CHAPTER 1: STEEL

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and other elements. Because of its high tensile
strength and low cost, it is a major component used
in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons.

Iron is the base metal of steel. Iron is able to take on two crystalline forms (allotropic
forms), body centered cubic (BCC) and face centered cubic (FCC), depending on its
temperature. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an iron atom in the centre and
eight atoms at the vertices of each cube; in the face-centred cubic, there is one atom at the
center of each of the six faces of the cube and eight atoms at the vertices. It is the interaction
of the allotropes of iron with the alloying elements, primarily carbon, that gives steel
and cast iron their range of unique properties.

In pure iron, the crystal structure has relatively little resistance to the iron atoms slipping past
one another, and so pure iron is quite ductile, or soft and easily formed. In steel, small
amounts of carbon, other elements, and inclusions within the iron act as hardening agents that
prevent the movement of dislocations that are common in the crystal lattices of iron atoms.

The carbon in typical steel alloys may contribute up to 2.14% of its weight. Varying the
amount of carbon and many other alloying elements, as well as controlling their chemical and
physical makeup in the final steel (either as solute elements, or as precipitated phases), slows
the movement of those dislocations that make pure iron ductile, and thus controls and
enhances its qualities. These qualities include such things as the hardness, quenching
behavior, need for annealing, tempering behavior, yield strength, and tensile strength of the
resulting steel. The increase in steel's strength compared to pure iron is possible only by
reducing iron's ductility.

Steel Categories
According to the American Iron & Steel Institute (AISI), Steel can be categorized into four
basic groups based on the chemical compositions:

1. Carbon Steel
2. Alloy Steel
3. Stainless Steel
4. Tool Steel

There are many different grades of steel that encompass varied properties. These properties
can be physical, chemical and environmental.

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All steel is composed of iron and carbon. It is the amount of carbon, and the additional alloys
that determine the properties of each grade.

Classifications
Types of Steel can also be classified by a variety of different factors:

1. Composition: Carbon range, Alloy, Stainless.

2. The production method: Continuous cast, Electric furnace, Etc.
3. Finishing method used: Cold Rolled, Hot Rolled, Cold Drawn (Cold Finished), Etc.
4. Form or shape: Bar, Rod, Tube, Pipe, Plate, Sheet, Structural, Etc.
5. De-oxidation process (oxygen removed from steelmaking process): Killed & Semi-
Killed Steel, Etc.
6. Microstructure: Ferritic, Pearlitic, Martensitic, Etc.
7. Physical Strength (Per ASTM Standards).
8. Heat Treatment: Annealed, Quenched & Tempered, Etc.
9. Quality Nomenclature: Commercial Quality, Drawing Quality, Pressure Vessel
Quality, Etc.

Steel Numbering Systems

There are two major numbering systems used by the steel industry, the first developed by
the American Iron & Steel Institute (AISI), and the second by the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE). Both of these systems are based on four digit code numbers when
identifying the base carbon and alloy steels. There are selections of alloys that have five digit
codes instead.

If the first digit is a one (1) in this designation it indicates a carbon steel. All carbon steels are
in this group (1xxx) in both the SAE & AISI system. They are also subdivided into four
categories due to particular underlying properties among them. See below:

 Plain Carbon Steel is encompassed within the 10xx series (containing 1.00% Mn
maximum)
 Re-Sulfurized Carbon steel is encompassed within the 11xx series
 Re -Sulfurized and Re-Phosphorized Carbon Steel is encompassed within the 12xx
series
 Non-Re-Sulfurized High-Manganese (up-to 1.65%) carbon steel is encompassed
within the 15xx series.

The first digit on all other alloy steels (under the SAE-AISI system), are then classified as
follows:

2 = Nickel steels.

2
3 = Nickel-chromium steels.

4 = Molybdenum steels.

5 = Chromium steels.

6 = Chromium-vanadium steels.

7 = Tungsten-chromium steels.

8 = Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels

9 = Silicon-manganese steels and various other SAE grades

The second digit of the series (sometimes but not always) indicates the concentration of the
major element in percentiles (1 equals 1%).

The last two digits of the series indicate the carbon concentration to 0.01%.

For example: SAE 5130 is a chromium alloy steel containing about 1% of chromium and
approximately 0.30% of carbon.

Carbon Steel
Carbon Steel can be segregated into three main categories: Low carbon steel (sometimes
known as mild steel); Medium carbon steel; and High carbon steel.

Low Carbon Steel (Mild Steel): Typically contain 0.04% to 0.30% carbon content. This is
one of the largest groups of Carbon Steel. It covers a great diversity of shapes; from Flat
Sheet to Structural Beam. Depending on the desired properties needed, other elements are
added or increased. For example: Drawing Quality (DQ) – The carbon level is kept low and
Aluminum is added, and for Structural Steel the carbon level is higher and the manganese
content is increased.

Medium Carbon Steel: Typically has a carbon range of 0.31% to 0.60%, and a manganese
content ranging from .060% to 1.65%. This product is stronger than low carbon steel, and it is
more difficult to form, weld and cut. Medium carbon steels are quite often hardened and
tempered using heat treatment.

High Carbon Steel: Commonly known as “carbon tool steel” it typically has a carbon range
between 0.61% and 1.50%. High carbon steel is very difficult to cut, bend and weld. Once
heat treated it becomes extremely hard and brittle.

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 ALLOY STEEL
Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between 1.0%
and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are broken down
arbitrarily: Smith and Hashami define the difference at 4.0%, while Degarmo, et al., define it
at 8.0%. Most commonly, the phrase "alloy steel" refers to low-alloy steels.
Strictly speaking, every steel is an alloy, but not all steels are called "alloy steels". The
simplest steels are iron (Fe) alloyed with carbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%, depending on type).
However, the term "alloy steel" is the standard term referring to steels with other alloying
elements added deliberately in addition to the carbon. Common alloyants
include manganese (the most common
one), nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron. Less common alloyants
include aluminium, cobalt, copper, cerium, niobium, titanium, tungsten, tin, zinc, lead,
and zirconium.
The following is a range of improved properties in alloy steels (as compared to carbon
steels): strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, hardenability,
and hot hardness. To achieve some of these improved properties the metal may require heat
treating.
Some of these find uses in exotic and highly-demanding applications, such as in the turbine
blades of jet engines, in spacecraft, and in nuclear reactors. Because of
the ferromagnetic properties of iron, some steel alloys find important applications where their
responses to magnetism are very important, including in electric motors and in transformers.

Low-alloy steels

A few common low alloy steels are:

 D6AC
 300M
 256A

Principal low-alloy steels

SAE designation Composition

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13xx Mn 1.75%

40xx Mo 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.25% Mo & 0.042% S

41xx Cr 0.50% or 0.80% or 0.95%, Mo 0.12% or 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.30%

43xx Ni 1.82%, Cr 0.50% to 0.80%, Mo 0.25%

44xx Mo 0.40% or 0.52%

46xx Ni 0.85% or 1.82%, Mo 0.20% or 0.25%

47xx Ni 1.05%, Cr 0.45%, Mo 0.20% or 0.35%

48xx Ni 3.50%, Mo 0.25%

50xx Cr 0.27% or 0.40% or 0.50% or 0.65%

50xxx Cr 0.50%, C 1.00% min

50Bxx Cr 0.28% or 0.50%, and added boron

51xx Cr 0.80% or 0.87% or 0.92% or 1.00% or 1.05%

51xxx Cr 1.02%, C 1.00% min

51Bxx Cr 0.80%, and added boron

52xxx Cr 1.45%, C 1.00% min

61xx Cr 0.60% or 0.80% or 0.95%, V 0.10% or 0.15% min

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86xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.20%

87xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.25%

88xx Ni 0.55%, Cr 0.50%, Mo 0.35%

92xx Si 1.40% or 2.00%, Mn 0.65% or 0.82% or 0.85%, Cr 0.00% or 0.65%

94Bxx Ni 0.45%, Cr 0.40%, Mo 0.12%, and added boron

Ni 5%, Cr 2%, Si 1.25%, W 1%, Mn 0.85%, Mo 0.55%, Cu 0.5%, Cr 0.40%, C

ES-1
0.2%, V 0.1%

Material science
Alloying elements are added to achieve certain properties in the material. As a guideline,
alloying elements are added in lower percentages (less than 5%) to increase strength or
hardenability, or in larger percentages (over 5%) to achieve special properties, such as
corrosion resistance or extreme temperature stability.Manganese, silicon, or aluminium are
added during the steelmaking process to remove
dissolved oxygen, sulphur and phosphorus from the melt. Manganese, silicon, nickel, and
copper are added to increase strength by forming solid solutions in ferrite. Chromium,
vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten increase strength by forming second-phase carbides.
Nickel and copper improve corrosion resistance in small quantities. Molybdenum helps to
resist embrittlement. Zirconium, cerium, and calcium increase toughness by controlling the
shape of inclusions. Sulphur (in the form of manganese sulphide) lead, bismuth, selenium,
and tellurium increase machinability. The alloying elements tend to form either solid
solutions or compounds or carbides. Nickel is very soluble in ferrite; therefore, it forms
compounds, usually Ni3Al. Aluminium dissolves in the ferrite and forms the compounds
Al2O3 and AlN. Silicon is also very soluble and usually forms the compound SiO2•MxOy.
Manganese mostly dissolves in ferrite forming the compounds MnS, MnO•SiO2, but will also
form carbides in the form of (Fe,Mn)3C. Chromium forms partitions between the ferrite and
carbide phases in steel, forming (Fe,Cr3)C, Cr7C3, and Cr23C6. The type of carbide that
chromium forms depends on the amount of carbon and other types of alloying elements
present. Tungsten and molybdenum form carbides if there is enough carbon and an absence
of stronger carbide forming elements (i.e., titanium & niobium), they form the carbides W2C
and Mo2C, respectively. Vanadium, titanium, and niobium are strong carbide forming
elements, forming vanadium carbide, titanium carbide, and niobium carbide,

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respectively. Alloying elements also have an effect on the eutectoid temperature of the steel.
Manganese and nickel lower the eutectoid temperature and are known as austenite stabilizing
elements. With enough of these elements the austenitic structure may be obtained at room
temperature. Carbide-forming elements raise the eutectoid temperature; these elements are
known as ferrite stabilizing elements.

Principal effects of major alloying elements for steel

Element Percentage Primary function

Aluminium 0.95–1.30 Alloying element in nitriding steels

Bismuth - Improves machinability

Boron 0.001–0.003 A powerful hardenability agent

0.5–2 Increases hardenability

Chromium
4–18 Increases corrosion resistance

Copper 0.1–0.4 Corrosion resistance

Lead - Improved machinability

Combines with sulphur and with phosphorus to reduce the brittleness. Also
0.25–0.40
helps to remove excess oxygen from molten steel.
Manganese
Increases hardenability by lowering transformation points and causing
>1
transformations to be sluggish

Stable carbides; inhibits grain growth. Increases the toughness of steel, thus
making molybdenum a very valuable alloy metal for making the cutting
Molybdenum 0.2–5
parts of machine tools and also the turbine blades of turbojet engines. Also
used in rocket motors.

Nickel 2–5 Toughener

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 12–20 Increases corrosion resistance

0.2–0.7 Increases strength

2.0 Spring steels

Silicon

Higher
Improves magnetic properties
percentages

Sulphur 0.08–0.15 Free-machining properties

Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces martensitic hardness in chromium

Titanium -
steels

Tungsten - Also increases the melting point.

Stable carbides; increases strength while retaining ductility; promotes fine

Vanadium 0.15
grain structure. Increases the toughness at high temperatures

STAINLESS STEEL
In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from
French inoxydable (inoxidizable), is a steel alloy with a minimum of
10.5% chromium content by mass.
Stainless steels are notable for their corrosion resistance, which increases with increasing
chromium content. Additions of molybdenum increase corrosion resistance in reducing acids
and against pitting attack in chloride solutions. Thus, there are numerous grades of stainless
steel with varying chromium and molybdenum contents to suit the environment the alloy
must endure. Stainless steel’s resistance to corrosion and staining, low maintenance, and
familiar lustre make it an ideal material for many applications where both the strength of steel
and corrosion resistance are required.
Stainless steels are rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be used
in cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances and as construction material in
large buildings, such as the Chrysler Building. As well as, industrial equipment (for example,
in paper mills, chemical plants, water treatment), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals
and food products (for example, chemical tankers and road tankers). Stainless steel's
corrosion resistance, the ease with which it can be steam cleaned and sterilized and no need

8
for other surface coatings has also influenced its use in commercial kitchens and food
processing plants.

Stainless steel families

There are five main families, which are primarily classified by their crystalline structure:
Austenitic stainless steel:
Austenitic stainless steel is the largest family of stainless steels, making up about two-thirds
of all stainless steel production. They possess an austenitic microstructure, which is a face-
centered cubic crystal structure. This microstructure is achieved by alloying with sufficient
nickel and/or manganese and nitrogen to maintain an austenitic microstructure at all
temperatures from the cryogenic region to the melting point. Thus austenitic stainless steels
are not hardenable by heat treatment since they possess the same microstructure at all
temperatures. Though they can be strengthened by cold working, but this is limited to thin
sheet and small diameter bar. Their austenitic microstructure gives them excellent formability
and weldability and they are essentially non-magnetic and maintain their ductility at
cryogenic temperatures.
They can be further subdivided into two sub-groups, 200 series and 300 series:

 200 Series are chromium-manganese-nickel alloys, which maximize the use of

manganese and nitrogen to minimize the use of nickel. Due to their nitrogen
addition they possess approximately 50% higher yield strength than 300 series
stainless steels. Type 201 is hardenable through cold working; Type 202 is a
general purpose stainless steel. Decreasing nickel content and increasing
manganese results in weak corrosion resistance.
 300 Series are chromium-nickel alloys, which achieve their austenitic
microstructure almost exclusively by nickel alloying, some very highly alloyed
grades include some nitrogen to reduce nickel requirements. 300 series is the
largest group and the most widely used. The best known grade is Type 304, also
known as 18/8 for its composition of 18% chromium and 8% nickel. The second
most common austenitic stainless steel is Type 316. Its addition of 2%
molybdenum provides greater resistance to acids and to localized corrosion
caused by chloride ions.
Low-carbon versions, for example 316L or 304L, are used to avoid corrosion problems
caused by welding. The "L" means that the carbon content of the alloy is below 0.03%,
which prevents sensitization (precipitation of chromium carbides at grain boundaries)
caused by the high temperatures involved in welding.
Superaustenitic stainless steels, such as Allegheny Ludlum alloy AL-6XN and
Outokumpu’s alloy 254 SMO, possess even greater resistance to chloride pitting and
crevice corrosion because of their high molybdenum content (>6%) and nitrogen
additions. They possess useful service to seawater applications.

9
Ferritic stainless steels
Ferritic stainless steels possess a ferrite microstructure like carbon steel, which is a body-
centered cubic crystal structure and contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium with very
little or no nickel. This microstructure is present at all temperatures, due to the chromium
addition, and like austenitic stainless steels are not hardenable by heat treatment. They
cannot be strengthened by cold work to the same degree as austenitic stainless steels.
They are magnetic like carbon steel. They are problematic to weld due to grain growth in
the heat affected zone which reduces ductility and may result in cracks. Increasing
chromium and molybdenum contents increase corrosion resistance as it does for
austenitic stainless steels, however, this high alloying results in the precipitation of
embrittling intermetallic phase upon welding. These microstructural problems due to
welding restrict the use of ferritic stainless steels to very thin thicknesses and thus are not
used in the construction of large heavy walled vessels and tanks, and structures like
austenitic stainless steels.
Common ferritic grades are: Type 430 with 17% chromium, which is used in washing
machine drums, dishwasher interiors and refrigerator exteriors. Type 409 with 11%
chromium is used extensively in the manufacture of automotive exhausts.

Swiss Army knives are made of martensitic stainless steel.

Martensitic stainless steels:

Martensitic stainless steels are hardened by heat treatment, which is developed after
quenching from an elevated temperature. They possess a body-centered tetragonal crystal
structure. They are magnetic. Martensitic stainless steels contain chromium (12–16%),
molybdenum (0.2–1%), nickel (less than 2%), and carbon (about 0.1–1%). They are not
as corrosion resistant as the common ferritic and austenitic stainless steels due to their
low chromium content. Their high carbon content enables them to be significantly
hardened and thus they are used for knives, razor blades, cutlery and tools. Common
grades are Types 410, 420 and 440C.
Duplex stainless steel:
Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim
usually being to produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys the ratio may be
40/60. They are characterized by high chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%)
and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels. Duplex stainless steels have
roughly twice the strength compared to austenitic stainless steels. Their mixed
microstructure provides improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking in
comparison to austenitic stainless steels Types 304 and 316.

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The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content
than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many
applications. Duplex grades are characterized into groups based on their alloy content and
corrosion resistance.

 Lean duplex refers to grades such as UNS S32101 (LDX 2101), S32202
(UR2202), S32304, and S32003.
 Standard duplex refers to grades with 22% chromium, such as UNS
S31803/S32205, with 2205 being the most widely used.
 Super duplex is by definition a duplex stainless steel with a Pitting Resistance
Equivalent Number (PREN) > 40, where PREN = %Cr + 3.3x(%Mo + 0.5x%W)
+ 16x%N. Usually super duplex grades have 25% or more chromium. Some
common examples are S32760 (Zeron 100 via Rolled Alloys), S32750 (2507), and
S32550 (Ferralium 255 via Langley Alloys).
 Hyper duplex refers to duplex grades with a PRE > 48. UNS S32707 and S33207
are the only grades currently available on the market.
Precipitation hardening stainless steel:
Precipitation hardening stainless steels have corrosion resistance comparable to
austenitic varieties, but can be precipitation hardened to even higher strengths than
the other martensitic grades. The most common, 17-4PH, uses about 17% chromium
and 4% nickel.
The designation "CRES" is used in various industries to refer to corrosion-resistant
steel. Most mentions of CRES refer to stainless steel, although the correspondence is
not absolute, because there are other materials that are corrosion-resistant but not
stainless steel.

Grades:
There are over 150 grades of stainless steel, of which 15 are most commonly used.
There are a number of systems for grading stainless and other steels, including
US SAE steel grades.
Comparison of standardized steels
EN-standard EN-standard
SAE grade UNS
Steel name
Steel no. k.h.s DIN

1.4512 X6CrTi12 409 S40900

410 S41000

1.4016 X6Cr17 430 S43000

1.4109 X65CrMo14 440A S44002

1.4112 440B S44003

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 EN-standard EN-standard
SAE grade UNS
Steel name
Steel no. k.h.s DIN

1.4125 X105CrMo17 440C S44004

440F S44020

1.4310 X10CrNi18-8 301 S30100

1.4318 X2CrNiN18-7 301LN

1.4301 X5CrNi18-10 304 S30400

1.4307 X2CrNi18-9 304L S30403

1.4306 X2CrNi19-11 304L S30403

1.4311 X2CrNiN18-10 304LN S30453

1.4948 X6CrNi18-11 304H S30409

1.4303 X5CrNi18-12 305 S30500

X5CrNi30-9 312

1.4841 X22CrNi2520 310 S31000

1.4845 X 5 CrNi 2520 310S S31008

1.4401 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 316 S31600

1.4408 G-X 6 CrNiMo 18-10 316 S31600

1.4436 X3CrNiMo17-13-3 316 S31600

1.4406 X2CrNiMoN17-12-2 316LN S31653

1.4404 X2CrNiMo17-12-2 316L S31603

1.4432 X2CrNiMo17-12-3 316L S31603

1.4435 X2CrNiMo18-14-3 316L S31603

1.4571 X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2 316Ti S31635

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 EN-standard EN-standard
SAE grade UNS
Steel name
Steel no. k.h.s DIN

1.4429 X2CrNiMoN17-13-3 316LN S31653

1.4438 X2CrNiMo18-15-4 317L S31703

1.4541 X6CrNiTi18-10 321 S32100

1.4878 X12CrNiTi18-9 321H S32109

1.4362 X2CrNi23-4 2304 S32304

1.4462 X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 2205 S31803/S32205

1.4501 X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4 J405 S32760

1.4539 X1NiCrMoCu25-20-5 904L N08904

1.4529 X1NiCrMoCuN25-20-7 N08926

1.4547 X1CrNiMoCuN20-18-7 254SMO S31254

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 STAINLESS STEEL SERIES
 200 Series
 300 Series
 400 Series

1) 200 Series:
The 200 series is a class of austenitic (highly corrosion-resistant) stainless steels that are
characterized by having low nickel content. These are also referred to as chrome-manganese
(CrMn) stainless steel.

Austenitic steels, which includes both the 200 and 300 series stainless steels, are defined by
their face-centered cubic structure. That is, the crystal structure has one atom at each corner
of the cube and one in the middle of each face.

This is as opposed to ferritic steels, which are characterized by a body-centered cubic

structure.

Production of 200 Series Stainless Steels

Nickel is the most commonly used element to produce this crystal structure, but a post-World
War II nickel shortage led to the substitution of nitrogen for nickel in the production of some
austenitic corrosion-resistant steels. The 200 series of stainless steels was born.

While nitrogen alloyed in steel will also form a face-centered cubic structure, it results in
harmful chromium nitrides and increases gas porosity. The addition of manganese allows
more nitrogen to be safely added, but nickel cannot be completely removed from the alloy.
The 200 series stainless steels are, consequently, characterized by their nitrogen and
manganese content.

