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Influence of Asymmetrical Waveform on Low-Cycle Fatigue Life of Micro

Solder Joint

Article  in  Journal of Electronic Materials · February 2010

DOI: 10.1007/s11664-009-1003-0

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Journal of ELECTRONIC MATERIALS, Vol. 39, No. 2, 2010 Author's personal copy
DOI: 10.1007/s11664-009-1003-0
Ó 2009 TMS

Influence of Asymmetrical Waveform on Low-Cycle Fatigue Life

of Micro Solder Joint

YOSHIHIKO KANDA1 and YOSHIHARU KARIYA2,3

1.—Graduate School of Shibaura Institute of Technology, 3-7-5 Toyosu, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-8548,
Japan. 2.—Material Science and Engineering Department, Shibaura Institute of Technology,
3-7-5 Toyosu, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-8548, Japan. 3.—e-mail: y_kariya@shibaura-it.ac.jp

The effects of waveform symmetry on the low-cycle fatigue life of the

Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu alloy have been investigated, using micro solder joint speci-
mens with approximately the same volume of solder as is used in actual
products. Focusing on crack initiation life, fatigue tests on Sn-Ag-Cu micro
solder joints using asymmetrical triangular waveforms revealed no significant
reduction in fatigue life. A slight reduction in fatigue life at low strain ranges
caused by an increase in the fatigue ductility exponent, which is the result of a
weakening microstructure due to loads applied at high temperature for long
testing time, was observed. This was due to the fact that grain boundary
damage, which has been reported in large-size specimens subjected to asym-
metrical triangular waveforms, does not occur in Sn-Ag-Cu micro size solder
joints with only a small number of crystal grain boundaries.

Key words: Lead-free solder, Sn-Ag-Cu, low-cycle fatigue, asymmetrical

waveform, microstructure, miniature testing

INTRODUCTION ture cycle may not be equivalent to that in isother-

mal fatigue testing using a symmetrical triangular
Solder joints in electronic devices are constantly
strain waveform. Isothermal fatigue tests using
subjected to temperature variations and thermal
asymmetrical triangular strain waveforms that
strain that result from differences in thermal
take into account the asymmetrical nature of strain
expansion coefficient. Therefore, in electronic
components in temperature cycles have been per-
devices, the evaluation of the fatigue life of the
formed primarily in the area of structural materi-
solder alloy is important. Isothermal fatigue tests
als.6–8 For example, Taira et al. found in high-
have been performed on solder alloys using a sym-
temperature low-cycle fatigue for low-carbon steel
metrical triangular strain waveform from the
(S15C) and stainless steel (SUS304) that fatigue life
viewpoint of experimental difficulty.1–3 However, in
under asymmetrical triangular strain waveforms
real temperature cycles, soldered areas are pri-
was shorter than that under symmetrical triangular
marily subjected to time-dependent creep strain as
strain waveforms.9 Studies using large specimens of
temperatures rise and time-independent plastic
the Sn-Ag-Cu alloy have also shown that fatigue life
strain as temperatures fall, presenting strain com-
under asymmetrical waveforms was shorter than
ponents that are asymmetric during the rise and fall
that under symmetrical waveforms.10,11 These
of temperature. Since creep strain in the fatigue
reports conclude that the reductions in fatigue life
process primarily damages grain boundaries, and
under asymmetrical waveforms were caused by
plastic strain damages the grain interior, it has
accumulation of irreversible grain boundary sliding
been reported that the different strain components
resulting from the asymmetry in the rate of defor-
cause different types of damage.4,5 As such, the
mation. However, based on our research, we have
thermomechanical fatigue life for a given tempera-
reported that the mechanical characteristics of very
small volumes of Sn-rich lead-free solder alloys used
(Received August 12, 2009; accepted November 4, 2009;
in electronic devices differ from those of large
published online November 26, 2009) material samples in that the former has a solidified

