recirculation at P
is now desired.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
25. Average Recirculation
Without going into the details of its
development the average recirculation can
be expressed in terms of the integral
expression shown where R represents a
measure of the recirculation. Carrying out
the integration gives the expression
indicated in terms of the parameters
defined in the model on the previous page.
If R is zero there is no recirculation. If R is
one the recirculation is 100%. Note that if
L sub P is zero the formula gives a value of
zero for R. Hence the model assumes no
overfeed at the initial full load operating
point.
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 130 -
26. Sample Problem
Apply the recirculation formula to the data
from the typical load behavior curve
introduced earlier. Calculate the average
recirculation when the bowl is refilled after
it becomes half empty. Then calculate the
recirculation when only one quarter of the
load is fed before it is refilled. Did the
recirculation change in the direction you
expected. You can check your results by
clicking on the solution 1 and 2 buttons.
When you finish viewing the solutions and
return click on the next page button.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8
23. Decrease Load Sensitivity
There are several techniques available to
limit the effects of load sensitivity on the
change in feeding characteristics of a
given bowl. The first is to sense the level
of the load and use a second bowl to feed
the primary feeder. A second technique is
to shift the dynamic response curve of the
bowl by changing its spring constant. This
usually requires increasing the spring
stiffness as was the case with the typical
example presented earlier. The third
technique is to use an external feed track
separate from the bowl and operate the
bowl intermittently. A fourth technique is to
provide feedback control to the bowl to
hold its amplitude of oscillation constant
irrespective of the load. Click on the photo
button to view a picture of the first
technique in application. A bowl feeding
motor rotors is being monitored by a level
sensing device on the left and is being
feed additional rotors intermittently by a flat
conveyor at the top of the photo. After
closing the pop up window proceed to the
next page.
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Vibratory Part Feeding - 131 -
24. Review exercise
This review consists of three multiple-
choice questions. Click on the letter block
following each question with your choice of
answer. You will be provided with an
immediate text feedback. If you wish to
review the principle underlining the
question and its correct answer click on the
hot word in the question statement. After
finishing all three questions proceed on to
the next page.
Question 1
A. This answer is incorrect. If the part is
sliding backward the conveyor velocity is
greater than the part velocity giving rise to
a positive part acceleration.
B. Yes, this is the correct answer.
Backward sliding results in a frictional force
in the plus x direction producing a positive
acceleration.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8

27. Review Exercise (continued…) 28. Off Line Exercise

Question 2 This off line exercise deals with the

A. This answer is not correct. If the
displacement at the end of a cycle is
negative or less than zero the conveyor
has overshot its starting point.
B. Yes, this is the correct answer. If the
displacement at the end of a cycle is zero
the conveyor will have just returned to its
starting point.
analysis of a specific flat plate part
conveyor. Using the velocity curve for the
conveyor as defined on the next page
answer the three specific questions listed
on this page. If you can do this
successfully you will have demonstrated to
yourself that you understand the theory
and application of the analysis technique
developed earlier in this chapter.

C. This answer is not correct. If the

displacement at the end of a cycle is
positive or greater than zero the conveyor
will have fallen short of getting back to its
starting point.

Question 3

A. This answer is correct. If the conveyor

velocity is less than the part velocity then
the part is sliding forward creating a
negative frictional force and a negative
acceleration.

B. This answer is incorrect. The stated

condition results in forward sliding of the
part producing a negative friction force and
corresponding negative acceleration.
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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8

29. Velocity Curve

After viewing the velocity curve as long as

you choose click on the main menu button
to exit the module or select another
chapter.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 8

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9

Chapter 9
Part Delivery Rate

Screen Titles
Feed Rate Factors
Natural Resting Positions
Distribution Chart
Numerical Values
Initial Distribution Matrix
Puzzler
Part Requiring Orientation
Average Part length
Orientation System
Generic Device Matrix
Sample Matrix 1
Sample Matrix 2
Designing Orienting Devices
System Matrix
Wiper Blade and Narrow
Track
Matrix Multiplication
System Efficiency
Feed Rate Formula
Calculating Feed Rate
Review Exercise
Off Line Exercise
Questions

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9

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Part Delivery Rate - 136 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9

1. Title Page 2. Page Index

The issues dealing with the automated Listed here are all the text pages in
orientation and final feeding of small parts Chapter 9 by title. Each text page is
are covered in Chapter 9. The topics hyperlinked to its specific location in the
discussed include: the description of the chapter. It is recommended that the
natural resting position of parts in terms of reader first proceed through all pages in
an initial distribution matrix, using the initial the chapter sequentially. Any specific text
distribution matrix to determine average page can then be revisited by clicking on
part length, passive orientation devices the title after returning to the index page.
that make use of part geometry, describing
the orientation process in terms of device
and system matrices, using the initial
distribution and system matrices to
determine orientation efficiency, and finally
combining all these factors into
quantitatively determining the final feed
rate