Production and demand for low-nickel stainless steels surged in the 1980s as nickel prices
soared and, again, efforts were made to reduce the use of the metal.

This led to the development of a huge production increase in India. Asia is now a major
source for, and consumer of, this family of steels.

Characteristics of the 200 Series of Stainless Steels

14
While corrosion resistant, the 200 series has a lower ability than 300 series to protect against
pitting corrosion, which occurs in environments that have high moisture and chlorine
contents, as well as crevice corrosion, which results in stagnant liquid and high acid
environments.

This is because, in order to decrease the nickel content, the chromium content must also be
reduced, thereby lowering corrosion resistance.

Series 200 stainless steels have excellent impact resistance and toughness, even in low (even
cryogenic) temperatures. They are generally harder and stronger than 300 series steels,
primarily due to their higher nitrogen content, which acts as a strengthener. Because they are
austenitic, both the 200 and 300 series of stainless steels are not magnetic.

Although austenitic steels are more expensive than their ferritic counterparts, the 200 series is
cheaper to produce than 300 series steels because of their lower nickel content.

The 200 series, however, suffer from lower formability (ductility) than 300 series grades,
although this can be improved with the addition of copper.

Applications for 200 Series Stainless Steels

Due to its lower corrosion resistance, the range of applications for 200 series stainless steels
is narrower than 300 series steels. It is not recommended for use in chemical
environments but has found its way into many household items.

Some applications for 200 series stainless steel include:

 Dishwashers and washing machines

 Cutlery and cookware

 In-house water tanks

 Indoor and noncritical outdoor architecture
 Food and beverage equipment
 Automobiles (structural)
 Automobiles (decorative)

 Food and beverage equipment

 Automobiles (structural)
 Automobiles (decorative)

Grade Chemical Composition

AISI UNS Cr Ni Mn N Cu

304 S30400 18.0-20.0 8.0-10.5 2.0 max. 0.10 max. -

201 S20100 16.0-18.0 3.5-5.5 5.5-7.5 0.25 max. -

15
 202 S20200 17.0-19.0 4.0-6.0 7.5-10.0 0.25 max. -

204 Cu S20430 15.5-17.5 1.5-3.5 6.5-9.0 0.05-0.25 2.0-4.0

205 S20500 16.5-18.0 1.0-1.75 14.0-15.5 0.32-0.40 -

2) 300 Series:
300 Series stainless steels are classified as austenitic, and are hardenable only by cold
working methods. These grades of stainless have chromium (approx. 18 to 30%) and
nickel (approx. 6 to 20%) as their major alloying additions. Type 304 is the most
widely used alloy of all stainless steels. 300 Series Stainless steel alloys resist
corrosion, maintain their strength at high temperatures and are easy to maintain.

300 series grades are inventoried in in stainless

steel plate, sheet, bar, pipe, tube and structural products

The 300 series consist of austenitic chromium-nickel alloys. Austentic contains a maximum
of 0.15% carbon and a minimum of 16% chromium, and nickel is the important alloying
element. This creates superior corrosion resistance and ease of fabrication. Austentic stainless

16
steel has a wide range of mechanical properties and can withstand a wide range of
temperatures. Austenitic grades are the most commonly used stainless steels, and are not
hardenable by heat treatment.

Stainless steel alloys are used predominantly in:

 Automotive industry
 Aerospace industry
 Construction industry

The table below shows common types of 300 series steel:

The 300 Series Stainless Steel offers several advantages:

 one of the most common steels, with the ability to be used in a variety of applications.
 superior corrosion resistant properties
 developed for applications requiring extensive machining operations
 non-magnetic properties

17
  scratch resistant
 many Finishing options: polishing, beveling, etc

3) 400 Series:
The 400 series group of stainless steels has an 11 percent chromium and 1-percent
manganese increase, above the 300 series group. The 400 series is susceptible to rust and
corrosion under some conditions. Heat-treating will harden the 400 series. The 400 series
of stainless steels have higher carbon content, giving it a martensitic crystalline structure.
This provides high strength and high wear resistance. Martensitic stainless steels aren’t as
corrosion resistant as the austenitic types.

The 400 series includes both ferritic and martensitic steels.

Ferritic steels: non-hardening steels, ideal for conditions in elevated temperatures. Typical
applications for ferritic stainless steels include petrochemical, automotive exhaust systems,
heat exchanges, furnaces, appliances and food equipment to name a few.

Martensitic steels: able to be hardened, ideal for a wide variety of common uses. Martensitic
stainless steels are used extensively in cutlery, sport knives and multi-purpose tools.

The table below shows common types of 400 series steel:

18
ADVANTAGES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF 400 SERIES STAINLESS STEEL
Ferritic, or nonhardenable stainless steels, are classified in the 400 series. This series is
known for:

 superior corrosion resistance

 resistance to scaling at elevated temperatures
 inherent strength greater than carbon steels
 provide an advantage in many applications where thinner materials and reduced
weight are necessary
 nonhardenable by heat treating
 always magnetic

Martensitic, or hardenable stainless steels, are classified in the 400 series. This series is
known for:

 higher levels of carbon than ferritics

 ability to be heat treated to a wide range of hardness and strength levels
 excellent corrosion resistance
 easily machined

19
  good ductility

GRADE 202
Introduction
Grade 202 stainless steel is a type of Cr-Ni-Mn stainless with similar properties to
A240/SUS 302 stainless steel. The toughness of grade 202 at low temperatures is
excellent.

It is one of the most widely used precipitation hardening grades, and possesses
good corrosion resistance, toughness, high harness, and strength.

The following datasheet provides an overview of grade 202 B stainless steel.

Chemical Composition
The chemical composition of grade 202 stainless steel is outlined in the following
table.

Element Content (%)

Iron, Fe 68
Chromium, Cr 17- 19
Manganese, Mn 7.50-10
Nickel, Ni 4-6
Silicon, Si ≤1
Nitrogen, N ≤ 0.25
Carbon, C ≤ 0.15
Phosphorous, P ≤ 0.060
Sulfur, S ≤ 0.030

20
Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of grade 202 stainless steel are displayed in the following
table.

Properties Metric Imperial

Tensile strength 515 MPa 74694 psi
Yield strength 275 MPa 39900 psi
Elastic modulus 207 GPa 30000 ksi
Poisson's ratio 0.27-0.30 0.27-0.30
Elongation at break 40% 40%
Other Designations
Equivalent materials to grade 202 stainless steel are given below:

ASTM A276 ASTM A314 ASTM A412 ASTM A429

ASTM A473 ASTM A666 FED QQ-S-763 FED QQ-S-766
FED STD-66 SAE 30202 SAE J405 (30202)

Manufacturing Process
The machinability of grade 202 stainless steel produces long, gummy chips.
Machining can also be performed in the annealed condition. For heat treatment, the
material has to be soaked at 1038°C (1900°F) for 30 min and cooled below 16°C
(60°F) for full martensite transformation. The material can be welded by common
fusion and resistance methods; however, this steel should not be joined using
oxyacetylene welding method. The recommended filler metal is AWS E/ER630.
Forging can be done by pre-soaking for 1 h at 1177°C (2150°F). Forging below
1010°C (1850°F) is not advisable.

Applications
The grade 202 steel can be made into plates, sheets, and coils to be used in the
following:

 Restaurant equipment
 Cooking utensils
 Sinks

21
  Automotive trim
 Architectural applications such as windows and doors
 Railway cars
 Trailers
 Hose clamps.

GRADE 302

Introduction
Grade 302 is a slightly higher carbon version than grade 304. It is widely found in
strip and wire forms. It is a standard specification for chromium and chromium-nickel
stainless steel sheet, plate, and strip used for pressure vessels and for general
applications.

The following datasheet provides an overview of grade 302 stainless steel.

Chemical Composition
The chemical composition of grade 302 stainless steel is outlined in the following
table.

Element Content (%)

Chromium, Cr 17-19
Nickel, Ni 8 – 10
Manganese, Mn 2
Silicon, Si 1.00
Carbon, C 0.15
Sulfur, S 0.03
Phosphorous, P 0.045

Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of grade 302 (annealed strip) stainless steel are
displayed in the following table.

22
Properties Metric Imperial
Tensile strength 620 MPa 89900 psi
Yield strength (@strain 0.200%) 275 MPa 39900 psi
Elastic modulus 193 GPa 28000 ksi
Poisson's ratio 0.27-0.30 0.27-0.30
Elongation at break (in 50 mm) 55% 55%
Hardness, Brinell (converted from Rockwell B hardness) 147 147
Hardness, Knoop (converted from Rockwell B hardness) 164 164
Hardness, Rockwell B 85 85
Hardness, Vickers (converted from Rockwell B hardness) 147 147
Other Designations
Equivalent materials to grade 302 stainless steel are given below.

AMS 5515 AISI 302 AMS 5516 AMS 5636 AMS 5637
AMS 5688 ASME SA240 ASTM A167 ASTM A240 ASTM A276
ASTM A313 ASTM A314 ASTM A368 ASTM A473 ASTM A478
ASTM A479 ASTM A492 ASTM A493 ASTM A511 ASTM A550
ASTM A554 ASTM A666 FED QQ-S-763 FED QQ-S-766 FED QQ-W-423
ASTM A580 MIL SPEC MIL-S-862 SAE 30302 SAE J230 SAE J405
AMS 5788 DIN 1.4319 MIL S-7720 QQ S763 QQ S766
Manufacturing Process
Grade 302 steel requires slow speeds, and high feeds will aid in overcoming this
alloy’s tendency to work harden. It is recommended that chip breakers are used on
all tooling due to the occurrence of gummy chips. While welding grade 302, it is
recommended that resistance or shielded fusion methods are used. The filler metals
to be used are AWS E/ER308 or 312. Post weld annealing is performed when the
chromium carbide needs to be dissolved so as to provide maximum resistance to
inter-granular attack. Forging is ideally performed at these temperatures - 1149-
1260°C (2100-2300°F). It is advisable not to forge below 927°C (1700°F). Forgings
should be fully annealed after all operations so as to maintain full corrosion
resistance.

Hot working requires uniform heating to 1149°C (2100°F) while cold working helps to
increase the hardness of this material. Grade 302 is quite ductile and can be readily
drawn, spun and upset. Cold working causes this alloy to gain magnetic properties,
and hence post-fabrication annealing is required to recover maximum corrosion

23
resistance and a non-magnetic condition. Annealing is performed between 1010 and
1121°C (1850 and 2050°F) with fast cooling so as to avoid precipitation of chromium
carbides.

Applications
Grade 302 stainless steel is widely used in the stamping, spinning and wire forming
industry. This alloy is also used to form springs, washers, screens and cables.

GRADE 304
More about Stainless Steel 304

 In-Depth SS 304 Property Data

 Medical Applications of SS 304
 Stainless Steel - High Temperature Resistance
 Stainless Steel - Sorting and Identification Tests
 Stainless Steel - Magnetic Properties
 In the market for Stainless Steel 304? we can connect you with suppliers of
SS304 in any of these forms -
Ball, Bar, Beam, Billet, Bloom, Cable, Castings, Coil, Cylinder, Disc, E
xtrusions, Flats (Flat
Bar), Foil, Forging, Pipe, Plate, Powder, Ribbon, Ring, Rod, Rounds, Sh
eet, Squares, Strip, Tube and Wire.
 Interested in stainless steel news in general? Also feel free to 'Ask A
Question' at the bottom of this article, we've lots of in-house knowledge,
materials expertise and industry contacts!
 Do you have any interesting pictures of SS304 we can add to this article, at
the nano, micro level or simply cool products? We'll give credit where credits
due if the photos are worthy of publishing! Email editor@azom.com

Grade 304 is the standard "18/8" stainless; it is the most versatile and most widely
used stainless steel, available in a wider range of products, forms and finishes than
any other. It has excellent forming and welding characteristics. The balanced
austenitic structure of Grade 304 enables it to be severely deep drawn without

24
intermediate annealing, which has made this grade dominant in the manufacture of
drawn stainless parts such as sinks, hollow-ware and saucepans. For these
applications it is common to use special "304DDQ" (Deep Drawing Quality) variants.
Grade 304 is readily brake or roll formed into a variety of components for
applications in the industrial, architectural, and transportation fields. Grade 304 also
has outstanding welding characteristics. Post-weld annealing is not required when
welding thin sections.

Grade 304L, the low carbon version of 304, does not require post-weld annealing
and so is extensively used in heavy gauge components (over about 6mm). Grade
304H with its higher carbon content finds application at elevated temperatures. The
austenitic structure also gives these grades excellent toughness, even down to
cryogenic temperatures.

Key Properties
These properties are specified for flat rolled product (plate, sheet and coil) in ASTM
A240/A240M. Similar but not necessarily identical properties are specified for other
products such as pipe and bar in their respective specifications.

Composition
Typical compositional ranges for grade 304 stainless steels are given in table 1.

Table 1. Composition ranges for 304 grade stainless steel

Grade C Mn Si P S Cr Mo Ni N
min. - - - - - 18.0 8.0 -
304 -
max. 0.08 2.0 0.75 0.045 0.030 20.0 10.5 0.10
min. - - - - - 18.0 8.0 -
304L -
max. 0.030 2.0 0.75 0.045 0.030 20.0 12.0 0.10
min. 0.04 - - - 18.0 8.0
304H -0.045 - -
max. 0.10 2.0 0.75 0.030 20.0 10.5

Mechanical Properties
Typical mechanical properties for grade 304 stainless steels are given in table 2.

25
 Table 2. Mechanical properties of 304 grade stainless steel

Hardness
Tensile Strength Yield Strength 0.2% Elongation (% in
Grade Rockwell B Brinell
(MPa) min Proof (MPa) min 50 mm) min
(HR B) max (HB) max
304 515 205 40 92 201
304L 485 170 40 92 201
304H 515 205 40 92 201

304H also has a requirement for a grain size of ASTM No 7 or coarser.

Physical Properties
Typical physical properties for annealed grade 304 stainless steels are given in table
3.

Table 3. Physical properties of 304 grade stainless steel in the annealed condition

Mean Coefficient
Thermal
of Thermal
Elastic Conductivity Specific Electrical
Density Expansion
Grade Modulus (W/m.K) Heat 0-100 Resistivity
(kg/m3) (μm/m/°C)
(GPa) °C (J/kg.K) (nΩ.m)
0-100 0-315 0-538 at 100 at 500
°C °C °C °C °C
304/L/H 8000 193 17.2 17.8 18.4 16.2 21.5 500 720

Grade Specification Comparison

Approximate grade comparisons for 304 stainless steels are given in table 4.

Table 4. Grade specifications for 304 grade stainless steel

Old British Euronorm

Grade UNS No Swedish SS Japanese JIS
BS En No Name
304 S30400 304S31 58E 1.4301 X5CrNi18-10 2332 SUS 304
304L S30403 304S11 - 1.4306 X2CrNi19-11 2352 SUS 304L
304H S30409 304S51 - 1.4948 X6CrNi18-11 - -

26
These comparisons are approximate only. The list is intended as a comparison of
functionally similar materials not as a schedule of contractual equivalents. If exact
equivalents are needed original specifications must be consulted.

Possible Alternative Grades

Possible alternative grades to grade 304 stainless steels are given in table 5.

Table 5. Possible alternative grades to 304 grade stainless steel

Grade Why it might be chosen instead of 304

A higher work hardening rate grade is required for certain roll formed or stretch
301L
formed components.
302HQ Lower work hardening rate is needed for cold forging of screws, bolts and rivets.
Higher machinability needed, and the lower corrosion resistance, formability and
303
weldability are acceptable.
Higher resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion is required, in chloride
316
environments
Better resistance to temperatures of around 600-900 °C is needed…321 has
321
higher hot strength.
A lower cost is required, and the reduced corrosion resistance and resulting
3CR12
discolouration are acceptable.
A lower cost is required, and the reduced corrosion resistance and fabrication
430
characteristics are acceptable.

Corrosion Resistance
Excellent in a wide range of atmospheric environments and many corrosive media.
Subject to pitting and crevice corrosion in warm chloride environments, and to stress
corrosion cracking above about 60 °C. Considered resistant to potable water with up
to about 200 mg/L chlorides at ambient temperatures, reducing to about 150 mg/L at
60 °C.

Heat Resistance
Good oxidation resistance in intermittent service to 870 °C and in continuous service
to 925 °C. Continuous use of 304 in the 425-860 °C range is not recommended if

27
subsequent aqueous corrosion resistance is important. Grade 304L is more resistant
to carbide precipitation and can be heated into the above temperature range.

Grade 304H has higher strength at elevated temperatures so is often used for
structural and pressure-containing applications at temperatures above about 500 °C
and up to about 800 °C. 304H will become sensitised in the temperature range of
425-860 °C; this is not a problem for high temperature applications, but will result in
reduced aqueous corrosion resistance.

Heat Treatment
Solution Treatment (Annealing) - Heat to 1010-1120 °C and cool rapidly. These
grades cannot be hardened by thermal treatment.

Welding
Excellent weldability by all standard fusion methods, both with and without filler
metals. AS 1554.6 pre-qualifies welding of 304 with Grade 308 and 304L with 308L
rods or electrodes (and with their high silicon equivalents). Heavy welded sections in
Grade 304 may require post-weld annealing for maximum corrosion resistance. This
is not required for Grade 304L. Grade 321 may also be used as an alternative to 304
if heavy section welding is required and post-weld heat treatment is not possible.

Machining
A "Ugima" improved machinability version of grade 304 is available in bar products.
"Ugima" machines significantly better than standard 304 or 304L, giving higher
machining rates and lower tool wear in many operations.

Dual Certification
It is common for 304 and 304L to be stocked in "Dual Certified" form, particularly in
plate and pipe. These items have chemical and mechanical properties complying
with both 304 and 304L specifications. Such dual certified product does not meet
304H specifications and may be unacceptable for high temperature applications.

Applications
Typical applications include:

28
  Food processing equipment, particularly in beer brewing, milk processing &
wine making.
 Kitchen benches, sinks, troughs, equipment and appliances
 Architectural panelling, railings & trim
 Chemical containers, including for transport
 Heat Exchangers
 Woven or welded screens for mining, quarrying & water filtration
 Threaded fasteners
 Springs

GRADE 410
Introduction
Grade 410 stainless steels are general-purpose martensitic stainless steels
containing 11.5% chromium, which provide good corrosion resistance properties.
However, the corrosion resistance of grade 410 steels can be further enhanced by a
series of processes such as hardening, tempering and polishing. Quenching and
tempering can harden grade 410 steels. They are generally used for applications
involving mild corrosion, heat resistance and high strength.

Martensitic stainless steels are fabricated using techniques that require final heat
treatment. These grades are less resistant to corrosion when compared to that of
austenitic grades. Their operating temperatures are often affected by their loss of
strength at high temperatures, due to over-tempering and loss of ductility at sub-zero
temperatures.

Key Properties
The properties displayed below are applicable to bar products of ASTM A276. Other
products such as forgings, wire and plate may not have similar properties.

Composition
The compositional ranges of grade 410 stainless steels are displayed below.

29
 Table 1 - Composition ranges of grade 410 stainless steels

Grade C Mn Si P S Cr Ni
min. - - - - - 11.5
410 0.75
max. 0.15 1 1 0.04 0.03 13.5

Mechanical Properties
The typical mechanical properties of grade 410 stainless steels are listed in the
following table:

Table 2 - Mechanical properties of grade 410 stainless steels

Tensile Yield Strength Impact

Tempering Elongation (% Hardness
Strength 0.2% Proof Charpy V
Temperature (°C) in 50 mm) Brinell (HB)
(MPa) (MPa) (J)
Annealed * 480 min 275 min 16 min - -
204 1475 1005 11 400 30
316 1470 961 18 400 36
427 1340 920 18.5 405 #
538 985 730 16 321 #
593 870 675 20 255 39
650 300 270 29.5 225 80

* Annealed properties of cold finished bar, which pertain to Condition A of ASTM

A276.
# Tempering of grade 410 steels should be avoided at temperatures of 425-600 °C,
owing to associated low impact resistance.

Physical Properties
The physical properties of grade 410 stainless steels in the annealed condition are
tabulated below:

30
 Table 3 - Physical properties of annealed grade 410 stainless steels

Mean Coefficient
Thermal
of Thermal
Elastic Conductivity Specific Electrical
Density Expansion
Grade Modulus (W/m.K) Heat 0-100 Resistivity
(kg/m3) (μm/m/°C)
(GPa) °C (J/kg.K) (nΩ.m)
0-100 0-315 0-538 at 100 at 500
°C °C °C °C °C
410 7800 200 9.9 11 11.5 24.9 28.7 460 570

Grade Specification Comparison

Grade comparisons of 410 stainless steels are outlined in the following table:

Table 4 - Grade specifications of 410 grade stainless steels

Old British Euronorm

Grade UNS No Swedish SS Japanese JIS
BS En No Name
410 S41000 410S21 56A 1.4006 X12Cr13 2302 SUS 410

Possible Alternative Grades

The table below provides the suitable alternative grades to 410 stainless steels:

Table 5 - Possible alternative grades to 410 grade stainless steels

Grade Reasons for choosing the grade

High machinability is required, and the lower corrosion resistance of 416 is
416
acceptable.
A higher hardened strength or hardness than can be obtained from 410 is
420
needed.
A higher hardened strength or hardness than can be obtained even from 420 is
440C
needed.

