Language and Meaning: Helping Minds Meet: C H A P T E R

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5 H A P T
After finishing this chapter, you

should be able to
1. Define language.
E
2. Describe and explain the triangle of

meaning.
R
Language and
Meaning: Helping
Minds Meet
3. Distinguish between connotative and

denotative meanings.
4. Discuss how culture and gender

influence language use.
5. Provide examples of bypassing and

intensional and extensional
orientation.
6. Identify two strategies to improve

oral language abilities.
7. Explain how technology is affecting

language use.
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P A R T
Whatever we call a thing, whatever we say it is, it is not. For whatever
1
we say is words, and words are words and not things. The words are 2
maps, and the map is not the territory.
—Harry L. Weinberg, “Some Limitations of Language” 3
Tact is . . . a kind of mind reading.
—Sara Orne Jewett
4
Have you ever considered not speaking for a day? What about for a week? A month?
How about a year? What if you were not allowed to use any words to make yourself
understood? The words that constitute language are so much a part of our lives that
many of us cannot imagine not being able or allowed to use them.
Like so many other things of importance, however, the ability to communicate
is frequently appreciated only when it is threatened or lost. We depend on language
to help us share meaning with others. By understanding how language works, we
will become better able to use words to do just that. The sharing of meaning is what
communication is all about.
■ ■ ■
WHAT LANGUAGE IS
Language is a unified system of symbols that permits the sharing of meaning.
A symbol stands for, or represents, something else. Words are symbols, and thus
words represent things. Notice the words represent and stand for rather than are.
This is a very important distinction. Words stand for, or represent, things but are
not the things they stand for. Words are spoken sounds or the written represen-
tations of sounds that we have agreed will stand for something else. Thus, by
mutual consent, we can make anything stand for anything.
The process of communication involves using words to help create meanings
and expectations. However, as important as words are in representing and describ-
ing objects and ideas, meaning is not stamped on them. Meanings are in people,
not in words. Even a common word such as cat can bring to mind meanings rang-
ing from a fluffy Angora to a sleek leopard. Your goal in communicating with
another person is to have your meanings overlap, so that you can each make sense
out of the other’s messages and understand each other. Thus, to communicate, you
translate the meaning you want to express into language, so that the other per-
son will respond to it by forming a meaning similar to yours. Although language
is obviously intended to aid communication, far too often language serves as its
obstacle.
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106 PART 1 THE ESSENTIALS OF COMMUNICATION
Ethics & Communication

Looking at Language particularly difficult to enter into the world that goes with
There is a joke among language scholars: another language because it requires them to adopt
another point of view, another way of doing things.1 To
Q: What do you call a person who speaks three combat this stereotype and change the way Americans
languages? look at the world and at themselves, should they have to
A: A trilingual. learn another language? Why or why not?
Q: What do you call a person who speaks two languages? Soon after 9/11, U.S. intelligence agencies realized
A: A bilingual. they needed to hire U.S. citizens who read and spoke
Q: What do you call a person who speaks one language? Arabic to translate both documents or e-mails written in
A: An American. Arabic and the messages picked up via cell or satellite
phones that were spoken in Arabic. The agencies still
In his book Language Shock, Michael Agar notes that
face the problem of finding these people.
a commonly held stereotype is that Americans find it
online learning center HOW LANGUAGE WORKS: WORDS,

THINGS, AND THOUGHTS
Go to the Online Learning
Language fulfills its potential only if we use it correctly. The triangle of meaning,
Center at
www.mhhe.com/gamble9 developed by two communication theorists—C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards—
and answer the questions helps explain how language works (see Figure 5.1).2 In Ogden and Richards’ tri-
in the Self Inventory to angle of meaning, the three points are thought, word, and thing. The broken line
evaluate your understanding connecting word (a symbol) and thing (a referent, or stimulus) indicates that the
of communication terms. word is not the thing and that there is no direct connection between the two. Thus,
when you use words, you need to remind yourself that the only relationships
language between the words you use and the things they represent are those that exist in
a unified system of symbols people’s thoughts (including, of course, your own). Frequently, even the existence
that permits the sharing of of an image (a physical object) does not establish meaning. Some years ago, a
meaning public service commercial depicting a rat and a child living in a tenement was
symbol
shown on television. The child was seen beckoning to the rat as she repeated,
that which represents
“Here, kitty, kitty! Here, kitty, kitty!” Although this example may seem somewhat
something else bizarre, its meaning is really quite clear: It is possible for two of us to look at the
same object but give it different meanings, because the meaning of anything is
triangle of meaning inside each person who experiences it.3 If you are to be a successful communica-
a model that explains the rela- tor, you should understand the relationships that exist between words and people’s
tionship which exists among thoughts and reactions.4
words, things, and thoughts
FIGURE 5.1 Thought

Triangle of Meaning.
Word Thing
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CHAPTER 5 LANGUAGE AND MEANING: HELPING MINDS MEET 107
Skill Builder
The Triangle of Meaning at Work If you don’t know Morse code, the information means
Situation 1. “Congratulations. You’ve just given birth to nothing, even if you hear it quite clearly. Meaning is not
a 3.5-kilogram baby.” How do you respond? Your joy is in the cues reaching our senses, but in the associations
momentarily muted if you don’t know what a kilogram we attach to them.
is. There is no information in bare facts; information Situation 3. Instead of referring to North Korea as
comes from what you do with the facts and what you “the imperialist aggressor,” U.S. government officials
bring to them. If you’ve never stored a mental image of have been instructed to refer to it as a “superpower
a kilogram, you can’t generate a mental image of the of concern.”6 Then President George W. Bush included
baby’s weight from the data.5 North Korea in the “axis of evil.” Will this make a
Situation 2. Imagine that you’re at an old Western Union difference in how we perceive and behave toward the
telegraph office. The telegraph operator hears a message North Korean people?
on the wire and bursts into tears. You hear the same Situation 4. Provide your own example of the triangle of
dots and dashes but have no reaction at all. Why not? meaning at work.
Teaching Tip
THE COMMUNICATION OF MEANING
Have students provide
The communication of meaning from one person to another is a key function of examples of difficulties they
language. The factors identified in this section relate to problems in the sharing have had sharing meaning
of meaning. with others. Ask them the
following questions: How
can words create walls
Word Barriers between people? Who
should be “in charge” of
In talking to others, we often assume too quickly that they understand what
meaning: the speaker or the
we mean. There are many reasons, however, we may not be understood as we
receiver? What should both
want to be and why the words we use can create barriers. In Lewis Carroll’s the speaker and the
Through the Looking Glass, Humpty Dumpty and Alice have the following con- receiver do to help tear
versation: down a “word wall”?
“I don’t know what you mean by ‘glory,’” Alice said.
Humpty Dumpty smiled contemptuously, “Of course you don’t—till I tell you. Words, like eyeglasses, blur
I meant, ‘There’s a nice knock-down argument for you!’” everything that they do not
“But ‘glory’ doesn’t mean ‘A nice knock-down argument,’” Alice objected. make more clear.
“When I use a word,” Humpty Dumpty said in a rather scornful tone, “it means just — Joseph Jourbert
what I choose it to mean—neither more nor less.”
We can make words mean whatever we want them to mean. Nothing stops
us—except our desire to share meaning with others.
Meanings Are Both Denotative and Connotative denotative meaning

We may experience a problem in communication if we consider only our own dictionary meaning; the
objective or descriptive
meaning for a word. Although we know what we mean, the crucial question is,
meaning of a word
What does our word bring to mind for those with whom we are communicating?
When we think about what language means, we must think in terms of both connotative meaning
denotative (objective, or dictionary) meaning and connotative (subjective, or per- subjective meaning; one’s
sonal) meaning. personal meaning for a word
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www.CartoonStock.com
John and Judy spent their Saturday waxing.
MEANING AND TIME

Every noteworthy event, particularly catastrophes, catapult words into everyday
speech and dictionaries. September 11, 2001, is no exception. When the American
Dialect Society met to decide the top or newly reconditioned words of the previ-
ous year, 9/11 was voted the expression most likely to last. Also recognizing this,
the editors of the American Heritage College Dictionary’s fourth edition went back
in after their editorial deadline and added an entry for 9/11.
Words come and go from dictionaries. For example, the word wilding, mean-
ing the action or practice by a gang of youths of going on a protracted and vio-
lent rampage in a street, a park, or another public place, attacking or mugging
people at random along the way, was included in the fourth edition of The
American Heritage Dictionary, released in 2000. The word became popular after
being used by suspects in the rape of a Central Park jogger to describe their behav-
ior: “We were going wilding,” one of them told police. The use of the word has
since faded because it was intrinsically linked with that attack. When issues fade
from consciousness, some words fade with them.7
Bad now has a new definition—“good.” The word gay, now an acceptable term
for “homosexual,” has lost its former primary meaning of “happy,” “bright,” or
“merry.” Until the creation of the Apple computer, when people heard the word
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Skill Builder
A Time Capsule for Words
1. Briefly define each of the following terms:
Net
Pot
Hooking up
Straight
Crack
Kicks
Mud
Blunt
Happy ending
AIDS
Spam
Cookies
2. Show the list, without definitions, to your parents, older relatives, or older friends, and ask them to write their
definitions for the words.
3. Compare your meaning for each term with the meanings given by others. Why do you suppose their meanings
differed from yours?
4. Pretend it is now the year 2020. On a separate sheet of paper, create a new meaning for each word listed.
apple, they probably thought of the fruit. That’s probably not the first thing you
think of today when someone refers to an apple. (To get a good sense of how time
affects meaning, try the Skill Builder “A Time Capsule for Words” above.)
Time, then, is certainly an important element in determining meaning. Con-
sequently, when we use a word that referred to a particular object at a particular
time, we should attempt to determine if it still means the same thing now. Many
“old” words acquire vivid new meanings every decade or so. It is often necessary
to remember this when speaking with people who are older or younger than we
are. Viruses today are not just germs spread from person to person, but malicious
programs that can spread instantaneously from one computer to millions of other
computers globally.8
MEANING AND PLACE

