1.

Define Physical equilibrium and give its types

A system in which the amount of matter does not changes with time is
called as Physical equilibrium
There are 3 types
a) Solid – liquid equilibrium. Ex Melting
b) Solid – Vapour equilibrium. Ex Sublimation
c) Liquid – Vapour equilibrium. Ex Boiling

2. Why chemical equilibrium is considered as dynamic equilibrium

( What is Dynamic Equilibrium)
At equilibrium the forward and the backward reactions will proceed at
the same rate. So no macroscopic changes is observed.

3. Define Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Equilibrium

When the reactant and the product are in the same phase it is called as
Homogeneous Equilibrium

Ex. H2 + I2 2HI

When the reactant and the product are in the different phase it is called as
Heterogeneous Equilibrium

Ex. CaCO3 CaO + CO2

4. Define equilibrium constant

Equilibrium constant is defined as the ratio between the product of the
active masses of the products ant the reactants raised to a stoichiometric
coefficient.

aA + bB cC + dD

[ C ]c [ D ]d
Kc = ----------------
[ A ]a [ B ]b
5. Define Reaction Quotient ‘Q’
Reaction Quotient is defined as the ratio between the product of the active
masses of the products ant the reactants raised to a stoichiometric
coefficient under non equilibrium conditions

aA + bB cC + dD

[ C ]c [ D ]d
Q = ----------------
[ A ]a [ B ]b

6. Define Law of Mass action

At a given temperature, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly
proportional to the product of the active masses of the reactants.
Rate [Reactant]x

7. Derive the relation between Kp and Kc.

Give one example for Kp = Kc

Let us consider a reaction

aA + bB cC + dD

[ C ]c [ D ]d
Kc = ------------------- ------ 1
[ A ]a [ B ]b

PCc × PDd
Kp = ---------------- ----- 2
PAa × PB b

From Ideal gas equation,

PV = nRT
 n
P= ----- RT ------- 3
V

n
Where ----- = Active mass
V

Hence eqn ( 3 ) becomes

P = [ Active mass ] RT

Substituting the partial pressure terms in eqn ( 3 )

PA = [A] RT

PB = [B] RT

PC = [C] RT

PD = [D] RT Substitute the above pressure terms in eqn ( 2 )

[ [C] RT ]c [ [D] RT ]d
Kp = -------------------- × -------------------
[ [A] RT ]a [ [B] RT ]b
Rearranging the above eqn, we get

[ C ]c [ D ]d [RT ]c [RT ]d
Kp = ------------------ × --------------------- -------- 4
[ A ]a [ B ]b [ RT ]a [RT ]b

[ C ]c [ D ]d [RT ]c+d
Kp = ------------------ × ---------------- -------- 4
[ A ]a [ B ]b [ RT ]a+b
 [ C ]c [ D ] d
Kp = ------------------ × [RT ](c+d ) – (a+b) -------- 4
[ A ]a [ B ]b

Substitute eqn ( 1) in eqn ( 4 )

Kp = Kc × [ RT ] ( c + d ) – (a+b)

Where ng = ( c + d ) – ( a + b )

ng
Kp = Kc × [RT ] ----------------- 5

Example:

H2 + I2 2HI

n = n2 – n1

n=2–2

n = Zero
n
Kp = Kc (RT)

Kp = Kc (RT) 0

Kp = Kc

8. List the application of Equilibrium constant

• It is used to find the direction of the reaction taking place
• It is used to find the extend of the reaction
• It is used to find the equilibrium concentration of the reactant and the
product.
9. Explain how the equilibrium constant –Kc is used to find out the Extend
of the reaction
• If Kc is large, the reaction reaches equilibrium with high product
concentration.
• If Kc is small, the reaction reaches equilibrium with low product
concentration.
• If Kc is greater than 103, the reaction is near to completion, and
favours the forward reaction.
• If Kc is greater than 10–3, the reaction will never proceed, and favours
the backward reaction.
• If Kc is between 103 to 10–3 the reaction is in equilibrium.

10. Explain how the equilibrium constant –Kc is used to find out the
direction of the reaction
• If Q = Kc, Equilibrium reaction
• If Q > Kc, the reaction proceeds in the Reverse direction.
• If Q < Kc, the reaction proceeds in the Forward direction.

11. For a given reaction the equilibrium constant has a constant value. Is
the value of Q also constant ?. explain.
• As the reaction proceeds, there is a change in the concentration of
the reactant and the products.
• The Q value also changes until the equilibrium is reached.
• At equilibrium the Q value is equal to Kc.
• Once the equilibrium is reached there is no change in the Q value.
12. Derive the relation between Kp and Kc for the formation of HI

Content H2 I2 2HI

Initial number of
moles a b 0

Number of
moles reacted x x 0

Number of
moles a-x b-x 2x
remaining

Equilibrium a-x b-x 2x

concentration ------ ------ ------
V V V

H2 + I2 2HI

[ HI ] 2
Kc = --------------- ------ 1
[ H2 ] [ I2 ]

Substitute the concentration values in eqn ( 1 )

2
2x
______________

V
Kc= -----------------------------
( a– x) ( b –x )
------------- × -----------
V V
 4x2
-------------
V2
Kc= ---------------------------
( a– x) ( b –x)
-----------------------
V2

4 x2 V2
Kc = ----------- × -----------------------------
V2 ( a– x ) ( b –x )

4x2
Kp = Kc = -------------------------
( a–x ) ( b –x )

n = n2 – n1

n=2–2

n = Zero
n
Kp = Kc (RT)

Kp = Kc (RT) 0

Kp = Kc
13. Derive the relation between Kp and Kc for the decomposition of PCl5

Content PCl5 PCl3 Cl2

Initial number of
moles a 0 0

Number of
moles reacted x 0 0

Number of
moles a–x x x
remaining

Equilibrium a–X x x
concentration ------ ------ ------
V V V

PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2

[ PCl3 ] [ Cl2 ]
Kc = ---------------------- ------ 1
[ PCl5 ]

x x
----- -----
V V
Kc = -------------------------------
(a–X)
-----------
V
 x2
--------
V2
Kc = -------------------------
(a–x)
-----------
V

x2 V
Kc = --------- × ------------
V2 ( a–X)

x2
Kc = --------------- _____ 2
V(a–x)

n = n2 – n1

n=2–1

n=1
n
Kp = Kc (RT)

Kp = Kc (RT) 1 ________ 3

PV = nRT

PV
RT = ----------- n = total number of moles
n
n= a – x + x + x

n= a +x
substitute 1 and RT values in eqn 3

x2 PV
Kp = --------------- × -------
V(a–x) n

Substitute the value of n = a+x

x2 PV
Kp = --------------- × ----------
V(a–x) (a+x)

x2 P
Kp = --------------- × ----------
(a–x) (a+x)
14. Derive relation between Kp- Kc for the Synthesis of Ammonia : NH3

Content N2 3H2 2NH3

Initial number of
moles a b 0

Number of
moles reacted x 3x 0

Number of
moles a–x b – 3x 2x
remaining

Equilibrium a–x b–3x 2x

concentration -------- --------- ------
V V V

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

[ NH3 ]2
Kc = --------------------
[ N2 ] [ H2 ]3

2
2x
--------
V
Kc = ---------------------------------
a–x b – 3x 3
------------ ------------
V V
 4x2
--------
V2
Kc = ---------------------------------
a–x b – 3x 3
------------ ------------
V V

4x2 V4
Kc = ------------ × ----------------------------
V2 ( a – x ) (b – 3x)3

4 x 2 V2
Kc = -------------------------------- _____1
( a – x ) (b – 3x)3

n = n2 – n1

n=2–4

n=–2
n
Kp = Kc (RT)

Kp = Kc (RT) – 2 ______ 2

PV = nRT

PV
RT = ----------- n = total number of moles
n

n = a – x + b – 3x + 2x

n = a + b – 4x + 2x

n = a + b – 2x
 4 x 2 V2 PV –2

Kp = -------------------------------- x --------
( a – x ) (b – 3x)3 n

4 x 2 V2 n 2

Kp = -------------------------------- x --------
( a – x ) (b – 3x)3 PV

Substitute the value of n = a + b – 2x

4 x 2 V2 a + b – 2x 2

Kp = -------------------------------- x -----------------
( a – x ) (b – 3x)3 PV

4 x 2 V2 ( a + b – 2x) 2
Kp = -------------------------------- x ---------------------
( a – x ) (b – 3x)3 P2V2

4 x 2 ( a + b – 2x) 2
Kp = --------------------------------
P2 ( a – x ) (b – 3x)3

15. Define le-Chatlier Braun principle

It a system at equilibrium is subjected to a disturbance, then the system
will move in the direction to nullify the effect of the disturbance.
16. Explain the effect of and Pressure and concentration on
H2 + I2 2HI reaction

a) Effect of pressure

H2 + I2 2HI

In the above reaction the number of moles of the reactant and the products
are same. So pressure has no effect on the equilibrium.

b) Effect of concentration

• To this reaction if we add H2 and I2, the concentration of the

reactants increases, then the equilibrium shifts in the forward
direction and more amount of HI will be formed.
• To this reaction if we add HI, the concentration of the product will
increases, then the equilibrium shifts in the reverse direction and
leads to the decomposition of HI.