238
 Author's personal copy
Influence of Asymmetrical Waveform on Low-Cycle Fatigue Life of Micro Solder Joint
microstructure consisting of single crystals or only a
small number of grains.12–14 Recently, we also found
that the holding time under symmetrical wave-
forms, which is considered to be detrimental with
respect to the fatigue life of large solder material
samples, has almost no effect on very small Sn-Ag-
Cu alloy samples that have only a small number
of grain boundaries.13 Although the differences
between large and very small Sn-Ag-Cu alloy sam-
ple sizes with regard to the effects of dwell time in
symmetrical waveforms on fatigue life are coming to
light, the effects of waveform symmetry have still
not been elucidated. In this study, the effects of
waveform symmetry on the low-cycle fatigue life of
micro specimens of the Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu alloy were
investigated.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Micro Solder Joint Specimen
The micro solder joint specimen used in this study
consisted of two cylindrical copper rods connected
with a solder ball, as shown in Fig. 1.13 The cylin-
drical copper rods had a length of 9 mm and a
diameter of 2 mm. Chrome plating was applied to
the cylindrical copper rods as a solder resist, and a
pad with a depth of 5 lm was created. The micro
solder joint was fabricated by joining the rods with a
solder ball having a diameter of 760 lm. The solder
alloy used in this study was an alloy consisting of
Sn, 3.0 mass.% Ag, and 0.5 mass.% Cu (‘‘mass.%’’ is
omitted hereafter, e.g., Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu). The con-
nection was made at 518 K and held for 30 s in
Fig. 1. Micro solder joint specimen.
239
ambient air, using a rosin, mildly activated (RMA)-
type flux.
Low-Cycle Fatigue Testing Method
A fatigue testing machine for the micro specimen
shown in Fig. 2 was used to study mechanical
characteristics. This testing machine uses a piezo
stage with a displacement-enlarging mechanism as
its actuator, with a maximum stroke of ±250 lm
and a maximum load cell capacity of ±40 N.
Displacement was measured using a capacitive
displacement sensor (displacement resolution 0.01
lm) attached to the tip of the specimen-holding jig.
Measurements were then fed back to the actuator to
control the actuator. A ceramic heater was attached
to the lower part of the jig and used to heat the
specimen-holding jig. Temperature was measured
with a thermocouple attached to the end of the
specimen and controlled to within ±2 K (Fig. 3).
A displacement-controlled low-cycle shear fatigue
test was conducted at 298 K and 398 K. The control
waveforms were triangular waves (ramp rate: 5 lm/s),
asymmetrical triangular waves (fast: 5 lm/s; slow:
0.1 lm/s; R = 50 and fast: 5 lm/s; slow: 0.05 lm/s;
R = 100), and asymmetrical trapezoidal waves (one-
side retention time: 120 s). The asymmetrical tri-
angular waveform modeled the asymmetric nature
of the strain component in the temperature cycle.
The difference in ramp rates between asymmetrical
waves was converted to the temperature cycle of a
certain temperature range using the Zener–Hollo-
mon parameter, which is the temperature-compen-
sated strain rate factor shown in Eq. 1:
Z ¼ e_ expðQ=RT Þ; (1)
where Z is the Zener–Hollomon parameter, Q is the
activation energy, R is the gas constant, and T is
Fig. 2. Mechanical testing machine.
240 Author's personal copy Kanda and Kariya

Ramp rate=5µm/s
Displacement

Time

(a) Symmetrical triangular waveform

Ramp rate=0.05µm/s
Displacement

Time

Ramp rate=5µm/sec

(b) Asymmetrical triangular waveform

(fast/slow=50)

Ramp rate=0.1µm/s
Displacement

Time

Ramp rate=5µm/s
(c) Asymmetrical triangular waveform
(fast/slow=100)

Ramp rate=5µm/s
Displacement

Time
Fig. 4. FEA model of micro solder joint specimen.