Words change meaning not only over time, but also from one region of the coun- Discussion Question
try to another. For example, what would you envision having if you were to stop Do different generations
for a soda? For an egg cream? What each word brings to mind probably depends and different regions of
on the region of the country you grew up in. In some parts of the United States, the country have different
soda refers to a soft drink, but in others it refers to a concoction of ice cream and meanings for the same
a soft drink. In some sections of the country, egg cream refers to a mixture of seltzer, words or different words
syrup, and milk, but elsewhere it conjures up the image of an egg mixed with cream. for the same things?
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MEANING AND EXPERIENCE

The meanings we assign to words are based on our past experiences with the words
and with the things they represent. Consider the word cancer, for example. If you
were dealing with three people in a hospital—a surgeon, a patient, and a statisti-
cian—how do you imagine each would react to this word? The surgeon might
think about operating procedures or diagnostic techniques, or about how to tell a
patient that he or she has cancer. The patient might think about the odds for
recovery and might well be frightened. The statistician might see cancer as an
important factor in life expectancy tables.
Unlike denotative (dictionary) meanings—which are generally agreed to and
are objective, abstract, and general—connotative (personal) meanings are indi-
vidual, subjective, and emotional. Thus, your own experiences influence the mean-
ings you assign to words; that is, your connotative meanings vary according to your
own feelings for the object or concept you are considering.
Discussion Question
Do you find it easier to
Whether Language Is Concrete
speak abstractly or or Abstract Influences Meaning
concretely? Why? Who do
The language we use varies in its specificity. Consider this family pet. We could
you imagine finds it easier
to speak concretely, men
call it:
or women? dog
domesticated canine
small, domesticated canine
a toy Poodle
Lucy
In each instance, our description becomes somewhat more specific. Alfred Korzybski
and S. I. Hayakawa devised an abstraction ladder to describe this process.9 The lad-
der is composed of a number of descriptions of the same
thing. Lower items focus specifically on the person,
object, or event, while higher items are generalizations
that include the subject as part of a larger class. As the
words we use move from abstract (less specific) to con-
crete (more specific), they become more precise in
meaning and are more likely to appeal to our senses
and conjure up a picture. Specific words clarify mean-
ing by narrowing the number of possible images a per-
son pictures. Were we to talk, for example, about our
children’s academic experiences, we could say that one
of our children is in graduate school and the other is
working at a university (rather high levels of abstrac-
tion), or we could get more concrete and say that our
daughter is an MBA candidate at a New York college
and our son has a postdoctoral fellowship at an Ivy
League university. What would we need to do to make
these statements even more concrete?
Using high-level abstractions serves a number of
Lucy is a poodle with functions. First, because high-level abstractions function as a kind of verbal short-
personality. hand, they enable us to generalize, and our communication becomes easier and faster.
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Second, when we believe it is necessary, because they also enable us to be deliber- Group Activity
ately unclear, high-level abstractions allow us to limit understanding and avoid con- Ask students to clip
frontations. When, for example, a friend asks you what you think of a new outfit or examples from the daily
your boss asks you what you think of a new corporate strategy, if telling the truth newspaper of both high-
appears too risky to you, you can offer an abstract answer to the question and avoid level abstractions and more
being put on the line. On the other hand, relying on high-level abstractions can also concrete uses of language.
cause meaning to become fuzzy—primarily because the words you use can be inter- Have them identify the
purposes served by both
preted ambiguously. Thus, becoming aware of levels of abstraction reduces the like-
kinds of language use.
lihood of misunderstandings. For example, if individuals do not have a reservoir of
shared experiences or interpretations, using more concrete language can enhance
understanding between them. The goal is to use the level of abstraction that meets
the needs of your communication objectives and the situation.
CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

Since culture influences language use, communication between members of diverse
cultures can be a challenge.
Culture Influences the Words Used

Both the dominant culture (the culture in power, the mainstream culture composed dominant culture
of people who share the same values, beliefs, and ways of behaving and communi- the culture in power;
cating and who pass them on from one generation to another) and co-cultures the mainstream culture
(groups of people such as African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, musicians, athletes,
environmentalists, and drug users, who have a culture of their own outside the dom-
inant culture) have different languages. Hence, usages vary from culture to culture.
Some cultures encourage
If a concept is important to a culture, there will be a large number of terms to minimal verbal communication.
describe it. For example, in our culture, the word money is very important and we A Japanese proverb says, “By
have many words to describe it: Wealth, capital, assets, backing, resources, and finance your mouth you shall perish.”
are just a few. Similarly, the Inuit, or Eskimos, have a number of words for snow, What do you think this proverb
because they need to be able to make fine distinctions when speaking of it. While means?
English is somewhat lacking when it comes to individual words for snow (we have
words like sleet, slush, blizzard, and powder), Inuktitut, the Inuit language, has dif-
ferent words for snow that is falling (quanniq), snow on the ground (aput), snow that
is blowing (pirsiriug), snow that is drifting (natiruvaaq), wet snow (masak), wet and
compact snow (kinirtaq), fresh and wet, soggy snow (aquilluqaaq), the first snowfall
of autumn (apigiannagaut), encrusted snow that gives way underfoot (katakarktariaq),
and snow causing crunchy sounds when you walk (qeqergranaartoq), to name just a
few.10 In contrast to the Inuit, Arabs have only one word for snow—talg—and it
refers to either ice or snow. The Arabs are simply not very interested in snow, since
it rarely affects them. Similarly, Mandarin (a Chinese language) reflects the inter-
ests and concerns of the Chinese people. There are, for example, at least 19 Chinese
words for silk and 8 for rice. And because the Chinese care deeply for their fami-
lies, there is a plethora of words for relations. The Chinese have 5 words they can
use for uncle, depending on whose brother he is.11 Sapir–Whorf hypothesis
The world we experience helps shape the language we speak, and the lan- the belief that the labels we
guage we speak helps sustain our perception of reality and our view of our world. use help shape the way we
This idea is contained in the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, which holds that the labels think, our worldview, and our
we use help shape the way we think, or our habits of thinking; our worldview, or behavior
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the way we perceive the world; and our behavior. According to the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis, people from different cultures perceive stimuli and communicate dif-
ferently, at least in part because of their language differences. For this reason, you
should not assume that the words you use and the words people from other
linguistic determinism cultures use mean the same thing, nor should you assume that you even see the
the belief that language same reality when viewing the same stimulus. Language and perception are
influences how we interpret
intertwined.12
the world
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has two threads: linguistic determinism and lin-
linguistic relativity guistic relativity. Linguistic determinism suggests that our language influences how
the belief that persons who we interpret the world. Linguistic relativity suggests that, since language affects
speak different languages thought, persons who speak different languages will perceive the world differently.
perceive the world differently In When Cultures Collide, Richard Lewis explains why the Zulu language has 39
words for green, while English has but 1. According to a Zulu chief, before their
Group Activity national highway system exisited, the Zulu were required to make long trips across
Tell students that the the savannah, or grasslands. Since no signposts or maps existed to facilitate their
failure of Ford to sell one journeys, they had to rely on the descriptions of those who traveled the road
of its car models, the before. Thus, the Zulu devised different words for tree leaves, bush leaves, leaves
Pinto, in Brazil has been vibrating with the wind, river greens, pool greens, tree trunk greens, crocodile
traced to the fact that pinto greens, and so on. The different greens functioned much as a map would in alert-
in Brazilian slang means
ing the travelers to important route signposts.13
“tiny male genitals.” After
realizing this, Ford renamed
the car Corcel, meaning Cultural Differences Can Lead to Confused Translations
“horse.” Have students
research other instances Translating ideas from one language to another can lead to problems. Sometimes
when the use of a word the situation produced by a bungled translation, while costly, is still amusing. For
caused problems for a U.S. example, an English-speaking representative of an American soft drink company
corporation or the U.S. could not understand why Mexican customers laughed when she offered them free
government. Have them samples of Fresca soda. In Mexican slang, the word fresca can be translated as
discuss how the word “lesbian.” Similarly, Beck’s beer has been translated into Chinese as Bei Ke, which
problem was or could be means “shellfish overcome.”14 Along the same lines, Dr Pepper no longer runs its
solved.
“I’m a Pepper” ads in the United Kingdom, because pepper in British slang means
“prostitute.”
Poorly translated reports can
Other times, however, a poor translation can insult and confuse recipients.
have economic as well as
political repercussions. For For example, one Spanish-language letter sent to welfare recipients about changes
example, a badly translated in New Jersey’s welfare program contained numerous grammatical errors, suggest-
version of a Chinese tourism ing a lack of multicultural competency. Referring to the recipient’s ability to
reporter’s speculative musings support himself or herself, the letter uses the word soportarse. But the common
on how an appreciation of the
translation of the verb support in Spanish is sostener or mantener. In Spanish,
Chinese currency might play
itself out not only made the soportarse means “to tolerate oneself.” Another section translated parole violator as
reporter’s story much more “rapist under oath.”15
concrete, but its garbled
English also triggered a
trading panic and the potential Culture Influences Communication Style
reevaluation of world
currencies. The translator Because members of Asian cultures practice the principles of omoiyari (listeners need
blamed the reporter for putting to understand the speaker without the speaker’s being specific or direct) and sassuru
too many vague sentences in (listeners need to use subtle cues to infer a speaker’s meaning), they are apt to keep
the story, thereby causing the their feelings to themselves and use language more sparingly and carefully than do
mistranslation.16 How can
Westerners.17 Because Westerners value straight talk, prefer to speak explicitly, and
such problems be avoided?
use inductive and deductive reasoning to make points, they may interpret the round-
about expressions of Asians as evasive, manipulative, or misleading.
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The way parents in both Western and Asian cultures handle a request from Group Activity
a child to whom they do not want to accede provides a prime example of the You can use this exercise
cultural differences in directness. When confronted with such a situation, most to help students understand
U.S. parents would simply say no. In Japan, however, the parent would give rea- how culture talks. Prepare
sons for denying the child’s request but will not say no directly.18 Every culture students by telling them
teaches its members its preferred style. Whereas in the United States we prefer that people from different
to be up-front and tell it like it is, many Asian cultures stand by the value of cultures often need to
relate to and negotiate with
indirectness because it helps people save face and avoid being criticized or con-
one another. However, their
tradicted in public. negotiations sometimes
fail because they fail to
Prejudiced Talk understand how the
members of another
Sometimes members of a dominant culture use derogatory terms or racist language culture perceive and use
to label members of a co-culture, disparage them as inferior or undesirable, and verbal communication.
set them apart from the mainstream group. Linguistic prejudice or the use of Such lack of understanding
prejudiced language reflects the dominant group’s desire to exert its power over leads to the creation of a
other groups. Such language stresses the differences between people of different cultural wall, keeping them
groups, downplays any similarities, claims that the persons who are different do from adapting their
communication style as
not make an effort to adapt, and notes that they are involved in negative acts and
needed.
that they threaten the interests of in-group members.19 Using a series of role
The courts have ruled that managers who use racial code words (words that plays, ask students to
are discriminatory but are not literally racist), such as “you people” and “one of demonstrate the cultural-
them,” help create a racially hostile environment. As a result of this ruling, many wall concept by showing
businesses are banning the use of such phrases.20 Additionally, corporate adver- what could happen if
tisers and educational institutions have long used Native American names such people from the United
as “redskins” “braves,” “Seminoles,” and “Crazy Horse,” as well as logos and States or Western Europe
images including severed heads, tomahawk chops, and a Native American who lacked knowledge
princess to sell products and events.21 There is a significant degree of economic about the culture of their
and emotional investment in counterparts needed to
interact or negotiate with
“playing Indian.”22 In your opin-
(1) Eastern Europeans,
ion are such practices and repre- (2) Latin Americans,
sentations racist? Should they (3) individuals from the
be eliminated? The National Middle East or North Africa,
Collegiate Athletic Association and (4) Asians. Then have
(NCAA) thinks they should be. them repeat the role plays,
In 2005, the NCAA banned the this time showing how
use of Indian imagery and nick- knowledge of another culture
names from postseason tourna- can prevent a cultural wall
ments unless the named Ameri- from causing a breakdown in
can Indian tribe gave its communication.
approval for their use, as the linguistic prejudice
Seminole tribe of Florida did to the use of prejudiced language
Florida State University.23 The
ban means that without the prejudiced language
express permission of an affected sexist, ageist, or racist
Indian tribe, no mascots will language; language disparaging
to the members of a co-culture
perform at tournament games,
and beginning in 2008, Indian racial code words
images on uniforms will also be words that are discriminatory
prohibited. but not literally racist
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Exploring Diversity
Language in Thought and Action “Fighting Reds,” one multiracial team in Colorado made
Those who favor the use of Indian names, mascots, and an attempt to promote a national debate over the stereo-
rituals in sports and society dismiss calls to prohibit such typing of American Indians and did just that.
use. They assert that those who oppose such use are What about the U.S. military’s use of equipment
oversensitive and humorless. Those who oppose the use such as the Apache, Chinook, and Black Hawk heli-
counter by saying that supporters are unwilling to grant copters? What about the names of popular vehicles
Indians full and participatory citizenship, as indicated by such as Jeep Cherokee and Pontiac? In your opinion,
their objectifying them, relegating Indians to the role of could carmakers market a car named the “Wandering
mascot or caricature.25 Jew” effectively?26 Do you believe there is a double
How would you react if a sports team were named the standard when it comes to the contemporary use of
“Fighting Whites” and had a white man in a suit as its racial slurs, products, and mascots? If so, what, if any,
mascot? To protest an opposing team’s use of the name action should we take?
What do you think of the