Corrosion Resistance
31
Grade 410 stainless steels are resistant to hot gases, steam, food, mild acids and
alkalies, fresh water and dry air. These steels obtain maximum corrosion and heat
resistance through hardening. However, grade 410 steels are less corrosion
resistant than austenitic grades and grade 430 ferritic alloys containing 17%
chromium. Smooth surface finish offers improved performance of steels.

Heat Resistance
Grade 410 steels have good scaling resistance at temperatures of up to 650 °C.
However, the mechanical properties of the material will tend to reduce at
temperatures ranging from 400 to 580 °C.

Heat Treatment
Annealing - Grade 410 steels can be fully annealed at temperatures from 815 to 900
°C, followed by slow furnace cooling and air-cooling. Process annealing of grade 410
steels can be carried out at temperatures ranging from 650 to 760 °C and air-cooled.

Hardening – Hardening of grade 410 steels can be performed at 925 to 1010 °C,
followed by air and oil quenching. Heavy sections of grade 410 need to be oil
quenched. Tempering, to enhance the mechanical properties and hardness of grade
410 steels, follows this process. It is not recommended to perform tempering at
temperatures from 400 to 580 °C.

Welding
Grade 410 steels can be welded using all conventional welding techniques, but the
materials should pre-heated at 150 to 260 °C followed by post-weld annealing
treatment, to mitigate cracking. Grade 410 welding rods are recommended for
tempering and post-hardening. In the "as welded" conditions, grade 309 filler rods
can be used to achieve a ductile joint.

According to AS 1554.6 standards, grade 309 electrodes or rods are preferred for
welding 410 steels.

Machining

32
Grade 410 steels can be easily machined in highly tempered or annealed conditions.
However, it is hard to machine grade 410 steels if they are hardened above 30HRC.
Free machining grade 416 is the best alternative.

Applications
Grade 410 stainless steels find applications in the following:

 Bolts, screws, bushings and nuts

 Petroleum fractionating structures
 Shafts, pumps and valves
 Mine ladder rungs
 Gas turbines

33
 CHAPTER 2:PIPES

The pipe is a straight pressure tight cylindrical hollow, used in the piping system to transport
liquid, gas and sometimes solids.

A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not necessarily of circular cross-
section, used mainly to convey substances which can flow — liquids and gases (fluids),
slurries, powders and masses of small solids. It can also be used for structural applications;
hollow pipe is far stiffer per unit weight than solid members.

common usage the words pipe and tube are usually interchangeable, but in industry and
engineering, the terms are uniquely defined. Depending on the applicable standard to which it
is manufactured, pipe is generally specified by a nominal diameter with a constant outside
diameter (OD) and a schedule that defines the thickness. Tube is most often specified by the
OD and wall thickness, but may be specified by any two of OD, inside diameter (ID), and
wall thickness. Pipe is generally manufactured to one of several international and national
industrial standards.While similar standards exist for specific industry application tubing,
tube is often made to custom sizes and a broader range of diameters and tolerances.

Many industrial and government standards exist for the production of pipe and tubing. The
term "tube" is also commonly applied to non-cylindrical sections, i.e., square or rectangular
tubing. In general, "pipe" is the more common term in most of the world, whereas "tube" is
more widely used in the United States.

Pipe Dimension
Pipe dimensions are given in size and schedule number. Three different terms are commonly
used to define the size of the pipes.

NPS – Nominal Pipe Size

NB – Nominal Bore

DN – Diameter Nominal

34
What is Nominal Pipe Size:

Nominal Pipe Size (NPS) is a North American set of standard sizes for pipes used for high or
low pressures and temperatures. "Nominal" refers to pipe in non-specific terms and identifies
the diameter of the hole with a non-dimensional number (for example – 2-inch nominal steel
pipe" consists of many varieties of steel pipe with the only criterion being a 2.375-inch (60.3
mm) outside diameter). Specific pipe is identified by pipe diameter and another non-
dimensional number for wall thickness referred to as the Schedule (Sched. or Sch., for
example – "2-inch diameter pipe, Schedule 40"). NPS is often incorrectly called National
Pipe Size, due to confusion with the American standard for pipe threads, "national pipe
straight", which also abbreviates as "NPS". The European and international designation
equivalent to NPS is DN (diamètre nominal/nominal diameter/Durchmesser nach Norm), in
which sizes are measured in millimetres, see ISO 6708.The term NB (nominal bore) is also
frequently used interchangeably with NPS.

35
Uses:

 Plumbing
 Tap water
 Pipelines transporting gas or liquid over long distances
 Compressed air systems
 Pipe bombs
 Casing for concrete pilings used in construction projects
 High-temperature or high-pressure manufacturing processes
 The petroleum industry:
 Oil well casing
 Oil refinery equipment
 Delivery of fluids, either gaseous or liquid, in a process plant from one point to
another point in the process
 Delivery of bulk solids, in a food or process plant from one point to another point in
the process
 The construction of high pressure storage vessels (note that large pressure vessels are
constructed from plate, not pipe owing to their wall thickness and size).
 Additionally, pipe is used for many purposes that do not involve conveying fluid.
Handrails, scaffolding and support structures are often constructed from structural
pipe, especially in an industrial environment

36
 PIPES CLASSIFICATION

On the way pipe manufacturing, Pipes are mainly classified into two categories seamless and
welded. Welded pipes are further classified based on the method of welding. There are two
ways to weld pipe 1st is with filler metal and 2nd is without filler metal.

Submerged Arc Welding process is with filler metal welding whereas ERW/EFW and HFW
are no filler welding methods to weld the pipe. SAW pipes are further classified as straight
seam and spiral seam pipe. Straight seam pipes are also known as L-SAW or long seam SAW
pipes. Medium diameter straight SAW pipe has single seam whereas large diameter pipe has
a two-weld seam.

37
Pipe Manufacturing Process – Seamless and Welded
Pipe

Seamless Pipe Manufacturing Process

Seamless pipe is Strongest amongst all pipes type as it has a Homogeneous structure
throughout pipe length.

 Seamless pipes are manufactured in a verity of size and schedule. However, there is a
Restriction on the manufacturing of large diameter pipe. Seamless pipes are widely
used in the manufacturing of pipe fittings such as bends, elbows, and tees.
 Various Manufacturing process are explained in detail;

Mandrel Mill Process

In Mandrel Mill pipe manufacturing process, steel billet is heated to high temperature in the
rotary furnace. A cylindrical hollow, which is also known as mother hollow, is produced with
the help of a rotary piercer and set of roller arrangement that keeps the piercer at the center of
the billet. Outside diameter of piercer is approximately that of the inside diameter of the
finished pipe. With the help, secondary roller arrangement outside diameter and thickness are
achieved.

38
Mannesmann Plug Mill Pipe Manufacturing Process

39
Mannesmann was German engineer who has invented this pipe manufacturing process. The
only difference between Plug mill process and Mandrel mill process is that in mandrel
method inside diameter is achieved in single pass whereas in Mannesmann multi-stage
reduction is possible.

40
Forged Seamless Pipe Manufacturing Process

In a Forging pipe manufacturing process, a heated billet is placed in forging die that has a
diameter slightly larger than the finished pipe. A hydraulic press of forging hammer with
matching inside diameter is used to create cylindrical forging. Once this forging is done pipe
is machined to achieve final dimension. Forging pipe manufacturing process is used to
manufactured large diameter seamless pipe that cannot be manufactured using traditional
methods. Forged pipes are normally used for the steam
header.

Extrusion Processes

In an extrusion pipe manufacturing a heated billet is placed inside the die. A hydraulic ram
pushes the billet against the piercing mandrel, material flows from the cylindrical cavity
between die and mandrel. This action produces the pipe from the billet. Sometimes pipe
manufactured produce pipe with a high thickness which is known as mother hollow. Many
secondary pipes manufactured used this mother hollow to produce pipe with different
dimensions.

41
Welded Pipe Manufacturing Process
Welded Pipes are manufactured from Plate or continues Coil or strips. To manufacture
welded pipe, first plate or coil is rolled in the circular section with the help of plate bending
machine or by a roller in the case of continues process. Once the circular section is rolled
from the plate, the pipe can be welded with or without filler material. Welded pipe can be
manufactured in large size without any upper restriction. Welded pipe with filler material can
be used in the manufacturing of long radius bends and elbow. Welded pipes are cheaper with
compared to the seamless pipe and also Weak due to the weld

There are different welding methods used to weld the pipe.

 ERW- Electric Resistance Welding

 EFW- Electric Fusion Welding
 HFW- High-frequency welding
 SAW- Submerged Arc Welding (Long seam & Spiral Seam)

ERW Steel Pipe Manufacturing Process

In the ERW / EFW / HFW pipe process, first plate is formed in a cylindrical shape and the
longitudinal edges of the cylinder formed are welded by flash-welding, low-frequency
resistance-welding, high-frequency induction welding, or high-frequency resistance welding.

42
HF WELDING:

High frequency induction welding High frequency induction welding is a modern

manufacturing method, by which hot-rolled plates of high strength steels can be made into
pipes for long distance gas and oil transportation. Both longitudinal and spiral seams can be
welded by this technology. Figure 2.1a shows an example of the mill set-up in the welding
station for longitudinal seam-welding, where the hotrolled steel plates are curled into a tube
shape by pressure rolls, the two abutting edges of the plate are heated up during their passage
through the induction coils, and pressed together by the welding station pressure rolls. The
convergence point, and the separated abutting edges in front of it forms a V shape. This point
is called the ‘Vee’ apex, which defines the onset of the joint formation that leads to a weld.
The high frequency current flows along the outside surface of the tube and along the edges of
the Vee, so that the electrical circuit is completed, as shown in Fig. 2.1b. This circuit is
formed in the context of three principal features of high frequency induction heating [7]: • an
induction effect allows the contactless transmission of power to the workpiece with the aid of
an alternating magnetic field.

43
SAW Pipe Manufacturing Process

In SAW welding process, external filler metal (wire electrodes) are used to join the formed
plates. SAW pipes can have a single longitudinal seam of double longitudinal seam depend
on the size of the pipe. SAW pipe are also available in the spiral seam, which is continually
rolled from the single plate coil. The production rate of spiral SAW pipe is very high as
compared to Straight SAW pipe. However, Spiral SAW pipe are only used in low-pressure
services such as water, non-critical process services etc.

Plate Rolling

Straight SAW Pipe Welding

44
Spiral SAW Pipe Welding

Centrifugal pipe:
Centrifugal casting or rotocasting is a casting technique that is typically used to cast thin-
walled cylinders. It is used to cast such materials as metal, glass, and concrete. It is noted for
the high quality of the results attainable, particularly for precise control of their metallurgy
and crystal structure. Unlike most other casting techniques, centrifugal casting is chiefly used

45
to manufacture stock materials in standard sizes for further machining, rather than shaped
parts tailored to a particular end-use.

Materials
Typical materials that can be cast with this process are iron, steel, stainless steels, glass, and
alloys of aluminum, copper and nickel.
Two materials can be cast together by introducing a second material during the process.

Applications

Concrete pipe and form

Typical parts made by this process are pipes, flywheels, cylinder liners, and other parts that
are axi-symmetric. It is notably used to cast cylinder liners and sleeve valves for piston
engines, parts which could not be reliably manufactured otherwise.
Features of centrifugal casting
 Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness and diameter.
 Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same size mold.
 Eliminates the need for cores.
 Resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with pipes.
 Mechanical properties of centrifugal castings are excellent because of the grain structure
formed due to centrifugal action.
 Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process.
 Size limits are up to 6 m (20 ft) diameter and 15 m (49 ft) length.
 Wall thickness range from 2.5 to 125 mm (0.098 to 4.921 in).
 Tolerance limit: on the OD can be 2.5 mm (0.098 in) on the ID can be 3.8 mm (0.15 in).
 Surface finish ranges from 2.5 to 12.5 mm (0.098 to 0.492 in) rms.

Benefits
Cylinders and shapes with rotational symmetry are most commonly cast by this technique.
"Tall" castings (in the direction of the settling force acting, usually gravity) are always more
difficult than short castings. In the centrifugal casting technique the radius of the rotation,
along which the centrifugal force acts, replaces the vertical axis. The casting machine may be
rotated to place this in any convenient orientation, relative to gravity's vertical. Horizontal
and vertical axis machines are both used, simply to place the casting's longest dimension
conveniently horizontal.

46
Thin-walled cylinders are difficult to cast by other means, but centrifugal casting is
particularly suited to them. To the rotation radius, these are effectively shallow flat castings
and are thus simple.
Centrifugal casting is also applied to the casting of disk and cylindrical shaped objects such
as railway carriage wheels or machine fittings where the grain, flow, and balance are
important to the durability and utility of the finished product.
Providing that the shape is relatively constant in radius, noncircular shapes may also be cast.

Process for casting metal

Centrifugal casting
In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold is rotated continuously about its axis at high speeds
(300 to 3000 rpm) as the molten metal is poured. The molten metal is centrifugally thrown
towards the inside mold wall, where it solidifies after cooling. The casting is usually a fine-
grained casting with a very fine-grained outer diameter, owing to chilling against the mold
surface. Impurities and inclusions float to the surface of the inside diameter, which can be
machined away.
Casting machines may be either horizontal or vertical-axis.Horizontal axis machines are
preferred for long, thin cylinders, vertical machines for rings.
Most castings are solidified from the outside first. This may be used to encourage directional
solidification of the casting, and thus give useful metallurgical properties to it. Often the inner
and outer layers are discarded and only the intermediary columnar zone is used.
Centrifugal casting was the invention of Alfred Krupp, who used it to manufacture railway
tires (cast steel tyres for railway wheels) in 1852.

47
 Tubes and Pipe

Tubing
Tubing is generally used for structural purposes and the OD is an important and
exact number. Tubing size is specified by OD and the wall thickness (WT); and the measured
OD and stated OD are generally within very close tolerances of each other. Tubing is usually
more expensive than pipe due to tighter manufacturing tolerances.

Interestingly, while the stated and measured OD’s of tubing are almost exact most of the
time, copper tubing generally has a measured OD that is 1/8” larger than stated OD. As such,
maybe it should be called copper pipe. However, stainless steel, aluminum, and steel tubing
all have measured and stated OD’s that are exact or very close.

Pipe
Pipes are categorized as tubular vessels used in pipeline and piping systems, and commonly
transport gases or fluids. They are specified by “Nominal Pipe Size” (NPS) and Schedule
(wall thickness). NPS is a size standard established by the American National Standards
Institute (ANSI), and should NOT be confused with the various thread standards such as
NPT and NPSC.
The manufacturing of Nominal Pipe Sizes from 1/8” to 12” is based on
a standardizednominal outside diameter (OD) that is different from the measured OD. NPS
pipe 14” and up have measured OD’s that correspond to the nominal size.
The reason many people, including plumbers, engineers, and others, mistakenly believe NPS
refers to the ID on smaller pipes is because of how the standard was originally defined.
The standardized OD was originally defined so that a pipe with a standardized OD and wall
thickness typical of the period, would have a pipe ID that was approximately equal to the
nominal size of the pipe. For example, 3” Schedule 40 NPS has an outside diameter and wall
thickness that very, very roughly gives it an inside diameter of 3”. Regardless of the wall
thickness the nominal OD of a pipe will not change.
There you have the differences explained as simply as possible. Of course if something isn't
clear certainly let us know.

48
49
Pipes
The purpose with a pipe is the transport of a fluid like water, oil or similar, and the most
import property is the capacity or the inside diameter.

For a ASME/ANSI B 36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe the inside diameter -
ID - of a NPS 2 inchespipe with

 schedule 40 is 2.067"
 schedule 80 is 1.939"
The inside diameters are close to 2" and the nominal diameter is related to the inside
diameter. Outside diameter are 2.375" for both schedules.

Since the outside diameter of a single nominal pipe size is kept constant the inside diameter
of a pipe depends on the "schedule" - or the thickness - of the pipe. The schedule and actual
thickness of a pipe varies with size of the pipe.

Example - the thickness of a 2" schedule 40 pipe is 0.154" and the thickness of a 6" schedule
40 pipe is 0.280".

It is common to identify pipes in inches by using NPS or "Nominal Pipe Size". The metric
equivalent is called DN or "diametre nominel". The metric designations conform to
International Standards Organization (ISO) usage and apply to all plumbing, natural gas,
heating oil, and in addition to miscellaneous piping used in buildings. Note - the use of NPS
does not conform to American Standard pipe designations where the term NPS means
"National Pipe Thread Straight".

Nominal Bore (NB) may be specified under British standards classifications along with
schedule or wall thickness.

The tolerances are looser to pipes compared with tubes and pipes are often less expensive to
produce than tubes.

Tubes
The nominal dimensions of tubes are based on the outside diameter. If we look at Copper
Tubes - ASTM B88 the outside diameter of a 2" pipe is 2.125", relatively close to 2".

50
The inside diameter of a tube depends on the thickness of the tube. The thickness is often
specified as gauge. If we look at Copper Tubes - ASTM B88 the wall thickness of 0.083"of a
2" pipe is gauge 14.

Tolerances are commonly higher with tubes compared to pipes and tubes are often more
expensive to produce than pipes.

51
GAUGE CHART

52
 CHAPTER 3: ROLLING

In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through
one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and to make the thickness uniform. The
concept is similar to the rolling of dough. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of
the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature,
then the process is known as hot rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its
recrystallization temperature, the process is known as cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot
rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process, and cold rolling
processes the most tonnage out of all cold working processes. Roll stands holding pairs of
rolls are grouped together into rolling mills that can quickly process metal, typically steel,
into products such as structural steel (I-beams, angle stock, channel stock, and so on), bar
stock, and rails. Most steel mills have rolling mill divisions that convert the semi-finished
casting products into finished products.
There are many types of rolling processes, including ring rolling, roll bending, roll
forming, profile rolling, and controlled rolling.

HOT ROLLING
Hot rolling is a metalworking process that occurs above the recrystallization temperature of
the material. After the grains deform during processing, they recrystallize, which maintains
an equiaxed microstructure and prevents the metal from work hardening. The starting
material is usually large pieces of metal, like semi-finished casting products, such
as slabs, blooms, and billets. If these products came from a continuous casting operation the
products are usually fed directly into the rolling mills at the proper temperature. In smaller
operations, the material starts at room temperature and must be heated. This is done in a gas-
or oil-fired soaking pit for larger workpieces; for smaller workpieces, induction heating is
used. As the material is worked, the temperature must be monitored to make sure it remains
above the recrystallization temperature. To maintain a safety factor a finishing temperature is
defined above the recrystallization temperature; this is usually 50 to 100 °C (90 to 180 °F)
above the recrystallization temperature. If the temperature does drop below this temperature
the material must be re-heated before more hot rolling.

53
Soaking pits used to heat steel ingots before rolling.

Hot-rolled metals generally have little directionality in their mechanical properties and
deformation induced residual stresses. However, in certain instances non-metallic
inclusions will impart some directionality and workpieces less than 20 mm (0.79 in) thick
often have some directional properties. Also, non-uniform cooling will induce a lot of
residual stresses, which usually occurs in shapes that have a non-uniform cross-section, such
as I-beams. While the finished product is of good quality, the surface is covered in mill scale,
which is an oxide that forms at high temperatures. It is usually removed via pickling or
the smooth clean surface (SCS)process, which reveals a smooth surface.[10] Dimensional
tolerances are usually 2 to 5% of the overall dimension.[11]
Hot-rolled mild steel seems to have a wider tolerance for amount of included carbon than
does cold-rolled steel, and is, therefore, more difficult for a blacksmith to use. Also for
similar metals, hot-rolled products seem to be less costly than cold-rolled ones.]
Hot rolling is used mainly to produce sheet metal or simple cross-sections, such as rail tracks.
Other typical uses for hot-rolled metal:

 Truck frames
 Automotive clutch plates, wheels and wheel rims
 Pipes and tubes
 Water heaters
 Agricultural equipment
 Strappings
 Stampings
 Compressor shells
 Metal buildings
 Railroad hopper cars and railcar components
 Doors and shelving
 Discs
 Guard rails for streets and highways

Shape rolling design

Rolling mills are often divided into roughing, intermediate and finishing rolling cages.
During shape rolling, an initial billet (round or square) with edge of diameter typically
ranging between 100–140 mm is continuously deformed to produce a certain finished product
with smaller cross section dimension and geometry. Different sequences can be adopted to
produce a certain final product starting from a given billet. However, since each rolling mill
is significantly expensive (up to 2 million euros), a typical requirement is to contract the
number or rolling passes. Different approaches have been achieved including empirical
knowledge, employment of numerical models, and Artificial Intelligence techniques.
Lambiase et al. validated a finite element model (FE) for predicting the final shape of a rolled
bar in round-flat pass. one of the major concern when designing rolling mills is to reduce the

54
number of passes; a possible solution to such requirement is represented by the slit pass also
called split pass which divided an incoming bar in two or more subpart thus virtually
increasing the cross section reduction ratio per pass as reported by Lambiase.Another
solution for reducing the number of passes in the rolling mills is the employment of
automated systems for Roll Pass Design as that proposed by Lambiase and
Langella subsequently, Lambiase further developed an Automated System based on Artificial
Intelligence and particularly an integrated system including an inferential engine based
on Genetic Algorithms a knowledge database based on an Artificial Neural Network trained
by a parametric Finite element model and to optimize and automatically design rolling mills

COLD ROLLING

Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its recrystallization temperature (usually at room
temperature), which increases the strength via strain hardening up to 20%. It also improves
the surface finish and holds tighter tolerances. Commonly cold-rolled products include
sheets, strips, bars, and rods; these products are usually smaller than the same products that
are hot rolled. Because of the smaller size of the workpieces and their greater strength, as
compared to hot rolled stock, four-high or cluster mills are used. Cold rolling cannot reduce
the thickness of a workpiece as much as hot rolling in a single pass.
Cold-rolled sheets and strips come in various conditions: full-hard, half-hard, quarter-hard,
and skin-rolled. Full-hard rolling reduces the thickness by 50%, while the others involve less
of a reduction. Cold rolled steel is then annealed to induce ductility in the cold rolled steel
which is simply known as a Cold Rolled and Close Annealed. Skin-rolling, also known as
a skin-pass, involves the least amount of reduction: 0.5–1%. It is used to produce a smooth
surface, a uniform thickness, and reduce the yield pointphenomenon (by preventing Lüders
bands from forming in later processing). It locks dislocations at the surface and thereby
reduces the possibility of formation of Lüders bands. To avoid the formation of Lüders bands
it is necessary to create substantial density of unpinned dislocations in ferrite matrix. It is also
used to break up the spangles in galvanized steel. Skin-rolled stock is usually used in
subsequent cold-working processes where good ductility is required.
Other shapes can be cold-rolled if the cross-section is relatively uniform and the transverse
dimension is relatively small. Cold rolling shapes requires a series of shaping operations,
usually along the lines of sizing, breakdown, roughing, semi-roughing, semi-finishing, and
finishing.
If processed by a blacksmith, the smoother, more consistent, and lower levels of carbon
encapsulated in the steel makes it easier to process, but at the cost of being more expensive.]
Typical uses for cold-rolled steel include metal furniture, desks, filing cabinets, tables, chairs,
motorcycle exhaust pipes, computer cabinets and hardware, home appliances and
components, shelving, lighting fixtures, hinges, tubing, steel drums, lawn mowers, electronic
cabinetry, water heaters, metal containers, fan blades, frying pans, wall and ceiling mount
kits, and a variety of construction-related products.