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Part Delivery Rate - 137 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9
3. Feed Rate Factors
As parts are delivered from a vibratory
bowl they will have a variety of
orientations. Chapter 8 concentrated on
part delivery velocity. That is only one of
the factors that determines part feed rate
to the assembly operation. Before being
presented to the assembly work head the
parts must pass through some type of
process that provides only parts of the
proper orientation. The rates at which
these oriented parts are delivered are
dependent on three other factors. The first
is the distribution of part orientations as
delivered by the feeder. The second factor
deals with the physical size of the part and
the third factor is how the parts are
oriented into the final desired position.
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Part Delivery Rate - 138 -
4. Natural Resting Positions
The distribution of part orientations as
delivered by a bowl feeder is the first topic
to be considered. This is customarily
referred to as the natural resting position of
the parts. The graphic illustrated the four
natural resting positions of a cup shaped
part as it might come from a feeder. Note
that the two additional possible positions of
the part of it sitting with its central axis
perpendicular to the back of the track are
not included, as they are not stable resting
positions. The question now is what
percentage of the parts being feed as
shown will be in position a, b1, b2 and c?
This is what is meant by the initial part
distribution.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9
5. Distribution Chart
How parts will be distributed is dependent
on their shape, how their dimensions are
related and the location of their center of
gravity. A number of classical shapes
have been studied both analytically and
experimentally. The graphic illustrates a
chart that provides the results of such
studies for the cup part on the previous
page. It gives the probability of the resting
position as a function of the length to
diameter ratio of the part for a specific
center of gravity location. Note that the
surface of the track is also specified.
Assume that the part of interest has an l
over d ratio of 0.4. Hence, it is a little
squat in appearance. A vertical line drawn
through l over d of 0.4 intersect the lower
curve at a probability of 0.52, point A, and
the upper curve at 0.77, point B. Below
point A the part will be in orientation a.
Above point B the part will be in orientation
c and in between the two curves the
orientation will be b1 or b2.
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Part Delivery Rate - 139 -
6. Numerical Values
The values for A of 0.52 and B of 0.77 from
the previous page are interpreted as
follows. Fifty two % of all the parts will be
in orientation a. Parts b1 and b2 share the
orientation probabilities between points A
and B. It is not unreasonable to assume
that they will share this equally. Hence,
the percentage of parts in positions b1 and
b2 are 12.5% each which is one half the
difference between values A and B in
percentage. Finally, the percentage of
parts in orientation c will be the difference
between a probability of one and the 0.77
value at point B. Note that the four
orientation percentages add to 100%,
which accounts for all the parts.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9
7. Initial Distribution Matrix
It is convenient to express this delivered
orientation distribution in terms of a matrix
of probabilities. This is referred to as the
initial distribution matrix or IDM and is
expressed in single row form as illustrated
for the natural resting positions of the cup
part. Again note that the sum of the
probabilities is one so that all the parts are
accounted for in this format. Further note
that this is a one row by four-column
matrix. This is important as related to
some matrix multiplication that will take
place later.
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Part Delivery Rate - 140 -
8. Puzzler
Unfortunately, the natural resting positions
for only a limited number of classical
shapes like the cup part have been studied
and the results documented. Hence,
quantitative information such as on the
previous probability chart is difficult to
come by. For unusual shaped parts it is
effectively non-existent. That raises the
following question: If no chart or data is
available for a specific small part
distribution how might you estimate what it
might be? If you have problems coming up
with a simple answer and, yes, there really
is one, click on the hint button for some
help.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9
9. Part Requiring Orientation
Shown in the graphic is a simulated
rectangular part whose sides have three
different dimensions. It is desired to feed
this part such that only the orientation a is
presented to the work head for the
assembly process. In this instance it is
seen that as the part is delivered by some
vibratory feeder it can have six different
natural resting positions. It can rest on any
one of its three sides with two different
orientations. As might be expected the
probabilities associated with it resting on
side three are the greatest. The resting
probabilities then decrease, as the resting
side is two and then finally one. With
these probabilities as given the initial
distribution matrix is defined. You might
just write out the [IDM] for practice. Next
consider how the final single orientation of
this part might be accomplished.
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Part Delivery Rate - 141 -
10. Average Part length
Before going on to the subject of
orientation there is another property of the
part distribution that needs to be
considered. This is a parameter called the
average part length. It permits the
determination of the average number of
un-oriented parts that will pass a given
point if the velocity at which the parts are
moving forward is known. In other words,
the average number of parts per unit time
passing a specific point on the feed track
before orientation is simply equal to the
velocity of the parts divided by the average
part length. This parameter of average
part length is determined by multiplying the
initial distribution matrix by what is called
the length matrix of the part. The length
matrix is a column matrix of the part
lengths parallel to the track for the
orientation order in the [IDM]. The
example shown gives the length matrix for
the rectangular part described on the
previous page. Multiplication of the two
matrices results in a scalar value that for
this example gives an average part length
of 17.28 mm.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9
11. Orientation System
The most common method used to orient
parts takes advantage of the parts
geometry. This is accomplished with what
are called passive orienting devices. Two
such devices are illustrated in the graphic
for the part under consideration. The first
device is a wiper blade that is designed
with a gap between its lower edge and the
track of 12 mm. All parts that present
themselves to the wiper blade with a
dimension greater than 12 mm will simply