17. Explain the effect of pressure on N2 + 3H2 2NH3 reaction

N2 + 3H2 2NH3

• The number of moles of the reactant in greater than the products,

• If the pressure is increased, the volume decreases, it will favour
the forward reaction. And more amount of ammonia will be formed.
• If the pressure is decreased, the volume increases, it will favour
the reverse reaction and leads to the decomposition of ammonia

18. Explain the effect of Temperature on N2 + 3H2 2NH3 reaction

N2 + 3H2 2NH3 H = – 92.2 KJ

• In the above reaction the forward is exothermic and the backward is

endothermic reactions.
• If the Temperature is increased, it will favour the reverse reaction.
and leads to the decomposition of ammonia
• If the Temperature is decreased, it will favour the forward reaction .
And more amount of ammonia will be formed.
19. Explain the effect of catalyst on a Equilibrium reaction
• A catalyst has no effect on a equilibrium reaction.
• A Catalyst increases the rate of both forward and backward reactions
to the same extent.
• The catalyst helps to decrease the activation energy

20. Effect of inert gas on a equilibrium reaction

• When a inert gas is added to a equilibrium reaction at constant
volume, the total number of moles and the total pressure of the gas
will increase.
• But the partial pressure of the reactants and the products remains
unchanged.
• Hence at constant volume the inert gas has no effect on Equilibrium

21. Derive the Van’t Hoff equation

Van’t Hoff equation gives the effect of temperature of the equilibrium
Constant.

G0 = – RTln K

G0 = H0 – T S0

– RTln K = H0 – T S0

RTln K = – H0 + T S0

– H0 T S0
ln K = ------------ + --------------
RT RT

– H0 S0
ln K = ------------ + --------------
RT R
Differentiating the above eqn, with respect to temperature, then S0 = 0

d( ln K ) – H0 1
------------- = ------------ – [ ------ ]
dT RT T

d( ln K ) H0
------------- = ------------
dT RT2

H0 dT
d( ln K ) = ------------ x --------
R T2
22. Book back Qn

When the number of moles of the product is greater than the reactants,
then n will be positive, so Kp will be larger than Kc

Ex. PCl5 PCl3 + Cl2

n = n2 – n1

n=2–1

n=1
n
Kp = Kc (RT)

Kp = Kc (RT) 1

Kp > Kc

23. Book Back Qn

If Q > K, the reaction will proceed in the reverse direction. The Products will
decompose.
24. Write the Equilibrium constant Kc for the following reactions-

[ HI ] 2
Kc = --------------- ------ a
[ H2 ] [ I2 ]

Kc = [ CO2 ] ------ b

[ SF6 ]
Kc = ------------------ ------ c
[ F2 ] 3

25. Book Back Qn

Predict whether the increase or decrease in the volume will increase the
yield of the products.
a)

The number of moles of the gaseous Products are equal to the gaseous
Reactants. So the volume has no effect on the reaction.

b)

The number of moles of the gaseous Products are larger to the gaseous
reactants. So the increases in volume favours the forward reaction. The
yield will increase

c)

The number of moles of the gaseous Products are lesser to the gaseous
reactants. So the increases in volume favours the Reverse reaction. The
yield will decrease.

26. Write the Kc and Kp for the following reactions

a)
b)

c) Ag2O + 2NH3 2AgNO3 + H2O

(S) (aq) (aq) (l)

Kp = zero

d)

[ H+ ] [ HCO3– ]
Kc = ---------------------------
[ CO2 ]

Kp = zero
 LESSION – 11

1. What are the Characteristics of Organic compounds.

• They are covalent compound of carbon.
• They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like
Benzene
• They are highly flammable
• They have low melting and boiling points.
• They have characteristics functional groups.
• They form isomerism
• They form Homologous series.

2. Explain the Homologous series.

• They contain a characteristics functional group
• Successive member differ by –CH2 group in their molecular formula
• They are prepared by similar methods
• They have similar chemical properties.
• They have similar general fomula
a)Alkane = CnH2n+2 ( Ex. Propane )
b)Alkyne = CnH2n-2 ( Ex. Propyne )
c)Alkene = CnH2n ( Ex. Propene )
3. Explain the classification of the organic compounds.

Organic compounds

Open chain compounds Cyclic compounds

Ex. Propane

Homo cyclic compounds Hetero cyclic compounds

Alicyclic Aromatic Alicyclic Aromatic

compounds compounds compounds compounds
Ex. cyclo propane Ex. THF Ex. Pyridine

Benzonoid compounds Non Benzonoid compounds

Ex. Phenol Ex. Azulene
4. Functional groups
5. Explain the various Structural or Constitutional isomers in organic
compounds.
Structural or Constitutional isomers are isomers have same molecular
formula but different bonding sequence. There are 6 types.

a) Chain Isomerism
Compounds have same molecular formula but different carbon skeleton
is called as chain isomerism.

`
And

b) Position isomerism
Compounds have same molecular formula and same carbon skeleton
but different position of the functional groups is called as Position
isomerism.

c) Functional isomerism
Compounds have same molecular formula but different Functional
groups is called as Functional isomerism.

CH3 – CH2 – OH and CH3 –O–CH3

 d) Metamerism
Compounds have same molecular formula but different alkyl groups on
either side of the functional group is called as Metamerism
Ex.

CH3 –O - CH2 - CH2 - CH3

CH3 - CH2 – O - CH2 - CH3

CH3 – CH - CH3

O - CH3

e) Tautomerism
When a single compound exists in two inter convertible structures that
differ in the position of at least one atom is called as Tautomerism
It is divided into two types
i) Dyad system
In this type the hydrogen atom oscillates between two directly bonded
poly valent atoms.
Ex. H–C N H–N C

ii) Triad systems

In this type the hydrogen atom oscillates between three poly valent
atoms. Ex.
 f) Ring Chain Isomerism
Compounds having same molecular formula but different bonding of
carbon atoms to form open and cyclic structures.

6. Define Stereoisomerism
Isomers have same bond connectivity but different arrangements of atoms
in space is called as Stereoisomerism

7. Define Geometrical isomerism

Compounds having different arrangements of atoms around a rigid
double bond are called as Geometrical isomerism
8. Explain the ( Geometrical isomerism ) or Cis-Trans isomerism using
2- Butene.

Cis isomers
When two identical groups are present on the same side it is called as Cis
isomer

CH3 CH3

C C

H H

Trans isomers
When two identical groups are present on the opposite side it is called as
Trans isomer

CH3 H

C C

H CH3

Stability :
( Why the Trans isomer is more stable than the Cis isomer ? )

The Trans isomer is more stable than the Cis isomer. In the trans isomer
the bulky groups are on the opposite side.

But in the Cis isomer, the bulky groups are on the same side. Hence
there will be Steric repulsion in the Cis isomer.
9. How Cis isomer is converted to Trans isomer ?
• Cis isomer can be converted to trans isomers by heating at high
temperature and by the absorption of light.
• On heating, the -bond breaks and the sigma bond rotates.
• On cooling the reformation the -bond takes place giving both cis
and trans isomer.

H H H H H CH3

C C C C C C

CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 H

H H H CH3

C C C C

CH3 CH3 CH3 H

Cis Trans

10. Explain the geometrical isomerism in Oximes

In Oximes the geometrical isomerism occurs due to the restricted rotation
of the C=N bond. There are two types

Syn isomers
When hydrogen atoms and the –OH group is present on the same side it is
called as Syn isomer

CH3

C N

H OH
 Anti isomers
When hydrogen atoms and the –OH group is present on the opposite side
it is called as Anti isomer

CH3 OH

C N

11. Define Optical isomerism

Compounds having same physical and chemical property but different
rotation of the plane polarized light is called as Optical isomerism.
Ex. d(+)Glucose

12. Define Enantiomers

Optically active isomers having same angle of rotation but differ only in the
direction of rotation of the plane polarized light is called as Enantiomers
Ex. d (+) Glucose and l ( – ) Glucose

13. What are the conditions for optical activity

• The molecule should have Chiral Carbon
• The molecule should have Non-Super imposible image
• The molecule should not have Plane of Symmetry

14. Explain Optical isomer with an example

• Compounds having same physical and chemical property but different
rotation of the plane polarized light is called as Optical isomerism.
Ex . Glucose

• Dextro Glucose
It rotates the plane polarized light in the clock-wise direction. It is denoted
by the symbol‘d’ and a sign ( + ).