120s
(d) Asymmetrical trapezoidal waveform
Fig. 3. Loading waveform for low-cycle fatigue tests: (a) symmetrical
triangular waveform, (b) asymmetrical triangular waveform (fast/
slow = 50), (c) asymmetrical triangular waveform (fast/slow = 100),
and (d) asymmetrical trapezoidal waveform.
with eight nodes (SOLID185) with a half-model of
the specimen, taking into account the symmetrical
boundary, as shown in Fig. 4. Material constants of
the solder alloy including creep were obtained using
the methods described below.

temperature. The activation energy Q used here
was 70 kJ/mol.15 A temperature of 298 K with a
50-fold rate difference corresponds to temperature
cycling between 298 K and 345 K (DT = 47 K),
398 K with a 50-fold rate difference corresponds to
temperature cycling between 335 K and 398 K
(DT = 63 K), and 398 K with a 100-fold rate differ-
ence corresponds to temperature cycling between
326 K and 398 K(DT = 63 K).
The results were plotted using a Coffin-Manson
plot based on the equivalent inelastic strain range
(obtained from the mean value of the crack-initiated
area) and the fatigue life, which was calculated
using finite-element method (FEM) analysis, where
fatigue life was defined as the number of cycles
performed when the load drop, corresponding to the
occurrence of the initial crack. In the FEM analysis,
an elasto-plasto-creep analysis was performed using
ANSYS version 11.0 using a hexahedral element
Obtaining Elasto-Plasto-Creep
Characteristics of Solder Alloy
The elasto-plasto-creep characteristics of the sol-
der alloy were obtained in shear tests and stress
relaxation tests. First, a shear displacement of
20 lm was applied to a micro solder joint specimen.
This displacement was then held for 600 s and the
load–time curve was obtained. Elasto-plastic char-
acteristics were obtained from the shear load seg-
ment, using an inverse analysis method to achieve
the best fit with the experimental value, based on
the assumption that strain-hardening characteris-
tics constituted a two-straight-line approximation
according to the kinematic hardening rule. Creep
characteristics were obtained from the stress-
relaxed segment. The creep constant was obtained
by fitting the data obtained from the relaxation
curve to Eq. 3 using the nonlinear least-squares
method, based on the assumption that stress
 Author's personal copy
Influence of Asymmetrical Waveform on Low-Cycle Fatigue Life of Micro Solder Joint 241

Table I. Elasto-plasto-creep properties for FEA

Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu

Cu 298 K 398 K

Young’s modulus, GPa 100 40 30

Poisson’s ratio 0.3 0.3 0.3
Yield stress, MPa 24.5 13
Tangent modulus, MPa 3500 2500
Norton’s law
A, MPa/s 3.4 9 10
20 1.62 9 10
15
n 10.5 9.5

relaxation follows Eq. 3, in which Norton’s law

(Eq. 2) had been converted to a stress-relaxation
type.
Fig. 5. Relationship between equivalent inelastic strain range and
e_ ss ¼ Arn ; (2) fatigue life (20% load drop) at 298 K for Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu joint.

1=rn
1
1=rn
1
i ¼ ðn
1ÞAEt; (3)
where e_ ss is the steady-state creep rate, A is the
material constant, r is the stress, n is the stress
exponent, ri is the initial stress, E is the Young’s
modulus, and t is time. The obtained material con-
stants are shown in Table I.

Microstructural Observations
The microstructures were observed under an
optical microscope. The specimens were mechani-
cally polished using SiC polishing paper and dia-
mond paste, and then polished using a colloidal
silica suspension liquid to remove the layers that
were damaged in the mechanical polishing process.

EXPERIMENT RESULTS
Fatigue Life Under Symmetrical Fig. 6. Relationship between equivalent inelastic strain range and
and Asymmetrical Waves fatigue life (20% load drop) at 398 K for Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu joint.