be wiped of the track and sent back to the
bowl to be feed again. For the rectangular
part under consideration this will eliminate
parts c and d that have a height of 14.3
mm and parts e and f that have a height of
20 mm. Only parts a and b pass under the
wiper. To eliminate part b a narrowed
track of 8 mm is employed. Then as parts
a and b pass across the narrowed track
parts b will fall back into the bowl since its
center of gravity will be over the edge of
the track. Thus only part a passes from
the vibratory feeder to the work head as
desired.
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Part Delivery Rate - 142 -
12. Generic Device Matrix
The behavior of any orienting device can
be expressed by a multiple column row
matrix. In the graphic the rows of the
matrix represent the orientation of the parts
entering the device while the columns
represent the orientation leaving the
device. The interpretation of the matrix
element a sub aa is that it represents the
percentage of parts that enter in the
orientation a that will leave in orientation a.
In other words if a sub aa is 1 then all parts
a pass through the device without having
their orientation changed. Thus element a
sub ab would be zero as well as all other
elements in the first row since the sum of
all elements in any given row must be one.
In the second row element a sub ba
represents the percentage of parts
entering with orientation b that leave the
device in orientation a. Thus what
happens to a part that enters with any
specific orientation is determined by
reading across a row and up a column. In
general this means the a sub ij represents
the percentage of parts that enter in
orientation i that leave in orientation j. In
this fashion the operation of any orientation
device can be expressed numerically.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9
13. Sample Matrix 1
In this example a wiper blade is used to
provide orientation to a rectangular block with a
square cross section. The block approaches
the device with three possible natural resting
positions. These are represented by
orientations a, b and c. Thus the device matrix
will require three rows. Since orientations c will
be wiped of the track by the blade the only
output orientations will be a and b. The
orientation matrix will therefore possess only
two columns. With all of parts a and b passing
under the wiper and leaving the device a one is
placed in the first row and first column positions
as well as the second row second column
location. All of the remainder elements in the
matrix are zero. In other words all a parts pass
through the device with none reoriented into
position b. Similarly all b parts pass through
the device with none reoriented into any other
position. Finally all of the c parts are returned
to the bowl so none of them are reoriented into
either a or b orientations. Most orienting
devices are designed to remove parts whose
orientations are not desired leaving only the
desired existing orientation to pass on.
However it is also possible to design devices
that actually change a parts orientation.
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Part Delivery Rate - 143 -
14. Sample Matrix 2
In this example only parts with orientation
a are desired to be delivered. Assuming
that parts are fed to the device in positions
a and b a V shaped cut out is used to
eliminate and return to the bowl parts b.
This is accomplished by a cut out which
takes advantage of the size of the base of
b and the location of the parts center of
gravity to have the parts tip off the track.
Since parts a have a larger base they will
pass over the cut off provided they are up
against the back of the track wall. Those
that are sufficiently forward toward the
outer edge will fall off just like parts b.
Hence, not all of parts a will pass through
the device. The orientation matrix for this
device will have two rows representing
orientations a and b but only one column
representing parts a that pass through.
However, not all of parts a will make it over
the cut off. Thus the element in the first
row first column position of the matrix is
some value less than one. In this case the
matrix indicates that 80% of parts a pass
through successfully. Again this is an
example where the unwanted part
orientation is eliminated rather than
reoriented.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9
15. Designing Orienting Devices
Designing effective and efficient orienting
devices that take advantage of a part’s unique
geometry requires a combination of
imagination and creativity. In addition to the
part geometry its center of gravity can also play
an important part in devising a passive
orienting device. There are generally two
approaches to passive orientation. The first,
which includes the examples already
discussed, is simply to eliminate the part with
the orientation that is not desired by returning
the part from the feed track to the vibratory
bowl to be refed. Perhaps these devices might
better be called part elimination devices. The
second approach is to create a device that will
actually produce a reorientation of the part from
its original resting position to some other
orientation. Try your luck at coming up with
passive device designs for the three cases
illustrated. In Case 1 a flat rectangular part is
to be reoriented to exit the device sitting on its
long edge. In Case 2 the bolt shaped part is to
be delivered oriented vertically with the cap on
top. In Case 3 a rectangular part is to be
reoriented such that it stands on its smallest
face with its intermediate face against the back
of the track as in its approach orientation. If
you need some help with this click on the hint
button to few a list of some of the common
devices in use for both elimination and
reorientation.
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Part Delivery Rate - 144 -
16. System Matrix
Most part orientation is accomplished with
several different devices that act in series.
Together these devices are referred to as
an orientation system. Creating the matrix
that describes the behavior of an
orientation system is simply a matter of
multiplying together the matrices that
represent the individual devices as
indicated in the first equation on the page.
This is illustrated generically in the
example by the three matrices a times b, b
times c, and c times d. Assume that all
orientation is a consequence of part
elimination. In the first device b will be less
than a since fewer part orientations will exit
then entered. This is similarly true in the
second and third devices. Hence, c will be
less than b and if only one orientation
remains then d will be one. Carrying out
this multiplication results in a system
matrix that will consist of a rows and d
columns. Since only one orientation is
desired at the end of the system this will be
a column matrix with rows equal to the
number of part orientations that entered
the system. The general rule required in
matrix multiplication that the columns of
the first matrix must be equal to the rows in
the second matrix must always be satisfied
in computing the system matrix.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9