• Laevo Glucose :
It rotates the plane polarized light in the anti clock-wise direction. It is
denoted by the symbol ‘l’ and a sign ( – ).
15. Define asymmetric or chiral carbon
When a carbon is bonded to four different types of atom is called as
asymmetric or chiral carbon and the phenomenon is called as Chirilaty

Cl

H – C* - Br C* = Chiral Carbon

16. Explain the detection of Carbon and Hydrogen in a Organic

compound.
• The given organic compound is heated with dry copper oxide in a
test tube
• It is fitted with a delivery tube. The other end of the tube is dipped in
lime water.
• When the mixture is heated, Carbon is converted in to CO2 gas, and
it turns lime water milky

2CuO + C CO2 + 2Cu

• Hydrogen is converted in to water droplets and turns Anhydrous Copper

sulphate to Blue colour.

CuO + 2H H2O + Cu

17. Explain how Sodium Fusion of Lassaigne’s extract is prepared ?

• A small piece of sodium metal is dried using a filter paper.
• The dry sodium metal is melting in a fusion tube.
• Add the given organic compound and again heat the tube.
• Break the red hot tube in 50ml of distilled water in a dish
• Boil and filter. The filtrate is called as Lassaigne;s extract.
• It is used to detect Sulphur, Nitrogen and halogens.
18. Explain the detection of Nitrogen in a organic compound.
• The Nitrogen is converted in to Sodium cyanide.
• Add freshly prepared Ferrous sulphate solution, Ferric chloride
solution and Conc: Hydrochloric acid.
• It gives Prussian Blue colour. Confirms the presence of Nitrogen.

Na + C + N NaCN

6 NaCN + Fe(OH)2 Na4 [ Fe( CN )6 ] + 2 NaOH

Na4 [ Fe( CN )6 ] + 4FeCl3 Fe4 [ Fe( CN )6 ]3 + 12 NaCl

Ferric Ferro Cyanide - Prussian Blue

19. Explain the detection of Sulphur in a organic compound

• Add Sodium Nitro Prusside to the Lassaigne’s extract.

• Gives Purple colour. Confirms the presence of Sulphur.

Na2S + Na2 [ Fe( CN )5 NO ] Na4 [ Fe( CN )5 NOS ]

Purple Colour

20. How will you detect the presence of both Nitrogen and Sulphur ?
• Add Ferric chloride to the Lassaigne’s extract.
• Gives Blood red colour. Confirms the presence of Nitrogen and
Sulphur.

Na + C + N + S NaCNS

3 NaCNS + FeCl3 Fe (CNS ) 3 + 3NaCl

Blood Red colour
21. Explain the detection of Halogens in a organic compound

• Boil the Lassaigne’s extract with Nitric acid and add Silver Nitrate
solution

Na + X NaX

NaX + AgNO3 AgX + NaNO3

S.
Halogen Colour Solubility in Ammonia
Nm
1 Chlorine Curdy white Soluble
2 Bromine Pale yellow Sparingly soluble
3 Iodine Yellow insoluble

22. During the detection of halogen , why we should first boil with nitric
acid ( HNO3 ) ?
• If the compound contains nitrogen and sulphur, it give NaCN and
Na2S.
• This will interfere during the detection of the halogens
• On boiling with nitric acid, it will decompose the NaCN and Na2S.

NaCN + HNO3 NaNO3 + HCN

Na2S + 2HNO3 2NaNO3 + H2S

NaCN + AgNO3 NaNO3 + AgCN

Na2S + 2AgNO3 2NaNO3 + Ag2S

23. Explain the detection of Phosphorous in a organic compound

• The organic compound is heated with Sodium Carbonate and
Potassium nitrate.
• Phosphorous present is converted into Sodium Phosphate.
• Add Ammonium Molybdate solution. Gives a Yellow Precipitate.
Confirms Phosphorous.
24. Explain the estimation of Carbon and Hydrogen
• A known weight of the organic compound is heated with excess of
oxygen in a combustion tube.
• The carbon is converted in to CO2 gas and the hydrogen is converted
in to water vapour.
• The CO2 gas is absorbed by the bulb containing KOH solution.
• The Water Vapour is absorbed by the U-tube containing pumice.
• Note down the weight of the tubes before and after the experiment.

Calculation:

Weight of the Organic compound = W g

Increase in the Weight of H2O = X g
Increase in the weight of CO2 gas = Y g

a) Percentage of Hydrogen
18g of water contains 2 g of Hydrogen

2 X
Hydrogen % = -------- × --------- × 100 %
18 W

b) Percentage of Carbon
44g of CO2 contains 12 g of Carbon

12 Y
Carbon % = -------- × --------- × 100 %
44 W
25. Explain the Estimation of Sulphur by Carius method.
• A known weight of the organic compound is heated with
Conc:Nitric acid in a Carius tube.
• Sulphur present is converted in to Sulphuric acid.
• Add Barium Chloride solution.
• It forms Barium sulphate precipitate.
• The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and its weight is noted.

Calculation:

Weight of the Organic compound = W g

Weight of Barium sulphate precipitate = X g

233g of Barium sulphate contains 32 g of Sulphur

32 X
Sulphur % = --------- × --------- × 100 %
233 W

26. Explain the Estimation of Halogen by Carius method.

• A known weight of the organic compound is heated with
Conc:Nitric acid and Silver Nitrate in a Carius tube.
• Carbon and Hydrogen is converted in to CO2 and H2O.
• The Halogens are converted into AgX precipitate.
• The precipitate is filtered, washed, dried and its weight is noted.
HNO
AgNO3 + X 3 AgX
Calculation:
a) Weight of Chlorine:

Weight of the Organic compound = W g

Weight of AgCl precipitate = a g

143.5 g of AgCl contains 35.5 g of Chlorine

35.5 a
Chlorine % = ---------- × --------- × 100 %
143.5 W

b) Weight of Bromine:
Weight of the Organic compound = W g

Weight of AgBr precipitate = b g

188 g of AgBr contains 80 g of Bromine

80 b
Bromine % = ---------- × --------- × 100 %
188 W

c) Weight of Iodine:
Weight of the Organic compound = W g

Weight of AgI precipitate = c g

235 g of Agl contains 127 g of Iodine

127 c
Iodine % = --------- × --------- × 100 %
235 W

Note: Atomic masses

Silver Chlorine Bromine Iodine
108g 35.5g 80g 127g
27. Explain the estimation of Nitrogen by Dumas method.
• The apparatus consist of CO2 generator, combustion tube and
Schiff’s nitro meter.
• A known weight of the organic compound is heated with copper oxide
in a combustion tube.
• The nitrogen present in the organic compound converted in to
Nitrogen gas.
• Excess of CO2 Gas is passed to remove the last traces of Nitrogen
gas.
• The Nitrogen gas is collected in the Nitro meter. And CO2 Gas is
absorbed by the KOH solution.
• The volume of Nitrogen gas collected in noted.

Calculation :

Weight of the organic compound = W g

Volume of Nitrogen gas = V1 liter
Room temperature = T1 K
Pressure of Dry Nitrogen gas = P1 mm of Hg

22.4 liters of Nitrogen gas at STP = 28g

28 V0
Nitrogen % = --------- × --------- × 100 %
22.4 W
28. Explain the estimation of Nitrogen by Kjeldahl’s method.

• A known weight of the organic compound is heated with

Conc:Sulphuric acid.
• The nitrogen present in the organic compound is converted in to
Ammonium Sulphate.
• The formed Ammonium Sulphate is heated with sodium hydroxide in
a Kjeldahl’s flask to form ammonia gas.
• The ammonia gas is absorbed by Std:Sulphuric acid.
• The amount of ammonia formed is determined by titrating the Std
acid against a Std solution of NaOH using Phenolphthalein indicator.

Calculation:
Weight of the organic compound = W g
Volume of the Std:Sulphuric acid consumed = V ml
Normality of the Std:Sulphuric acid = N

14 × N × V
Nitrogen % = ------------------------ × 100%
1000 × W

29. Why should we purify the organic compounds? Give Examples.

In order to study the structures, physical and chemical and the Biological
properties we must purify the organic compounds.
Example. Sublimation, distillation and steam distillation.

30. Define Sublimation.

When is solid is heated, if it directly changes into vapour without melting.
It is called as sublimation. Ex. Camphor, Naphthalene and Benzoic acid.
31. Explain sublimation and what type of compounds are purified in this
method ?
When is solid is heated, if it directly changes into vapour without melting.
It is called as sublimation. Ex. Camphor, Naphthalene and Benzoic acid.

• The impure compound is taken in a beaker.

• The beaker is covered with a watch glass.
• When the beaker is heated, the pure compound sublimes and
condenses on the watch glass.
• From the watch glass, the pure compound is collected.
• In this method organic compounds having high vapour pressure
below its melting point can be purified,

32. What are the steps in Crystallization

There are five steps
a) Selection of the solvent
b) Preparation of the solution
c) Filtration of the solution
d) Crystallization
e) Isolation and drying of the crystals

33. Explain the Crystallization process of purification of a organic

compounds.
There are five steps

a) Selection of the Solvent.