55
PROCESSES
Roll bending

Roll bending

Roll bending produces a cylindrical shaped product from plate or steel metals .

Roll forming

Roll forming

Roll forming, roll bending or plate rolling is a continuous bending operation in which a long
strip of metal (typically coiled steel) is passed through consecutive sets of rolls, or stands,
each performing only an incremental part of the bend, until the desired cross-section profile is
obtained. Roll forming is ideal for producing parts with long lengths or in large quantities.
There are 3 main processes: 4 rollers, 3 rollers and 2 rollers, each of which has as different
advantages according to the desired specifications of the output plate.

Flat rolling
Flat rolling is the most basic form of rolling with the starting and ending material having a
rectangular cross-section. The material is fed in between two rollers, called working rolls,
that rotate in opposite directions. The gap between the two rolls is less than the thickness of
56
the starting material, which causes it to deform. The decrease in material thickness causes the
material to elongate. The friction at the interface between the material and the rolls causes the
material to be pushed through. The amount of deformation possible in a single pass is limited
by the friction between the rolls; if the change in thickness is too great the rolls just slip over
the material and do not draw it in. The final product is either sheet or plate, with the former
being less than 6 mm (0.24 in) thick and the latter greater than; however, heavy plates tend to
be formed using a press, which is termed forging, rather than rolling.
Often the rolls are heated to assist in the workability of the metal. Lubrication is often used to
keep the workpiece from sticking to the rolls. To fine-tune the process, the speed of the rolls
and the temperature of the rollers are adjusted.
h is sheet metal with a thickness less than 200 μm (0.0079 in). The rolling is done in a cluster
mill because the small thickness requires a small diameter rolls. To reduce the need for small
rolls pack rolling is used, which rolls multiple sheets together to increase the effective
starting thickness. As the foil sheets come through the rollers, they are trimmed and slitted
with circular or razor-like knives. Trimming refers to the edges of the foil, while slitting
involves cutting it into several sheets. Aluminum foil is the most commonly produced
product via pack rolling. This is evident from the two different surface finishes; the shiny side
is on the roll side and the dull side is against the other sheet of foil.

Ring rolling

A schematic of ring rolling

Ring rolling is a specialized type of hot rolling that increases the diameter of a ring. The
starting material is a thick-walled ring. This workpiece is placed between two rolls, an
inner idler roll and a driven roll, which presses the ring from the outside. As the rolling
occurs the wall thickness decreases as the diameter increases. The rolls may be shaped to
form various cross-sectional shapes. The resulting grain structure is circumferential, which
gives better mechanical properties. Diameters can be as large as 8 m (26 ft) and face heights
as tall as 2m (79 in). Common applications
include bearings, gears, rockets, turbines, airplanes, pipes, and pressure vessels.

57
Structural shape rolling

Cross-sections of continuously rolled structural shapes, showing the change induced by each rolling mill.

Controlled rolling
Controlled rolling is a type of thermomechanical processing which integrates controlled
deformation and heat treating. The heat which brings the workpiece above the
recrystallization temperature is also used to perform the heat treatments so that any
subsequent heat treating is unnecessary. Types of heat treatments include the production of a
fine grain structure; controlling the nature, size, and distribution of various transformation
products (such as ferrite, austenite, pearlite, bainite, and martensite in steel);
inducing precipitation hardening; and, controlling the toughness. In order to achieve this the
entire process must be closely monitored and controlled. Common variables in controlled
rolling include the starting material composition and structure, deformation levels,
temperatures at various stages, and cool-down conditions. The benefits of controlled rolling
include better mechanical properties and energy savings.

Forge rolling
Forge rolling is a longitudinal rolling process to reduce the cross-sectional area of heated bars
or billets by leading them between two contrary rotating roll segments. The process is mainly
used to provide optimized material distribution for subsequent die forging processes. Owing
to this a better material utilization, lower process forces and better surface quality of parts can
be achieved in die forging processes.
Basically any forgeable metal can also be forge-rolled. Forge rolling is mainly used to
preform long-scaled billets through targeted mass distribution for parts such as crankshafts,
connection rods, steering knuckles and vehicle axles. Narrowest manufacturing tolerances
can only partially be achieved by forge rolling. This is the main reason why forge rolling is
rarely used for finishing, but mainly for preforming.
Characteristics of forge rolling:

 high productivity and high material utilization

 good surface quality of forge-rolled workpieces
 extended tool life-time
 small tools and low tool costs
 improved mechanical properties due to optimized grain flow compared to exclusively die
forged workpieces

58
Mills
.
A rolling mill, also known as a reduction mill or mill, has a common construction
independent of the specific type of rolling being performed:

Rolling mills

Rolling mill for cold rolling metal sheet like this piece of brass sheet

 Work rolls
 Backup rolls - are intended to provide rigid support required by the working rolls to
prevent bending under the rolling load
 Rolling balance system - to ensure that the upper work and back up rolls are maintained
in proper position relative to lower rolls
 Roll changing devices - use of an overhead crane and a unit designed to attach to the neck
of the roll to be removed from or inserted into the mill.
 Mill protection devices - to ensure that forces applied to the backup roll chocks are not of
such a magnitude to fracture the roll necks or damage the mill housing
 Roll cooling and lubrication systems
 Pinions - gears to divide power between the two spindles, rotating them at the same speed
but in different directions
 Gearing - to establish desired rolling speed
 Drive motors - rolling narrow foil product to thousands of horsepower
 Electrical controls - constant and variable voltages applied to the motors
 Coilers and uncoilers - to unroll and roll up coils of metal

59
Slabs are the feed material for hot strip mills or plate mills and blooms are rolled to billets in
a billet mill or large sections in a structural mill. The output from a strip mill is coiled and,
subsequently, used as the feed for a cold rolling mill or used directly by fabricators. Billets,
for re-rolling, are subsequently rolled in either a merchant, bar or rod mill. Merchant or bar
mills produce a variety of shaped products such as angles, channels, beams, rounds (long or
coiled) and hexagons.

Configurations

Various rolling configurations. Key: A. 2-high B. 3-high C. 4-high D. 6-high E. 12-high

cluster & F. 20-high Sendzimir Mill cluster

Mills are designed in different types of configurations, with the most basic being a two-high
non-reversing, which means there are two rolls that only turn in one direction. The two-high
reversing mill has rolls that can rotate in both directions, but the disadvantage is that the rolls
must be stopped, reversed, and then brought back up to rolling speed between each pass. To
resolve this, the three-high mill was invented, which uses three rolls that rotate in one
direction; the metal is fed through two of the rolls and then returned through the other pair.
The disadvantage to this system is the workpiece must be lifted and lowered using an
elevator. All of these mills are usually used for primary rolling and the roll diameters range
from 60 to 140 cm (24 to 55 in).
To minimize the roll diameter a four-high or cluster mill is used. A small roll diameter is
advantageous because less roll is in contact with the material, which results in a lower force
and power requirement. The problem with a small roll is a reduction of stiffness, which is
overcome using backup rolls. These backup rolls are larger and contact the back side of the
smaller rolls. A four-high mill has four rolls, two small and two large. A cluster mill has more
than 4 rolls, usually in three tiers. These types of mills are commonly used to hot roll wide
plates, most cold rolling applications, and to roll foils.
Historically mills were classified by the product produced:

 Blooming, cogging and slabbing mills, being the preparatory mills to rolling
finished rails, shapes or plates, respectively. If reversing, they are from 34 to 48 inches in
diameter, and if three-high, from 28 to 42 inches in diameter.

60
 Billet mills, three-high, rolls from 24 to 32 inches in diameter, used for the further
reduction of blooms down to 1.5x1.5-inch billets, being the nubpreparatory mills for
the bar and rod
 Beam mills, three-high, rolls from 28 to 36 inches in diameter, for the production of
heavy beams and channels 12 inches and over.
 Rail mills with rolls from 26 to 40 inches in diameter.
 Shape mills with rolls from 20 to 26 inches in diameter, for smaller sizes of beams and
channels and other structural shapes.
 Merchant bar mills with rolls from 16 to 20 inches in diameter.
 Small merchant bar mills with finishing rolls from 8 to 16 inches in diameter, generally
arranged with a larger size roughing stand.
 Rod and wire mills with finishing rolls from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, always arranged
with larger size roughing stands.
 Hoop and cotton tie mills, similar to small merchant bar mills.
 Armour plate mills with rolls from 44 to 50 inches in diameter and 140 to 180-inch body.
 Plate mills with rolls from 28 to 44 inches in diameter.
 Sheet mills with rolls from 20 to 32 inches in diameter.
 Universal mills for the production of square-edged or so-called universal plates and
various wide flanged shapes by a system of vertical and horizontal rolls.
Tandem mill
A tandem mill is a special type of modern rolling mill where rolling is done in one pass. In a
traditional rolling mill rolling is done in several passes, but in tandem mill there are
several stands (>=2 stands) and reductions take place successively. The number of stands
ranges from 2 to 18. Tandem mills can be either of hot or cold rolling mill types.

Defects
In hot rolling, if the temperature of the workpiece is not uniform the flow of the material will
occur more in the warmer parts and less in the cooler. If the temperature difference is great
enough cracking and tearing can occur.

Flatness and shape

In a flat metal workpiece, the flatness is a descriptive attribute characterizing the extent of the
geometric deviation from a reference plane. The deviation from complete flatness is the direct
result of the workpiece relaxation after hot or cold rolling, due to the internal stress pattern
caused by the non-uniform transversal compressive action of the rolls and the uneven
geometrical properties of the entry material. The transverse distribution of differential
strain/elongation-induced stress with respect to the material's average applied stress is
commonly referenced to as shape. Due to the strict relationship between shape and flatness,
these terms can be used in an interchangeable manner. In the case of metal strips and sheets,
the flatness reflects the differential fiber elongation across the width of the workpiece. This
property must be subject to an accurate feedback-based control in order to guarantee the

61
machinability of the metal sheets in the final transformation processes. Some technological
details about the feedback control of flatness are given in.

Profile
Profile is made up of the measurements of crown and wedge. Crown is the thickness in the
center as compared to the average thickness at the edges of the workpiece. Wedge is a
measure of the thickness at one edge as opposed to the other edge. Both may be expressed as
absolute measurements or as relative measurements. For instance, one could have 2 mil of
crown (the center of the workpiece is 2 mil thicker than the edges), or one could have 2%
crown (the center of the workpiece is 2% thicker than the edges).
It is typically desirable to have some crown in the workpiece as this will cause the workpiece
to tend to pull to the center of the mill, and thus will run with higher stability.

Flatness

Roll deflection

Maintaining a uniform gap between the rolls is difficult because the rolls deflect under the
load required to deform the workpiece. The deflection causes the workpiece to be thinner on
the edges and thicker in the middle. This can be overcome by using a crowned roller
(parabolic crown), however the crowned roller will only compensate for one set of
conditions, specifically the material, temperature, and amount of deformation.
Other methods of compensating for roll deformation include continual varying crown (CVC),
pair cross rolling, and work roll bending. CVC was developed by SMS-Siemag AG and
involves grinding a third order polynomial curve into the work rolls and then shifting the
work rolls laterally, equally, and opposite to each other. The effect is that the rolls will have a
gap between them that is parabolic in shape, and will vary with lateral shift, thus allowing for

62
control of the crown of the rolls dynamically. Pair cross rolling involves using either flat or
parabolically crowned rolls, but shifting the ends at an angle so that the gap between the
edges of the rolls will increase or decrease, thus allowing for dynamic crown control. Work
roll bending involves using hydraulic cylinders at the ends of the rolls to counteract roll
deflection.
Another way to overcome deflection issues is by decreasing the load on the rolls, which can
be done by applying a longitudinal force; this is essentially drawing. Other method of
decreasing roll deflection include increasing the elastic modulus of the roll material and
adding back-up supports to the rolls.
The different classifications for flatness defects are:

 Symmetrical edge wave - the edges on both sides of the workpiece are "wavy" due to the
material at the edges being longer than the material in the center.
 Asymmetrical edge wave - one edge is "wavy" due to the material at one side being
longer than the other side.
 Center buckle - The center of the strip is "wavy" due to the strip in the center being
longer than the strip at the edges.
 Quarter buckle - This is a rare defect where the fibers are elongated in the quarter regions
(the portion of the strip between the center and the edge). This is normally attributed to
using excessive roll bending force since the bending force may not compensate for the
roll deflection across the entire length of the roll.
It is important to note that one could have a flatness defect even with the workpiece having
the same thickness across the width. Also, one could have fairly high crown or wedge, but
still produce material that is flat. In order to produce flat material, the material must be
reduced by the same percentage across the width. This is important because mass flow of the
material must be preserved, and the more a material is reduced, the more it is elongated. If a
material is elongated in the same manner across the width, then the flatness coming into the
mill will be preserved at the exit of the mill.

Draught
The difference between the thickness of initial and rolled metal piece is called Draught.

Surface defect types

There are six types of surface defects:
Lap
This type of defect occurs when a corner or fin is folded over and rolled but not
welded into the metal. They appear as seams across the surface of the metal.
Mill-shearing
These defects occur as a feather-like lap.
Rolled-in scale
This occurs when mill scale is rolled into metal.

63
Scabs
These are long patches of loose metal that have been rolled into the surface of the
metal.
Seams
They are open, broken lines that run along the length of the metal and caused by the
presence of scale as well as due to pass roughness of Roughing mill.
Slivers
Prominent surface ruptures.

Surface defect remediation

Many surface defects can be scarfed off the surface of semi-finished rolled products before
further rolling. Methods of scarfing have included hand-chipping with chisels (18th and 19th
centuries); powered chipping and grinding with air chisels and grinders; burning with an oxy-
fuel torch, whose gas pressure blows away the metal or slag melted by the flame;[33] and laser
scarfing.

64
 What are Cold Rolled Finishes?
Cold rolled finishes apply to flat products such as sheet or coil, with thickness less than about
5mm and usually less than 3mm. They are firstly hot rolled into a strip (or cast into a slab
which is hot rolled into a strip) and then cold rolled. Cold rolling reduces the thickness by at
least 50%. This smooths the surface, refines the grain structure and causes differences in the
mechanical properties along and across the rolling direction. In the case of austenitic and
duplex alloys, the process hardens and strengthens the stainless steel. Finally, the steel is
softened by annealing in a furnace? Each surface finish may undergo additional processes to
improve the surface further. The smoother the surface finish is, the higher resistance to
corrosion it will be.
These mill produced finishes must be handled carefully as surface damage such as scratches,
grinding marks or spatter cannot be matched by polishing with abrasives or etching with
chemicals. Of the 3 finishes, BA is most nearly able to be matched by a mirror polish.

Standards
The most common definitions of these surface finishes are provided by ASTM A480 and EN
10088. In both cases it is the cold rolled manufacturing method that is specified rather than
specific, measurable characteristics about the surface. We have used ASTM A480 as an
example:
ASTM A480:
No. 2D - A smooth, non-reflective cold-rolled annealed and pickled or descaled finish. This
non-directional finish is favourable for the retention of lubricants in deep drawing
applications.
No. 2B - A smooth, moderately reflective cold-rolled annealed and pickled or descaled finish
typically produced by imparting a final light cold-rolled pass using [large diameter] polished
rolls. This general-purpose finish is more readily polished than No 1 or 2D finishes. Product
with 2B finish is normally supplied in the annealed plus lightly cold-rolled condition unless a
tensile-rolled [harder and stronger] product is specified.
Bright Annealed [BA] Finish- A smooth, bright, reflective finish typically produced by cold
rolling followed by annealing in a protective atmosphere so as to prevent oxidation and
scaling during annealing.

2B(Both side bright)

2B is the most widely used stainless steel surface finish. It is especially common in industrial,
chemical and food processing applications such as process vessels and tanks. It is also used in
some architectural applications that will not be closely examined for uniformity of finish such
as downpipes and gutters.
When specifying this finish think about these attributes:

65
 2B is the most economical finish
 It is highly corrosion resistant because it has been chemically pickled and is smooth
 Over broad areas and between batches etc., it is not uniform and may not match in
appearance
 It has been produced in the mill and can't be matched after fabrication
 It if often protected by plastic films until final cleanup and commissioning

2D(Both side dull)

2D is used around the world in applications where its low reflectivity is important. The
largest application is in roofing materials. The surface is rougher than 2B and retains
lubricants better making it appealing for deep drawring. 2D surfaces are not designed for
appearance so the limitations on matching of weld and other surface damage is not as critical.
Railcars are a typical example where thicker sheet and ongoing abrasive damage make the
rougher 2D a suitable finish.
When specifying this finish think about these attributes:

 2D is not commonly available in Australia

 It is highly corrosion resistant because it has been chemically pickled and is relatively
smooth
 Over broad areas and between batches etc., it is not uniform and may not match
 It has been produced in the mill and can't be matched after fabrication

Bright Annealed (BA)

The classic use of a BA finish is domestic: the interior of a dishwasher or clothes washing
machine. In the clothes washer, it also provides a smooth, non-abrasive surface for the
clothes to slide around. The mirror like surface is also used in road mirrors where a precise
image is not required.
When specifying this finish think about these attributes:

 BA is common in some grades and thicknesses, but not all

 It is highly corrosion resistant because it is very smooth
 Different batches may not match
 It is has been produced in the mill and can't be exactly matched after fabrication although
a mechanical mirror polish can be close.

Post Production Processing to Improve Corrosion Resistance

All the cold rolled processes include a pickling stage. Pickling is the removal of high
temperature scale and the adjacent low chromium layer of metal from the surface of stainless
steel by chemical means. Pickling will also remove manganese sulphide inclusions and any
other contamination on the surface. Pickling results in a very clean, highly corrosion resistant
surface, but will slightly roughen the surface

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 CHAPTER 4: GRINDING

Grinding is an abrasive machining process that uses a grinding wheel as the cutting tool.
A wide variety of machines are used for grinding:

 Hand-cranked knife-sharpening stones (grindstones)

 Handheld power tools such as angle grinders and die grinders
 Various kinds of expensive industrial machine tools called grinding machines
 Bench grinders
Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of manufacturing and toolmaking. It can produce
very fine finishes and very accurate dimensions; yet in mass production contexts it can also
rough out large volumes of metal quite rapidly. It is usually better suited to the machining of
very hard materials than is "regular" machining (that is, cutting larger chips with cutting tools
such as tool bits or milling cutters), and until recent decades it was the only practical way to
machine such materials as hardened steels. Compared to "regular" machining, it is usually
better suited to taking very shallow cuts, such as reducing a shaft’s diameter by half
a thousandth of an inch or 12.7 μm.
Grinding is a subset of cutting, as grinding is a true metal-cutting process. Each grain of
abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high negative rake
angle), and shears a tiny chip that is analogous to what would conventionally be called a
"cut" chip (turning, milling, drilling, tapping, etc.) However, among people who work in the
machining fields, the term cutting is often understood to refer to the macroscopic cutting
operations, and grinding is often mentally categorized as a "separate" process. This is why
the terms are usually used separately in shop-floor practice.
Lapping and sanding are subsets of grinding.