17. Wiper Blade and Narrow Track 18. Matrix Multiplication

The system matrix for the wiper blade and The graphic indicates the manner in which
the narrow track that was used to eliminate two elements in the resulting c matrix are
all but one orientation of the rectangular determined from the elements in the a and
part in the earlier example will now be b matrices. The elements involved and the
determined using the process described on computations are color coded for ease of
the previous page. To begin with the wiper understanding and following the process.
blade is represented by a 6 by 2 matrix Remember that in matrix multiplication it is
that indicates that all input orientations are always across the row and down the
eliminated except a and b which pass column. When you are finished with this
through unchanged. Parts a and b then page click on the return button to go back
pass over the narrow track that eliminates to the next page in sequence in the
all b parts. Hence, the narrow track matrix chapter.
has two rows and one column indicating
that only part a passes through. These
two matrices can now be multiplied
together since the columns of the first are
equal to the rows of the second. The
result is a column matrix with 6 rows. The
numbers in brackets below the matrices
designate the row column relationship for
the multiplication process. If you would
like to review matrix multiplication click the
recall button to see how it is done.
Otherwise go on to the next page.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9

19. System Efficiency 20. Feed Rate Formula

The concept of system efficiency can now All factors are now defined to calculate the
be introduced. The system efficiency of a feed rate of final oriented parts per unit
complete orienting system is defined as time. This is done with the generic formula
the percentage of the total parts fed to the on this page. The feed rate in parts per
system that are delivered through the unit time is equal to the product of the
system in the orientation desired. system efficiency multiplied by the mean
Numerically it is determined by multiplying part velocity divided by the average part
the initial distribution matrix times the length. Recall that the average part length
complete system matrix. Since the initial is given by the product of the initial
distribution matrix is a single row matrix distribution matrix times the length matrix
and the final system matrix is a single while the efficiency is the product of the
column matrix multiplying the two together initial distribution matrix times the system
will produce a scalar product that is a matrix of the orienting devices. The mean
single number. This multiplication is part velocity can be estimated from
carried out on this page for the rectangular techniques from the previous chapter or by
part example under study. The result is experimentation.
that the efficiency is equal to 42 %. In
other words of all the parts delivered to the
wiper blade and narrow track 42 percent
will come through the system in orientation
a which was desired. The result in this
instance is essentially obvious since 42
percent of the parts were in the natural
resting position a to start with and the
wiper and narrow track simply eliminated
all the others. However, if some
reorientation of other parts had taken place
then the answer would not be obvious.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9
21. Calculating Feed Rate
For the example problem involving the
rectangular part a numerical part feed rate
can now be determined if a value is
assumed for the mean part velocity. For
the sake of argument consider a part
velocity V of 35 mm or about 1.5 inches
per second. With an efficiency of 42% and
an average part length of 17.28 mm the
part feed rate becomes 0.85 parts per
second. Obviously this formula can be
used to determine what the average part
velocity needs to be from the vibratory
feeder to provide a specified feed rate.
Now go on to the review exercise for this
chapter and an off line exercise that is
more involved than this example problem.
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Part Delivery Rate - 147 -
22. Review Exercise
In this exercise complete the first four
mathematical equations with the
appropriate mathematical symbol or
expression. You will receive an immediate
feed back by pressing the tab key. Press
the tab key a second time too go on to
another blank space. In the last equation
the blanks require words rather than
mathematical symbols. If you need any
help click on the hot word in the respective
equation. When finished click on the next
page button.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 9

23. Off Line Exercise 24. Questions

This exercise makes use of all the material
covered in this chapter and a little more.
Note that instead of the average part
velocity the bowl delivery rate is given in
parts per second prior to the orienting
system. Another difference from the
example in the chapter is that reorientation
of some parts takes place in the orienting
system. The two questions to be
answered for this problem situation are
given on the next page.
The first question implies that the feed rate
of the desired oriented part can be
determined without the average part
velocity being specified. This is true but
you will need to establish how that can be
done with the information given. The part
velocity from the bowl is addressed in the
second question where a feed rate is
specified and the average part velocity
needs to be determined. When you
understand the specifications of the
problem and the questions click on the
menu button to return to the main menu.

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Part Delivery Rate - 148 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 10

Chapter 10
Module Summary

Screen Titles
Chapter – 1
Chapter – 2
Chapter – 3
Chapter – 4
Chapter – 5
Chapter – 6
Chapter – 7
Chapter – 8
Chapter – 9

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Summary - 149 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 10