NCAA’s decision? Can you
Globalization Influences Language Use
imagine a team today being Because of free trade, and the popularity of Hollywood and the Internet, the use
called the “Cleveland
Africans,” the “Cleveland
of English around the world is growing. With globalization, more and more com-
Asians,” or the “Cleveland panies, such as the French telecommunications company Alcatel, use English as
Hispanics”?24 Why or why not? their internal language.27 Not everyone is pleased with this side effect of global-
ization, however. The fear among non-English-speaking nations is that, if their
citizens use English, the use of their native languages will disappear, threatening
national identity. For example, so many young Germans mix their language with
English so freely that their speech is called Denglish, a blend of Deutsch (mean-
ing “German”) and English.28
The adoption of English or English-sounding words is common for persons
within the United States for whom English is not their first language. When peo-
ple from different groups converge, they begin to straddle cultural worlds, with
language acting as the bridge. For example, the influence of English on New York
Spanish produced Spanglish, a blend of Spanish and English. This may suggest
that Latinos who speak Spanglish think of themselves less as members of national
groups than they did in the past and more as members of a wider community.
Spanglish is also used in TV programs such as ¡Mucha Lucha! and in Hallmark
greeting cards, signifying its growing prominence.
In an effort to find new ways to reach Hispanics, now the largest minority
group in the United States, at one Grammy awards ceremony Crest, Procter &
Gamble’s (P&G) oral care brand, became the first P&G consumer product to air
a Spanish-language advertisement during a nationally broadcast television event
that reaches a general audience. The tag (last line) for the Crest spot, entitled
“Good-Bye Kiss” was in English.29
Hip-Hop and Rap Talk

Hip-hop is a social community that uses rap, a special language, to help express
its culture.30 Rap is a celebration of language that speaks to both the body and
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Rap is a language that

speaks to both the body
and the brain. Some critics
malign it while others
praise it. What do you
think of it?
the brain. Since its introduction about a quarter of a century ago, critics have Teaching Tip
maligned and praised, condemned and lauded rap. Rap is blamed for promoting Ask students to provide
violence and misogyny, praised for promoting peace and minority influence. The examples of how rappers
U.S. government even broadcasts raps on the airwaves of Radio Sawa in an effort redefine the meaning of
to win over Arab youth.31 U.S. soldiers serving in Iraq also turn to rap to express words.
and relieve their fears, aggression, and exhaustion. For some, rap is the defining
pulse for the Iraq war, enabling soldiers to share with others what it is like
there.32
The rapper’s words arrive in syncopated speech, peppered with both rapid-fire Some say that the ambiguous
rhymed boasts and taunts. The subjects of rap range from sex, money, and guns nature of rap reveals that
to love, politics, the minutiae of our lives, and the American social experience. rappers are using a coded
language so that they can
Rappers redefine the meanings of words. When someone attuned to the hip-hop better juggle multiple
culture says, “I’m keeping it ghetto,” he or she means “I’m keeping it real.” The constituencies. What do you
words in a rap mean something different from what most Americans have come think?
to understand. Rap is an influence on American popular culture in music, fash-
ion, and language, and it can be difficult to keep up with all the new words that
hip-hop adds to the national vocabulary. Consequently, journalist Alonzo West-
brook wrote The Hip Hoptionary: The Dictionary of Hip Hop Terminology. West-
brook traveled the United States from coast to coast to capture the language as
it is used around the country. Sometimes the meaning of a word is coded for the
rapper to hide behind it. For example, according to Westbrook, hip-hop artists
code the word nigger as an acronym to mean “never ignorant, getting goals accom-
plished.” They flipped the word’s meaning purposefully to make it less hurtful to
African Americans.33
GENDER AND LANGUAGE

Language influences the attitudes we hold about males and females, as well as the
way that males and females perceive each other.
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Sexism in Language
Sexist language perpetuates negative stereotypes and negatively affects our
communication. Past use of male generics, such as mankind, chairman, spokesman,
manpower, and Man of the Year, are blamed for causing men to be perceived as
more important or significant than women. To counter this perception, many com-
panies and individuals stopped using male generics or other kinds of sexist
language, and used gender-neutral language instead.
Another way that language use may be sexist is the way words are used to
address women. “Women, much more than men, are addressed through terms of
endearment such as honey, cutie, and sweetie, which function to devalue women
by depriving them of their name while renaming them with trivial terms.”34
Finally, while the English language has more masculine terms than feminine
terms, it has more negative feminine terms than masculine ones.35
Gender and Speech Style