Processes
Selecting which of the following grinding operations to be used is determined by the size,
shape, features and the desired production rate.

Surface grinding
Surface grinding uses a rotating abrasive wheel to remove material, creating a flat surface.
The tolerances that are normally achieved with grinding are ±2×10−4 inches (5.1 μm) for
grinding a flat material and ±3×10−4 inches (7.6 μm) for a parallel surface.[1]

67
The surface grinder is composed of an abrasive wheel, a workholding device known as
a chuck, either electromagnetic or vacuum, and a reciprocating table.
Grinding is commonly used on cast iron and various types of steel. These materials lend
themselves to grinding because they can be held by the magnetic chuck commonly used on
grinding machines and do not melt into the wheel, clogging it and preventing it from cutting.
Materials that are less commonly ground are aluminum, stainless steel, brass, and plastics.
These all tend to clog the cutting wheel more than steel and cast iron, but with special
techniques it is possible to grind them.

Cylindrical grinding
Cylindrical grinding (also called center-type grinding) is used to grind the cylindrical surfaces
and shoulders of the workpiece. The workpiece is mounted on centers and rotated by a device
known as a drive dog or center driver. The abrasive wheel and the workpiece are rotated by
separate motors and at different speeds. The table can be adjusted to produce tapers. The
wheel head can be swiveled. The five types of cylindrical grinding are: outside diameter
(OD) grinding, inside diameter (ID) grinding, plunge grinding, creep feed grinding, and
centerless grinding.
A cylindrical grinder has a grinding (abrasive) wheel, two centers that hold the workpiece,
and a chuck, grinding dog, or other mechanism to drive the work. Most cylindrical grinding
machines include a swivel to allow the forming of tapered pieces. The wheel and workpiece
move parallel to one another in both the radial and longitudinal directions. The abrasive
wheel can have many shapes. Standard disk-shaped wheels can be used to create a tapered or
straight workpiece geometry, while formed wheels are used to create a shaped workpiece.
The process using a formed wheel creates less vibration than using a regular disk-shaped
wheel.
Tolerances for cylindrical grinding are held within ±0.0005 inches (13 μm) for diameter and
±0.0001 inches (2.5 μm) for roundness. Precision work can reach tolerances as high as
±0.00005 inches (1.3 μm) for diameter and ±0.00001 inches (0.25 μm) for roundness. Surface
finishes can range from 2 microinches (51 nm) to 125 microinches (3.2 μm), with typical
finishes ranging from 8 to 32 microinches (0.20 to 0.81 μm).

Creep-feed grinding
Creep-feed grinding (CFG) was invented in Germany in the late 1950s by Edmund and
Gerhard Lang. Unlike normal grinding, which is used primarily to finish surfaces, CFG is
used for high rates of material removal, competing with milling and turning as a
manufacturing process choice. Depths of cut of up to 6 mm (0.25 inches) are used along with
low workpiece speed. Surfaces with a softer-grade resin bond are used to keep workpiece
temperature low and an improved surface finish up to 1.6 µm Rmax
With CFG it takes 117 s to remove 1 in3 (16 cm3) of material, whereas precision grinding
would take more than 200 s to do the same. CFG has the disadvantage of a wheel that is
constantly degrading, requires high spindle power (51 hp or 38 kW), and is limited in the
length of part it can machine.

68
To address the problem of wheel sharpness, continuous-dress creep-feed grinding (CDCF)
was developed in the 1970s. It dresses the wheel constantly during machining, keeping it in a
state of specified sharpness. It takes only 17 s to remove 1 in3 (16 cm3) of material, a huge
gain in productivity. 38 hp (28 kW) spindle power is required, with a low to conventional
spindle speeds. The limit on part length was erased.
High-efficiency deep grinding (HEDG) uses plated superabrasive wheels, which never need
dressing and last longer than other wheels. This reduces capital equipment investment costs.
HEDG can be used on long part lengths and removes material at a rate of 1 in3 (16 cm3) in
83 s. It requires high spindle power and high spindle speeds.
Peel grinding, patented under the name of Quickpoint in 1985 by Erwin Junker
Maschinenfabrik, GmbH in Nordrach, Germany, uses a thin superabrasive grinding disk
oriented almost parallel to a cylindrical workpiece operates somewhat like a lathe turning
tool.
Ultra-high speed grinding (UHSG) can run at speeds higher than 40,000 fpm (200 m/s),
taking 41 s to remove 1 in3 (16 cm3) of material, but is still in the R&D stage. It also requires
high spindle power and high spindle speeds.

Others

Centerless grinding

Form grinding is a specialized type of cylindrical grinding where the grinding wheel has the
exact shape of the final product. The grinding wheel does not traverse the workpiece.
Internal grinding is used to grind the internal diameter of the workpiece. Tapered holes can
be ground with the use of internal grinders that can swivel on the horizontal.
Centerless grinding is when the workpiece is supported by a blade instead of by centers or
chucks. Two wheels are used. The larger one is used to grind the surface of the workpiece
and the smaller wheel is used to regulate the axial movement of the workpiece. Types of
centerless grinding include through-feed grinding, in-feed/plunge grinding, and internal
centerless grinding.
Pre-grinding When a new tool has been built and has been heat-treated, it is pre-ground
before welding or hardfacing commences. This usually involves grinding the OD slightly
higher than the finish grind OD to ensure the correct finish size.
Electrochemical grinding is a type of grinding in which a positively charged workpiece in a
conductive fluid is eroded by a negatively charged grinding wheel. The pieces from the
workpiece are dissolved into the conductive fluid.

69
 A schematic of ELID grinding
Electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) grinding is one of the most accurate grinding
methods. In this ultra precision grinding technology the grinding wheel is dressed
electrochemically and in-process to maintain the accuracy of the grinding. An ELID cell
consists of a metal bonded grinding wheel, a cathode electrode, a pulsed DC power supply
and electrolyte. The wheel is connected to the positive terminal of the DC power supply
through a carbon brush whereas the electrode is connected to the negative pole of the power
supply. Usually alkaline liquids are used as both electrolytes and coolant for grinding. A
nozzle is used to inject the electrolyte into the gap between wheel and electrode. The gap is
usually maintained to be approximately 0.1mm to 0.3 mm. During the grinding operation one
side of the wheel takes part in the grinding operation whereas the other side of the wheel is
being dressed by electrochemical reaction. The dissolution of the metallic bond material is
caused by the dressing which in turns results continuous protrusion of new sharp grits.

Grinding wheel
A grinding wheel is an expendable wheel used for various grinding and abrasive machining
operations. It is generally made from a matrix of coarse abrasive particles pressed and bonded
together to form a solid, circular shape, various profiles and cross sections are available
depending on the intended usage for the wheel. Grinding wheels may also be made from a
solid steel or aluminium disc with particles bonded to the surface.

Lubrication
The use of fluids in a grinding process is often necessary to cool and lubricate the wheel and
workpiece as well as remove the chips produced in the grinding process. The most common
grinding fluids are water-soluble chemical fluids, water-soluble oils, synthetic oils, and
petroleum-based oils. It is imperative that the fluid be applied directly to the cutting area to
prevent the fluid being blown away from the piece due to rapid rotation of the wheel.

Work
Cutting Fluid Application
Material

Aluminum Light-duty oil or wax Flood

Brass Light-duty oil Flood

Cast Iron Heavy-duty emulsifiable oil, light-duty chemical oil, synthetic oil Flood

70
Mild Steel Heavy-duty water-soluble oil Flood

Stainless
Heavy-duty emulsifiable oil, heavy-duty chemical oil, synthetic oil Flood
Steel

Water-soluble oil, heavy-duty emulsifiable oil, dry, light-duty

Plastics Flood
chemical oil, synthetic oil

The workpiece
Workholding methods
The workpiece is manually clamped to a lathe dog, powered by the faceplate, that holds the
piece in between two centers and rotates the piece. The piece and the grinding wheel rotate in
opposite directions and small bits of the piece are removed as it passes along the grinding
wheel. In some instances special drive centers may be used to allow the edges to be ground.
The workholding method affects the production time as it changes set up times.
Workpiece materials
Typical workpiece materials include aluminum, brass, plastics, cast iron, mild steel, and
stainless steel. Aluminum, brass and plastics can have poor to fair machinability
characteristics for cylindrical grinding. Cast Iron and mild steel have very good
characteristics for cylindrical grinding. Stainless steel is very difficult to grind due to its
toughness and ability to work harden, but can be worked with the right grade of grinding
wheels.

Workpiece geometry
The final shape of a workpiece is the mirror image of the grinding wheel, with cylindrical
wheels creating cylindrical pieces and formed wheels creating formed pieces. Typical sizes
on workpieces range from 0.75 in to 20 in (18 mm to 1 m) and 0.80 in to 75 in (2 cm to 4 m)
in length, although pieces from 0.25 in to 60 in (6 mm to 1.5 m) in diameter and 0.30 in to
100 in (8 mm to 2.5 m) in length can be ground. Resulting shapes can be straight cylinders,
straight-edged conical shapes, or even crankshafts for engines that experience relatively low
torque.
Effects on workpiece materials
Mechanical properties will change due to stresses put on the part during finishing. High
grinding temperatures may cause a thin martensitic layer to form on the part, which will lead
to reduced material strength from microcracks.

71
Physical property changes include the possible loss of magnetic properties on ferromagnetic
materials.
Chemical property changes include an increased susceptibility to corrosion because of high
surface stress.

72
 CHAPTER 5: HARDNESS
Hardness is a measure of the resistance to localized plastic deformation induced by either
mechanical indentation or abrasion. Some materials (e.g. metals) are harder than others
(e.g. plastics, wood). Macroscopic hardness is generally characterized by
strong intermolecular bonds, but the behavior of solid materials under force is complex;
therefore, there are different measurements of hardness: scratch hardness, indentation
hardness, and rebound hardness.
Hardness is dependent
on ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity, strain, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity,
and viscosity.
Common examples of hard matter are ceramics, concrete, certain metals, and superhard
materials, which can be contrasted with soft matter.

Measuring hardness

A Vickers hardness tester

There are three main types of hardness measurements: scratch, indentation, and rebound.
Within each of these classes of measurement there are individual measurement scales. For
practical reasons conversion tables are used to convert between one scale and another.
Scratch hardness
Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is to fracture or permanent plastic
deformation due to friction from a sharp object.[1] The principle is that an object made of a
harder material will scratch an object made of a softer material. When testing coatings,
scratch hardness refers to the force necessary to cut through the film to the substrate. The

73
most common test is Mohs scale, which is used in mineralogy. One tool to make this
measurement is the sclerometer.
Another tool used to make these tests is the pocket hardness tester. This tool consists of a
scale arm with graduated markings attached to a four-wheeled carriage. A scratch tool with a
sharp rim is mounted at a predetermined angle to the testing surface. In order to use it a
weight of known mass is added to the scale arm at one of the graduated markings, the tool is
then drawn across the test surface. The use of the weight and markings allows a known
pressure to be applied without the need for complicated machinery.[

Indentation hardness
Indentation hardness measures the resistance of a sample to material deformation due to a
constant compression load from a sharp object. Tests for indentation hardness are primarily
used in engineering and metallurgy fields. The tests work on the basic premise of measuring
the critical dimensions of an indentation left by a specifically dimensioned and loaded
indenter.
Common indentation hardness scales are Rockwell, Vickers, Shore, and Brinell.

Rebound hardness
Rebound hardness, also known as dynamic hardness, measures the height of the "bounce" of
a diamond-tipped hammer dropped from a fixed height onto a material. This type of hardness
is related to elasticity. The device used to take this measurement is known as a scleroscope
Two scales that measures rebound hardness are the Leeb rebound hardness test and Bennett
hardness scale.

Hardening
There are five hardening processes: Hall-Petch strengthening, work hardening, solid solution
strengthening, precipitation hardening, and martensitic transformation.

Physics

74
Diagram of a stress-strain curve, showing the relationship between stress (force applied per
unit area) and strain or deformation of a ductile metal.

In solid mechanics, solids generally have three responses to force, depending on the amount
of force and the type of material:

 They exhibit elasticity—the ability to temporarily change shape, but return to the original
shape when the pressure is removed. "Hardness" in the elastic range—a small temporary
change in shape for a given force—is known as stiffness in the case of a given object, or
a high elastic modulus in the case of a material.
 They exhibit plasticity—the ability to permanently change shape in response to the force,
but remain in one piece. The yield strength is the point at which elastic deformation gives
way to plastic deformation. Deformation in the plastic range is non-linear, and is
described by the stress-strain curve. This response produces the observed properties of
scratch and indentation hardness, as described and measured in materials science. Some
materials exhibit both elasticity and viscosity when undergoing plastic deformation; this
is called viscoelasticity.
 They fracture—split into two or more pieces.
Strength is a measure of the extent of a material's elastic range, or elastic and plastic ranges
together. This is quantified as compressive strength, shear strength, tensile
strength depending on the direction of the forces involved. Ultimate strength is an
engineering measure of the maximum load a part of a specific material and geometry can
withstand.
Brittleness, in technical usage, is the tendency of a material to fracture with very little or no
detectable plastic deformation beforehand. Thus in technical terms, a material can be both
brittle and strong. In everyday usage "brittleness" usually refers to the tendency to fracture
under a small amount of force, which exhibits both brittleness and a lack of strength (in the
technical sense). For perfectly brittle materials, yield strength and ultimate strength are the
same, because they do not experience detectable plastic deformation. The opposite of
brittleness is ductility.
The toughness of a material is the maximum amount of energy it can absorb before
fracturing, which is different from the amount of force that can be applied. Toughness tends
to be small for brittle materials, because elastic and plastic deformations allow materials to
absorb large amounts of energy.

75
Hardness increases with decreasing particle size. This is known as the Hall-Petch
relationship. However, below a critical grain-size, hardness decreases with decreasing grain
size. This is known as the inverse Hall-Petch effect.
Hardness of a material to deformation is dependent on its microdurability or small-scale shear
modulus in any direction, not to any rigidity or stiffness properties such as its bulk
modulus or Young's modulus. Stiffness is often confused for hardness. Some materials are
stiffer than diamond (e.g. osmium) but are not harder, and are prone to spalling and flaking in
squamose or acicular habits.

Mechanisms and theory

A representation of the crystal lattice showing the planes of atoms.

The key to understanding the mechanism behind hardness is understanding the
metallic microstructure, or the structure and arrangement of the atoms at the atomic level. In
fact, most important metallic properties critical to the manufacturing of today’s goods are
determined by the microstructure of a material. At the atomic level, the atoms in a metal are
arranged in an orderly three-dimensional array called a crystal lattice. In reality, however, a
given specimen of a metal likely never contains a consistent single crystal lattice. A given
sample of metal will contain many grains, with each grain having a fairly consistent array
pattern. At an even smaller scale, each grain contains irregularities.
There are two types of irregularities at the grain level of the microstructure that are
responsible for the hardness of the material. These irregularities are point defects and line
defects. A point defect is an irregularity located at a single lattice site inside of the overall
three-dimensional lattice of the grain. There are three main point defects. If there is an atom
missing from the array, a vacancy defect is formed. If there is a different type of atom at the
lattice site that should normally be occupied by a metal atom, a substitutional defect is
formed. If there exists an atom in a site where there should normally not be, an interstitial

76
defect is formed. This is possible because space exists between atoms in a crystal lattice.
While point defects are irregularities at a single site in the crystal lattice, line defects are
irregularities on a plane of atoms. Dislocations are a type of line defect involving the
misalignment of these planes. In the case of an edge dislocation, a half plane of atoms is
wedged between two planes of atoms. In the case of a screw dislocation two planes of atoms
are offset with a helical array running between them.[7]
In glasses, hardness seems to depend linearly on the number of topological constraints acting
between the atoms of the network.[8] Hence, the rigidity theory has allowed predicting
hardness values with respect to composition.

Planes of atoms split by an edge dislocation.

Dislocations provide a mechanism for planes of atoms to slip and thus a method for plastic or
permanent deformation. Planes of atoms can flip from one side of the dislocation to the other
effectively allowing the dislocation to traverse through the material and the material to
deform permanently. The movement allowed by these dislocations causes a decrease in the
material's hardness.
The way to inhibit the movement of planes of atoms, and thus make them harder, involves the
interaction of dislocations with each other and interstitial atoms. When a dislocation
intersects with a second dislocation, it can no longer traverse through the crystal lattice. The
intersection of dislocations creates an anchor point and does not allow the planes of atoms to
continue to slip over one another A dislocation can also be anchored by the interaction with
interstitial atoms. If a dislocation comes in contact with two or more interstitial atoms, the
slip of the planes will again be disrupted. The interstitial atoms create anchor points, or
pinning points, in the same manner as intersecting dislocations.
By varying the presence of interstitial atoms and the density of dislocations, a particular
metal's hardness can be controlled. Although seemingly counter-intuitive, as the density of
dislocations increases, there are more intersections created and consequently more anchor
points. Similarly, as more interstitial atoms are added, more pinning points that impede the
movements of dislocations are formed. As a result, the more anchor points added, the harder
the material will become.

77
 HARDNESS MESUREMENT

Measurement of hardness
Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually by
penetration. There are elastic and dynamic processes to measure hardness. The usual method
to achieve a hardness value is to measure the depth or area of an indentation left by an
indenter of a specific shape, with a specific force applied for a specific time. According to the
test force: macro hardness (F force > 30 N), small hardness load (3-30 N) and micro hardness
(< 0,5N).There are three principal standard test methods for expressing the relationship
between hardness and the size of the impression, these being Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell.
For practical and calibration reasons, each of these methods is divided into a range of scales,
defined by a combination of applied load and indenter geometry. There are available the DIN
50150 to compare the obtained results according to one of the selected measuring methods.

Brinell Hardness test

HB. An iron ball of tempered steel (HBS) or a hard metal ball (HBW) with a known diameter
is pressed vertically with a test force F in an isolated testing surface. Test force is exerted
during a defined time (from 2 to 8 seconds); incidence time must be from 10 to 15 seconds.
Brinell hardness is calculated by the pressure diameter and the test force. The hardness
measurement developed by Brinell is used for soft and medium hard metals, non-alloyed
construction grade steel, aluminium, wood and work materials with irregular structures such
as cast iron. An iron ball or one made of a hard metal is struck with a defined force for
measurement against the surface of the material

Vickers Hardness test HV

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond
indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees
between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied
for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material
after removal of the load are measured using a microscope and their average calculated. The
area of the sloping surface of the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the
quotient obtained by dividing the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation. The Vickers
hardness testt measures hard work materials but also the hardness of materials and thin walls
or marginal areas.

Rockwell Hardness test

The Rockwell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond
cone or hardened steel ball indenter. For C and A versions (hard and very hard materials) as
well as for N version (for thin walls) a diamond ball is used. For B and F versions (medium-
hard and soft materials) or T (for thin walls) we use a steel ball. The permanent increase in
depth of penetration, resulting from the application and removal of the additional major load
is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number. The abbreviations for Rockwell are the
following: HRC, HRA, HRB, HRF, HR- 15N, HR15T, HR30N, HR30T, HR45N, HR45T.
The hardness value goes before teh abbreviation: 45 HRC; 76 HR45N. DIN 50103.

78
Shore hardness test
Testers of Shore hardness for rubber and similar work materials are composed of a spring
loaded point which rebounds when it penetrates during testing, serving as a measurement of
the corresponding Shore hardness, which is indicated in a scale from 0 Shore (2.5 millimeters
of penetration) up to 100 Shore (0 millimeters of penetration)

Impact hardness test

Dynamic process to measure hardness. The calculation basis is the diameter of a ball pressure
produced by a hammer (Poldi hammer) or by a winding spring. With the Poldi hammer the
ball is pressed in a known test hardness bar.

79
HARDNESS CONVERSION

80
 UTILITIES

PUMP
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical
action. Pumps can be classified into three major groups according to the method they use to
move the fluid: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps.
Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically reciprocating or rotary), and
consume energy to perform mechanical work for moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many
energy sources, including manual operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, come in
many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical applications to large industrial pumps.
TYPES OF PUMP
Mechanical pumps may be submerged in the fluid they are pumping or be placed external to
the fluid.
Pumps can be classified by their method of displacement into positive displacement
pumps, impulse pumps, velocity pumps, gravity pumps, steam pumps and valveless pumps.
There are two basic types of pumps: positive displacement and centrifugal. Although axial-
flow pumps are frequently classified as a separate type, they have essentially the same
operating principles as centrifugal pumps.

Positive displacement pumps

Lobe pump internals

A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed amount and forcing
(displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe.
Some positive displacement pumps use an expanding cavity on the suction side and a
decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the
suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The
volume is constant through each cycle of operation.
Positive displacement pump behavior and safety
Positive displacement pumps, unlike centrifugal or roto-dynamic pumps, theoretically can
produce the same flow at a given speed (RPM) no matter what the discharge pressure. Thus,
positive displacement pumps are constant flow machines. However, a slight increase in
internal leakage as the pressure increases prevents a truly constant flow rate.