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Summary - 150 - C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 10
1. Title Page
Chapter 10 reviews what the reader should
have learned from the module by providing a
brief summary of all the preceding chapters. A
knowledge of this material coupled with the
experience derived by completing all the
included and off line exercises will not by itself
make the reader an expert in the application of
DFA. However, it will provide the reader with
the necessary tools to become a user of the
process and with practice an effective and
successful practitioner.
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Summary - 151 -
2. Page Index
Listed below are all the text pages in Chapter
10 by title.. Each text page is hyperlinked to its
specific location in the chapter. It is
recommended that the reader first proceed
through all pages in the chapter sequentially.
Any specific text page can then be revisited by
returning to the page index and clicking on the
page title. To facilitate returning to a previous
chapter for some detailed review needs each
page is also provided with a return to main
menu button.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 10
3. Chapter 1 Summary
The educational objective of chapter 1 was to
present the arguments for why DFA is so
important. It began with a consideration of the
features of the manufacturing environment of
today and the demands and requirements this
environment places on product development
for success in the world market place. The
traditional role of design and manufacturing
working in isolation from one another will no
longer meet the needs manufacturing today.
The entire process of material and information
flow in manufacturing must now be totally
integrated and proceed interactively. It exists
as a matrix of functions that constantly
exchange information and results. Even a brief
consideration of product cycle costs indicates
that the greatest impact on the success of a
product can be made in its early design phase
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Summary - 152 -
4. Chapter 2 Summary
The educational objective of chapter 2 was to
present how assembly could be both defined,
described and illustrated. It was first
recognized that assembly consists of three
operational functions; handling, composing and
checking. These functions were further
subdivided into storing, transporting and
positioning for handling; means and
mechanisms for composing and presence,
position and quality of composition for
checking. This process higharchy together
with the assembly object classifications of
machine parts, subassemblies, components,
base components and formless materials
provided an operational definition of assembly.
Reasons for assembly in terms of needs for
separate parts was established by
requirements such as movement, material
differentiation, production concerns,
replacability, functional requirements and
aesthetics. Finally the parts sequence diagram
was introduced as a graphical illustration of the
order in which parts go together in a product
and the assembly sequence or process flow
diagram was presented as a means of showing
what functions are required and their order in
the physical assembly of a device.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 10
5. Chapter 3 - Summary
The educational objective of chapter 3 was to
provide an overview to the reader of currently
used assembly systems to provide a basis of
appreciation for how the principles of DFA
might impact the process. The presentation
began with the three methods of assembly:
manual (or by hand), automated (by single
purpose machines) and flexible (by
programmable robots). In terms of unit cost
manual was the least expensive for low
production rates, automated was the least
expensive for very high production rates and
flexible feel somewhere between these later
two. In the discussion of assembly systems it
was first recognized that types required three
basic components, a transfer device, a parts
feeder and a work station. Depending on how
the product moved through the system three
line categories were defined: an indexing
system in which the product movement was
synchronized, a free transfer system where
product moved on an as needed basis made
possible by buffers and a continuous system
where the product moved continuously along
the line. Finally three geometric configurations
for these system were described. These
included the rotary, carousel and in-line
configurations.
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Summary - 153 -
6. Chapter 4 - Summary
The objective of chapter 4 was to describe and
illustrate with examples the principles of design
for assembly as applied to product design.
Seven specific principles were presented.
These included building the product on a
suitable base oriented horizontally. Layering
or stacking the components on this base by
means of vertical down insertion. Using
modular and multifunctional parts to simplify
the design and subsequent models.
Accommodating for both dimensional and
alignment errors to insure easy composition.
Simplifying and reducing the number of
fasteners consistent with good composition.
Minimizing the total number of parts in the
product. And finally either eliminating or
facilitating the handling of flexible items. A
method for identifying potential redundant parts
was presented in terms of three criteria. If the
part didn’t have to move relative to adjacent
parts, didn’t have to be of a different material
for functional reasons and didn’t have to be a
separate part for assembly or disassembly
then it was very likely the part was redundant
and could be designed out with some
creativity.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 10
7. Chapter 5 - Summary
The objective of chapter 5 was to describe and
illustrate by examples the principles of design
for assembly as applied to the design of parts
to facilitate their feeding and orienting. Special
emphasis was placed on these two activities
since in any assembly process they are a very
significant portion of the entire process. Three
specific topics were addressed relating to both
internal and external geometric part features.
The first being the avoidance of part geometry
that might result in tangling, overlapping and
nesting. The second was the value of
maximizing the symmetry of the parts external
geometry. Finally the possible emphasizing of
external asymmetric part geometry when
symmetry was neither possible nor beneficial.
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Summary - 154 -
8. Chapter 6 - Summary
The objective of chapter 6 was to show the
reader how to perform a DFA analysis of a
product and how to use the analysis to develop
change candidates for redesign that would
improve the product assemblability. The steps
of this process included first separating the
product into it component parts. The second
step was to perform a DFA system analysis,
i.e. what principles of DFA were violated in the
original design. With this information the third
step becomes using the principles of DFA to
resolve the problems and violation identified in
step two. The final step is to incorporate the
changes and evaluate the improvement in
assemblability which have been achieved.
From the commercial example presented a
valuable lesson was learned. Application of
DFA and design for assemblability must be
part of the total design process from the first
day of the product development cycle.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 10
9. Chapter 7 - Summary
The objective of Chapter 7 was to describe and
illustrate a numerical tool that provides the
means to quantify the ease of assembly of a
product design for the purpose of comparing
alternatives to improve the quality of the
assembly. The basis of the tool resides in
three steps. The first is to assign numerical
values to part to the assembly events of
feeding, insertion and fastening into the
product. In the second step these values are
treated as the orthogonal components of
vector whose magnitude is a measure of the
assembly merit of the part. The third step is
the analysis of the possible redundancy of
each part to determine its potential for
elimination from the design. With this
information two product merit figures are
defined. One is the combined average merit
that measures the overall feeding, insertion
and fastening of all the parts. The second is
the product assembly merit that accounts for
the impact of the redundant parts. The
assignment of merit event values are
discussed using a scale of 10 to 0 from easiest
to hardest. Application of the tool is carried out
for the pneumatic piston-sensing device in
Chapter 6. The results demonstrate the
application and utility of the tool from which
some general design guideline are drawn.
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Summary - 155 -
10. Chapter 8 - Summary
The objective of chapter 8 was to provide the
reader with an appreciation for and some
quantitative insight into the mechanics of the
vibratory feeding of small parts. This was
accomplished by considering in some detail
the operation of both vibratory bowl feeders
and flat plate conveyors. Following an
introduction to bowl feeder operation a
sufficiently detailed analysis of vibratory flat
conveyor dynamic response was presented to
permit the determination of average part
velocity given a prescribed conveyor motion.
The complexity of part movement in bowl
feeders was revisited with examples of
selected generic studies of potential motion
responses as well as input acceleration and
track angle effects on part velocity and hop
behavior. Some general guidelines were
presented applicable to bowl feeder use. The
subject was completed with a brief overview of
the effect of bowl loading on part recirculation.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Chapter 10
11. Chapter 9 - Summary
The subject of the quantitative determination of
part delivery rates was covered in chapter 9.
This began with a consideration of factors that
affect the rate at which oriented parts are
delivered to the work head. The first issue
considered was the natural resting positions of
parts coming from a feeder and the use of an
initial distribution matrix to numerically
represent their probability of orientation. The
concept of average part length as the product
of the initial distribution matrix and the length
matrix was presented. The subject of passive
orienting devices that take advantage of part
geometry was introduced and their behavior
characterized numerically by device and
system matrices. This led to the definition of
orientation system efficiency as the product of
the initial distribution matrix and the complete
orientation system matrix. Finally a generic
feed rate formula was presented as the
efficiency times the initial part velocity divided
by the average part length.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Summary - 156 -
12. Conclusion
I want to thank you for the personal effort you
have expended and patience exhibited in
working your way through educational module
on Design for Assembly. It was my pleasure to
serve as your instructor and guide. I hope you
found the subject and the material both
interesting and of value. As stated in the
introduction to this chapter a knowledge of this
material coupled with the experience derived
by completing all the included and off-line
exercises will not by itself make the reader an
expert in the application of DFA. However, it
will provide you with the necessary tools to
become a user of the process and with
practice an effective and successful
practitioner. I wish you good luck in your
endeavor to do so.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Appendix