The organic compound is taken a test tube and add the solvent slowly.
Heat the test tube and dissolve the organic compound. On cooling, if it
throws maximum crystals, then it is a suitable solvent. The process is
repeated with solvents like benzene, ether, alcohol and acetone.

b) Preparation of the Solution.

The organic compound is dissolved in a suitable solvent and heated on a
water bath. A small amount of animal charcoal is added to decolorize the
colour.

c) Filtration of the Solution

The hot solution is filtered using a filter paper and a funnel
 d) Crystallization
When the hot filtrate is allowed to cool, the pure crystals are formed.

e) Isolation and drying of the crystals

The pure crystals are separated by filtration. The crystals washed and
dried.

34. How can we induce ( increase ) the rate of crystallization?

• By scratching on the walls of the beaker with a glass rod.
• By adding a few crystals of the pure compound in the solution.

35. What are the different types of distillation

• Simple distillation
• Fractional distillation
• Steam distillation
• Azeotropic distillation

36. Explain the Simple distillation method and give the conditions.
• When the impure liquid is boiled to give vaporous.
• The vapours are condensed and the pure liquid collected in a
receiver.
Conditions:
• Liquids having larger boiling point difference of 40K can be purified.
• Liquids that do not decompose in ordinary pressure can be purified.
• Example Benzene and Nitro Benzene can be purified.

37. Explain Fractional distillation

• In this method liquids having boiling points very close to each other
are separated and purified. This is called as Fractional Distillation.
• The distillation flask is fitted with a Fractionating Column, condenser
and a receiver.
• To measure the temperature, the Fractionating Column is fitted with a
thermometer.
• When the impure liquid is boiled to give vaporous.
• The vapours are condensed and the pure liquid collected in a
receiver
• Crude oil and Petroleum is separated in this method
38. Explain Steam Distillation. And what are the conditions ( what type of
compounds are purified in this method ? )
• The impure liquid is taken in a round bottom flask and connected to a
water condenser.
• The flask is kept in a slanting position to prevent the mixture from
entering into the condenser while boiling.
• The flask is heated and steam is passed through the mixture.
• The compound vapours and steam is condensed and collected in the
receiver.
• The mixture of water and the compound is separated.
• Essential oil from Flowers can be separated in this method.

Conditions ( Characteristics of the compounds )

• The compound should not decompose in the steam’s temperature
• The impurities should be non volatile
• The impurities should be insoluble in water.

39. What are Azeotropes ?

A constant boiling mixture, which distills as a single component at a given
temperature are called as Azeotropes. Ex. Water and ethanol

40. Explain the Azeotropic distillation

• A constant boiling mixture, which distills as a single component at a
given temperature are called as Azeotropes. Ex. Water and ethanol
• So a third compound like benzene or glycol is added, which decreases
the partial pressure and increases the boiling point of one component.
• When Benzene is added it decreases the partial pressure and the
boiling point of Ethanol
• When glycol is added it decreases the partial pressure and the boiling
point of Water
41. Explain Differential Extraction
• The process of separating a substance from an aqueous solution by
shaking with an organic solvent is called as Differential Extraction.
• The aqueous solution is taken is separating funnel.
• A little amount of ether is added and gently shaken.
• The compound is more soluble in the organic solvent.
• The organic solvent is removed by opening the tap of the separating
funnel.
• The substance is collected separately.

42. Define chromatography

The process of separation of a mixture by the differential movement of
the compound through a porous medium under the influence of a
moving solvent is called as Chromatography.
There are 4 types
• Column chromatography
• Thin layer chromatography
• Paper chromatography
• Gas-Liquid chromatography
• Ion exchange chromatography

43. Explain the Column chromatography

• A long glass column is taken and a small piece of cotton is placed at
the lower end of the column.
• The column is packed with the adsorbent like silica or alumina which
acts as the Stationery phase.
• The mixture to be separated is placed on the top of the adsorbent
and a suitable solvent is added.
• As the solvent flows down the column, the compounds are separated
depending upon the degree of adsorption.
• The compound which is readily adsorbed is retained near the top of
the column.
44. Explain the Thin layer Chromatography
• It is an example of Adsorption Chromatography.
• A Glass sheet is coated with a thin layer of Silica. This glass sheet is
called as Chromo plate.
• A mixture is placed just above the lower edge of the glass plate.
• The glass plate is placed in a closed Jar, containing the Solvent.
• The solvent moves up the glass plate due to capillary action.
• The components present in the mixture get separated at different
distances depending upon the degree of adsorption.
• Colourless compound are viewed under the UV light.

Distance moved by the substance from the base line

Retention Factor Rf = ------------------------------------------------------------------
Distance moved by the Solvent from the base line

45. Explain the Partition Chromatography or Paper Chromatography

• It is an example of Partition Chromatography.
• A strip of paper acts as the Stationery phase. This paper is called as
Chromatographic paper.
• The mixture is placed at the base of the paper.
• The paper is suspended in a solvent which is the mobile phase.
• The solvent moves up the paper.
• The different components present in the mixture are retained by the
paper depending upon the partitions in the two phases.
• This is called as the Chromatogram.
• The coloured components are visible at different heights on the
chromatogram.
• Colourless compound are viewed under the UV light.
 LESSON - 12

1. What are the different types of Fissions in a covalent bond ?

There are two types.
a) Homolytic cleavage
When a covalent bond breaks symmetrically, each bonded atoms
retains one electron. This is called as Homolytic cleavage

b) Heterocyclic Cleavage
When a covalent bond breaks Unsymmetrical, one of the bonded atom
retains the bond pair of electron. This is called as Heterolytic cleavage.

2. What are Free radical inhibitors ?

The reagents that creates Homolytic cleavage in the substrate is
called as Free radical inhibitors.
Ex. Benzoyl peroxide

3. Give the difference between Nucleophiles and Electrophiles

S.
Nm Nucleophiles Electrophiles

1 They are attracted towards to They are attracted towards to

electron deficient centers
2 They are electron rich
3 They are negative charged
ions
4 They are Lewis bases
5 Ex. Cyanide ion
Electro rich centers
They are electron deficient
They are Positive charged ions
They are Lewis acids
Nitro ion

4. Define Inductive effect

Inductive effect is the change in the polarization of a covalent bond due to
the presence of a adjacent atoms in a molecule.
 5. What are – and groups ?
The group that attracts the electrons is called as – groups. And – effect.
Ex: F–
The groups that releases electrons is called as + groups and
And + effect . Ex: –OH

6. Explain how the halogen affects the acidity of the carboxylic acids ?
( How – and groups affects the acidity of the carboxylic acids )

a)Effect of – groups
• Halogens are – groups, they will increase the acid strength.
• When a halogen is bonded to a carboxylic acid, it attracts the bonded
electrons towards itself.
• And makes the ionisation of the H+ ion very easy.
• The order is
Trichloro acetic acid > Dichloro acetic acid > chloro acetic acid > Acetic acid

b) Effect of + groups
+ groups decreases the acid strength
Formic acid > Acetic acid > Propanoic acid > Butanoic acid

7. Explain Inductive effect with an example

• Inductive effect is the change in the polarization of a covalent bond due
to the presence of a adjacent atoms in a molecule.
• The group that attracts the electrons is called as – groups.
And – effect. Ex: F–
• The groups that releases electrons is called as + group.
And + effect . Ex: –OH
• Example.
• Halogens are – groups, they will increase the acid strength.
• When a halogen is bonded to a carboxylic acid, it attracts the bonded
electrons towards itself.
• And makes the ionisation of the H+ ion very easy.
 8. Explain Electrometric effect
Electro metric effect is a temporary effect in unsaturated compounds, in the
presence of an attacking reagent.

There are two types

a)Positive Electrometric effect ( E+)
When the electrons are transferred towards the attacking reagent , it is
called as Positive Electrometric effect

X Y + E+ X+ Y E

b)Negative Electrometric effect ( E-)

When the electrons are transferred away from the attacking reagent , it is
called as Negative Electrometric effect

Nu + X Y Nu X Y

9. Define Resonance or Mesomeric effect

When a Organic compound is represented by more than one
structure, which differs only in the position of bonding and lone pair of
electrons are called as Resonance or Mesomeric effect.

10. Draw the resonance structures in 1,3-Butadiene

+ – – +
CH2 = CH – CH = CH2 CH2 – CH = CH – CH2 CH2 – CH = CH – CH2

CH2 CH CH CH2

11. What are the types of Mesomeric effect

a)Positive Mesomeric effect.
When the electrons move away from the group attached to the conjugated
system it is called as Positive Mesomeric effect. Ex. –OH

b)Negative Mesomeric effect.

When the electrons move towards the group attached to the conjugated
system it is called as Positive Mesomeric effect. Ex. –COOH
 12. Define Hyper Conjugation ( No bond resonance )
The delocalization of the -electrons of the -bond is called as Hyper
conjugation

13. Draw the Hyper Conjugation ( No bond resonance ) of Propene

14. What are Substitution reactions

When a group attached to a carbon atom is replaced by a another new
group it is called as Substitution reactions

15. What are the different type of Substitution reactions

a) Nucleophilic substitution reaction.