81
A positive displacement pump must not operate against a closed valve on the discharge side
of the pump, because it has no shutoff head like centrifugal pumps. A positive displacement
pump operating against a closed discharge valve continues to produce flow and the pressure in
the discharge line increases until the line bursts, the pump is severely damaged, or both.
A relief or safety valve on the discharge side of the positive displacement pump is
therefore necessary. The relief valve can be internal or external. The pump manufacturer
normally has the option to supply internal relief or safety valves. The internal valve is
usually used only as a safety precaution. An external relief valve in the discharge line,
with a return line back to the suction line or supply tank provides increased safety.
Positive displacement types
A positive displacement pump can be further classified according to the mechanism used to
move the fluid:

 Rotary-type positive displacement: internal gear, screw, shuttle block, flexible vane or
sliding vane, circumferential piston, flexible impeller, helical twisted roots (e.g. the
Wendelkolben pump) or liquid-ring pumps
 Reciprocating-type positive displacement: piston pumps, plunger pumps or diaphragm
pumps
 Linear-type positive displacement: rope pumps and chain pumps
Rotary positive displacement pumps

Rotary vane pump

These pumps move fluid using a rotating mechanism that creates a vacuum that captures and
draws in the liquid.
Advantages: Rotary pumps are very efficient because they can handle highly viscous fluids
with higher flow rates as viscosity increases.
Drawbacks: The nature of the pump requires very close clearances between the rotating
pump and the outer edge, making it rotate at a slow, steady speed. If rotary pumps are
operated at high speeds, the fluids cause erosion, which eventually causes enlarged clearances
that liquid can pass through, which reduces efficiency.
Rotary positive displacement pumps fall into three main types:

 Gear pumps – a simple type of rotary pump where the liquid is pushed between two gears

82
 Screw pumps – the shape of the internals of this pump is usually two screws turning
against each other to pump the liquid
 Rotary vane pumps – similar to scroll compressors, these have a cylindrical rotor encased
in a similarly shaped housing. As the rotor orbits, the vanes trap fluid between the rotor
and the casing, drawing the fluid through the pump.
Reciprocating positive displacement pumps

Simple hand pump

Antique "pitcher" pump (c. 1924) at the Colored School in Alapaha, Georgia, US

Reciprocating pumps move the fluid using one or more oscillating pistons, plungers, or
membranes (diaphragms), while valves restrict fluid motion to the desired direction. In order

83
for suction to take place, the pump must first pull the plunger in an outward motion to
decrease pressure in the chamber. Once the plunger pushes back, it will increase the pressure
chamber and the inward pressure of the plunger will then open the discharge valve and
release the fluid into the delivery pipe at a high velocity.[5]
Pumps in this category range from simplex, with one cylinder, to in some cases quad (four)
cylinders, or more. Many reciprocating-type pumps are duplex (two) or triplex (three)
cylinder. They can be either single-acting with suction during one direction of piston motion
and discharge on the other, or double-acting with suction and discharge in both directions.
The pumps can be powered manually, by air or steam, or by a belt driven by an engine. This
type of pump was used extensively in the 19th century—in the early days of steam
propulsion—as boiler feed water pumps. Now reciprocating pumps typically pump highly
viscous fluids like concrete and heavy oils, and serve in special applications that demand low
flow rates against high resistance. Reciprocating hand pumps were widely used to pump
water from wells. Common bicycle pumps and foot pumps for inflation use reciprocating
action.
These positive displacement pumps have an expanding cavity on the suction side and a
decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pumps as the cavity on the
suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The
volume is constant given each cycle of operation and the pump’s volumetric efficiency can be
achieved through routine maintenance and inspection of its valves.[6]
Typical reciprocating pumps are:

 Plunger pumps – a reciprocating plunger pushes the fluid through one or two open
valves, closed by suction on the way back.
 Diaphragm pumps – similar to plunger pumps, where the plunger pressurizes hydraulic
oil which is used to flex a diaphragm in the pumping cylinder. Diaphragm valves are used
to pump hazardous and toxic fluids.
 Piston pumps displacement pumps – usually simple devices for pumping small amounts
of liquid or gel manually. The common hand soap dispenser is such a pump.
 Radial piston pumps - a form of hydraulic pump where pistons extend in a radial
direction.
Various positive-displacement pumps
The positive displacement principle applies in these pumps:

 Rotary lobe pump

 Progressive cavity pump
 Rotary gear pump
 Piston pump
 Diaphragm pump
 Screw pump
 Gear pump

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 Hydraulic pump
 Rotary vane pump
 Peristaltic pump
 Rope pump
 Flexible impeller pump
Gear pump

Gear pump

This is the simplest of rotary positive displacement pumps. It consists of two meshed gears
that rotate in a closely fitted casing. The tooth spaces trap fluid and force it around the outer
periphery. The fluid does not travel back on the meshed part, because the teeth mesh closely
in the center. Gear pumps see wide use in car engine oil pumps and in various hydraulic
power packs.
Screw pump

Screw pump

A screw pump is a more complicated type of rotary pump that uses two or three screws with
opposing thread — e.g., one screw turns clockwise and the other counterclockwise. The
screws are mounted on parallel shafts that have gears that mesh so the shafts turn together
and everything stays in place. The screws turn on the shafts and drive fluid through the pump.
As with other forms of rotary pumps, the clearance between moving parts and the pump's
casing is minimal.

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Progressing cavity pump
Widely used for pumping difficult materials, such as sewage sludge contaminated with large
particles, this pump consists of a helical rotor, about ten times as long as its width. This can
be visualized as a central core of diameter x with, typically, a curved spiral wound around of
thickness half x, though in reality it is manufactured in single casting. This shaft fits inside a
heavy duty rubber sleeve, of wall thickness also typically x. As the shaft rotates, the rotor
gradually forces fluid up the rubber sleeve. Such pumps can develop very high pressure at
low volumes.

Roots-type pumps

A Roots lobe pump

Named after the Roots brothers who invented it, this lobe pump displaces the liquid trapped
between two long helical rotors, each fitted into the other when perpendicular at 90°, rotating
inside a triangular shaped sealing line configuration, both at the point of suction and at the
point of discharge. This design produces a continuous flow with equal volume and no vortex.
It can work at low pulsation rates, and offers gentle performance that some applications
require.
Applications include:

 High capacity industrial air compressors

 Roots superchargers on internal combustion engines.
 A brand of civil defense siren, the Federal Signal Corporation's Thunderbolt.

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Peristaltic pump

A peristaltic pump is a type of positive displacement pump. It contains fluid within a flexible
tube fitted inside a circular pump casing (though linear peristaltic pumps have been made). A
number of rollers, shoes, or wipers attached to a rotor compresses the flexible tube. As the
rotor turns, the part of the tube under compression closes (or occludes), forcing the fluid
through the tube. Additionally, when the tube opens to its natural state after the passing of the
cam it draws (restitution) fluid into the pump. This process is called peristalsis and is used in
many biological systems such as the gastrointestinal tract.
Plunger pumps
Plunger pumps are reciprocating positive displacement pumps.
These consist of a cylinder with a reciprocating plunger. The suction and discharge valves are
mounted in the head of the cylinder. In the suction stroke the plunger retracts and the suction
valves open causing suction of fluid into the cylinder. In the forward stroke the plunger
pushes the liquid out of the discharge valve. Efficiency and common problems: With only
one cylinder in plunger pumps, the fluid flow varies between maximum flow when the
plunger moves through the middle positions, and zero flow when the plunger is at the end
positions. A lot of energy is wasted when the fluid is accelerated in the piping system.
Vibration and water hammer may be a serious problem. In general the problems are
compensated for by using two or more cylinders not working in phase with each other.
Triplex-style plunger pumps
Triplex plunger pumps use three plungers, which reduces the pulsation of single reciprocating
plunger pumps. Adding a pulsation dampener on the pump outlet can further smooth
the pump ripple, or ripple graph of a pump transducer. The dynamic relationship of the high-
pressure fluid and plunger generally requires high-quality plunger seals. Plunger pumps with
a larger number of plungers have the benefit of increased flow, or smoother flow without a
pulsation damper. The increase in moving parts and crankshaft load is one drawback.
Car washes often use these triplex-style plunger pumps (perhaps without pulsation dampers).
In 1968, William Bruggeman reduced the size of the triplex pump and increased the lifespan
so that car washes could use equipment with smaller footprints. Durable high-pressure seals,
low-pressure seals and oil seals, hardened crankshafts, hardened connecting rods, thick

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ceramic plungers and heavier duty ball and roller bearings improve reliability in triplex
pumps. Triplex pumps now are in a myriad of markets across the world.
Triplex pumps with shorter lifetimes are commonplace to the home user. A person who uses
a home pressure washer for 10 hours a year may be satisfied with a pump that lasts 100 hours
between rebuilds. Industrial-grade or continuous duty triplex pumps on the other end of the
quality spectrum may run for as much as 2,080 hours a year.
The oil and gas drilling industry uses massive semi trailer-transported triplex pumps
called mud pumps to pump drilling mud, which cools the drill bit and carries the cuttings
back to the surface. Drillers use triplex or even quintuplex pumps to inject water and solvents
deep into shale in the extraction process called fracking.
Compressed-air-powered double-diaphragm pumps
One modern application of positive displacement pumps is compressed-air-powered double-
diaphragm pumps. Run on compressed air these pumps are intrinsically safe by design,
although all manufacturers offer ATEX certified models to comply with industry regulation.
These pumps are relatively inexpensive and can perform a wide variety of duties, from
pumping water out of bunds to pumping hydrochloric acid from secure storage (dependent on
how the pump is manufactured – elastomers / body construction). These double-diaphragm
pumps can handle viscous fluids and abrasive materials with a gentle pumping process ideal
for transporting shear sensitive media.
Rope pumps

Rope pump schematic

Devised in China as chain pumps over 1000 years ago, these pumps can be made from very
simple materials: A rope, a wheel and a PVC pipe are sufficient to make a simple rope pump.
Rope pump efficiency has been studied by grass roots organizations and the techniques for
making and running them have been continuously improved.

88
Impulse pumps
Impulse pumps use pressure created by gas (usually air). In some impulse pumps the gas
trapped in the liquid (usually water), is released and accumulated somewhere in the pump,
creating a pressure that can push part of the liquid upwards.
Conventional impulse pumps include:

 Hydraulic ram pumps – kinetic energy of a low-head water supply is stored temporarily
in an air-bubble hydraulic accumulator, then used to drive water to a higher head.
 Pulser pumps – run with natural resources, by kinetic energy only.
 Airlift pumps – run on air inserted into pipe, which pushes the water up when bubbles
move upward
Instead of a gas accumulation and releasing cycle, the pressure can be created by burning of
hydrocarbons. Such combustion driven pumps directly transmit the impulse form a
combustion event through the actuation membrane to the pump fluid. In order to allow this
direct transmission, the pump needs to be almost entirely made of an elastomer (e.g. silicone
rubber). Hence, the combustion causes the membrane to expand and thereby pumps the fluid
out of the adjacent pumping chamber. The first combustion-driven soft pump was developed
by ETH Zurich.
Hydraulic ram pumps
A hydraulic ram is a water pump powered by hydropower.[13]
It takes in water at relatively low pressure and high flow-rate and outputs water at a higher
hydraulic-head and lower flow-rate. The device uses the water hammer effect to develop
pressure that lifts a portion of the input water that powers the pump to a point higher than
where the water started.
The hydraulic ram is sometimes used in remote areas, where there is both a source of low-
head hydropower, and a need for pumping water to a destination higher in elevation than the
source. In this situation, the ram is often useful, since it requires no outside source of power
other than the kinetic energy of flowing water.
Velocity pumps

A centrifugal pump uses an impellerwith backward-swept arms

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Rotodynamic pumps (or dynamic pumps) are a type of velocity pump in which kinetic
energy is added to the fluid by increasing the flow velocity. This increase in energy is
converted to a gain in potential energy (pressure) when the velocity is reduced prior to or as
the flow exits the pump into the discharge pipe. This conversion of kinetic energy to pressure
is explained by the First law of thermodynamics, or more specifically by Bernoulli's
principle.
Dynamic pumps can be further subdivided according to the means in which the velocity gain
is achieved.
These types of pumps have a number of characteristics:

1. Continuous energy
2. Conversion of added energy to increase in kinetic energy (increase in velocity)
3. Conversion of increased velocity (kinetic energy) to an increase in pressure head
A practical difference between dynamic and positive displacement pumps is how they operate
under closed valve conditions. Positive displacement pumps physically displace fluid, so
closing a valve downstream of a positive displacement pump produces a continual pressure
build up that can cause mechanical failure of pipeline or pump. Dynamic pumps differ in that
they can be safely operated under closed valve conditions (for short periods of time).
Radial-flow pumps
Such a pump is also referred to as a centrifugal pump. The fluid enters along the axis or
center, is accelerated by the impeller and exits at right angles to the shaft (radially); an
example is the centrifugal fan, which is commonly used to implement a vacuum cleaner.
Generally, a radial-flow pump operates at higher pressures and lower flow rates than an axial-
or a mixed-flow pump.
Axial-flow pumps
These are also referred to as All fluid pumps. The fluid is pushed outward or inward and
move fluid axially. They operate at much lower pressures and higher flow rates than radial-
flow (centripetal) pumps. Axial-flow pumps cannot be run up to speed without special
precaution. If at a low flow rate, the total head rise and high torque associated with this pipe
would mean that the starting torque would have to become a function of acceleration for the
whole mass of liquid in the pipe system. If there is a large amount of fluid in the system,
accelerate the pump slowly.

Mixed-flow pumps function as a compromise between radial and axial-flow pumps. The fluid
experiences both radial acceleration and lift and exits the impeller somewhere between 0 and
90 degrees from the axial direction. As a consequence mixed-flow pumps operate at higher
pressures than axial-flow pumps while delivering higher discharges than radial-flow pumps.
The exit angle of the flow dictates the pressure head-discharge characteristic in relation to
radial and mixed-flow.

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Gravity pumps
Gravity pumps include the syphon and Heron's fountain. The hydraulic ram is also
sometimes called a gravity pump; in a gravity pump the water is lifted by gravitational force.

Steam pumps
Steam pumps have been for a long time mainly of historical interest. They include any type
of pump powered by a steam engine and also pistonless pumps such as Thomas Savery's or
the Pulsometer steam pump.
Recently there has been a resurgence of interest in low power solar steam pumps for use in
smallholder irrigation in developing countries. Previously small steam engines have not been
viable because of escalating inefficiencies as vapour engines decrease in size. However the
use of modern engineering materials coupled with alternative engine configurations has
meant that these types of system are now a cost effective opportunity.

Valveless pumps
Valveless pumping assists in fluid transport in various biomedical and engineering systems.
In a valveless pumping system, no valves (or physical occlusions) are present to regulate the
flow direction. The fluid pumping efficiency of a valveless system, however, is not
necessarily lower than that having valves. In fact, many fluid-dynamical systems in nature
and engineering more or less rely upon valveless pumping to transport the working fluids
therein. For instance, blood circulation in the cardiovascular system is maintained to some
extent even when the heart’s valves fail. Meanwhile, the embryonic vertebrate heart begins
pumping blood long before the development of discernible chambers and valves.
In microfluidics, valveless impedance pumps have been fabricated, and are expected to be
particularly suitable for handling sensitive biofluids. Ink jet printers operating on
the Piezoelectric transducer principle also use valveless pumping. The pump chamber is
emptied through the printing jet due to reduced flow impedance in that direction and refilled
by capillary action.

 What is Monoblock Pump?

o A monoblock pump is a mechanical device in which a common shaft contains
the rotating parts. Owing to this, during the transmission from motor to shaft,
there is less loss of energy.
o A Mono block pump is a pump in which all rotating parts are mounted on a
common shaft. It’s a pump assembly with motor.

o Since there are 7% losses in belt driven sets and 3% losses in coupling driven
sets hence to avoid these transmission losses Mono block pump sets evolved.

o there is no energy loss during energy transmission from motor to shaft.

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 o Basically mono means single, as its name suggests monoblock pump means
pump unit is rigidly connected to prime mover or motor.

Generally it's installed on near the well or reservoir. Less vibration in this.
Keep me notify about it's enough or not.
Note: Centrifugal is the way by which we get the desired pressure rise (i.e. by rotating the
incoming liquid with the help of the impeller in the volute of the pump)

Monoblock is a type of construction of the pump and centrifugal pumps also come in
monoblock construction in which the impeller is mounted on the same motor shaft.

Parts of a Pump
When a pump breaks down, sometimes buying replacement parts or components is an
alternative to buying a new pump. Most centrifugal pumps consist of a few basic
components:

 Housing/casing – The outer shell of the pump which protects most of the components
from the outside elements. The casing of the pump should be of materials suitable to
withstand the environmental conditions of the application (e.g. submersible pumps should
be water and rust corrosion resistant
 Impeller – A rotating disk with a set of vanes coupled to a shaft. When the impeller
rotates, it imparts energy to the fluid to induce flow. Flow characteristics of the pump
vary widely based on the impeller design.
 Motor – The power source of the pump which drives the shaft. AC motors and DC
motors are the most common power sources for pumps, but internal combustion engines
(ICEs), hydraulic power, and steam power are other possibilities.
 Shaft – The shaft connects the impeller to the motor/engine that provides power for the
pump.
 Volute – The inner casing that contains the impeller and collects, discharges, and
(sometimes) recirculates the fluid being pumped. The materials used to construct the
lining of the pump volute must be compatible with the handled media.
Other components:

 Bearing assembly – The mechanical support that allows continuous rotation of the
impeller and is continuously lubricated.
 Hub – Device attached to the bearing assembly which is the connecting point for the
motor or engine.
 Seal – Protects the bearing assembly from being contaminated by the pumped media.
Some pump designs are sealless, meaning the pumping mechanism is completely
contained within a pressurized volute chamber with static seals (e.g. gaskets or O-rings).

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 Parts of the Pump System

Outside of the pump itself are a number of additional components which are part of a
complete pumping system.

 Controllers – Used in conjunction with probes and sensors to provide operational

information as well as automatic or manual control of different pumping functions.
 Fittings and adapters – Parts which connect different system components (pumps,
motors,pipe, hose, etc.) to one-another.
 Mounting devices – Used to allow pumps to be mounted in different ways, such as on
walls, on the ground, or on/near associated stationary equipment.
Pump motor adapters – mounting devices used to connect dissimilar motor and pump bolt
configurations.
 Probes and sensors – Used to measureliquid level,pressure, temperature, and other
important system factors during system operation. Data from probes and sensors are sent
to controllers or computers for system analysis or response.
 Valves – Used to control flow within different parts of the system, including the pump
inlet and outlet.

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 Compressor

A small stationary high pressure breathing air compressor for filling scuba cylinders

A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing

its volume. An air compressor is a specific type of gas compressor.
Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can
transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the
volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed, the
main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

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 EOT crane
Electric overhead traveling crane: EOT crane is one of the most common types of overhead
crane, or called bridge cranes, which consist of parallel runways with a traveling bridge
spanning the gap. As obvious from the name, EOT crane is operate by electric, generally
there is an operator cabin or a control pendant along with the EOT crane.

Applications of EOT crane

EOT crane is extensively used in the warehouse, workshop, and stock ground of industrial
and mining enterprises for loading, unloading or relocating heavy load. Generally speaking,
the EOT crane is equipped with the mechanical means to realize the traveling not only in both
directions but also can raise or lower the heavy load easily. But should pay attention to that
EOT crane is forbidden to used in the explosive, combustible or corrosive environment, and
the working temperature is approximately from -20℃ to 40℃.
Single girder EOT crane
As the name shown, single girder EOT crane has one main girder, which is easy to install and
requires less maintenance. The most common single girder EOT cranes are as follows:

 LD type single girder EOT crane

 LDP type single girder EOT crane
 HD type single girder EOT crane
Double girder EOT crane

 QD type hook double bridge crane

 LH electric hoist double girder bridge crane
 NLH type double girder EOT crane

95
 ADVANCED TERMINOLOGY

5-S METHODOLGY
5S is a workplace organization method that uses a list of
five Japanese words: seiri, seiton, seiso, seiketsu, and shitsuke. These have been translated as
"Sort", "Set In Order", "Shine", "Standardize" and "Sustain"The list describes how to
organize a work space for efficiency and effectiveness by identifying and storing the items
used, maintaining the area and items, and sustaining the new order. The decision-making
process usually comes from a dialogue about standardization, which builds understanding
among employees of how they should do the work.
In some quarters, 5S has become 6S, the sixth element being safety.
Other than a specific stand-alone methodology, 5S is frequently viewed as an element of a
broader construct known as visual control, visual workplace,or visual factory. Under those
(and similar) terminologies, Western companies were applying underlying concepts of 5S
before publication, in English, of the formal 5S methodology. For example, a workplace-
organization photo from Tennant Company (a Minneapolis-based manufacturer) quite similar
to the one accompanying this article appeared in a manufacturing-management book in 1986.

The origins of 5S

The scheme "Correct Arrangement of the Tool" from a CIT instruction sheet, 1920-1924.

5S was developed in Japan and was identified as one of the techniques that enabled Just in
Time manufacturing.
Two major frameworks for understanding and applying 5S to business environments have
arisen, one proposed by Osada, the other by Hirano. Hirano provided a structure to improve
programs with a series of identifiable steps, each building on its predecessor. As noted by
John Bicheno,Toyota's adoption of the Hirano approach was '4S', with Seiton and Seiso
combined.
A precursor development to the Japanese system of management was outlined by Alexey
Gastev's development and the Central Institute of Labour (CIT) in Moscow.[clarification needed][12]

The 5S
There are five 5S phases: They can be translated to from the Japanese as "sort", "set in order",
"shine", "standardize", and "sustain". Other translations are possible.