Page Index
Quizzes and Solutions
Project Instructions

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

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Mechanical Design for Assembly - Appendix

Index
A DFA
Accommodation for Errors 61 Basic Tenets 18
Aesthetic Considerations 31 Not a New Idea 18
Alignment Examples 62, 63, 64 DFA Subdivisions 58
DFA Systems Analysis 95, 97
Assembly Definition 21
Distribution Chart 139
Assembly Economics 45
Assembly Functions 24
E
Assembly Line Categories 46
Assembly Line Components 45
Assembly Objects 30 F
Fastener Reduction 64, 65
Assembly Process 26
Fastening Methods 111
Demo 27, 28, 29 Feed Rate Calculation 147
Assembly Purpose 24 Feed Rate Factors 138
Assembly Sequence Diagram 35 Feed Rate Formula 146
Assembly Systems 41 Feeding Choices
Assembly System Matrix 50, 51 Manual 109
Asymmetry 85, 86 Automated 110
Automated Assembly 43 Feeding and Orienting 78
Average Part Length 141 Flat Plate Conveyor 121
Average Part Velocity 124 Flexible Assembly 44
Average Recirculation 130 Flexible Items 71
Flexible Items Examples 72
Formless Material 30
B Forward Part Movement 124, 125
Base Component 30 Four Part Spindle 33
Building Block 30 Free Transfer Line 46, 47
Function Differentiation 31
C Functional Requirements 31
Carousel Configuration 48, 49
Checking 24, 26 G
Combined Average Merit 109 Generic Device Matrix 142
Comparison of Merit Results 114 Sample Matrix 1 143
Component 30 Sample Matrix 2 143
Composing 24, 25 Geometric Line Configurations 48
Continuous Line 46, 47
Conveyor Velocity 122
Copier Latch Example 99, 100 H
Criteria – Part Redundancy 73 Handling 24, 25
Hard Automation 42
D
Decrease Load Sensitivity 131 I
Definition of Assembly 21 Importance of Manufacturing 14
Demographic Pressures 14 In Line Configuration 48
Design Change Candidates 95, 97 Increased Competition 14
Designing Orienting Devices 144
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Mechanical Design for Assembly - Appendix

N
Narrow Track 145
Indexing Line 46 Natural Resting Position 138
Information Flow 15 Nesting 84
Initial Distribution Matrix 140
Innovative Products 14 O
Insertion Directions 110 Off line exercises
International Competition 14 Chapter 1 19
Chapter 2 36, 37
J Chapter 3 53
Joining 24, 25 Chapter 4 ..74
Chapter 5 90
K Chapter 6 101
Chapter 7 116
Chapter 8 132, 133
L Chapter 9 148
Layered Assembly 60 Operation (CD) 9, 10
Load Sensitivity 128 Orientation System 142
Analysis Model 129 Original Diaphragm Valve 94
Typical Load Behavior 129 Original Light Switch 98
Original Pneumatic Piston 96
M Original Pneumatic Piston Merit 112, 113
Machine Part 30 Overlapping 79, 83
Manual Assembly 42, 43
Manual Station 45 P
Manufacturing Environment 14 Part Mechanics 122
Manufacturing Opportunity 17 Part Merit Calculation 108
Material Differentiation 31 Part Merit Rating 107
Material Flow 15 Part Motion 123
Matrix Multiplication 145 Part Sequence Diagram 30
Means 25 Part Redundancy Criteria 73
Mechanisms 25 Parts Feeder 45
Methods of Assembly 42 Positioning 25
Minimize Parts 68 Presence 26
Minimize Parts Examples 68, 69, 70, 71 Principles of Part Design 78
Modular Parts 61 Principles of Product Design 59
Module Summary 149 Product Assembly Merit 109
Chapter 1 152 Product Cycle Cost 16
Chapter 2 152 Product Merit Rating 109
Chapter 3 153 Product Merit Spreadsheet 112
Chapter 4 153 Production Considerations 31
Chapter 5 154 Protrusion 79, 82
Chapter 6 154
Chapter 7 155 Q
Chapter 8 155 Quality Crisis 14
Chapter 9 156 Quantifying Assembly 105
Movement 31 Quantitative Tool 107
Multifunctional Parts 61

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Mechanical Design for Assembly - Appendix

R Vibratory Bowl Feeder 120

Reasons for Assembly 30 Vibratory Bowl Part Movement 125
Replacability 31 Effective Hop 127
Redesign Process 94 Important Characteristics 128
Redesigned Diaphragm Valve 96 Limits 126
Redesigned Light Switch 99 Mean Conveying Velocity 127
Redesigned Pneumatic Piston 98
Redesigned Pneumatic Piston Merit 113, 114
Redundancy Check 111 W
Review Exercises
Wiper Blade 145
Chapter 1 19
Work head 45
Chapter 2 35, 36
Chapter 3 52
Chapter 4 73, 74 X
Chapter 5 89
Chapter 6 101 Y
Chapter 7 115, 116
Chapter 8 131, 132
Chapter 9 147
Z
Robot 45
Rotary Configuration 48