qualifiers Sometimes the sex of communicators affects not only the meaning we give to their
tentative phrases utterances but also the very structure of those utterances. Women, for example,
tend to use more tentative phrases, or qualifiers, in their speech than men do.
Discussion Question
Phrases like “I guess,” “I think,” and “I wonder if ” abound in the speech patterns
Is gender a factor in how of women but not in those of men. This pattern is also passed on to the very
we use language? Give
young through their favorite cartoon characters. Just as their real-life counterparts
examples to support your
answer.
are apt to do, female cartoon characters, more than male characters, use verbs that
indicate lack of certainty (“I suppose”) and words judged to be polite.36 Is art mir-
pop language roring life, or vice versa? When students were shown cartoon characters and asked
words and phrases used to
sell oneself as hip or cool
Media Wise
What’s Said? Who’s Wed? people you know use during a typical day. What pur-
1. In the book Slam Dunks and No-Brainers: Language poses do you think they serve? What words could have
in Your Life, the Media, Business, Politics, and, Like, been spoken in their place that might have been more
Whatever, author and media critic Leslie Savan com- expressive of personal thoughts?
plains about the growing use of pop language, words 2. Three decades ago, a survey of news stories
and phrases used to sell oneself as hip or cool. Savan revealed that a woman’s marital status was mentioned
asserts that phrases such as “Saddam is toast,” “Don’t 64 percent of the time, while a male’s marital status
go there,” “Get over it,” “I don’t think so,” “You’ve got was mentioned in only 12 percent of the stories.37
that right,” “bling,” and “duh,” constitute a new subdi- Pick up a copy of a recent English-language news-
vision of the English language, one that projects both paper or magazine. Identify five male-centered and five
an attitude and a vocabulary derived from television female-centered news stories in it. Count the number
and advertising. She contends that such phrases click of times the marital status of each person is referred to
into place without the user’s needing to think, displace in each story. To what extent, if any, do the percent-
the use of more complex thoughts, and effectively turn ages of sexist references appear to have changed
users into corporate pawns. What do you think? Keep a during the past three decades?
count of the number of pop phrases that you and
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to identify a character’s sex on the basis of the words spoken by the character, stu- Compile a list of differences
dents assigned the logical, concise, and controlling captions to male characters you believe exist between
men’s and women’s uses of
and the emotional, vague, and verbose captions to female characters.38 Are car- language. Why do you think
toons helping to perpetuate stereotypes? these differences have
Men and women rely on different conversational strategies. Women, for developed?
example, tend to turn statements into questions more than men do, saying
something like “Don’t you think it would be better to send them that report
first?” Men, in contrast, typically respond with a more definitive “Yes, it would
be better to send them that report first.” According to Robin Lakoff, a
researcher on language and gender, women do not “lay claim to” their state-
ments as frequently as men do. In addition, women use more tag questions than tag questions
men do. A tag is midway between an outright statement and a yes–no ques- questions that are midway
tion. For instance, women often make queries like these: “Joan is here, isn’t between outright statements
she?” “It’s hot in here, isn’t it?” By seeking verbal confirmation for their per- and yes–no questions
ceptions, women acquire a reputation for tentativeness. Similarly, women use
more disclaimers than men do, prefacing their remarks with statements like disclaimers
“This probably isn’t important, but . . .” While male speech tends to be domi- remarks that diminish a
nant, straightforward, and attention-commanding, female speech tends to be statement’s importance
gentle, friendly, and accommodating.39 Such practices weaken the messages
women send to others.
According to communications researcher Patricia Hayes Bradley, even if men
use tag questions, the perceptual damage done to them by this weaker verbal form
is not as great as the damage done to women. Bradley found that when women
used tag questions and disclaimers or failed to support their arguments, they were
judged to be less intelligent and knowledgeable—but men were not. Simply talk-
ing “like a woman” causes a woman to be judged negatively.40 Researchers Nancy
Henley and Cheris Kramarae believe, females face a disadvantage when interact-
ing with males: “Females are required to develop special sensitivity to interpret
males’ silence, lack of emotional expression, or brutality, and to help men express
themselves. Yet it is women’s communication style that is often labeled as inade-
quate and maladaptive.”41
Exploring Diversity
Language in Action 3. In general, who uses language more cooperatively,
Interview five males and five females—if possible, from males or females?
diverse cultural backgrounds. For each interviewee, in 4. In general, who makes more supportive comments,
addition to identifying his or her sex, also identify his or males or females?
her age, race, ethnicity, and social class. Ask each inter- 5. In general, who is more polite, males or females?
viewee these questions:
To what extent, if at all, were the answers affected by
1. In general, who tends to take turns more frequently sex? To what extent, if at all, were they affected by vari-
when interacting, males or females? ables other than sex?
2. In general, who tends to make reference to the
comments of preceding speakers, males or females?
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Gender-Lects
Gender affects how men and women use and process language in a number of
other ways as well. According to linguist Deborah Tannen, men and women speak
gender-lects different gender-lects. While women speak and hear a language of connection and
Deborah Tannen’s term for intimacy, Tannen finds that men speak and hear a language of status and inde-
language differences attributed pendence.42 As a result, when conversing with men, women tend to listen atten-
to gender tively rather than interrupt or challenge what a man is saying. Why? Tannen holds
that it is because challenging the man could damage the established connection
that most women believe must be preserved at all costs.
In addition, men and women tend to speak about different topics. Monica
Hiller and Fern Johnson conducted a topic analysis of conversations held in two
coffee shops, one frequented by young adults and the other by middle-aged and
older customers. Their research revealed that, whereas men and women both
talked about work and social issues, women talked about personal issues and the
older men virtually never discussed personal issues.43 Although men and women
frequently talk to each other, their cross-gender talk differs topically from man-
to-man or woman-to-woman talk. Women talk about their doubts and fears, per-
sonal and family problems, and intimate relationships, while, in general, men talk
more about work and sports.
LANGUAGE AND POWER

Some people seem to announce their powerlessness through their language.
Because they speak indirectly, people perceive that they lack self-confidence and
power. In contrast, persons perceived to be “powertalkers” make definite state-
ments, such as “Let’s go out to dinner tonight.” Powertalkers direct the action;
they assume control.
Typically, powertalkers also hesitate less in their speech. Instead of making state-
ments filled with nonfluencies, such as “I wish you wouldn’t, uh, keep me waiting
so long,” powertalkers enhance their sense of self-worth by projecting their opinions
with more confidence. They eliminate fillers, such as “er,” “um,” “you know,” “like,”
and “well,” which serve as verbal hiccups and make a speaker appear weak.
Powerful talk is talk that comes directly to the point. It does not contain dis-
claimers (“I probably shouldn’t mention this, but . . .”) or tag questions like those
described in the section “Gender and Speech Style.” If you speak powertalk, your
credibility and your ability to influence others will increase. Changing the power
balance may be as simple as changing the words you use.
Talking powerfully may also be less risky. According to Deborah Tannen,
speaking indirectly in specific situations can precipitate problems. She cites the
following conversation about de-icing between a pilot and a copilot as an exam-
ple of its dangers:
Copilot: Look how the ice is just hanging on his, ah, back, back there,
see that? . . .
Copilot: See all those icicles on the back there and everything?
Captain: Yeah . . .
Copilot: Boy, this is a, this is a losing battle here on trying to de-ice
those things . . .
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Flight crews are trained to

express themselves in direct
ways.
Copilot: Let’s check these tops again since we’ve been here awhile. Has indirectness ever caused
Captain: I think we get to go here in a minute.44 problems for you? What pre-
vented you or the person you
Less than a minute later, the plane crashed. While the copilot, probably because were speaking with from being
of his lower status, had tried to warn the pilot indirectly, the pilot failed to act more direct?
on the cues. Indirectness, it seems, is easier for higher-status persons to ignore. As
a result, flight crews today are trained to express themselves in more direct ways,
and pilots are taught to pick up on indirect hints.
If you cry “Forward” you

PROBLEMS WITH MEANING: PATTERNS must be sure to make clear
OF MISCOMMUNICATION the direction in which to
go. Don’t you see that if
If we do not make an attempt to analyze how people’s backgrounds influence
you fail to do that and
them in assigning meaning, we may have trouble communicating with them.
simply call out the word to
For most of us, words have more than a single meaning. In fact, a commonly
a monk and a revolutionary,
used word can frequently have more than 20 definitions. We know that a strike
they will go in precisely
in bowling is different from a strike in baseball. We know that striking a match
opposite directions?
is not the same as striking up the band. For this reason, we must pay careful
— Anton Chekhov
attention to the context of a message. Unfortunately, we frequently forget that
words are rarely used in one and only one sense, and we assume when we speak
to others that our words are being understood in only the way we intend them
to be understood. Our receivers, however, may assume that their interpretation
of our words is the meaning we intended. Let’s explore what happens when this
occurs.
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Bypassing: Confusing Meanings