Figure 5 shows the relationship between the

equivalent inelastic strain range and fatigue life
obtained under symmetrical and asymmetrical tri-
angular waves at 298 K. The equivalent inelastic
strain range was calculated from FEM, and fatigue
life was defined to be the number of cycles at which
the load declined by 20% from the maximum load.
Figure 5 shows that the Coffin-Manson law shown
in Eq. 4 applies to the relationship between fatigue
life and the equivalent inelastic strain range.
Dein  Nfa ¼ C; (4)
where Dein is the inelastic strain range, Nf is the
fatigue life, a is the fatigue ductility exponent, and C
is the fatigue ductility coefficient. At 298 K, the
fatigue lives under symmetrical and asymmetrical
(R = 50) triangle waves were roughly equal, which
indicates that waveform symmetry had no effect on
fatigue life. Results from a previous fatigue test
performed with dog-bone-type tensile specimens of a
eutectic Sn-3.5Ag alloy and a Sn-3.5Ag-1Cu alloy
showed that fatigue life under asymmetrical trian-
gular waves was reduced to about one-tenth of that
observed under symmetrical triangular waves.16
These studies indicate that loading waveforms have
different effects on large and micro size specimens;
the fatigue life of larger specimens is sensitive to
loading waveforms, while the fatigue life of micro-
specimens is not.
Figure 6 shows the relationships between fatigue
life and equivalent inelastic strain ranges under
symmetrical triangular waves, asymmetrical trian-
gular waves (R = 50 and R = 100), and asymmetri-
cal trapezoidal waves at 398 K. As was the case at
298 K, and even at 398 K, fatigue life showed no
significant dependency on waveform, in contrast
to the results that had been observed for larger
242 Author's personal copy Kanda and Kariya

specimens. There appears to be a slight decrease in
fatigue life, however, at low strain under asym-
metrical triangular (R = 100) and asymmetrical
trapezoidal waves compared with that under a
symmetrical triangular wave, suggesting a possible
increase in the fatigue ductility exponent (the slope
in the Coffin-Manson plot). Significant effects of
waveform symmetry which have been observed in
the fatigue life of larger specimens do not occur in
the case of Sn-Ag-Cu micro solder joints.
Fatigue-Tested Microstructures
Figure 7a and b shows a contour figure and a
polarizing microscope image of the initial micro-
structure, respectively. Figure 7c–e shows polariz-
ing microscope images of microstructures that were
fatigue-tested using symmetrical triangular waves
at 398 K, asymmetrical triangular waves (R = 100)
at 398 K, and asymmetrical trapezoidal waves at
398 K, respectively. Microstructures tested at
298 K, for which fatigue lives were not significantly
affected by waveform symmetry, are omitted. In the
initial microstructure of the Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu micro
solder joint, b-Sn dendrites of 100 lm or greater
with the same orientation were joined by a fine eu-
tectic microstructure consisting of the intermetallics
Ag3Sn and Cu6Sn5, making relatively large grains,
and the number of grains was small.13,14 Micro-
structures that were fatigue-tested using symmet-
rical triangular and asymmetrical trapezoidal
waves remained largely unchanged from their
initial state, with approximately three crystals and
no significant changes in microstructure such as
recrystallization. Fatigue cracks propagated inside
these grains. On the other hand, under asymmet-
rical triangular waves, fatigue cracks initiated from
the corners of the joint as in the case of symmetrical
triangular waves, and microstructural changes
resembling a deformation band were observed in the
high-strain region in the FEM analysis (the white
areas in the contour figure). The strain distributions
obtained in FEM analyses for symmetrical and
asymmetrical waves were the same.
Figure 8 shows a polarized image of the area near
the fatigue fissure resulting from an asymmetrical
triangular wave (R = 100). Fine grains are visi-
ble near the crack. The fact that these crystal
grains are not found in the initial microstructure
and that the shapes of these crystal grains are dif-
ferent from those found in the solidified structure
suggests that these grains are the result of recrys-
tallization during the fatigue deformation process.
If grain boundaries exist in a stress concentration
area, fatigue cracks should propagate at the grain
boundaries in a Sn-rich alloy.10 However, cracks
appear to be propagating within equiaxial recrys-
tallized grains, suggesting that recrystallization
occurred after initial cracks were initiated. Since
recrystallization requires a large accumulation of
strain energy, these results suggest that asymmet-
rical triangular waves result in a larger accumula-
tion of strain energy compared with symmetrical
waves of the same strain range. On the other hand,