S
Shingling 81
Shortage of Talent 14
Snap Fasteners 65
Snap Fastener Examples 66, 67
Soft Automation 42
Stacked Assembly 60
Storing 25
Subassembly 30
Suitable Base 59
Symmetry 85,86
System Efficiency 146
System Matrix 144

T
Tangling 79, 80, 81, 82
Traditional Design Approach 15
Transfer System 45
Transporting 25

V
Valve Assembly 32
Vibratory Bowl Displacement 120

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Mechanical Design for Assembly - Appendix
Mechanical Design for Assembly
Project Instructions
Purpose:
The purpose of the project is to redesign
an existing commercial product to improve
its ease of assembly using the principles of
design for assembly.
Selection of Product:
The product chosen for this project
should be different from and more complex
than any example already covered. An
appropriate product should be something
that is not too large but should consist of a
minimum of 20-30 parts or more. For
convenience select an item that can be
readily disassembled with simple hand tools.
A discarded counter top kitchen appliance or
power hand tool is about the right size and
complexity. If you work for a company that
produces mechanical products, that fit this
description, it might prove interesting and
potentially worthwhile to select one for this
project.
Procedure:
The suggested procedure for conducting
this project is to follow the guidelines of the
generic 4 step Product Redesign Process
outlined at the beginning of chapter 6. Since
the product will be more complex it is further
suggested that a written report of the redesign
effort be prepared following the steps
outlined in the next section. This will
accomplish two objectives. First, it will
insure that all items necessary for a complete
redesign effort will have been appropriately
addressed. Second, it will provide
experience in preparing a record of the
project effort and results in a form
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Redesign Project - 163 -
appropriate for presentation to management
for some potential action.
It is further suggested that the project be
conducted over a period of a week or two.
This will provide sufficient “soak” time for
different creative options for redesign to be
developed and considered. The objective is
to come up with the best redesign. It will not
necessarily be the first idea considered.
Report Preparation:
Your reports should be professionally
prepared. It should be typed and all
drawings, tables, etc. should be neat and well
prepared. The appearance of the report as
well as its content are important to the
completeness of the project as well as to your
satisfaction with the final result. Use of
photographs where appropriate for greater
clarity of description is recommended.
Report Contents:
A complete final report should contain
the following items:
1. Title Page
2. Executive Summary
3. Table of contents with page numbers
4. Picture of the original product together
with a description of its function and how
it works.
5. An assembly drawing of the product
showing how the parts go together .
6. A list of all the parts with associated
numbers that also appear on the assembly
drawing.
C.F. Zorowski © 2004
Mechanical Design for Assembly - Appendix

7. A part sequence diagram that gives the Example Project Results:

assembly sequence of parts into
appropriate subassemblies and how they Abbreviated example results of several
go together into the final product. This redesign projects completed in
should be in the form illustrated in accordance with these instructions are
Chapter 2. Use names and numbers for given on the following page.
identification of parts from item 5.
8. The description of a DFA analysis of the
product covering the principles of
product and part design covered in
Chapters 4 and 5 in preparation for
redesign. Don’t forget potential part
redundancy.
9. A list of candidate design changes in the
product to improve ease of assembly with
justifications for these proposed changes.
10. An assembly drawing of the redesigned
product incorporating the changes from
item 8. Its comparison with item 4
should give a visual indication of the
improvements that have been made.
11. A list of all the parts in the redesigned
product with associated numbers that also
appear on the assembly drawing.
12. A part sequence diagram for the
assembly sequence of the redesigned
product.
13. A quantitative analysis of the original
design following the procedure outlined
in Chapter 7. This should include a
discussion and justification of merit
values assigned for feeding, insertion and
fastening.
14. A quantitative analysis of the redesigned
product including the same discussion
asked for in item 12.
15. A comparison and analysis of the results
of the two quantitative analyses.
16. Conclusions as to the success of your
redesign effort.

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 1 – Quiz

Name: ______________________________________

1. List six characteristics of today’s manufacturing

environment.
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

2. What are the four steps that products go through from raw
material and components to finished products as discussed
in material and information flow.
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

3. List three objectives achieved by all well designed assembly

toys
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 1 – Quiz

Name: __Master____________________________________

1. List six characteristics of today’s manufacturing

environment.
1. International competition
2. Innovative products
3. Increased customization
4. Productivity pressure
5. Quality crisis
6. Demographic pressures
7. Lack of technical talent
2. What are the four steps that products go through from raw
material and components to finished products as discussed
in material and information flow.
1. Buy
2. Process
3. Assemble
4. Sell
3. List three objectives achieved by all well designed assembly
toys
1. Eliminate fasteners
2. Standardize components
3. Fit or snap together
4. Reduce assembly time and skills

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 2 – Quiz

Name: ______________________________________

1. List the three functions that make up Assembly-

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

2. What are the three activities associated with Handling?

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

3. Name four reasons for separate parts in a product.

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

4. List and describe four assembly objects.

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 2 – Quiz

Name: Master__________________
1. List the three functions that make up Assembly-
1. Handling
2. Composing (joining)
3. Checking
2. What are the three activities associated with Handling?
1. Storing
2. Transporting
3. Orienting
3. Name four reasons for separate parts in a product.
1. Movement
2. Material differentiation
3. Replacibility
4. Function differentiation
5. Production considerations
6. Functional requirements
7. Aesthethis considerations
4. List and describe four assembly objects.
1. Machine part – individual element
2. Component – any part or subassembly
3. Subassembly – collection of assembled parts
4. Base component – part on which product is built
5. Building block – assembly that performs a special
function
6. Formless material – glue, paint, liquids