CH3 –Br + OH– CH3OH + Br –

b) Electrophilic substitution reaction

C6H6 + NO2+ C6H5 –NO2 + H +

c) Free radical substitution reaction

CH4 + Cl CH3 + HCl

16. What are Addition reaction
When two molecules combine to give a single product it is called as
addition reaction.

CH2 = CH2 + HBr CH3 – CH2 – Br

 17. What is Electrophilic Addition reaction

CH2 = CH2 + Br2 CH2 – CH2

Br Br

18. What is Nucleophilic Addition reaction

CH3CHO + HCN CH3-CH-CN

OH

19. What are Free radical addition reaction

Peroxide
CH2 = CH2 + HBr CH3 – CH2 – Br

20. What are Elimination reactions

When two substituent’s are eliminated from a molecule, and a new C-C
bond is formed between the carbon atoms to which the eliminated atoms
has been attached.

Ex. Reactions between Propyl Bromide and Alcoholic KOH

CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – Br + KOH CH3 –CH2 = CH2 + KBr + H2O

21. Give the Oxidation of Benzene

Pt
C6H6 + 3H2 C6H12
Cyclo Hexane

22. Convert Acetaldehyde to Acetic acid

[O]
CH3 – CHO CH3 – COOH
K Cr O
2 2 7 ( Acetic acid )
 23. Conversion of Functional groups

a) Primary alcohol to Aldehydes

[O]
CH3 – CH2 – OH CH3 – CHO
K Cr O
2 2 7 ( Acetaldehyde )

b) Secondary Alcohol to Ketones

[O]
CH3 – CH – OH CH3 – CO – CH3
K Cr O
2 2 7 ( Acetone )
CH3

c) Nitriles ( Cyanides ) to Carboxylic acids

H+ H+
CH3 – CN CH3 – CONH2 CH3 – COOH
H O H O
2 2
1. Define Environmental Pollution
The undesirable changes in our environment that has a harmful effect on
plants, animals and humans is called as Environmental Pollution

2. What are Pollutant and what are its types

The substance which cause pollution to the environment is called as
Pollution .

a)Bio-degradable Pollutant
The Pollutants which are easily decomposed by natural biological process
is called as Bio-degradable Pollutant. Ex. Plant waste

b) Non -Bio-degradable Pollutant

The Pollutants which are cannot decomposed by natural biological process
is called as Non-Bio-degradable Pollutant. Ex. Plastic.

3. Give the Composition of the earth’s atmosphere

Nitrogen=78% Oxygen=21% Argon=0.93% CO2 = 0.04%

4. What are the regions of the Atmosphere

a)Troposhere
• It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere
• It is 0-10 km from the earth’s surface
It is divided into 2 spheres

b)Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere consist of Oceans, Sea , rivers, lakes, underground
water and polar ice. It is 75% of the earth’s surface. So called as Blue
Planet

c) Lithosphere
The Lithosphere consist of Soil, rocks and mountain.
d)Biosphere
The Biosphere consists of Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and the atmosphere
where the living organism is present.

5. Define Air Pollution

The undesirable changes in Air that has a harmful effect on plants, animals
and humans is called as Air Pollution

6. What are the different types of Gaseous Air Pollutants ?

a)Oxides of sulphur

SO2 and SO3 gas is Poisonous both to animals and plants. It causes
irritation to eyes, cough and Asthma.
Sulphur trioxide combines with water vapour and forms Sulphuric acid and
Acid rain.

b)Oxides of Nitrogen

NO and NO2 gas are produced by the combustion of coal, petrol and
diesel.
NO2 gas combines with water vapour and forms Nitric acid and Acid rain.
NO2 gas causes irritation to Lungs and Asthma.
NO2 gas damages plant leaves and affects photosynthesis

c)Oxides of Carbon
1) Carbon Monoxide
It is a poisonous gas produced by the combustion of Coal, firewood and
from Automobiles.
It combines with hemoglobin and forms Carboxy-Hemoglobin and affects
the normal transport of oxygen in the blood.
It causes Headache, tension and blurring of eyes.

2)Carbon Dioxide
CO2 gas is releases by the burning of fuel, forest fire and cement factory.
It causes headache, nausea and Global warming.
d)Hydrocarbon
it is produces from automobiles and causes cancer, irritation to eyes and
Muscles.

7. Explain Green house effect and Global warming

• The heating of the earth’s surface due to the trapping of Infrared
radiations which is reflected by the CO2 gas in the atmosphere is
called as Green house effect.
• The heating of the earth’s surface due to green house effect is called
as Global warming. Without global warming the average temperature
of the earth will be -180C
• Effects of Global warming
It causes the melting of the polar ice which creates floods in coastal
areas. As result it causes diseases like malaria and dengue.

8. What is Acid rain

The oxides of sulphur and nitrogen is absorbed by the water in the clouds
and converted into sulphuric acid and nitric acid. The pH of rain water
becomes 5.6. This is called as Acid rain.

9. What are the harmful effects of Acid rain

• Acid rain caused damage to marble buildings. This is called as stone
leprosy.
• Acid rain affects animal life.
• It also affects plants, trees and agriculture
• It corrodes drinking water Iron pipes and causes toxic effect.
• It causes respiratory problems in humans and animals.

10. What is Particulate Pollutant.

Particulate Pollutant are small solid particles suspended in air. Ex. Smoke
mists and dust.

11. What are the health effects of Particulate Pollutant.

• Dust and mist present in air causes irritation in the lungs, cancer and
asthma.
• Lead particles affects children brain and cancer.
• Particles in the atmosphere reduces visibility and dangerous for
aircraft and motor vehicles.
• Particles deposited on the leaves affects Photosynthesis in plants
12. How Ozone acts an protective umbrella to the earth.
The Harmful UV radiations for the sun causes skin Cancer .
The Ozone layer present in the atmosphere absorbs the harmful UV
radiations from the sun and acts as protective umbrella to the earth.
UV
O2 O + O
UV
O + O2 O3

13. What are the causes of Ozone Depletion

The Oxides of Nitrogen and CFC are responsible for Ozone depletion.
• Oxides of Nitrogen
The Oxides of Nitrogen is released into the atmosphere from Supersonic
Jet Aircraft engines.
The Oxides of nitrogen is also released by burning Fossil fuel and
Nitrogen fertilizers.

• CFC – Freon’s
CFC is released into the atmosphere from Supersonic Jet Aircraft
engines.
CFC is mainly used in Air conditioners and Refrigerators.

14. What are the environmental effects of Ozone depletion

The Ozone depletion cause the harmful UV radiation to reach the
earth’s surface.
• It causes skin cancer to humans
• It affects plant proteins and causes mutation in cells
• It affects the growth of Phytoplankton, and affects Fish productivity.
15. Define water pollution
The addition of a foreign substance which reduces the quality of water and
becomes harmful to health and unfits to use is called as Water pollution.

16. What are the causes of Water pollution

• Microbiological
Disease causing microorganism like bacteria and virus causes water
pollution.
They come from domestic sewage and animal excreta. When people eat
these contaminated Fish, it causes ill, Polio and Cholera.
• Organic waste
Organic waste like leaves and grass causes water pollution.

• Chemical waste
Chemicals from industries such as metals and solvents are poisonous to
fish and aquatic animals.
Detergents and oil also pollute water.
When people eat these contaminated Fish, with toxic pesticides they
become poison.

• BOD ( Biochemical Oxygen Demand )

The total amount of Oxygen in milligrams consumed by microorganisms by
decomposing the waste in one liter of water at 200C for a period of 5 days.
Is called as Biochemical Oxygen demand

• COD ( Chemical Oxygen Demand )

The amount of oxygen required for Oxidation by an organic matter in a
sample of water by K2Cr2O7 in acid medium for 2 hours.

17. What are the harmful effects of water pollution

• Cadmium and Mercury caused kidney damage
• Lead caused damage to kidney, liver and brain
• PCB caused skin disease and cancer.

18. Define Soil pollution

Soil pollution is the buildup of toxic and radioactive compounds, chemicals
in the soil which caused harmful effects on plant growth and animals.
19. What are the sources of Soil pollution
• Artificial Fertilizers
Using artificial fertilizers like NPK reduced the yield of the soil.
• Pesticides.
Pesticides kill harmful organism but it affects human health
• Insecticides.
Insecticides like DDT and BHC contaminate crops like carrot and radish
• Fungicides
Fungicides contains Toxic Organo Mercury compounds.
• Herbicides.
Herbicides are chemicals used to control unwanted plants. Ex. Sodium
Chlorate, which is toxic to animals.
• Industrial waste
Industrial waste contains toxic chemicals like cyanides, chromates, acids,
mercury, zinc, cadmium and lead.

20. How can we control Pollution.

• Waste management and proper disposal o f wastes
• Recycling waste materials and reusing them.
• Growing more trees
• Controlling vehicle emission
• Using fuels with low sulphur content.