Teaching Tip All someone said was “Hi, Jack!” but at a suburban Detroit airport, those two words
Ask students to provide an precipitated a crisis.
example of how each type A microphone happened to be open when an individual aboard a corporate jet
of bypassing caused a greeted the co-pilot. Air traffic controllers in the airport’s control tower equated
problem for them or those words with “hijack.” The police, the SWAT team, and the FBI were alerted.
someone they know. The plane was ordered to return to the tower.45
Sometimes people think they understand each other, when, in fact, they are really
missing each other’s meaning. This pattern of miscommunication is called
bypassing bypassing, because the interactants’ meanings simply pass by one another.
miscommunication that occurs We can identify two main kinds of bypassing.46 The first occurs when people
when individuals think they use different words or phrases to represent the same thing but are unaware that
understand each other but they are both talking about the same thing. For example, two urban politicians
actually miss each other’s once argued vehemently over welfare policies. One held that the city’s welfare
meaning
program should be “overhauled,” whereas the other believed that “minor changes”
should be made. Far too much time passed before it was realized that the first
politician’s overhaul was actually equivalent to the second politician’s minor
changes. How many times have you argued unnecessarily because you were
unaware that another person was simply using a different word or phrase to mean
the same thing you were saying?
Think of instances when being The second, and more common, type of bypassing occurs when people use the
“word-minded” rather than same word or phrase but give it different meanings. In such cases, people appear
“person-minded” caused
to be in agreement when they substantially disagree. Sometimes this type of
problems for you.
bypassing is harmless. Semanticists tell a tall, but otherwise useful, story about a
man who was driving on a parkway when his engine stalled. He managed to flag
down another driver, who, after hearing his story, consented to push the stalled
car to get it started. “My car has an automatic transmission,” the first man
explained, “so you’ll have to get up to 30 or 35 miles an hour to get me moving.”
The other driver nodded in understanding, and the stalled motorist then climbed
back into his own car and waited for the other car to line up behind him. After
much more waiting, he turned around—to see the other driver coming at him at
30 miles per hour.
Developing an awareness that bypassing can occur when you communicate
is a first step in preventing it from interfering with or needlessly complicating
your relationships. If you believe it is possible for your listener to misunderstand
What type of behavior would you, then be willing to take the time needed to ensure that your meanings for
you exhibit around vats
words overlap. To avoid bypassing, you must be “person-minded” instead of
labeled “Gasoline Drums”? You
would probably be careful not “word-minded.” Remind yourself that your words may generate unpredictable or
to light any matches; if you unexpected reactions in others. Trying to anticipate those reactions will help you
smoked, you would be certain forestall communication problems.
not to toss away any cigarette
butts. Would you change your
behavior if the labels on the Labeling: Confusing Words and Things
containers read “Empty Gaso-
line Drums”? Chances are, you Sometimes we forget that it is people, not words, who make meanings. When this
might relax a bit and give less happens, we pay far too much attention to labels and far too little attention to
thought to the possibility of
reality. We can approach this phase of our study of meaning by considering the
starting a fire—although empty
drums are actually more dan- problem of labels and how strongly they can influence us.
gerous because they contain How important are labels in our culture? A judge ruled that an individual
explosive vapor. could not change his name to a number because a number was totalitarian and
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an offense to human dignity. What does a number, as opposed to a name, signify? What’s in a name? Is who you
Would we change if our names were changed?47 In Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare are affected by what you are
called? Do the names of your
offered some thoughts on the significance of names when he had Juliet, of the friends affect your opinions of
Capulet family, say these words to Romeo, a Montague: them?
‘Tis but thy name that is my enemy;
Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. Teaching Tip
What’s Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot, Ask students if they would
Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part mind if you called them by
Belonging to a man. O! be some other name; numbers rather than by
What’s in a name? that which we call a rose their names. If they say
By any other name would smell as sweet; they would because a
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call’d. number is impersonal, tell
them that you could call
them by “nick-numbers,”
Evasive and Emotive Language similar to calling them by
Frequently, our reaction to a person or event is totally changed by words. If we nicknames. Ask students
are not vigilant, we can easily be manipulated or conned by language. if changing their names
Analyze the following sets of words to see how your reactions may change as changes their identify.
the words used change:
1. coffin casket slumber chamber
2. girl woman broad
3. backward developing underdeveloped
4. the corpse the deceased the loved one
A few years ago, the organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Ani-
mals asked the Federal Trade Commission to revise the fur label term “animal pro-
ducing the fur” to read “animal slaughtered for the fur.”48 The word euphemism euphemism
is derived from the Greek term meaning “to use words of good omen.” When we a pleasant word that is substi-
use a euphemism, we substitute a pleasant term for a less pleasant one. Euphemisms tuted for a less pleasant one
can help conceal a communicator’s meaning by making the message delivered
appear more congenial than it actually is. Employees who lose their jobs are
“dehired,” undergo a “vocational relocation,” are left “indefinitely idling,” or expe-
rience a “realignment” or “constructive dismissal.”49 When was the last time some-
one was fired? Since the environment became an issue in practical campaigns,
strategist Frank Luntz advised candidates to use the term climate change in place
of global warming because “while global warming has catastrophic communications
attached to it, climate change sounds a more controllable and less emotional chal-
lenge.”50 He also suggested they use conservationist instead of environmentalist
because the former conveys a “moderate, reasoned, common sense position,” while
the latter has the “connotation of extremism.”51 Euphemisms, according to one
expert on corporate doublespeak, are the “language of nonresponsibility.”52 The
coiner of the term doublespeak, William Lutz, equates it with “linguistic fraud and
deception.”53 Lutz believes that former president Ronald Reagan used doublespeak
when he called the invasion of Grenada a “predawn vertical insertion,” named
the MX missile the “Peacemaker,” and referred to taxes as “revenue enhancement.”
In a move to change perception of the privatization of Social Security, some used
the words personal accounts in place of private accounts.54 And, because the think-
ing is that everybody fears the word cloning, people who oppose cloning research
tend to use the word, while people who support it call it something else. Such was
the case with South Korean scientists who recently announced that they had used
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“somatic cell nuclear transfer” to produce “human NT blastocysts,” from which they
extracted “hESC,” meaning they had cloned human embryos.55 Should people use
words to disguise reality? The Walt Disney Corporation did some verbal somersaults
to make its Mr. Magoo character politically correct. Under fire by the National
Federation of the Blind for resuscitating the nearsighted cartoon figure, a Disney
spokesperson countered that Mr. Magoo isn’t blind but, rather, “visually limited.”56
Thus, if we like an old piece of furniture, we might refer to it as an antique;
if we don’t like it, we might well call it a piece of junk. Words broadcast attitude.
Politically Correct Language

The following definitions appear in Henry Beard and Christopher Cerf’s tongue-
in-cheek guide, The Official Politically Correct Dictionary and Handbook:
lazy: motivationally deficient
wrong: differently logical
ugly: cosmetically different
prostitute: sex-care provider
fat: horizontally challenged57
What is politically correct language? Is it sensitive speech or censored speech?
In what ways, if any, does its use sustain, or violate, our right of free speech? Accord-
ing to Diane Ravitch, author of The Language Police, words that might offend fem-
Each of us has learned to inists, religious conservatives, multiculturalists, ethnic activists, or members of other
see the world not as it is, groups are routinely deleted from the textbooks read in U.S. schools because they
but through the distorting are believed to be politically incorrect. For example, one textbook author rewrote
glass of our words. It is Bob Dylan’s folk song “Blowin’ in the Wind,” which had asked, “How many roads
through words that we are must a man walk down before you call him a man?”* to read “How many roads
made human, and it is must an individual walk down before you can call him or her an adult?”58
through words that we are Like so many other words, politically correct language means different things
dehumanized. to different people. For some of us, being politically correct means making the
— Ashley Montagu, effort not to offend by selecting words that demonstrate our respect for and sen-
The Language of Self-Deception
sitivity to the needs and interests of others. Politically correct language is meant
to take the sting out of confrontations by blunting the sharpness of the words we
use. For example, in the United States, over a period of time, the word slow was
Disparaging remarks are made
about civil rights icons Rosa replaced by the word retarded, which was changed to challenged and then to special.
Parks and Martin Luther King Similarly, over a half century, the defining term for persons of African ancestry
in the film Barbershop. Rosa has shifted from colored to Negro to Black to Afro-American to people of color to
Parks became the mother of African American.59 When we use politically correct language, we adapt our lan-
the civil rights movement
guage to reveal our sensitivity to the preferences of those we are conversing with.
when she refused to give up
her seat on a segregated For others, however, political correctness means that we feel compelled by
Montgomery, Alabama, bus. In societal pressures not to use some words—oftentimes referred to as taboo words—
the film, the character Eddie because we believe that doing so could cause others to label us as racist, sexist,
says Parks did that only homophobic, or ageist. For example, some years ago, a student at one Ivy League
because she was tired. Eddie
university was thought to be racist when he yelled, “Shut up, you water buffalo!”
also refers to King as “a ho.”
Do you think these remarks out a window at a noisy group of African-American women. Still others view
should have been cut from political correctness and sensitivity training as a danger to free speech. Which of
the film? Explain. these three positions comes closest to the one you hold?
*
Copyright © 1962 by Warner Bros. Inc. Copyright renewed 1990 by Special Rider Music. All rights
reserved. International copyright secured. Reprinted by permission.
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PROFANITY AND OBSCENITY: INCIVILITY

AND THE COARSENING OF LANGUAGE
When he won for the fifth time at Talladega, NASCAR driver Dale Earnhardt Jr.
told an interviewer that his victory “don’t mean s—— right now.”60 Has it become
acceptable to utter obscenities in public, including in the media? The use of
insults, vulgar expressions, and speech that degrades and encourages hostility in
others is on the rise.
A female employee of a major construction company recently complained to
the company’s director of human resources about the cursing used in the com-
pany’s facilities. The use of profanity distressed workers. The company countered
by publishing “A Language Code of Ethics,” separate and apart from its sexual
harassment policy guide. It defined inappropriate language as “unwanted, deliber-
ate, repeated, unsolicited profanity, cussing, swearing, vulgar, insulting, abusive or
crude language.” The company is now a cuss-free workplace. Workers who violate
the policy are subject to disciplinary action.61
Profanity has become common, especially in high-stress jobs. Some policies Discussion Question
differentiate between “casual” and “causal” swearing. Casual swearing is bad lan- Sirius radio show host
guage we use for the fun of it, because we are too lazy to use other words and Howard Stern says that his
we think we can get away with it. Causal swearing is profanity produced by the program will not rely on
inability to control an aroused emotion, such as anger, frustration, or impatience.62 profanity for humor. In your
Why are we so comfortable using profanity? Might it be because profanity and opinion, can profanity ever
speech that degrades have become so much a part of our mediated language land- be funny?
scape, used in virtually every crime-adventure television or cable program or film,
that we hardly notice when a profane or an obscene expression occurs in real
life?63 Commonplace profanities now function as fillers—they slide off the tongue
much as the words you know and like do. They have become part of the speech
pattern—and not just for teenagers and adults. Even elementary school children
use four-letter words when in and out of school. For some, this kind of speech is
normative; it identifies them as a member of a group.
Students of popular culture observe that profanity has been increasing since What do you think? Has pro-
the 1960s, when protesters used it to demonstrate their disdain for the establish- fanity become an acceptable
part of life, or should we
ment. Then, it was perceived as a liberating factor. Many of today’s students are
develop the skill and discipline
swearing, in part, because their parents did. A display of profanity used to be per- not to swear but to interact in
ceived as “macho.” Women, for example, began to adopt it as they fought for a more civil manner?
equality of the sexes.
Entertainment media keep pushing the profanity envelope further and further,
making it a challenge to draw the line in either educational settings or the Group Activity
workplace. Have students provide
Sometimes pejorative words that are used to stigmatize or degrade the mem- examples of the use of the
bers of a group are reclaimed by the group and redefined by group members as pos- n-word in song lyrics. Have
itive in nature. For example, gays and lesbians now use the term queer to make them discuss whether they
positive statements about who they are. Some women proudly refer to themselves believe the n-word is a
WMD—a word of mass
as girls. And some African Americans, in an effort to invalidate the meaning that
destruction. Ask them how
bigots attached to it, now use the racial epithet nigger among themselves.64 The the use of the word affects
use of the n-word, once strictly taboo, has undergone a transformation and is com- them. Then ask them to
mon in popular culture. In video games such as “Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas,” determine who, if anyone,
for example, Black characters use the word repeatedly. It is also a staple in the can use it; when, if at
stand-up routines of comics such as Chris Rock.65 In your opinion, does the reap- all; and under what
propriation of words that were once used as slurs by members of the very groups circumstances.
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that were the targets of the offensive language help limit the damage done by
those who used the same words in particularly offensive ways?
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT LANGUAGE:

HOW TO MAKE LANGUAGE WORK FOR YOU
Whenever we communicate, we consciously or unconsciously select the level of
language we will use. Normally, the words we select depend on the person with
whom we are communicating and the situation in which we are communicating.
A Call for Common Sense

Just as particular styles of apparel and behavior are appropriate for certain situa-
tions, so certain styles of language are appropriate at certain times and in certain
places. Consider slang—a style of language used by special groups but not consid-
ered proper by society at large. Although we may use slang when conversing with
our friends, it is inappropriate and unwise when speaking to an instructor or when
delivering a speech to the town council.
© The New Yorker Collection 1994. Bernard Schoenbaum from cartoonbank.com. All rights reserved.
What kind of language do you

find personally offensive? How
does your language use
change from person to person?
Would you feel comfortable
using obscenities with any of
the following people: your best
friend, your instructor, your
employer? Why or why not?
“It’s only fair to warn you that my conversation contains adult language
that you may find offensive.”
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A Call for Clarity

There is a new language for jurors in California—plain English. For example, the
phrase “willfully falsified” is now read or is said as, simply, “lied.”66 Why did
officials believe that such an action was necessary? Because in day-to-day com-
munication, in legal or ordinary settings, far too often we use language that others
cannot easily understand. It does not matter how accurately a selected word or
phrase expresses your ideas if the receivers cannot comprehend it. If you want to
be understood, you must make every attempt to select words with meaning for
your listeners.
A good rule to follow to achieve clarity is to keep jargon to a minimum Jargon functions as shorthand
unless your receiver is schooled in the jargon. In other words, speak the same for people who understand the
language as your listener. Most of us who live in the United States share a com- use. In the war in Iraq,
weapons of mass destruction
mon language, but many of us also frequently use one or more sublanguages. A were referred to in briefings
sublanguage is simply a special language used by members of a particular co-cul- the military had for the press
ture. We all belong to several co-cultures—a national group, an occupational and public as WMDs. Would
group, an educational group, an ethnic group, and perhaps a religious group. you have understood this use?
Having a common sublanguage helps members of the group attain a sense of
identity. It also helps them come across as part of the in-crowd or as being in
the know.67
However, since all sublanguages are intended to enable communication only
within a particular group, a sublanguage is probably not readily understood by out-
siders. Consider the following brief dialogue between two doctors:
Doctor 1: How’s that patient you were telling me about?
Doctor 2: Well, she’s improving. But now she’s suffering from cephalagia
complicated by agrypnia.
You would probably not immediately guess that cephalagia is the medical term for
a headache and that agrypnia refers to insomnia. People schooled in the technical
Using language to
facilitate understanding
can be a challenge. Too
frequently, clashes in
cultural style precipitate
misunderstandings.
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language of a particular group should guard against the temptation to impress oth-
ers rather than to communicate. In short, if we want our receivers to understand
us, we must always ask ourselves, Who am I talking to?
TECHNOLOGY AND LANGUAGE USE

onlinespeak Internet user Andrew Walker sometimes lapses into onlinespeak when writing
the informal communication offline: In one school paper, he wrote, “Surplus is an excess. But surplus can also
style that marks electronic mean 2 much.” His instructor deducted 10 points. The protocol of informality
communication that marks electronic communication for Andrew and millions of others has led
to our using language in ways we never would have before and has set off a
debate regarding whether the Internet invigorates language or strips it of its
expressive power.68
When linguists talk of dialects, by tradition, they are referring to the spoken
word. The Internet, however, appears to have spawned a new written dialect, one
in between speech and writing, in which punctuation is abandoned, uppercasing
is used primarily if you are “shouting,” and an array of acronyms substitute for
phrases. Knowing and using the dialect allows us to develop a sense of belonging
to the group—a group that exists in cyberspace.
Educators believe that we Currently, millions of us are writing letters, exchanging thoughts, and sharing
should know where to draw meaning in a networked world.69 As members of a cybercommunity, however, we
the line between formal and probably share a special language, the equivalent of online jargon, as a strategy of
conversational writing.
Unthinkingly, “Generation Text”
connection. During our communications, for example, we may use truncated speech
members mix rapid-fire Inter- and acronyms for phrases, including BTW for “by the way,” TTFN for “ta-ta for
net English and schoolwork.70 now,” and IMHO for “in my humble opinion.”
Do you ever do this? In addition to online truncation, the language of expedience has spread from
the Internet to cell phones.71 Like the Internet, mobile phone text messaging has
its share of short hand expressions, including RUOK (Are you OK?), CUL8R (see
you later), BHL8 (be home late), TAH (take a hint), A3 (anytime, anywhere,
anyplace), SPST (same place, same time), XLNT (excellent), U4E (yours forever),
and YTLKIN2ME (You talking to me?).
netiquette Rules of the Internet—also known as netiquette—continue to evolve. Usu-
rules of the Internet ally, the participants themselves work out conversational ground rules. The word
flame, for example, is used to describe what occurs when one person verbally
attacks or denigrates another online. Flaming, like intemperate speech during face-
to-face interaction, is generally frowned upon.
The online style of writers (how they say something) is equally as impor-
tant as their message (what they say). When it comes to the sound, or tone, of
online messages, e-mail writers frequently experience problems. Because of the
volume of e-mail messages we send and receive, and the speed with which we
fire them off, we may operate under the mistaken impression that we do not
Why has text messaging
become so popular? It appears
need to edit closely what we write. We should concern ourselves with tone, how-
that people longing for ever, because what we write could end up being read by multiple readers. To this
private conversations enjoy end, we should do our best to edit our e-mails for unintended meanings before
communicating silently, clicking on Send.72
especially in public places. Instant messaging (IM) has also gone corporate, spreading to the work-
Many use text messaging
while at movies, at sports
place. It is helping reverse a trend attributed to e-mail and voice mail that had
events, or on subways. Are made it difficult for anyone to determine if businesspeople were in the office.
you one of the many? It also facilitates telecommuting, because it can verify who is really working at
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home or at least is logged in. Since failing to respond quickly to an IM mes- Technological developments
sage is considered rude, workers typically sign out when they leave their office are leaving their mark on
language. Being uninstalled
or show themselves as “too busy to chat” when they know their reply will be means being fired. Doing a
delayed.73 bit flip means experiencing
Since members of online communities tend to be more concerned with what a disturbing personality
others think rather than what they look like, the presence of sexist and racist alteration. Engaging in
language tends to be rare. Nonetheless, one admonition warned: “We would like nonlinear behavior (NLB)
means acting irrationally.
to remind the frequent posters here that what we say is going out to a potential Taking a bio-break means
readership of between 25,000 and 40,000 individuals . . . So words do have mean- taking a trip to the bathroom.
ing and what you write in haste or in anger may have more influence than you Can you offer other examples
realize.”74 of technology’s impact on
language?
GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING

LANGUAGE SKILLS
Throughout this chapter we have stressed that mastery of certain language skills
will improve your ability to communicate effectively with others. Use the fol-
lowing guidelines to ensure that your words work for you rather than against
you.
Identify How Labels Affect Your Behavior Group Activity
Words are not the things they represent. Always remember that words are noth- Explain to students
that too often we are
ing more than symbols. No connection necessarily exists between a symbol and
preoccupied with or blinded
what people have agreed that symbol represents. In other words, symbols and their by labels. When, however,
representations are independent of each other. we focus on what lies
All of us at times respond as if words and things were one and the same. behind the label—the world
Think of how often you buy a product such as Intimate, Brut, Bold, Caress, Secret, of experience—we refuse to
or Angel because of what the label seems to promise. How many times have you let labels fool us. Have
turned against a person because he or she is called liberal, conservative, feminist, students provide examples
chauvinist, intellectual, or brainless? Examine your behavior with others. Make of how advertisers and
certain that you react to people, not to the categories in which you or others have politicians use labels to
placed them. their advantage. For each
example offered, have them
discuss what the consumer
Identify How the Words You Use Affect or public needs to do to
look beyond the label.
Your Feelings and Attitudes
Few of the words you select to describe things are neutral. As S. I. Hayakawa and
Alan R. Hayakawa, authors of Language in Thought and Action, noted:
We are a little too dignified, perhaps, to growl like dogs, but we do the next
best thing and substitute series of words, such as “You dirty double-crosser!”
“The filthy scum!” Similarly, if we are pleasurably agitated, we may, instead of
purring or wagging the tail, say things like “She’s the sweetest girl in all the Count the number of times
world.”75 you use purr words and snarl
words each day. What do they
We all use snarl words (words with highly negative connotations) and purr reveal about your likes and
words (words with highly positive connotations). These words do not describe dislikes? How do your words
the people or things we are talking about; rather, they describe our personal give you away?
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Thinking Critically
Reflect and Respond On the basis of your personal understanding of lan-
Language expert Wendell Johnson was fond of noting guage use and misuse, discuss the kinds of notions that
that the language we use puts not only words in our language may promote.
mouths but also notions in our heads.
Focus on Service Learning feelings and attitudes. When we make statements like “He’s a great American,”
First, use the Web to investi- “She’s a dirty politician,” “He’s a bore,” “She’s a radical,” we should not delude
gate the kinds of language ourselves into thinking that we are talking about anything but our own
problems that a local health preferences.
clinic or another local service
organization of your own
It is also important to realize that a word that does not function as a snarl
choosing confront daily. Next, or purr word for you may function that way for someone else, even if you do
visit the local health clinic or not intend it to be given such an interpretation. Therefore, become conscious
service organization. Then, of how others react to the words you use. Listen to people around you, and
using the knowledge you have attempt to read their responses to your words. Which words that incite them
gained from researching the
subject and reading this chap-
would not incite you? Which words do you find unacceptable or offensive?
ter, meet with representatives Why?
of the clinic or service organi-
zation. Share with them how
an understanding of
differences in language and
Identify How Experience Can Affect Meaning
meaning could benefit the Since we assign meaning on the basis of our experience, and since no two people
clinic’s or organization’s staff have had exactly the same set of experiences, it follows that no two people have
by enabling them to avoid
creating or compounding a
exactly the same meanings for the same word.
language-based barrier. Too frequently, we let our words lead us away from where we want to go;
we unwittingly antagonize our families, friends, or co-workers. We are infuriated,
for example, when an important business deal collapses because our position has
not been understood, or we are terrified when the leaders of government
miscommunicate and put their countries on a collision course.76 To avoid such
problems, we must remember that meanings can change as the people who use
words change.
Be Sure That Meanings Are Shared

Since intended meanings are not necessarily the same as perceived meanings, you
may need to ask people with whom you are speaking such questions as “What do
you think about what I’ve just said?” and “What do my words mean to you?”
Their answers serve two important purposes: They help you determine whether
you have been understood, and they permit the other people to become involved
As John Condon, author of in the encounter by expressing their interpretations of your message. If differences
Semantics and Communication, in the assignment of meaning surface during this feedback process, you will be
advises, “Learning to use
language intelligently begins
able immediately to clarify your meanings by substituting different symbols or by
by learning not to be used by relating your thoughts more closely to the background, state of knowledge, and
language.” experiences of your receivers.
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Revisiting Chapter Objectives

1. Define language. Language is a unified system of symbols that permits a shar-
The Wrap Up
ing of meaning. Language allows minds to meet, merge, and mesh. When we
make sense out of people’s messages, we learn to understand people.
2. Describe and explain the triangle of meaning. There is no direct relation-
ship between words and things, as Ogden and Richards’ triangle of meaning
illustrates. Words do not “mean”; people give meaning to words.
3. Distinguish between connotative and denotative meanings. A serious barrier
to communication occurs when we forget the fact that words have both gen-
erally agreed upon denotative—objective, or dictionary—meanings and highly
individualized connotative—subjective, or personal—meanings. As a result,
different people give different meanings to the same words.
4. Discuss how culture and gender influence language use. Culture and gen-
der influence the ways men and women experience, process, and use language.
In part because language and perception are intertwined, language use varies
from culture to culture. Words change over time and from place to place
according to individual experience. Language also influences the attitudes we
hold about males and females, as well as how males and females perceive each
other.
5. Provide examples of bypassing. A communication problem that results from
confusing meanings is bypassing (when people think they understand each
other but in fact do not).
6. Identify two strategies to improve oral language abilities. First, we can
use common sense to recognize that certain styles of language are appropri-
ate at certain times and in certain places. Second, we can seek to make
ourselves as clear as possible by selecting words with meaning for our lis-
teners, taking into account their educational level and the sublanguages they
understand.
7. Explain how technology is affecting language use. How we communicate
online frequently differs from how we communicate in person. Some believe
the Internet is invigorating language, while others believe it is stripping lan-
guage of its expressive value.
Resources for Further Inquiry and Reflection

To apply your understanding of how the principles in Chapter 5 are at work in our daily
lives, consult the following resources for further inquiry and reflection. Or, if you prefer,
choose any other appropriate resource. Then connect the ideas expressed in your chosen
selection with the communication concepts and issues you are learning about both in and
out of class.
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Listen to Me View Me
“Woman Is the Nigger of the World” (John Lennon) In Her Shoes Bulworth
“Wake Me Up When September Ends” (Green Day) The Terminal Nell
“Because of You” (Kelly Clarkson) The Stepford Wives What Women Want
“Sweet Talkin’ Guy” (The Chiffons) Clueless Windtalkers
“Snoop Dogg” (Snoop Dogg)
In each of these films, the use of words either interferes
Discuss the extent to which word choice influences lis- with or facilitates a character’s objective. Choose one film
tener attitudes toward the song or the extent to which it and discuss the role language plays in it to advance or im-
influences the nature of a relationship described in the pede the character’s goals.
song.
Read Me Tell Me
Khaled Hosseini. The Kite Runner. New York: Riverhead, Share with the class the insights you gained from your
2004. chosen Listen to Me, View Me, or Read Me selection.
Amy Tan. Saving Fish from Drowning. New York:
Putnam’s, 2005. Consider the following two statements made by one per-
William Gibson. The Miracle Worker. New York: Bantam son: “I value freedom of speech.” “I find hate speech and
Books, 1975. racist, sexist, and ageist speech objectionable.” How do
George Bernard Shaw. Pygmalion. New York: Dover, you reconcile the two positions? In your opinion, should
1994. any of the objectionable kinds of speech have First
Amendment protection? In a brief presentation, explain
Discuss how one of the preceding works illustrates the why or why not.
concept “meaning is in people, not in words.”
Key Chapter Terminology

Communication Use the Communication Works CD-ROM and the Online Learning Center at
Works www.mhhe.com/gamble9 to further your knowledge of the following terminology.
bypassing 120 netiquette 126
connotative meaning 107 onlinespeak 126
online learning center denotative meaning 107 pop language 116
disclaimers 117 prejudiced language 113
www.mhhe.com/gamble9 dominant culture 111 qualifiers 116
euphemism 121 racial code words 113
gender-lects 118 Sapir–Whorf hypothesis 111
language 106 symbol 106
linguistic determinism 112 tag questions 117
linguistic prejudice 113 triangle of meaning 106
linguistic relativity 112
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Idioms in Translation
collision course—dangerous path
inspect the territory—look closely at what is in front of your eyes
macho—very masculine
save face—avoid being the object of criticism or embarrassment
transfer meaning—communicate meaning
Test Your Understanding Communication

Works
Go to the Self Quizzes on the Communication Works CD-ROM and the book’s Online
Learning Center at www.mhhe.com/gamble9.
online learning center