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 3 – Quiz

Name: ______________________________________

1. Name Three Methods of Assembly.

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

2. What are the major components that make up an

assembly line?
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

3. List three basic assembly line categories.

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

4. What are the common geometric line configurations?

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

5. Indicate which assembly line combinations are good or poor.

Flexible –Free Transfer good____ poor____
Manual – Indexing good____ poor____
Manual – Continuous good____ poor____
Automated - Continuous good____ poor____

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 3 – Quiz

Name: ________Master______________________________

1. Name Three Methods of Assembly.

1. Manual
2. Automated (Hard automation)
3. Flexible (soft automation)
2. What are the major components that make up an
assembly line?
1. Transfer system
2. Feeding devices
3. Work station, robot, etc.
3. List three basic assembly line categories.
1. Indexing
2. Free transfer
3. Continuous
4. What are the common geometric line configurations?
1. Rotary
2. Carousel
3. In-line
5. Indicate which assembly line combinations are good or poor.
Flexible –Free Transfer good_X__ poor____
Manual – Indexing good____ poor_X__
Manual – Continuous good_X__ poor____
Automated - Continuous good____ poor_X__

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 4 – Quiz

Name: ______________________________________

1. What are the two DFA subdivisions?

_________________________
_________________________

2. List five general principles of Product Design.

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

3. Give three guidelines for simplifying and reducing fasteners.

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
4. List the three criteria for potential part redundancy.
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 4 – Quiz

Name: _______Master_______________________________

1. What are the two DFA subdivisions?

1. Product design
2. Design of parts
2. List five general principles of Product Design.
1. Build on a suitable base
2. Layer or stack assembly
3. Use modular or multi-functional parts
4. Accommodate for errors
5. Simplify and reduce fasteners
6. Limit flexible items
7. Minimize parts
3. Give three guidelines for simplifying and reducing fasteners.
1. use snaps, tabs, etc.
2. Self tapping screws
3. Vertical insertion
4. Provide room for tooling
5. Remember field maintenance
6. Use welding and adhesives
4. List the three criteria for potential part redundancy.
1. Adjacent part movement
2. Requires different materials
3. Need to assemble or disassemble

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 5 – Quiz

Name: ______________________________________

1. Principles of part design?

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

2. Guidelines for eliminating overlapping and tangling.

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

3. Guidelines for using asymmetry.

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

4. True – False.
Symmetry about the insertion axis is the best. T__ F__
Asymmetry is important as an internal feature . T__ F__
Open coil springs are not difficult to feed. T__ F__
Orientation is facilitated by symmetry. T__ F__

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 5 – Quiz

Name: _______Master_______________________________

1. Principles of part design?

1. Facilitate feeding and orienting
2. Avoid Tangling, overlaping,and nesting
3. Maximize symmetry
4. Emphasize asymmetry if symmetry not possible/helpful
2. Guidelines for eliminating overlapping and tangling.
1. Eliminate protrusion
2. Close coil spring ends
3. Provide thicker contact surfaces to avoid shingling
4. Reduce opening size in snap rings, etc.
5. Increase angle s on elements that might overlap
6. Use gravity to help
7. Use ribs to stop nesting
3. Guidelines for using asymmetry.
1. Exaggerate small features of asymmetric geometry
2. Deliberately add asymmetric features
3. Remove material to produce asymmetric external features
4. True – False.
Symmetry about the insertion axis is the best. T_X_ F___
Asymmetry is important as an internal feature T___ F_X_
Open coil springs are not difficult to feed. T___ F_X_
Orientation is facilitated by symmetry. T_X_ F___

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 6 – Quiz

Name: ______________________________________

1. What are the four steps of the Product Redesign Process

_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________

2. What is one good measure of improvement of a product

redesign using principles of DFA
_________________________

3. When is it most important to apply design for assembly

principles in the development of a product..
_____________________________________________

4. In the diaphragm valve redesign what kind of part

elimination made the greatest improvement?
______________________________________________

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 6 – Quiz

Name: _______Master_______________________________

1. What are the four steps of the Product Redesign Process

1. Separate assembly into components
2. Perform a DFA analysis of existing design
3. Develop design change candidates
4. Evaluate redesign for improvements

2. What is one good measure of improvement of a product

redesign using principles of DFA
1. Reduction in number of parts

3. When is it most important to apply design for assembly

principles in the development of a product.
1. Apply DFA from first day of product design

4. In the diaphragm valve redesign what kind of part

elimination made the greatest improvement?
1. Fasteners

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 7 – Quiz

Name: ____________________________________________

1. Draw a geometric interpretation of the part merit rating.

2. What is the formula for calculation the part merit rating?

3. What is the formula for the Combined Average Merit (CAM)?.

4. What is the formula for calculating the Product assembly

Merit (PAM)?

5. List the three criteria for checking potential part redundancy.

_______________________
_______________________
_______________________

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Mechanical Design for Assembly – Appendix

Chapter 7 – Quiz

Name: ______Master________________________________

1. Draw a geometric interpretation of the part merit rating.

Easy - 10
Insertion

Easy - 10
8
Fastening

Easy - 10

Feeding

2. What is the formula for calculation the part merit rating?

(FeM )2 + (InM )2 + (FaM )2

Part Merit =
3
3. What is the formula for the Combined Average Merit (CAM)?.
Sum of part merits
CAM =
Sum of parts
4. What is the formula for calculating the Product assembly
Merit (PDM)?
⎧ Sum of redundant parts ⎫
PAM = CAM ⎨1 − ⎬
⎩ Sum of parts ⎭
5. List the three criteria for checking potential part redundancy.
1. Movement
2. Different material
3. Assemble or disassemble

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