21. What is Green chemistry

Green chemistry the Philosophy encouraging the design of products and
processes that reduce the use and generation of hazardous substances.

22. Define smog

Smog is a combination of smoke and fog which forms droplets that is
suspended in air.
There are two types.
• Classical smog. It is caused by coal and fog
• Photo chemical smog. It is caused by photo chemical oxidants

23. What are Viable and non Viable particulates

• Viable particulates are small size living organisms like bacteria,
fungus, and algae in air.
• Non Viable particulates small solid particles in air. Ex. Smoke & dust
24. Explain the Green chemistry in Day to Day life.
• Dry cleaning Clothes
For Dry cleaning, liquefied CO2 can be used as detergent. And H2O2 for
beaching clothes which consumes less water.

• Bleaching of paper
Chlorine is replaced by H2O2 for beaching paper.

• Instead of petrol, methanol can be used as a fuel for automobiles

• Neem based pesticides can be used instead of harmful chlorinated
hydrocarbons.

25. Mention the standards prescribed by BIS for quality of drinking water.
1. Define a Solution, Solvent and a Solute
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substance containing
atoms or molecules.
The compound that is present in larger amount is called as Solvent.
The compound that is present in smaller amount is called as Solute.

2. Define Molality
Number of moles of the solute
Molality = -----------------------------------------------
Mass of the solvent in Kg

3. Define Molarity
Number of moles of the solute
Molarity = -----------------------------------------------
Volume of the solvent in liter

4. Define Normality
Number of gram equivalents of the solute
Normality = -------------------------------------------------------------
Volume of the solvent in liter

5. Define Formality
Number of formula weight of the solute
Formality = -----------------------------------------------------------------
Volume of the solvent in liter

6. Define Mole fraction

Number of moles of the component
Mole fraction = --------------------------------------------------------
Total number of moles in the solution
7. Define Parts per million (ppm)
Mass of the solute
PPM = ---------------------------------------- × 106
Mass of the solution

8. Define a Standard solution and What are the advantages of a Std

solution ?
A Standard solution is a solution whose concentration is accurately known.
Advantages of a Standard solution.
• Error due to the weighing of the solute can be minimized.
• We can prepare a standard solution of different concentrations by
diluting the standard solution.
• Concentrated solutions are more stable and do not support microbial
growth.

9. Explain the Factors affecting influencing the Solubility ?

• Nature of the Solute and the Solvent
Ionic compounds like NaCl are readily soluble in water but insoluble in
Benzene.
Organic compounds are soluble in Benzene but insoluble in water.
• Effect of Temperature
a)Solid in Liquid
When the temperature increases, the solubility also Increases.
b)Gas in Liquid
when the temperature increase the solubility of gases decreases.
• Effect of Pressure
a)Solid in Liquid
The pressure has no effect.
b)Gas in Liquid
when the Pressure increase the solubility of gases also increases.

10. Define Henry’s Law

The Partial pressure of the gas in the vapour phase is directly proportional
to the mole fraction of the solute at low concentration.

psolute = KH xsolute where KH = constant

11. What are the limitation of Henry’slaw ?
• It is applicable only the moderate temperature and pressure
• Only less soluble gas obeys Hendry’s law
• Gases which reacts with the solvent do not obeys Hendry’s law
• When dissolving in a solvent, the gases should not Associate or
Dissociate.

12. Define Raoult’s law

The Partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution is directly
proportional to the mole fraction.

pA = K xA where K = constant

13. Explain the Vapour pressure of Binary solution of Liquid in Liquid.

According to Raoult’s law

pA = k xA

When XA = 1, then k = p0A

pA = p0A xA

Similarly pB = p0B xB

But Ptotal = pA + pB

Substitute the Values Ptotal = p0A xA + p0B xB

But xA + xB = 1

Or xA = 1 – xB

Substitue XA Ptotal = p0A ( 1 – xB ) + p0B xB

Expanding Ptotal = p0A – p0A . xB + p0B xB

Ptotal = p0A + xB ( p0B – p0A )

14. Explain the Vapour pressure of Binary solution of Solid in Liquid.
(Derive an expression for the lowering of vapour pressure when a non
volatile solute is dissolved in a solvent )

Psolution = k . xA

When XA = 1, then k = P0solvent

Substitute the Value of k

Psolution = P0solvent . . xA

Psolution
xA = -----------------
P0solvent

But xA + xB = 1

Or xB = 1 – xA

Psolution
xB = 1 – -----------------
P0solvent

Taking LCM

P0solvent – Psolution
xB = ---------------------------------
P0solvent
15. What are Ideal and Non ideal solutions
The solutions in which the solute and the solvents obeys Raoult’s law is
called as Ideal solutions.
The solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law are called as Non Ideal
solutions.

16. What are the properties or Characteristics of Ideal solutions

• When the components are mixed, there is no change in volume.
Vmixing = Zero

• When the components are mixed, there is no exchange of heat.

Hmixing = Zero

• The escaping tendency of the solute and the solvent is same as in pure
liquids.

17. What are the factors responsible for the deviation from Raoult’s law ?
• Solute-Solvent interactions
If the interaction between the Solute-Solute and the Solvent-Solvent
molecules is dissimilar then there will be deviation from Raoult’s law
• Dissociation of the solute
When the solute is dissociated, it gives ions. If the Ions will interact with the
solvent, then there will be deviation from Raoult’s law
• Association of the solute
When the solute molecules associates, then there will be deviation from
Raoult’s law
• Pressure.
At high pressure, the intermolecular force of attraction increases and there
will be deviation from Raoult’s law.
• Temperature
At high temperature, the intermolecular force of attraction decreases and
there will be deviation from Raoult’s law.
• Concentration
At low concentration the Solvent-Solute interaction decreases.
At high concentration the Solvent-Solute interaction increases.
And there will be deviation from Raoult’s law.
18. Define Colligative property.
The property which depends on the number of solute particles but
independent to it nature is called as as Colligative property.
Ex. Osmotic pressure

19. Explain the Determination of Molar mass from Relative lowering of

Vapour Pressure.

From Raoult’s law

P0solvent – Psolution
xB = ---------------------------------
P0solvent

The Mole fraction is given by

nB
xB = -------------------
nA + nB

Where nA & nB is the number of moles of solvent and the solute

When nA >> nB. Then nB can be neglected.

nB
xB = -----------
nA

WA WB
But nA = ---------- and nB = ------------
MA MB

Substitute the Values of nA and nB

WB × MA
Relative lowering of Vapour Pressure xB = ----------------------
WA × MB
20. Define Ebullioscopic constant (Molal elevation constant)
The elevation in the boiling of one molar solution is called as Ebullioscopic
constant

21. Define Boiling point

It is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to
the atmospheric pressure.

22. Define Elevation in the Boiling point

The increase in the Boiling point of a solvent when a solute is added, is
called as Elevation in the Boiling point

23. Define Freezing point.

It is the temperature at which the solid and the liquid have the same vapour
pressure.

24. Define Depression in the Freezing point

The decrease in the Freezing point of a solvent when a solute is added, is
called as Depression in the Freezing point

25. Define Cryoscopic constant (Molal depression constant)

The Depression in the Freezing point of one molar solution is called as
Cryoscopic constant

26. Define vapour pressure

• In a closed system, at equilibrium, the rate of evaporation is equal to the
rate of condensation.
• At equilibrium, the pressure of the vapours with its liquid is called as
Vapour pressure

27. Define Relative Lowering of Vapour pressure

The ratio between the lowering of vapour pressure and the vapour pressure
of the pure solvent is called as Relative lowering of vapour pressure

P0solvent – Psolution
Relative Lowering of Vapour pressure = ---------------------------------
P0solvent
28. Explain the determination of Molar mass from Depression in Freezing
Point
T f = Kf . m --------------- 1

Number of moles of the solute

m = ------------------------------------------------ × 1000
WA

WB
But number of moles of the solute = ------------
MB

WB
m = ---------------------× 1000
M B × WA

Substitute the value of m in eqn 1

K f × WB
Tf = ------------------------ × 1000
MB × W A

K f × WB
MB = ------------------------ × 1000
Tf × W A

29. Define Osmosis

The moment of the solvent molecules from lower concentration to higher
concentration through a semi permeable membrane is called as Osmosis

30. Define Osmotic pressure

The pressure applied on the solution to stop the moment solvent through a
semi permeable membrane is called as Osmotic pressure.

31. What is Van’t Hoff equation of Osmotic pressure.

According to Van’t Hoff for a dilute solution the osmotic pressure is directly
proportional to the temperature and the molar concentration of the solute.

= CRT

C= concentration R=Gas constant T=temperature

32. What are Isotonic solutions
Solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature are called
as Isotonic solutions.