Fig. 7. Polarized images showing initial and fatigue-tested microstructure at 398 K: (a) contour figure of equivalent plastic strain obtained by
FEA, (b) initial microstructure, (c) fatigue-tested microstructure under the symmetrical triangular wave at total displacement range of 4 lm,
(d) fatigue-tested microstructure under the asymmetrical triangular wave at total displacement range of 12 lm (R = 100), and (e) fatigue-tested
microstructure under the asymmetrical trapezoidal wave at total displacement range of 5 lm.
 Author's personal copy
Influence of Asymmetrical Waveform on Low-Cycle Fatigue Life of Micro Solder Joint
Fig. 8. Cross-sectional polarized image showing fatigue crack initi-
ation for asymmetrical triangular wave at 398 K.
microstructural changes such as recrystallization
were not observed for asymmetrical trapezoidal
waves. Thus, the recrystallization is the result of
asymmetry in the deformation rate within a cycle,
and the large accumulation of strain energy is
caused by irreversible slip deformations.10
Figure 9 shows dark-field images of initial and
fatigue-tested microstructures at 398 K. The white
Fig. 9. Dark-field images showing initial and fatigue tested microstructure at 398 K: (a) initial microstructure, (b) symmetrical triangular wave at
total displacement range of 12 lm, (c) asymmetrical triangular wave at total displacement range of 6 lm (R = 100), and (d) asymmetrical
trapezoidal wave at total displacement range of 5 lm.
243
areas represent intermetallics (Ag3Sn and Cu6Sn5).
As mentioned above, the initial microstructure was
composed of fine eutectic regions of Ag3Sn, Cu6Sn5,
and Sn having average grain diameters of 1 lm or
less, surrounding b-Sn dendrites. Under symmetri-
cal triangular waves, although the Cu6Sn5 particle
size increased slightly to a little over 1 lm, the fine
eutectic microstructure still kept its fine state.
Under asymmetrical triangular (R = 100) and
asymmetrical trapezoidal waves, however, Ag3Sn
particles remained small, as was the case with
symmetrical triangular waves, while the Cu6Sn5
particles increased in size. The average size of these
Cu6Sn5 particles was approximately 2.0 lm, or
roughly twice that of the particles found in speci-
mens tested using symmetrical triangular waves.
The duration of tests using asymmetrical triangular
waves (R = 100) was longer than that of tests using
symmetrical triangular waves. Therefore, fatigue
tests using asymmetrical triangular waves
(R = 100) subjected specimens to stress for longer
periods of time at an elevated temperature of
398 K (0.8Tm), which promoted the growth of
intermetallics.
DISCUSSION
Previous research has shown that asymmetrical
waveforms used in isothermal fatigue tests are
244 Author's personal copy
deleterious to the fatigue lives of not only solder
alloys, but also steel alloys and Ni-based alloys,
since the damage caused by the two categories of
inelastic strain, namely time-independent plastic
strain and time-dependent creep strain, are differ-
ent in nature.6–9 Plastic strain primarily damages
the grain interior, whereas creep strain primarily
damages the grain boundaries in the polycrystalline
state. In high-temperature low-cycle tension–com-
pression fatigue tests performed on conventional
specimens of SUS304 steel by Taira et al., high-
temperature low-cycle fatigue using symmetrical
triangular waves caused grain boundary sliding;
however, almost no residual grain boundary sliding
remained at the end of a cycle since the grain
boundaries slid in a reversible manner during the
tension–compression process. On the other hand,
under low-speed and high-speed saw-tooth (slow–
fast) waves, residual grain boundary sliding
remains, since significant grain-boundary sliding
occurs during the low-strain-rate deformation, and
grains deform internally with very little or no grain
boundary sliding at the high strain rate.17 The
results suggest that the reduction in fatigue life
under asymmetrical triangular waveforms is caused
by irreversible sliding at grain boundaries. In this
study, asymmetrical triangular waveforms did not
have a significant effect on the fatigue life of Sn-Ag-
Cu micro solder joints (Figs. 5, 7). The microstruc-
ture of micro solder joints shown in Fig. 8 consists of
roughly three crystal grains, with only a small
number of high-angle grain boundaries where
orientation of the dendrites change greatly.14,18
Macroscopically, the cluster of dendrites having the
same orientation behaves as a crystal grain during
deformation. Therefore, the accumulation of irre-
versible grain boundary sliding, which is considered