Notes
1. Michael Agar. Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation. New York: Morrow, www.mhhe.com/gamble9
1994.
2. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards. The Meaning of Meaning. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, 1993.
3. Charles F. Vich and Ray V. Wood. “Similarity of Past Experience and the Communication of
Meaning.” Speech Monographs 36, pp. 159–162.
4. For a discussion of how the mindless use of language affects behavior, see Ellen Langer.
“Interpersonal Mindlessness and Language.” Communication Monographs 59:3, September 1992,
pp. 324–327.
5. Loretta Breuning. “Networking with Yourself: How the Brain Uses Information (Part 1).” ETC.
47:2, summer 1990, p. 106.
6. Steven Lee Myers. “A Kinder, Gentler Rogues’ Gallery.” New York Times, June 25, 2000.
7. Robert F. Worth. “Horrific Crime Is Captured in One Word.” New York Times, December 6,
2002, p. B4.
8. Michiko Kakutani. “When the Greeks Get Snide.” New York Times, June 27, 2000, p. E1.
9. See, for example, S. I. Hayakawa and Alan R. Hayakawa. Language in Thought and Action, 5th
ed. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990.
10. John Zeaman. “There’s Way Too Much Katakarktanaq.” The Record, February 15, 2004, pp. F1, F4.
11. Nicholas D. Kristof. “Chinese Relations.” New York Times Magazine, August 18, 1991, pp. 8–10.
12. B. L. Whorf. “Science and Linguistics.” In M. J. B. Carroll, ed. Language, Thought, and Reality.
Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 1956; and Paul Kay and Willet Kemp-
ton. “What Is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?” American Anthropologist 86, 1984, pp. 65–79. Also,
for a discussion of cultural diversity and political correctness, see Irving H. Bucher. “The Politics
of Race, Gender and Sexual Orientation: Implications for the Future of America.” Equity and
Excellence 25:2–4, winter 1992, pp. 222–227.
13. R. Lewis. When Cultures Collide: Managing Successfully across Cultures. London: Nicholas Brealey,
1996, p. 16.
14. Liz Sly. “In China, the Right Name Is Crucial.” The Record, October 6, 1996, p. A-31.
15. Elizabeth Llorente and Ovetta Wiggins. “Human Services Agency to Correct Letter.” The
Record, February 7, 1997, p. A-3.
16. Andrew Browne. “How a News Story, Translated Badly, Caused Trading Panic.” The Wall Street
Journal, May 12, 2005, pp. A1, A8.
17. See, for example, Deborah Tannen. Talking from 9 to 5: How Women’s and Men’s Conversational
Styles Affect Who Gets Heard, Who Gets Credit, and What Gets Done at Work. New York:
Morrow, 1994.
18. Tannen.
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19. See, for example, Carolyn Calloway-Thomas, Pamela J. Cooper, and Cecil Blake. Intercultural
Communication: Roots and Routes. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1999, pp. 154–155: and William B.
Gudykunst. Bridging Differences: Effective Intergroup Communication, 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage, 1994, p. 83.
20. “Work Week.” The Wall Street Journal, p. A1.
21. J. J. Hemmer, Jr. “Exploitation of Native American Symbols: A First Amendment Analysis.”
Paper presented at the National Communication Association annual convention, New Orleans,
LA, November 22, 2002.
22. Pauline Turner Strong. “The Mascot Slot.” Journal of Sport and Social Issues 28:1, February 2004,
pp. 79–87.
23. Associated Press. “NCAA: Tribes Must OK Use of Their Names.”
www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9939557/, August 19, 2005.
24. Strong, p. 81.
25. See, for example, S. M. Huhndorf. Going Native: Indians in the American Cultural Imagination.
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001; J. W. Kasson. Marble Queens and Captives: Women in
Nineteenth-Century American Sculpture. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990; and
A. Ong. “Cultural Citizenship as Subject-Making: Immigrants Negotiate Racial and Cultural
Boundaries in the United States.” Current Anthropology 37, 1996, pp. 737–762.
26. See, for example, R. J. Coombe. The Cultural Life of Intellectual Properties: Authorship, Appropria-
tion, and the Law. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998.
27. Suzanne Daily. “In Europe, Some Fear National Languages Are Endangered.” New York Times,
April 16, 2001, pp. A1, A10.
28. Steven Komarow. “Some Germans Fear Language Is Being Infected by English.” USA Today,
May 16, 2001, p. 6A.
29. See www.hispanicprwire.com/release_Crest_Ad_ENG.htm,
30. B. Kitwana. The Hip Hop Generation: Young Blacks and the Crisis in African American Culture.
New York: Basic Books, 2002.
31. Jody Rosen. “Rap: A Celebration of Language.” The Record, December 2, 2002, p. L15.
32. Monica Davey. “Fighting Words.” New York Times, February 20, 2005, pp. AR1, 34.
33. National Public Radio. Interview of Alonzo Westbrook by Tavis Smiley, November 5, 2002.
34. K. L. Schmidt. “Exit, Voice, Loyalty, and Neglect: Responses to Sexist Communication in
Dating Relationships.” Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Arizona State University, 1991, p. 30.
35. A. Nilsen. “Sexism as Shown through the English Vocabulary.” In A. Nilsen, H. Bosmajian,
H. Gershuny, and J. Stanley, eds. Sexism and Language. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers
of English, 1977.
36. A. Mulac, J. Bradac, and S. Mann. “Male/Female Language Differences and Attributional Con-
sequences in Children’s Television.” Human Communication Research 11, 1985, pp. 481–506.
37. K. G. Foreit, T. Agor, J. Byers, J. Larue, H. Lokey, M. Palazzini, M. Paterson, and L. Smith.
“Sex Bias in the Newspaper Treatment of Male-Centered and Female-Centered News Stories.”
Sex Roles 6, 1980, pp. 475–480.
38. C. Kramer. “Stereotypes of Women’s Speech: The Word from Cartoons.” Journal of Popular
Culture 8, 1974, pp. 624–630.
39. C. Kramer. “Male and Female Perceptions of Male and Female Speech.” Language and Speech 20,
1978, pp. 151–161.
40. Patricia Hayes Bradley. “The Folk-Linguistics of Women’s Speech: An Empirical Examination.”
Communication Monographs 48, pp. 73–90.
41. Nancy M. Henley and Cheris Kramarae. “Gender, Power and Miscommunication.” In Nickolas
Coupland, Howard Giles, and John Weimann, eds. Miscommunication and Problematic Talk.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1991, p. 42.
42. Deborah Tannen. You Just Don’t Understand. New York: Ballantine, 1991, p. 42.
43. M. Hiller and F. L. Johnson. “Gender and Generation in Conversational Topics: A Case Study
of Two Coffee Shops.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication
Association, San Diego, CA, November 1996.
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44. Cited in Craig Johnson and Larry Vinson. “Placement and Frequency of Powerless Talk and
Impression Formation.” Communication Quarterly 38:4, fall 1990, p. 325.
45. “‘Hi, Jack’ Greeting to Co-Pilot Causes Stir.” The Record, June 8, 2000, p. A-13. Used by
permission of The Associated Press. Copyright © 2000. All rights reserved.
46. See William V. Haney. Communication and Organizational Behavior, 3rd ed. Homewood, IL:
Irwin, 1973, pp. 247–248.
47. For a discussion of names and how they affect us, see Mary Marcus. “The Power of a Name.”
Psychology Today, October 1976, pp. 75–76, 108.
48. “Washington Wire.” Wall Street Journal, October 14, 1994.
49. Louis Lavelle. “Canning the Gibberish.” The Record, January 21, 2000, p. B-1.
50. Stancavish; William Lutz. The New Doublespeak: Why No One Knows What Anyone’s Saying
Anymore. New York: HarperCollins, 1996.
51. Jennifer Lee. “A Call for Softer, Greener Language.” New York Times, March 2, 2003, p. 24.
52. Ibid.
53. See William Lutz. Doublespeak Defined. New York: Harper Resource, 1999; and National Council
of Teachers of English. “The 1999 Doublespeak Awards.” ETC 56:4, winter 1999–2000, p. 484.
54. Jonathan Chait. “A New Language: Partisan English.” The Record, April 26, 2005, p. L15.
55. Gina Kolata, “Name Games and the Science of Life,” New York Times, May 29, 2005, p. WK12.
56. Lisa Bannon. “The Vision Thing.” The Wall Street Journal, July 31, 1997, p. A1.
57. Henry Beard and Christopher Cerf. The Politically Correct Dictionary and Handbook. New York:
Villard Books, 1992.
58. Diane Ravitch. “You Can’t Say That.” The Wall Street Journal, February 13, 2004, p. W15.
59. Donald G. McNeil, Jr. “Like Politics, All Political Correctness Is Local.” New York Times,
October 11, 1998, p. WK-5.
60. “Improper Words.” USA Today, October 7, 2004, p. 20A.
61. Rachel Emma Silverman. “On-the-Job Cursing: Obscene Talk Is the Latest Target of Workplace
Ban.” The Wall Street Journal, May 8, 2001, p. B12.
62. See, for example, James O’Connor. Cuss Control: The Complete Book on How to Curb Your
Cursing. New York: Three Rivers, 2000.
63. J. B. Rusher. Prejudiced Communication: A Social Psychological Perspective. New York: Guilford, 2001.
64. Randall Kennedy. Nigger: The Strange Career of a Troublesome Word. New York: Pantheon, 2002.
65. Paul H. Johnson. “N-Word Painful Even If Playful.” The Record, February 14, 2005, pp. A1, A13.
66. Dean E. Murphy. “The New Language of Jurors in California: Plain English.” New York Times,
August 28, 2005, p. 12.
67. Teresa M. McAleavy. “Downsize Jargon!” The Record, February 1, 2005, pp. L9, L16.
68. Amy Harmon. “Internet Changes Language for :-) & :-(.” New York Times, February 20, 1999,
p. B-7.
69. T. K. Bikson and C. W. A. Panis. “Computers and Connectivity: Current Trends.”
www.rand.org/publication/MR/MR650/index.html, 1996.
70. Jennifer Lee. “I Think, Therefore IM.” New York Times, September 19, 2002, pp. C1, C4.
71. Lini S. Kadaba. “4GET SPLLG & STRT MSGing!” The Record, August 25, 2002, pp. F1, F2.
72. Philip Vassallo. “Beware the Seven Deadly Sins of Tone.” Etc: A Review of General Semantics
57:1, spring 2000, pp. 100–114.
73. William M. Bulkeley. “Instant Message Goes Corporate; ‘You Can’t Hide.’” The Wall Street
Journal, September 4, 2002, pp. B1, B4.
74. Margaret L. McLaughlin, Keery K. Osborne, and Christine B. Smith. “Standards of Conduct on
Usenet.” In Steven G. Jones, ed. Cybersociety. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995, p. 103.
75. Hayakawa and Hayakawa.
76. For more information, see Richard Lacayo, “Mixed Signals on Sanctions.” Time, December 17,
1990, p. 114.

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After finishing this chapter, you

2. Describe and explain the triangle of

3. Distinguish between connotative and

4. Discuss how culture and gender

5. Provide examples of bypassing and

6. Identify two strategies to improve

7. Explain how technology is affecting

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Ethics & Communication

online learning center HOW LANGUAGE WORKS: WORDS,

FIGURE 5.1 Thought

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Meanings Are Both Denotative and Connotative denotative meaning

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John and Judy spent their Saturday waxing.

MEANING AND TIME

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MEANING AND PLACE

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MEANING AND EXPERIENCE

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CULTURE AND LANGUAGE

Culture Influences the Words Used

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What do you think of the

Hip-Hop and Rap Talk

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Rap is a language that

GENDER AND LANGUAGE

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Gender and Speech Style

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LANGUAGE AND POWER

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Flight crews are trained to

If you cry “Forward” you

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Bypassing: Confusing Meanings

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Politically Correct Language

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PROFANITY AND OBSCENITY: INCIVILITY

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THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT LANGUAGE:

A Call for Common Sense

What kind of language do you

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A Call for Clarity

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TECHNOLOGY AND LANGUAGE USE

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GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING

Identify How Labels Affect Your Behavior Group Activity

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Be Sure That Meanings Are Shared

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Revisiting Chapter Objectives