33. Why the intravenous fluids are prepared isotonic to the blood ?
( Give the importance of Isotonic solutions during Intravenous solutions)
• The Osmotic pressure of the blood is 7atm at 370C.
• If the intravenous injection too dilute it is hypotonic. The solvent will flow
in to the cell and cell will burst. This is called as Hemolysis
• If the intravenous injection is too concentrated it is hypertonic. The
solvent will flow out of the cell. Now cell will shrink and die.
• So the intravenous fluids and the blood should be in Isotonic.

34. What is reverse osmosis ?

When the hydrostatic pressure is greater than the Osmotic pressure, the
solvent moves in the opposite direction of osmosis through a semi
permeable membrane is called as Reverse Osmosis.

35. Explain the application of Reverse osmosis in the water purification

(desalination of sea water)
• Reverse osmosis is used in the Desalination of Sea water.
• High pressure greater than the osmotic pressure is applied on Sea
water.
• So the pure water moves from the solution to the solvent side through
a semi-permeable membrane.
• And pure water is collected separately.
Diagram
36. Define Abnormal molar mass
The molar mass of the solute determined by using the Colligative
properties are different from the actual molar mass. This is called as
Abnormal molar mass

37. Define Van’t Hoff factor

Observed Colligative property

Van’t Hoff factor = ----------------------------------------------------
Calculated Colligative property

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 ( Lessons –10 )

1. Define Bond Order

Bond order is the number of Covalent Bonds between two atoms.

Nb – Na
Bond order = --------------
2
Nb = Bonding Electrons

Na = Anti Bonding Electrons

2. Define Hybridization
Hybridization is the mixing of atomic orbitals of same atoms with same
energy to give equivalent number of orbitals with same energy.

3. Define -Bond ( Sigma bond )

When two atomic orbitals overlap along the axis linearly it forms Sigma
bond

4. Define -Bond ( Pi Bond )

When two atomic orbitals overlap Sideways it forms Pi - bond

5. Which bond is stronger -Bond or -Bond. Why ?

• -Bond is stronger than the -Bond.
• The Extent of overlapping is larger in -Bond.
• -Bond is formed due to linear overlapping
• -Bond. Is formed due to lateral overlapping.

6. In CH4. NH3 and H2O has sp2 hybridization. But their bond angles are
different. Why. ?
Because of the repulsion between the Bonding-Bonding,
Lone pair-Lone pair and Bonding-Lone pair electrons they have different
Bond angles.
7. Explain the SP2 hybridization in BF3.

1s 2s 2p
B5 = ( Ground State )

1s 2s 2p
B5 = ( Excited State )

Sp2 hybridization

• The Bond angle is 1200

• Hybridization = Sp2

• The three sp2 hybridized orbitals of Boron overlaps with the 2pz orbitals
of Fluorine.

• Orbital Diagram -
8. Explain the Bond formation of BeCl2

1s 2s 2p
Be4 = ( Ground State )

1s 2s 2p
Be4 = ( Excited State )

Sp hybridization

• The Bond angle is 1800

• Hybridization = Sp
• The two sp hybridized orbitals of Beryllium overlaps with the 3pz orbitals
of Chlorine.
• Orbital Diagram -
9. Explain the Bond formation of Ethylene

1s 2s 2p
C6 = ( Ground State )

1s 2s 2p
C6 = ( Excited State )

Sp2 hybridization

• The Bond angle is 1200

• Hybridization = Sp2
• One sp2 hybridized orbital of each Carbon overlaps linearly with each
other for form C-C sigma bond.
• The remaining two sp2 hybridized orbitals of each Carbon overlaps
linearly with four 1s orbitals of Hydrogen forming four C-H sigma bonds.
• The 2pz orbital of each Carbon atom overlaps sideways to form C-C
Pi- bond.

• Orbital Diagram -
10. Explain the Bond formation of Acetylene

1s 2s 2p
C6 = ( Ground State )

1s 2s 2p
C6 = ( Excited State )

Sp hybridization

• The Bond angle is 1800

• Hybridization = Sp
• One sp hybridized orbital of each Carbon overlaps linearly with each
other for form C-C sigma bond.
• The remaining one sp hybridized orbitals of each Carbon overlaps
linearly with two 1s orbitals of Hydrogen forming two C-H sigma bonds.
• The 2py and 2pz orbital of each Carbon atom overlaps sideways to form
two C-C Pi- bond.

• Orbital Diagram -
11. Explain the Bond formation of PCl5

3s 3p
P15 = ( Ground State )

3s 3p 3d
P15 = ( Excited State )

Sp 3 d hybridization

• Hybridization = Sp 3 d

• Shape = Trigonal Bi pyramidal

• The five Sp 3 d hybridized orbitals of Phosphorous overlaps with the

3pz orbitals of Chlorine to give five P–Cl sigma bonds.

• Orbital Diagram -
12. Explain the Bond formation of SF6

3s 3p
S16 = ( Ground State )

3s 3p 3d
S16 = ( Excited State )

Sp 3 d2 hybridization

• Hybridization = Sp 3 d2

• Shape = Octahedron

• The Six Sp 3 d2 hybridized orbitals of Sulphur overlaps with the 3pz

orbitals of Fluorine to give Six S–F sigma bonds.

• Orbital Diagram -
13. Draw the MO diagram of Oxygen.

• Oxygen = 8 = 1s2 2s2 2p4

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14. Draw the MO diagram of CO ( Carbon Monoxide )

• Carbon = 6 = 1s2 2s2 2p2

• Oxygen = 8 = 1s2 2s2 2p4

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15. Draw the MO diagram of N2 Molecule ( Nitrogen )

• Nitrogen = 7 = 1s2 2s2 2p3

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16. Draw the MO diagram of NO ( Nitric Oxide )

• Nitrogen = 7 = 1s2 2s2 2p3

• Oxygen = 8 = 1s2 2s2 2p4

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17. Define Dipole moment
• The Polarity of a covalent bond can be measured by using the Dipole
moment. Its unit is Debye
Dipole moment = q × 2d

q = Charge d = Distance between the two charges.

18. What is Octet Rule]

The atoms transfers electrons so that all the atoms involved in chemical
bonding have 8 electrons in the outermost shell.

19. The Linear form of Carbon dioxide has two polar bonds. But it as
Zero Dipole moment. Why ?
(Or)
CO2 and H2O both are tri atomic but the dipole moment is different why?

• In CO2 molecule the dipole moment equal in magnitude but in

opposite direction. So the net dipole moment is zero.

• But water has a net dipole moment. ( 1.85D )

20. Draw the Lewis structure for 1)NO3– 2)SO4–2 3) HNO3 4)O3
5)HNO2( Niitrous acid ) 6)Phosphoric acid 7)SO3

a) NO3– ( Nitrate Ion )

b) SO4–2 ( Sulphate Ion )

c) HNO3 ( Nitric acid )

d) O3 ( Ozone )

e) HNO2 ( Nitrous acid )

 f) Phosphoric acid ( H3PO3 )

g) SO3 ( Sulphur Trioxide )

21. Define Bond energy or Bond Enthalpy

It is the minimum energy required to break one mole of a bond in a
Molecule in the gaseous state. Its unit is KJ/mol

22. Hydrogen is diatomic but inert gases are mono atomic. Explain this
by using MO theory.
a) MO diagram of Hydrogen.

• Hydrogen = 1 = 1s1

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b) MO diagram of Helium ( Inert gas )

• Helium = 2 = 1s2

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23. What is Polar covalent Bond ? Give an example.

24. Define Resonance

When a compound is represented by more than one structure, which
differs only in the position of bonding and lone pair of electrons are
called as Resonance

25. Explain the Resonance of Carbonate ion. ( CO3 –2 )

26. What are the Hybridization possible for the following structures.
a) Octahedral = sp3d2 and d2sp3
b) Tetrahedral = sp3
c) Square planar = dsp2

23.Explain VSEPR theory

• The shape of the molecules depends on the number of valence electron
pair.
• There are two types of electron pair. Bond pair and lone pair of
electrons.
• The bonding pair of electrons is shared between two atoms. The lone
pair of electrons is not involved in bonding.
• The valance electrons around the central atom repels each other and
hence they are located far way to minimize the repulsion.
• The repulsions are in the order –
p- p > p-bp > bp-bp

27. Applying VSEPR theory predict the shapes of the following

• SF6 = Octahedron
• IF7 = Pentagonal Bi pyramidal

• BeCl2 = Linear
• BF3 = Trigonal planar
• H2O, SO2 and O3 = Bent shape
• CH4 = Tetrahedron
• NH3 = Pyramidal
• PCl5 = Trigonal bi pyramidal
• SF4 = Seesaw
• BrF3 = T-shape
• BrF5 = square pyramidal

28. Which is having the highest bond order

• N2 = 3
• N2+ = 2.5
• N2– = 2.5
29. Describe Fagan’s Rule
• Charge of the Cation
When the charge of the cation increases the covalent character also
increases. The order is Na+1 > Mg+2 > Al+3
• Charge of the Anion
When the charge of the Anion increases the covalent character also
increases.
• Size of the Cation
If the size of the cation decreases, Covalent character will increase.
• Size of the Anion
If the size of the anion increases, covalent character will increases.
• Electronic configuration.
Cations having ns2 np6 nd10 have greater covalent character than the
cations having ns2 np6 configuration.
Ex. CuCl is having more covalent character than NaCl.