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Sort (Seiri)

1S – an example of red tag area.

 First step towards our PES 5S journey.

 Make work easier by eliminating obstacles.
 Reduce chances of being disturbed with unnecessary items.
 Evaluate necessary items with regard to cost or other factors.
 Remove all parts or tools that are not in use.
 Segregate unwanted material from the workplace.
 Define Red-Tag area to place unnecessary items that cannot immediately be disposed of.
Dispose of these items when possible.
 Need fully skilled supervisor for checking on a regular basis.
 Waste removal.
 Make clear all working floor except using material.

Set in order/Simplify (Seiton)

2S – simple floor marking.

 Arrange all necessary items so that they can be easily selected for use.
 Prevent loss and waste of time by arranging work station in such a way that all tooling /
equipment is in close proximity.
 Make it easy to find and pick up necessary items.
 Ensure first-in-first-out FIFO basis.
 Make workflow smooth and easy.

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 All of the above work should be done on a regular basis.
 Place components according to their uses, with the frequently used components being
nearest to the work place.

Shine/Sweeping (Seiso)

3S – cleanliness point with cleaning tools and resources.

 Clean your workplace on daily basis completely or set cleaning frequency time to time
 Use cleaning as inspection.
 Prevent machinery and equipment deterioration.
 Keep workplace safe and easy to work.
 Keep workplace clean and pleasing to work in.
 When in place, anyone not familiar to the environment must be able to detect any
problems within 50 feet in 5 sec.

Standardize (Seiketsu)

 Establish procedures and schedules to ensure the consistency of implementing the first
three ‘S’ practices.
 Develop a work structure that will support the new practices and make it part of the daily
routine.
 Ensure everyone knows their responsibilities of performing the sorting, organizing and
cleaning.
 Use photos and visual controls to help keep everything as it should be.
 Review the status of 5S implementation regularly using audit checklists.

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 Ensure standardizing color codes for usable items.

Sustain (Shitsuke)

 Also translates as "do without being told".

 Perform regular audits.
 Training and discipline.
 Training is goal-oriented process. Its resulting feedback is necessary monthly.
 Self-discipline
 To maintain proper order, ensure all defined standards are being implemented and heard.
 Follow the process, but also be open to improvement

Variety of 5S applications
5S methodology has expanded from manufacturing and is now being applied to a wide
variety of industries including health care, education, and government. Visual management
and 5S can be particularly beneficial in health care because a frantic search for supplies to
treat an in-trouble patient (a chronic problem in health care) can have dire consequences.
Although the origins of the 5S methodology are in manufacturing, it can also be applied
to knowledge economy work, with information, software, or media in the place of physical
product

5S in lean product & process development

The output of engineering and design in a lean enterprise is information, the theory behind
using 5S here is "Dirty, cluttered, or damaged surfaces attract the eye, which spends a
fraction of a second trying to pull useful information from them every time we glance past.
Old equipment hides the new equipment from the eye and forces people to ask which to use"

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 6-SIGMA
Six Sigma (6σ) is a set of techniques and tools for process improvement. It was introduced
by engineer Bill Smith while working at Motorola in 1986.[1][2] Jack Welch made it central to
his business strategy at General Electric in 1995.
Six Sigma strategies seek to improve the quality of the output of a process by identifying and
removing the causes of defects and minimizing variability in manufacturing and business
processes. It uses a set of quality management methods, mainly empirical, statistical methods,
and creates a special infrastructure of people within the organization who are experts in these
methods. Each Six Sigma project carried out within an organization follows a defined
sequence of steps and has specific value targets, for example: reduce process cycle time,
reduce pollution, reduce costs, increase customer satisfaction, and increase profits.
The term Six Sigma (capitalized because it was written that way when registered as a
Motorola trademark on December 28, 1993) originated from terminology associated with
statistical modeling of manufacturing processes. The maturity of a manufacturing process can
be described by a sigma rating indicating its yield or the percentage of defect-free products it
creates. A six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of all opportunities to produce some
feature of a part are statistically expected to be free of defects (3.4 defective features per
million opportunities). Motorola set a goal of "six sigma" for all of its manufacturing.

Doctrine

The common Six Sigma symbol

Six Sigma doctrine asserts:

 Continuous efforts to achieve stable and predictable process results (e.g. by reducing
process variation) are of vital importance to business success.
 Manufacturing and business processes have characteristics that can be defined, measured,
analyzed, improved, and controlled.
 Achieving sustained quality improvement requires commitment from the entire
organization, particularly from top-level management.
Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality-improvement initiatives include:

 A clear focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable financial returns from any Six
Sigma project.
 An increased emphasis on strong and passionate management leadership and support.

100
 A clear commitment to making decisions on the basis of verifiable data and statistical
methods, rather than assumptions and guesswork.
The term "six sigma" comes from statistics and is used in statistical quality control, which
evaluates process capability. Originally, it referred to the ability of manufacturing processes
to produce a very high proportion of output within specification. Processes that operate with
"six sigma quality" over the short term are assumed to produce long-term defect levels below
3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO). The 3.4 dpmo is based on a "shift" of +/- 1.5
sigma created by the psychologist Dr Mikel Harry. He created this figure based on the
tolerance in the height of a stack of discs. Six Sigma's implicit goal is to improve all
processes, but not to the 3.4 DPMO level necessarily. Organizations need to determine an
appropriate sigma level for each of their most important processes and strive to achieve these.
As a result of this goal, it is incumbent on management of the organization to prioritize areas
of improvement.
"Six Sigma" was registered June 11, 1991 as U.S. Service Mark 1,647,704. In 2005 Motorola
attributed over US$17 billion in savings to Six Sigma.
Other early adopters of Six Sigma include Honeywell and General Electric, where Jack
Welch introduced the method.By the late 1990s, about two-thirds of the Fortune
500organizations had begun Six Sigma initiatives with the aim of reducing costs and
improving quality.
In recent years, some practitioners have combined Six Sigma ideas with lean
manufacturing to create a methodology named Lean Six Sigma.The Lean Six Sigma
methodology views lean manufacturing, which addresses process flow and waste issues, and
Six Sigma, with its focus on variation and design, as complementary disciplines aimed at
promoting "business and operational excellence".Companies such as GE,Accenture, Verizon,
GENPACT, and IBM use Lean Six Sigma to focus transformation efforts not just on
efficiency but also on growth. It serves as a foundation for innovation throughout the
organization, from manufacturing and software development to sales and service delivery
functions.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has published in 2011 the first
standard "ISO 13053:2011" defining a Six Sigma process.Other "standards" are created
mostly by universities or companies that have so-called first-party certification programs for
Six Sigma.

Difference with lean management

Lean management and Six Sigma are two concepts which share similar methodologies and
tools. Both programs are Japanese-influenced, but they are two different programs. Lean
management is focused on eliminating waste and ensuring efficiency while Six Sigma's focus
is on eliminating defects and reducing variability.

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Methodologies
Six Sigma projects follow two project methodologies inspired by Deming's Plan-Do-Check-
Act Cycle. These methodologies, composed of five phases each, bear the acronyms DMAIC
and DMADV.

 DMAIC ("duh-may-ick", /dʌ.ˈmeɪ.ɪk/) is used for projects aimed at improving an existing

business process.
 DMADV ("duh-mad-vee", /dʌ.ˈmæd.vi/) is used for projects aimed at creating new
product or process designs.
DMAIC

The five steps of DMAIC

The DMAIC project methodology has five phases:

 Define the system, the voice of the customer and their requirements, and the project
goals, specifically.
 Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data; calculate the 'as-is'
Process Capability.
 Analyze the data to investigate and verify cause-and-effect relationships. Determine what
the relationships are, and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered. Seek out
root cause of the defect under investigation.
 Improve or optimize the current process based upon data analysis using techniques such
as design of experiments, poka yoke or mistake proofing, and standard work to create a
new, future state process. Set up pilot runs to establish process capability.
 Control the future state process to ensure that any deviations from the target are corrected
before they result in defects. Implement control systems such as statistical process
control, production boards, visual workplaces, and continuously monitor the process.
This process is repeated until the desired quality level is obtained.
Some organizations add a Recognize step at the beginning, which is to recognize the right
problem to work on, thus yielding an RDMAIC methodology.

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DMADV or DFSS

The five steps of DMADV

The DMADV project methodology, known as DFSS ("Design For Six Sigma"),[7] features
five phases:

 Define design goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise
strategy.
 Measure and identify CTQs (characteristics that are Critical To Quality), measure
product capabilities, production process capability, and measure risks.
 Analyze to develop and design alternatives
 Design an improved alternative, best suited per analysis in the previous step
 Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement the production process and hand it over to
the process owner(s).
Quality management tools and methods
Within the individual phases of a DMAIC or DMADV project, Six Sigma utilizes many
established quality-management tools that are also used outside Six Sigma. The following
table shows an overview of the main methods used.

 5 Whys
 Statistical and fitting tools
 Analysis of variance
 General linear model
 ANOVA Gauge R&R
 Regression analysis
 Correlation
 Scatter diagram
 Chi-squared test
 Axiomatic design
 Business Process Mapping/Check sheet
 Cause & effects diagram (also known as fishbone or Ishikawa diagram)
 Control chart/Control plan (also known as a swimlane map)/Run charts
 Cost-benefit analysis
 CTQ tree
 Design of experiments/Stratification
 Histograms/Pareto analysis/Pareto chart

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 Pick chart/Process capability/Rolled throughput yield
 Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
 Quantitative marketing research through use of Enterprise Feedback Management (EFM)
systems
 Root cause analysis
 SIPOC analysis (Suppliers, Inputs, Process, Outputs, Customers)
 COPIS analysis (Customer centric version/perspective of SIPOC)
 Taguchi methods/Taguchi Loss Function
 Value stream mapping

Implementation roles
One key innovation of Six Sigma involves the absolute "professionalizing" of quality
management functions. Prior to Six Sigma, quality management in practice was largely
relegated to the production floor and to statisticians in a separate quality department. Formal
Six Sigma programs adopt a kind of elite ranking terminology (similar to some martial arts
systems, like judo) to define a hierarchy (and special career path) that includes all business
functions and levels.
Six Sigma identifies several key roles for its successful implementation.

 Executive Leadership includes the CEO and other members of top management. They are
responsible for setting up a vision for Six Sigma implementation. They also empower the
other role holders with the freedom and resources to explore new ideas for breakthrough
improvements by transcending departmental barriers and overcoming inherent resistance
to change.
 Champions take responsibility for Six Sigma implementation across the organization in
an integrated manner. The Executive Leadership draws them from upper management.
Champions also act as mentors to Black Belts.
 Master Black Belts, identified by Champions, act as in-house coaches on Six Sigma.
They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They assist Champions and guide Black
Belts and Green Belts. Apart from statistical tasks, they spend their time on ensuring
consistent application of Six Sigma across various functions and departments.
 Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma methodology to specific
projects. They devote 100% of their valued time to Six Sigma. They primarily focus on
Six Sigma project execution and special leadership with special tasks, whereas
Champions and Master Black Belts focus on identifying projects/functions for Six Sigma.
 Green Belts are the employees who take up Six Sigma implementation along with their
other job responsibilities, operating under the guidance of Black Belts.
According to proponents of the system, special training is needed for all of these practitioners
to ensure that they follow the methodology and use the data-driven approach correctly.
Some organizations use additional belt colours, such as Yellow Belts, for employees that have
basic training in Six Sigma tools and generally participate in projects and "White belts" for

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those locally trained in the concepts but do not participate in the project team. "Orange belts"
are also mentioned to be used for special cases.
Certification
General Electric and Motorola developed certification programs as part of their Six Sigma
implementation, verifying individuals' command of the Six Sigma methods at the relevant
skill level (Green Belt, Black Belt etc.). Following this approach, many organizations in the
1990s started offering Six Sigma certifications to their employees.Criteria for Green Belt and
Black Belt certification vary; some companies simply require participation in a course and a
Six Sigma project.There is no standard certification body, and different certification services
are offered by various quality associations and other providers against a feel. The American
Society for Quality for example requires Black Belt applicants to pass a written exam and to
provide a signed affidavit stating that they have completed two projects or one project
combined with three years' practical experience in the body of knowledge.

Etymology of "six sigma process"

The term "six sigma process" comes from the notion that if one has six standard
deviations between the process mean and the nearest specification limit, as shown in the
graph, practically no items will fail to meet specifications. This is based on the calculation
method employed in process capability studies.
Capability studies measure the number of standard deviations between the process mean and
the nearest specification limit in sigma units, represented by the Greek letter σ (sigma). As
process standard deviation goes up, or the mean of the process moves away from the center
of the tolerance, fewer standard deviations will fit between the mean and the nearest
specification limit, decreasing the sigma number and increasing the likelihood of items
outside specification. One should also note that calculation of Sigma levels for a process data
is independent of the data being normally distributed. In one of the criticisms to Six Sigma,
practitioners using this approach spend a lot of time transforming data from non-normal to
normal using transformation techniques. It must be said that Sigma levels can be determined
for process data that has evidence of non-normality.

Graph of the normal distribution, which underlies the statistical assumptions of the Six Sigma
model. In the centre at 0, the Greek letter µ (mu) marks the mean, with the horizontal axis
showing distance from the mean, marked in standard deviations and given the letter σ
(sigma). The greater the standard deviation, the greater is the spread of values encountered.
For the green curve shown above, µ = 0 and σ = 1. The upper and lower specification limits

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(marked USL and LSL) are at a distance of 6σ from the mean. Because of the properties of
the normal distribution, values lying that far away from the mean are extremely unlikely:
approximately 1 in a billion too low, and the same too high. Even if the mean were to move
right or left by 1.5σ at some point in the future (1.5 sigma shift, coloured red and blue), there
is still a good safety cushion. This is why Six Sigma aims to have processes where the mean
is at least 6σ away from the nearest specification limit.

Role of the 1.5 sigma shift

Experience has shown that processes usually do not perform as well in the long term as they
do in the short term. As a result, the number of sigmas that will fit between the process mean
and the nearest specification limit may well drop over time, compared to an initial short-term
study.To account for this real-life increase in process variation over time, an empirically
based 1.5 sigma shift is introduced into the calculation.According to this idea, a process that
fits 6 sigma between the process mean and the nearest specification limit in a short-term
study will in the long term fit only 4.5 sigma – either because the process mean will move
over time, or because the long-term standard deviation of the process will be greater than that
observed in the short term, or both.
Hence the widely accepted definition of a six sigma process is a process that produces
3.4 defective parts per million opportunities (DPMO). This is based on the fact that a process
that is normally distributed will have 3.4 parts per million outside the limits, when the limits
are six sigma from the "original" mean of zero and the process mean is then shifted by 1.5
sigma (and therefore, the six sigma limits are no longer symmetrical about the mean). The
former six sigma distribution, when under the effect of the 1.5 sigma shift, is commonly
referred to as a 4.5 sigma process. The failure rate of a six sigma distribution with the mean
shifted 1.5 sigma is not equivalent to the failure rate of a 4.5 sigma process with the mean
centered on zero. This allows for the fact that special causes may result in a deterioration in
process performance over time and is designed to prevent underestimation of the defect levels
likely to be encountered in real-life operation.
The role of the sigma shift is mainly academic. The purpose of six sigma is to generate
organizational performance improvement. It is up to the organization to determine, based on
customer expectations, what the appropriate sigma level of a process is. The purpose of the
sigma value is as a comparative figure to determine whether a process is improving,
deteriorating, stagnant or non-competitive with others in the same business. Six sigma (3.4
DPMO) is not the goal of all processes.

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Sigma levels

A control chart depicting a process that experienced a 1.5 sigma drift in the process mean
toward the upper specification limit starting at midnight. Control charts are used to maintain
6 sigma quality by signaling when quality professionals should investigate a process to find
and eliminate special-cause variation.

The table below gives long-term DPMO values corresponding to various short-term sigma
levels.
These figures assume that the process mean will shift by 1.5 sigma toward the side with the
critical specification limit. In other words, they assume that after the initial study determining
the short-term sigma level, the long-term Cpk value will turn out to be 0.5 less than the short-
term Cpk value. So, now for example, the DPMO figure given for 1 sigma assumes that the
long-term process mean will be 0.5 sigma beyond the specification limit (C pk = –0.17), rather
than 1 sigma within it, as it was in the short-term study (Cpk = 0.33). Note that the defect
percentages indicate only defects exceeding the specification limit to which the process mean
is nearest. Defects beyond the far specification limit are not included in the percentages.
The formula used here to calculate the DPMO is thus

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 Sigma
Sigma Percent Percentage Short- Long-
(with 1.5σ DPMO
level defective yield term Cpk term Cpk
shift)

1 −0.5 691,462 69% 31% 0.33 −0.17

2 0.5 308,538 31% 69% 0.67 0.17

3 1.5 66,807 6.7% 93.3% 1.00 0.5

4 2.5 6,210 0.62% 99.38% 1.33 0.83

5 3.5 233 0.023% 99.977% 1.67 1.17

6 4.5 3.4 0.00034% 99.99966% 2.00 1.5

7 5.5 0.019 0.0000019% 99.9999981% 2.33 1.83

Application
Six Sigma mostly finds application in large organizations. An important factor in the
spread of Six Sigma was GE's 1998 announcement of $350 million in savings thanks to
Six Sigma, a figure that later grew to more than $1 billion According to industry
consultants like Thomas Pyzdek and John Kullmann, companies with fewer than 500
employees are less suited to Six Sigma implementation or need to adapt the standard
approach to make it work for them. Six Sigma however contains a large number of tools
and techniques that work well in small to mid-size organizations. The fact that an
organization is not big enough to be able to afford Black Belts does not diminish its
abilities to make improvements using this set of tools and techniques. The infrastructure
described as necessary to support Six Sigma is a result of the size of the organization
rather than a requirement of Six Sigma itself.
Although the scope of Six Sigma differs depending on where it is implemented, it can
successfully deliver its benefits to different applications.

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Manufacturing
After its first application at Motorola in the late 1980s, other internationally recognized
firms currently recorded high number of savings after applying Six Sigma. Examples of
these are Johnson and Johnson, with $600 million of reported savings, Texas Instruments,
which saved over $500 million as well as Telefonica de Espana, which reported $30
million euros of revenue in the first 10 months. On top of this, other organizations like
Sony and Boeing achieved large percentages in waste reduction.
Engineering and construction
Although companies have considered common quality control and process improvement
strategies, there’s still a need for more reasonable and effective methods as all the desired
standards and client satisfaction have not always been reached. There is still a need for an
essential analysis that can control the factors affecting concrete cracks and slippage
between concrete and steel. After conducting a case study on Tinjin Xianyi Construction
Technology Co, Ltd., it was found that construction time and construction waste were
reduced by 26.2% and 67% accordingly after adopting Six Sigma. Similarly, Six Sigma
implementation was studied at one of the largest engineering and construction companies
in the world: Bechtel Corporation, where after an initial investment of $30 million in a
Six Sigma program that included identifying and preventing rework and defects, over
$200 million were saved.
Finance
Six Sigma has played an important role by improving accuracy of allocation of cash to
reduce bank charges, automatic payments, improving accuracy of reporting, reducing
documentary credits defects, reducing check collection defects, and reducing variation in
collector performance. Two of the financial institutions that have reported considerable
improvements in their operations are Bank of America and American Express. By 2004
Bank of America increased customer satisfaction by 10.4% and decreased customer
issues by 24% by applying Six Sigma tools in their streamline operations. Similarly,
American Express successfully eliminated non-received renewal credit cards and
improved their overall processes by applying Six Sigma principles. This strategy is also
currently being applied by other financial institutions like GE Capital Corp., JP Morgan
Chase, and SunTrust Bank, with customer satisfaction being their main objective.
Supply chain
In this field, it is important to ensure that products are delivered to clients at the right time
while preserving high-quality standards from the beginning to the end of the supply
chain. By changing the schematic diagram for the supply chain, Six Sigma can ensure
quality control on products (defect free) and guarantee delivery deadlines, which are the
two major issues involved in the supply chain.
Healthcare
This is a sector that has been highly matched with this doctrine for many years because of
the nature of zero tolerance for mistakes and potential for reducing medical errors

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involved in healthcare. The goal of Six Sigma in healthcare is broad and includes
reducing the inventory of equipment that brings extra costs, altering the process of
healthcare delivery in order to make more efficient and refining reimbursements. A study
at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, which recorded an increase in
examinations with no additional machines of 45% and reduction in patients' preparation
time of 40 minutes; from 45 minutes to 5 minutes in multiple cases.