to be the cause of reduced fatigue life under asym-
metrical triangular waveforms, is small. The effects
of asymmetrical triangular waveforms on fatigue
life are therefore not as pronounced as in the case of
larger material samples. Additionally, since fatigue
cracks propagated within grains under asymmetri-
cal trapezoidal waveforms, as was the case under
symmetrical triangular waves, this did not have a
significant effect on fatigue life.
As shown in Fig. 8, a large number of new grains
formed via recrystallization were observed in areas
where cracks propagated under asymmetrical tri-
angular waves (R = 100) at 398 K. Recrystallization
that occurs during fatigue deformation is considered
to be deleterious to fatigue life since cracks propa-
gate at grain boundaries.10,19 In this study, how-
ever, there was no significant reduction in the
fatigue life of specimens tested under asymmetrical
triangular waveforms, even though recrystalliza-
tion occurred. A possible explanation is that recrys-
tallization occurred after the initiation of an initial
crack, which is the definition of life (20% drop in
load), and therefore had no significant effect on
fatigue life. Therefore, asymmetrical waves are not
Kanda and Kariya
deleterious to the initiation of the initial crack of
micro size joints, but are deleterious to the sub-
sequent propagation of the crack that leads to
complete fracture because boundaries of recrystal-
lized grains are already present in areas into which
the crack is expected to propagate.
Additionally, under asymmetrical triangular
waves (R = 100) at 398 K, a coarsening of interme-
tallics was observed in addition to recrystallization
(Fig. 9). In the majority of alloys in which fine
intermetallics are dispersed throughout their
microstructure, strain-hardening characteristics
are governed by the distance between intermetallic
particles. Under symmetrical triangular (R = 100)
and asymmetrical trapezoidal waves at 398 K, a
reduction in strain hardening, that is, a decrease in
the cyclic strain-hardening exponent, is expected
due to the coarsening of intermetallics during the
fatigue test. The fatigue ductility exponent of the
Sn-Ag-Cu alloy has been reported to increase with a
decrease in the cyclic strain-hardening exponent.20
Thus, under symmetrical triangular (R = 100) and
asymmetrical trapezoidal waves at 398 K, the
reduction in the cyclic strain-hardening exponent
caused by the coarsening of intermetallics resulted
in an increase in the fatigue ductility exponent and
a slight decrease in fatigue life in lower strain
ranges. In particular, the growth and coarsening of
Cu6Sn5 contributed to the rise in the fatigue
ductility exponent because the low-strain side of
the range requires longer testing times. This is
based on a different mechanism from that in which
grain boundary damage decreased fatigue life, as
reported in tests using symmetrical waves on large
specimens.
CONCLUSIONS
The effects of waveform symmetry on the low-
cycle fatigue life of the Sn-3.0Ag-0.5Cu alloy has
been investigated using micro solder joint speci-
mens with approximately the same volume of solder
as is used in actual products, and the following
results are obtained.
Focusing on crack initiation life, fatigue tests on
Sn-Ag-Cu micro solder joints using asymmetrical
triangular waveforms revealed no significant
reduction in fatigue life, in contrast to the reduc-
tions observed for large-size specimens. A slight
reduction in fatigue life at low strain ranges caused
by an increase in the fatigue ductility exponent was
observed. This was due to the fact that grain
boundary damage, which has been reported in
large-size specimens subjected to asymmetrical tri-
angular waveforms, does not occur in Sn-Ag-Cu
micro size solder joints with only a small number of
crystal grain boundaries. Furthermore, fatigue life
is primarily governed by increases in the fatigue
ductility exponent, which is the result of a weak-
ening microstructure due to loads applied at high
temperature for long testing time. This phenomenon
 Author's personal copy
Influence of Asymmetrical Waveform on Low-Cycle Fatigue Life of Micro Solder Joint
is peculiar to Sn-Ag-Cu micro solder joints that
contain only a few crystal grains. However, under
asymmetrical triangular waveforms, recrystalliza-
tion occurred during the fatigue test; this was
considered to be deleterious in terms of crack
propagation since it will eventually result in com-
plete fracture. This indicates that waveform
asymmetry must be taken into account in studies
to determine fatigue life leading up to complete
fracture.
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