30. Define a covalent bond

The bond formed due the mutual sharing of electrons between the two
combing atoms is called as Covalent bond.

31. Define Co-ordinate or Co-ordinate covalent bond

The bond formed when one the combing atom donated a pair of
electrons during bond formation is called as Co-ordinate bond.
Ex. NH3 BF3

32. Define Bond length

The distance between the two nucleus of the two covalently bonded atoms
is called as Bond length

33. Explain the Salient features of Valence bond (VB) theory

• Half filled orbitals of two atoms overlap to form a covalent bond.
• The resulting orbitals will have two electrons in the opposite spins.
• The strength of the covalent bond depends on the extend of
overlapping of the atomic orbitals.
• The orbital overlap takes place in the direction that maximizes the
overlapping.
34. Explain the Salient features of Molecular Orbital ( MO ) theory
• When atoms combines to form molecules, their atomic orbitals forms
new orbitals called as Molecular orbitals.
• The shapes of the molecular orbitals formed is equal to the shapes
of the combining atomic orbitals.
• The number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of
combining atomic orbitals.
• Molecular orbitals having lower energy are called as Bonding
molecular orbitals. And represented by # $ % &'
• Molecular orbitals having higher energy are called as Anti Bonding
molecular orbitals. And represented by # $ %& '
• The electrons are filled following Hund’s rule, Pauli’s rule and Aufbau
rule
• Bond order is the number of Covalent Bonds between two atoms.

Nb – Na
Bond order = --------------
2

Nb = Bonding Electrons Na = Anti Bonding Electrons

35. How electro negativity is used to determine the percentage ionic

character of a bond ?

S. Nm VALUE BOND

+, + %-
50% IONIC CHARACTER

+, + . %- LESS THAN 50% IONIC

CHARACTER
+, + / %- GREATER THAN 50% IONIC
CHARACTER
 OTHER IMPORTANCE QUESTIONS

1. Give the classification of Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic hydrocarbons Aromatic hydrocarbons

Benzene

Acyclic Cyclic

Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes

Propane Propene Propyne

2. Define Conformation
Due to the rotation of the C-C single bond a number of inter convertible 3D
arrangements are formed. There are called as Conformations.

3. Explain the conformation of Ethane

a)Eclipsed conformer
• It is less stable
• The hydrogen atoms are directly behind each other.
• So there is more repulsion
b) Staggered conformation
• It is more stable
• The hydrogen atoms are far away from each other
• So there is less repulsion
• The Order of Stability is Staggered > Skew > Eclipsed

4. Explain the conformation of n-Butane

There are 4 conformations
a) Eclipsed conformation
• It is less stable
• The two methyl groups are directly behind each other.
• So there is more repulsion

b ) Staggered conformation
• It is more stable
• The two methyl groups are far away from each other
• So there is less repulsion
5. Explain the Huckel’s rule of Aromaticity
• The molecule should be Co-plane
• It should contain delocalized -electrons
• It should contain (4n+2) -electrons

6. State Markovnikov rule

The Halogen of the Hydrogen Halide, goes to the carbon containing
lesser number of Hydrogen atoms.
Example

7. Explain the structure of Benzene

i) Molecular formula of benzene is C6H6.

ii) It does not decolorize Acidified KMnO4 solution, so straight chain

structure is not possible.

iii) EVIDENCES OF CYCLIC STRUCTURE

a)Substitution of Benzene

The formation of only one Mono Bromo benzene show that all the six
carbon atoms are identical with a cyclic structure.

b)Addition of hydrogen

This confirms the cyclic structure of benzene with three C=C bond.
iv) KEKULE’S STRUCTURE OF BENZENE
a) Benzene forms only one ortho disubstituted benzene. But Kekule
predicted two products.

b) According to Kekule benzene is mixture of two forms which is in rapid

equilibrium.

v)Spectroscopic Measurements
In benzene all the carbon-carbon bonds are equal length of 1.40A0 which is
in-between the single and double bonds.

vi)Molecular orbital structure

All the six carbons atoms in benzene is sp2 hybridized and bond angle is
1200.

vii)Representation of benzene
Hence Benzene can be represented as
8. What are Activating and Deactivating groups
The group that increases the reactivity of benzene are called as
Activating groups. Ex. –OH

The groups that decreases the reactivity of benzene are called as

Activating groups. Ex. –CN

9. What are Carcinogenity substance

• These are produced by the incomplete combustion of Petrol and wood.
• They are toxic and carcinogenic
• It has immunological and neurological effects in humans.
• They create Genetic damage in humans
• Example. 1,3-Benz pyrene

10. Explain the SN1 mechanism

• It is a Unimolecular Nucleophilic substitution reaction.
• The rate of the reaction depends on the concentration of the alkyl
halide.
Rate = k [ Alkyl Halide ]

• It is a first order reaction.

Step – 1. Formation of the Carbo-cation

The first step is the slow step and the rate determining step
Step - 2. Attack of the Nucleophile
When we use a optically active Alkyl halide, the product will be a optically
inactive Racemic mixture.

11. Explain the SN2 mechanism

• It is a Bimolecular Nucleophilic substitution reaction.

• The rate of the reaction depends on both concentration of the alkyl
halide and the Nucleophile
Rate = k [ Alkyl Halide ] × [ Nucleophile ]

• It is a Second order reaction.

Step – 1. Formation of the Transition state

• The first step is the slow step and the rate determining step
• The Nucleophile attacks from the opposite side of the halogen
• In the transition state both the Halide and the Nucleophile is partially
bonded to the carbon.
Step - 2. Elimination the Halide
When we use a optically active Alkyl halide, it gives a inverted
configuration.

12. Explain the E-1 mechanism

• It is a Unimolecular Elimination reaction.
• The rate of the reaction depends on the concentration of the alkyl
halide.
Rate = k [ Alkyl Halide ]

• It is a first order reaction.

Step – 1. Formation of the Carbo-cation

The first step is the slow step and the rate determining step
Step – 2. Elimination of proton from the -carbon.

13. Explain the E-2 mechanism

• It is a Bimolecular Elimination reaction.
• The rate of the reaction depends on Both concentration of the alkyl
halide and the Base.
Rate = k [ Alkyl Halide ] × [ Base ]
• It is a Second order reaction.

The reaction takes place in Single steps.

The removal of the proton from the -carbon and the Halide from the
-carbon takes place in a single step.

14. What are the uses of Freons

• It is used as Refrigerants in refrigerators and air conditioners
• It is used as a propellants for aerosols and foams
• It is used as propellants for deodorants, shaving creams and
insecticides.
15. Explain the Saytzeff’s Rule
“ In the dehalogenation reaction, the more substituted Double bonded
alkene will be formed as the major product ”
Example-

16. Uses of DDT

• DDT is used to control Malaria and yellow fewer
• It is used to control agricultural pests
• It is used in building constructions as pest control
• It is used to kill housefly and mosquitoes

17. Uses of Freons

• Freons are used as refrigerants in refrigerators and air-conditioners
• It is used as a propellant for aerosols and foams
• It is used as a propellant for shaving creams and deodorants.

36. Give the test for Alkenes

Alkenes will decolorize Bromine water to give a dibromo compound
37. Give the IUPAC naming of the following Freons.

Formula C–1 H+1 F IUPAC Name

CFCl3 1 -1 = 0 0 +1 = 1 1 Freon - 11

CF2Cl2

C2F2Cl4

C2F3Cl3

CHFCl2

CH2FCl

C2HF3Cl2

C2H2F2Cl2

C2H3FCl2

C2H4FCl
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1. Sabatier Sendersen’s reaction (184)

2. Kolbe’s Electrolysis (184)

3. Decarboxylation reaction (184)

4. Wurtz reaction (184)

5. Fittigs reaction

6. Wurtz – Fittigs reaction

7. Corey House mechanism (185)

8. Aromatization reaction (189)

9. Pyrolysis (189)
10. Isomerisation (190)

11. Ozonolysis ( 198)

12. Polymerization (199)

13. What happened when acetylene gas is passed through red hot tube ?
( Cyclic polymerization )

14. Friedel craft reaction (210)

15. Benzene to Phenol (210)

16. Preparation of Gammaxane - BHC (215)

17. Birch reduction (215 )

18. Darzen’s Halogenation ( 231 )

19. Finkelstein reaction (231)

20. Swartz reaction (231)

21. Hundsdicker reaction ( 231)

22. Williamsons ether synthesis ( 234)

23. Raschig process (242)

24. Sandmayers reaction (242)

25. Gattermann reaction (242)

26. Dows process (243)

27. Carbyl amine reaction ( 248)

28. Chloropicrin (248)

29. Preparation of DDT

30. Lucas Test ( 230 )