Criticism
Lack of originality
Quality expert Joseph M. Juran described Six Sigma as "a basic version of quality
improvement", stating that "there is nothing new there. It includes what we used to call
facilitators. They've adopted more flamboyant terms, like belts with different colors. I
think that concept has merit to set apart, to create specialists who can be very helpful.
Again, that's not a new idea. The American Society for Quality long ago established
certificates, such as for reliability engineers."
Inadequate for complex manufacturing
Quality expert Philip B. Crosby pointed out that the Six Sigma standard does not go far
enough—customers deserve defect-free products every time. For example, under the Six
Sigma standard, semiconductors which require the flawless etching of millions of tiny
circuits onto a single chip are all defective, he claims.
Role of consultants
The use of "Black Belts" as itinerant change agents has fostered an industry of training
and certification. Critics have argued there is overselling of Six Sigma by too great a
number of consulting firms, many of which claim expertise in Six Sigma when they have
only a rudimentary understanding of the tools and techniques involved or the markets or
industries in which they are acting.
Potential negative effects
A Fortune article stated that "of 58 large companies that have announced Six Sigma
programs, 91 percent have trailed the S&P 500 since". The statement was attributed to
"an analysis by Charles Holland of consulting firm Qualpro (which espouses a competing
quality-improvement process)".The summary of the article is that Six Sigma is effective
at what it is intended to do, but that it is "narrowly designed to fix an existing process"
and does not help in "coming up with new products or disruptive technologies."
Over-reliance on statistical tools
A more direct criticism is the "rigid" nature of Six Sigma with its over-reliance on
methods and tools. In most cases, more attention is paid to reducing variation and
searching for any significant factors and less attention is paid to developing robustness in
the first place (which can altogether eliminate the need for reducing variation). The
extensive reliance on significance testing and use of multiple regression techniques
increases the risk of making commonly unknown types of statistical errors or mistakes. A

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possible consequence of Six Sigma's array of P-value misconceptions is the false belief
that the probability of a conclusion being in error can be calculated from the data in a
single experiment without reference to external evidence or the plausibility of the
underlying mechanism. One of the most serious but all-too-common misuses of
inferential statistics is to take a model that was developed through exploratory model
building and subject it to the same sorts of statistical tests that are used to validate a
model that was specified in advance.
Another comment refers to the often mentioned Transfer Function, which seems to be a
flawed theory if looked at in detail. Since significance tests were first popularized many
objections have been voiced by prominent and respected statisticians. The volume of
criticism and rebuttal has filled books with language seldom used in the scholarly debate
of a dry subject.Much of the first criticism was already published more than 40 years ago
Articles featuring critics have appeared in the November–December 2006 issue of USA
Army Logistician regarding Six-Sigma: "The dangers of a single paradigmatic orientation
(in this case, that of technical rationality) can blind us to values associated with double-
loop learning and the learning organization, organization adaptability, workforce
creativity and development, humanizing the workplace, cultural awareness, and strategy
making."
Nassim Nicholas Taleb considers risk managers little more than "blind users" of
statistical tools and methods. He states that statistics is fundamentally incomplete as a
field as it cannot predict the risk of rare events — something Six Sigma is specially
concerned with. Furthermore, errors in prediction are likely to occur as a result of
ignorance for or distinction between epistemic and other uncertainties. These errors are
the biggest in time variant (reliability) related failures.
Stifling creativity in research environments
According to an article by John Dodge, editor in chief of Design News, use of Six Sigma
is inappropriate in a research environment. Dodge states"excessive metrics, steps,
measurements and Six Sigma's intense focus on reducing variability water down the
discovery process. Under Six Sigma, the free-wheeling nature of brainstorming and the
serendipitous side of discovery is stifled." He concludes "there's general agreement that
freedom in basic or pure research is preferable while Six Sigma works best in incremental
innovation when there's an expressed commercial goal."
A BusinessWeek article says that James McNerney's introduction of Six Sigma at 3M had
the effect of stifling creativity and reports its removal from the research function. It cites
two Wharton School professors who say that Six Sigma leads to incremental innovation
at the expense of blue skies research.This phenomenon is further explored in the
book Going Lean, which describes a related approach known as lean dynamics and
provides data to show that Ford's "6 Sigma" program did little to change its fortunes.
Lack of systematic documentation
One criticism voiced by Yasar Jarrar and Andy Neely from the Cranfield School of
Management's Centre for Business Performance is that while Six Sigma is a powerful

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approach, it can also unduly dominate an organization's culture; and they add that much
of the Six Sigma literature – in a remarkable way (six-sigma claims to be evidence,
scientifically based) – lacks academic rigor:
One final criticism, probably more to the Six Sigma literature than concepts, relates to the
evidence for Six Sigma’s success. So far, documented case studies using the Six Sigma
methods are presented as the strongest evidence for its success. However, looking at
these documented cases, and apart from a few that are detailed from the experience of
leading organizations like GE and Motorola, most cases are not documented in a systemic
or academic manner. In fact, the majority are case studies illustrated on websites, and are,
at best, sketchy. They provide no mention of any specific Six Sigma methods that were
used to resolve the problems. It has been argued that by relying on the Six Sigma criteria,
management is lulled into the idea that something is being done about quality, whereas
any resulting improvement is accidental (Latzko 1995). Thus, when looking at the
evidence put forward for Six Sigma success, mostly by consultants and people with
vested interests, the question that begs to be asked is: are we making a true improvement
with Six Sigma methods or just getting skilled at telling stories? Everyone seems to
believe that we are making true improvements, but there is some way to go to document
these empirically and clarify the causal relations.
1.5 sigma shift
The statistician Donald J. Wheeler has dismissed the 1.5 sigma shift as "goofy" because
of its arbitrary nature Its universal applicability is seen as doubtful.
The 1.5 sigma shift has also become contentious because it results in stated "sigma
levels" that reflect short-term rather than long-term performance: a process that has long-
term defect levels corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance is, by Six Sigma convention,
described as a "six sigma process." The accepted Six Sigma scoring system thus cannot
be equated to actual normal distribution probabilities for the stated number of standard
deviations, and this has been a key bone of contention over how Six Sigma measures are
defined. The fact that it is rarely explained that a "6 sigma" process will have long-term
defect rates corresponding to 4.5 sigma performance rather than actual 6 sigma
performance has led several commentators to express the opinion that Six Sigma is
a confidence trick.

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 KAIZEN
Kaizen (改善), is the Japanese word for "improvement". In business, kaizen refers to
activities that continuously improve all functions and involve all employees from the CEO to
the assembly line workers. It also applies to processes, such as purchasing and logistics, that
cross organizational boundaries into the supply chain. It has been applied in
healthcare, psychotherapy,life-coaching, government, banking, and other industries.
By improving standardized programmes and processes, kaizen aims to eliminate waste
(see lean manufacturing). Kaizen was first practiced in Japanese businesses after the Second
World War, influenced in part by American business and quality-management teachers, and
most notably as part of The Toyota Way. It has since spread throughout the world[4] and has
been applied to environments outside business and productivity.

Overview
The Japanese word kaizen means "change for better", with inherent meaning of either
"continuous" or "philosophy" in Japanese dictionaries and in everyday use. The word refers
to any improvement, one-time or continuous, large or small, in the same sense as the English
word "improvement".However, given the common practice in Japan of labeling industrial or
business improvement techniques with the word "kaizen", particularly the practices
spearheaded by Toyota, the word "kaizen" in English is typically applied to measures for
implementing continuous improvement, especially those with a "Japanese philosophy". The
discussion below focuses on such interpretations of the word, as frequently used in the
context of modern management discussions. Two kaizen approaches have been distinguished:

 flow kaizen;
 process kaizen.
The former is oriented towards the flow of materials and information, and is often identified
with the reorganization of an entire production area, even a company. The latter means the
improvement of individual workstands. Therefore, improving the way production workers do
their job is a part of a process kaizen. The use of the kaizen model for continuous
improvement demands that both flow and process kaizens are used, although process kaizens
are used more often to focus workers on continuous small improvements. In this model,
operators mostly look for small ideas which, if possible, can be implemented on the same
day. This is in contrast to traditional models of work improvement, which generally have a
long lag between concept development and project implementation.
Kaizen is a daily process, the purpose of which goes beyond simple productivity
improvement. It is also a process that, when done correctly, humanizes the workplace,
eliminates overly hard work (muri), and teaches people how to perform experiments on their
work using the scientific method and how to learn to spot and eliminate waste in business
processes. In all, the process suggests a humanized approach to workers and to increasing
productivity: "The idea is to nurture the company's people as much as it is to praise and
encourage participation in kaizen activities." Successful implementation requires "the

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participation of workers in the improvement."People at all levels of an organization
participate in kaizen, from the CEO down to janitorial staff, as well as external stakeholders
when applicable. Kaizen is most commonly associated with manufacturing operations, as at
Toyota, but has also been used in non-manufacturing environments. The format for kaizen
can be individual, suggestion system, small group, or large group. At Toyota, it is usually a
local improvement within a workstation or local area and involves a small group in
improving their own work environment and productivity. This group is often guided through
the kaizen process by a line supervisor; sometimes this is the line supervisor's key role.
Kaizen on a broad, cross-departmental scale in companies, generates total quality
management, and frees human efforts through improving productivity using machines and
computing power.
While kaizen (at Toyota) usually delivers small improvements, the culture of continual
aligned small improvements and standardization yields large results in terms of overall
improvement in productivity. This philosophy differs from the "command and control"
improvement programs (e g Business Process Improvement) of the mid-twentieth century.
Kaizen methodology includes making changes and monitoring results, then adjusting. Large-
scale pre-planning and extensive project scheduling are replaced by smaller experiments,
which can be rapidly adapted as new improvements are suggested.
In modern usage, it is designed to address a particular issue over the course of a week and is
referred to as a "kaizen blitz" or "kaizen event".These are limited in scope, and issues that
arise from them are typically used in later blitzes.A person who makes a large contribution in
the successful implementation of kaizen during kaizen events is awarded the title of "Zenkai".

Implementation
The Toyota Production System is known for kaizen, where all line personnel are expected to
stop their moving production line in case of any abnormality and, along with their supervisor,
suggest an improvement to resolve the abnormality which may initiate a kaizen.

The PDCA cycles

The cycle of kaizen activity can be defined as: "Plan → Do → Check → Act". This is also
known as the Shewhart cycle, Deming cycle, or PDCA.
Another technique used in conjunction with PDCA is the 5 Whys, which is a form of root
cause analysis in which the user asks a series of five "why" questions about a failure that has
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occurred, basing each subsequent question on the answer to the previous.There are normally
a series of causes stemming from one root cause,and they can be visualized using fishbone
diagrams or tables. The Five Whys can be used as a foundational tool in personal
improvement,or as a means to create wealth.
Masaaki Imai made the term famous in his book Kaizen: The Key to Japan's Competitive
Success.
In the Toyota Way Fieldbook, Liker and Meier discuss the kaizen blitz and kaizen burst (or
kaizen event) approaches to continuous improvement. A kaizen blitz, or rapid improvement,
is a focused activity on a particular process or activity. The basic concept is to identify and
quickly remove waste. Another approach is that of the kaizen burst, a specific kaizen activity
on a particular process in the value stream. Kaizen facilitators generally go through training
and certification before attempting a Kaizen project.
In the 1990s, Professor Iwao Kobayashi published his book 20 Keys to Workplace
Improvement and created a practical, step-by-step improvement framework called "the 20
Keys". He identified 20 operations focus areas which should be improved to attain holistic
and sustainable change. He went further and identified the 5 levels of implementation for
each of these 20 focus areas. 4 of the focus areas are called Foundation Keys. According to
the 20 Keys, these foundation keys should be launched ahead of the others in order to form a
strong constitution in the company. The four foundation keys are:

 Key 1 - Cleaning and Organising to Make Work Easy, which is based on the 5S
methodology.
 Key 2 - Goal Alignment/Rationalising the System
 Key 3 - Small Group Activities
 Key 4 - Leading and Site Technology

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 Waste
Waste (or wastes) are unwanted or unusable materials. Waste is any substance which is
discarded after primary use, or is worthless, defective and of no use.
Examples include municipal solid waste (household trash/refuse), hazardous
waste, wastewater (such as sewage, which contains bodily wastes (feces and urine)
and surface runoff), radioactive waste, and others.

Definitions
United Nations Environment Program
According to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal of 1989, Art. 2(1), "'Wastes' are substance or objects,
which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by
the provisions of national law".

Schematic illustration of the EU Legal definition of waste

United Nations Statistics Division

The UNSD Glossary of Environment Statistics[2] describes waste as "materials that are not
prime products (that is, products produced for the market) for which the generator has no
further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption,
and of which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw
materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the
consumption of final products, and other human activities. Residuals recycled or reused at the
place of generation are excluded."
European Union
Under the Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC, Art. 3(1), the European Union defines
waste as "an object the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard."

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Types
There are many waste types defined by modern systems of waste management, notably
including:

 Municipal waste includes household waste, commercial waste, and demolition waste
 Hazardous waste includes industrial waste
 Biomedical waste includes clinical waste
 Special hazardous waste includes radioactive waste, explosive waste, and electronic
waste (e-waste)

Reporting
There are many issues that surround reporting waste. It is most commonly measured by size
or weight, and there is a stark difference between the two. For example, organic waste is
much heavier when it is wet, and plastic or glass bottles can have different weights but be the
same size. On a global scale it is difficult to report waste because countries have different
definitions of waste and what falls into waste categories, as well as different ways of
reporting. Based on incomplete reports from its parties, the Basel Convention estimated 338
million tonnes of waste was generated in 2001. For the same year, OECD estimated 4 billion
tonnes from its member countries.Despite these inconsistencies, waste reporting is still useful
on a small and large scale to determine key causes and locations, and to find ways of
preventing, minimizing, recovering, treating, and disposing waste.

Costs
Environmental costs

Waste not the Waste. Sign in Tamil Nadu, India

Inappropriately managed waste can attract rodents and insects, which can harbour
gastrointestinal parasites, yellow fever, worms, the plague and other conditions for humans,
and exposure to hazardous wastes, particularly when they are burned, can cause various other
diseases including cancers. Toxic waste materials can contaminate surface water,
groundwater, soil, and air which causes more problems for humans, other species, and
ecosystems.[7] Waste treatment and disposal produces significant green house gas (GHG)
emissions, notably methane, which are contributing significantly to global warming.

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Social costs
Waste management is a significant environmental justice issue. Many of the environmental
burdens cited above are more often borne by marginalized groups, such as racial minorities,
women, and residents of developing nations. NIMBY(not in my back yard) is the opposition
of residents to a proposal for a new development because it is close to them.However, the
need for expansion and siting of waste treatment and disposal facilities is increasing
worldwide. There is now a growing market in the transboundary movement of waste, and
although most waste that flows between countries goes between developed nations, a
significant amount of waste is moved from developed to developing nations.
Economic costs
The economic costs of managing waste are high, and are often paid for by municipal
governments;money can often be saved with more efficiently designed collection routes,
modifying vehicles, and with public education. Environmental policies such as pay as you
throw can reduce the cost of management and reduce waste quantities. Waste recovery (that
is, recycling, reuse) can curb economic costs because it avoids extracting raw materials and
often cuts transportation costs. "Economic assessment of municipal waste management
systems – case studies using a combination of life-cycle assessment (LCA) and life-cycle
costing (LCC)". The location of waste treatment and disposal facilities often reduces property
values due to noise, dust, pollution, unsightliness, and negative stigma. The informal waste
sector consists mostly of waste pickers who scavenge for metals, glass, plastic, textiles, and
other materials and then trade them for a profit. This sector can significantly alter or reduce
waste in a particular system, but other negative economic effects come with the disease,
poverty, exploitation, and abuse of its workers.

Resource recovery
Resource recovery is the retrieval of recyclable waste, which was intended for disposal, for a
specific next use. It is the processing of recyclables to extract or recover materials and
resources, or convert to energy. This process is carried out at a resource recovery
facility.Resource recovery is not only important to the environment, but it can be cost
effective by decreasing the amount of waste sent to the disposal stream, reduce the amount of
space needed for landfills, and protect limited natural resources.

Energy recovery
Energy recovery from waste is using non-recyclable waste materials and extracting from it
heat, electricity, or energy through a variety of processes,
including combustion, gasification, pyrolyzation, and anaerobic digestion. This process is
referred to as waste-to-energy.
There are several ways to recover energy from waste. Anaerobic digestion is a naturally
occurring process of decomposition where organic matter is reduced to a simpler chemical
component in the absence of oxygen. Incineration or direct controlled burning of
municipal solid waste to reduce waste and make energy. Secondary recovered fuel is the
energy recovery from waste that cannot be reused or recycled from mechanical and biological

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treatment activities.Pyrolysis involves heating of waste, with the absence of oxygen, to high
temperatures to break down any carbon content into a mixture of gaseous and liquid fuels and
solid residue. Gasification is the conversion of carbon rich material through high temperature
with partial oxidation into a gas stream. Plasma arc heating is the very high heating of
municipal solid waste to temperatures ranging from 3,000-10,000 °C, where energy is
released by an electrical discharge in an inert atmosphere.
Using waste as fuel can offer important environmental benefits. It can provide a safe
and cost-effective option for wastes that would normally have to be dealt with through
disposal.It can help reduce carbon dioxide emissions by diverting energy use from fossil
fuels, while also generating energy and using waste as fuel can reduce the methane
emissions generated in landfills by averting waste from landfills.
There is some debate in the classification of certain biomass feedstock as wastes. Crude Tall
Oil (CTO), a co-product of the pulp and papermaking process, is defined as a waste or
residue in some European countries when in fact it is produced “on purpose” and has
significant value add potential in industrial applications. Several companies use CTO to
produce fuel, while the pine chemicals industry maximizes it as a feedstock “producing low-
carbon, bio-based chemicals” through cascading use.

Education and awareness

Education and awareness in the area of waste and waste management is increasingly
important from a global perspective of resource management. The Talloires Declarationis a
declaration for sustainability concerned about the unprecedented scale and speed of
environmental pollution and degradation, and the depletion of natural resources. Local,
regional, and global air pollution; accumulation and distribution of toxic wastes; destruction
and depletion of forests, soil, and water; depletion of the ozone layer and emission of "green
house" gases threaten the survival of humans and thousands of other living species, the
integrity of the earth and its biodiversity, the security of nations, and the heritage of future
generations. Several universities have implemented the Talloires Declaration by
establishing environmental management and waste management programs, e.g. the waste
management university project. University and vocational education are promoted by various
organizations, e.g. WAMITAB and Chartered Institution of Wastes Management.

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 WASTE(3M MODEL)

The Toyota 3M model: Muda, Mura, Muri

Toyota has developed its production system around eliminating three enemies of
Lean: Muda(waste), Muri (overburden) and Mura (unevenness) (Liker, 2004).
Muda is the direct obstacle of flow. As written below, there are 8 distinctive types of muda
which all lead to waiting times, and therefore longer lead times in a process. Simply taking
out the muda does not work. Usually, there is a reason why the muda is there and this reason
often has to do with the other two enemies: muri and mura. This means the three enemies of
Lean are interrelated and should therefore be taken into account simultaneously.

The three enemies of lean can be found in both production and office processes. I even dare
to say that they can be found more in office processes than in production processes. One
reason for this is that production processes are visible. Everybody who walks through a
factory can see the inventory waiting to be worked on. In the office environment however,
processes are often hidden inside our computers, in mailboxes and IT-systems.

Though it is the goal of lean to reduce all three enemies of Lean, it might not be possible to
completely remove all of them (Panneman, 2017).
In terms of muda, unless your factory is placed next to your customer, there will always be
some sort of transport necessary to get the product to your customer. We should focus on
reducing the transport time and costs as much as we can, but 100% reduction is not realistic.
The same holds for muri. There can always be a time where machines or people have to give
that little extra effort or time to make sure the customer demand is fulfilled. There is nothing
wrong with this when you can thereby get a huge order of extra products or win over a new
client. The problem exists when you are expecting this from your machines or people all the
time, up to a point where a machine will burn down or a colleague burns out.
Finally, even mura cannot always be reduced with 100%. When you are producing different
products, they are bound to require different materials, a different way of working or even
different process times. This is even more so in project work, where every project is different,
or in the financial world, where a financial report needs to be delivered at the end of each
month.

The following three articles explain in more detail how we can find and eliminate the three
enemies of lean from our processes, here is a short overview of what to expect:

MUDA, waste, can be defined in eight types, 7 defined by Toyota and ‘non utilized skills’.
These are: Defects, Overproduction, Waiting, Non-used Talent, Transport, Inventories,
Motion and Excess processing. As Mnemonic device, the first letters of these wastes form the
acronym DOWNTIME.
There are numerous tools available to identify and remove waste from your process, which

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include Poke Yoke, Kanban, Takt Time, SMED and One-Piece flow (Panneman, 2017). In
the article Finding Muda (waste) in your process each of the types of waste are described and
linked to tools which can be used to eliminate them systematically.

MURI, overburden, can result from Mura, and from removing too much Muda (waste) from
the process. When operators or machines are utilized for more than 100% to finish their task,
they are overburdened. This means breakdowns when it comes to machines and absenteeism
when it comes to employees. To optimize the use of machines and make sure they function
properly, preventative- and autonomous maintenance can be implemented. To prevent
overworked employees, safety should be the focus of all process designs and all standard
work initiatives. For more information about Muri, go directly to the article: Finding Muri
(overburden) in your process.

MURA, unevenness, can be found in fluctuation in customer demand, process times per
product or variation of cycle times for different operators. In production environments with
low-volume, high product variation, flexibility is more important than in high-volume, low-
product variation environments. When Mura is not reduced, one increases the possibility for
Muri and therefore Muda. Mura can be reduced by creating openness in the supply chain,
change productdesign and create standard work for all operators. These are described in the
article: Finding Mura (variation) in your process.

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